RADIO SCIENCE, Vol. 1 (New Series), No.

8, August 1966

Propagation of VLF Radio Waves in a Model Earth-

Ionosphere Waveguide of Arbitrary Height and Finite
Surface Impedance Boundary: Theory and Experiment 1
E. Bahar

Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. 80302, U.S.A.

(Received February 16, 1966; revised April 5, 1966)

This paper deals with propagation of radio waves in a model multimode waveguide with special
applications to VLF propagation in lhe earth-ionosphere waveguide. The effective height of the
waveguide is assumed to be an arbitrary funt:tion of distance along the path of propagation. In this
paper a finite surface impedance boundary is devised to simulate the ionosphere boundary. The
quasi-optical approach developed for perfectly reflecting boundaries is generalized to obtain the
required solution. These theoretical solutions are compared with experimental data from the model
waveguide in which a "day-to-night transition'" and a localized depression in the effective height of
the ionosphere are simulated.

1. Introduction

In an earlier paper by the author [Bahar, 1965], mode conversion in a nonuniform multimode
waveguide with perfectly reflecting boundaries was considered. Due to the perfectly reflecting
boundaries, the undulations of the electric field along the axis of the waveguide (caused by inter-
ference between the principal mode and the higher-order scattered modes) persist even at very
large distances from the nonuniform transition region where the higher-order modes were gen-
erated. In this respect, the experimental data from the model waveguide differs significantly
from the observed data in the actual earth-ionosphere waveguide. As a result of absorption at
the ionosphere boundary, the higher-order modes (with greater attenuation rates) are substan-
tially damped out at large distances from the transition region.
The basic experimental tool in these investigations is a two-dimensional dual-model waveguide
described earlier [Bahar, 1965]. In this paper a finite surface impedance representation of the
ionosphere boundary is discussed and a method for simulating such a boundary in the model
waveguide is described. Mode conversion resulting from a gradual variation of the surface
impedance of the waveguide boundary is very much smaller than mode conversion due to a vari-
ation of the effective height of the waveguide; therefore, in this paper scattering due to a variation
in the surface impedance will be neglected. 2 The principal effect of varying the surface imped-
ance is to vary the attenuation constant along the path of propagation.
Before considering the problem of scattering in nonuniform waveguides, the solution of
electromagnetic waves in uniform rectangular and radial waveguides with finite impedance bound-
aries are discussed. The scattering matrix notation defined previously by the author [Bahar,
1965] is used throughout this work.

2. Model Waveguide With Finite Surface Impedance Boundary

The flat-earth approximation of the modal equation for TM (transverse magnetic) waves in
!he earth-ionosphere waveguide of height his given by [Wait, 1960]

• The rest>~m:h repurlt>d in thi::~ paper wa:s spun:;urt'd b)' the Advam:eJ Rebean:h Pruje<'t~ A~em·y under <.:untrad CST 73481ARPA).
Order 18.3-62.
2 S<·atrt>rin): due tu a \lariat inn uf the !1\Urfat·t' imp~tla•we buundariesfuf muhimudt> waveguides will be discussed in a subsequent paper.

925
926 E. Bahar

RJ..C)R;(C) exp [-i2khC]=exp [-i21rn] n=I, 2, 3 .. (l)

where the reflection coefficients for waves incident on the earth and the ionosphere are,
respectively,

N;C-C;
and R,{C)= N;C-C;' (2)

where C, C0 and C; are, in general, the cosine of the complex angle of incidence in the air, the
earth, and the ionosphere, related to each other by Snell's law. The respective refractive indices
are

N = [CTg: iEgW] 1'2 N,.= [CT; +

. iE;W] l/ ,
2
and (3)
U £EW £EW

where CTg, Eg and CTi, Ei are the electrical parameters of the earth and the ionosphere, while the
permeability is assumed to be that of free space everywhere. The above approximation is subject
to the restrictions h/a11 ~ICI 2 and (ka11/2)113 Re C > 2, where ao is the radius of the earth and k is the
free-space wave number.
The earth's surface, assumed to be perfectly conducting, is represented by the plane of sym-
metry (x, z) in the model waveguide. For the lower-order modes of grazing incidence at the
boundary, it may be assumed that [Wait, 1962a]

N;C~ 1
C; . (4)

Hence (2) reduces to

Rg(C)=I and R;(C)= [1-2N;C/C;] =-exp {-2N;C/C;}. (5)

Strictly speaking, this equation holds only if the ionosphere can be regarded as sharply
bounded and homogeneous. From experimental data made available recently [Barrington et al.,
1962; Kane, 1962], it appears that the effective dielectric constant of the ionosphere can be well
approximated by an exponential function. However, in view of the long wavelength (at VLF)
and a relatively rapid change of the electron density in the D region, there is particularly good
agreement with the sharply bounded ionosphere model at highly oblique incidence [Wait, 1962b].
Under these conditions the waves in the region below the ionosphere can be considered to be re-
flected off a sharply bounded, homogeneous, isotropic boundary with a reflection coefficient
R(C) which is referred to the effective height of the "sharply bounded" ionosphere. For highly
oblique incidence it has been shown [Wait, 1963] that for vertically polarized waves (TM modes),
the general behavior of the reflection coefficient is given by

Rt.(C) =-[I+ aC] =- exp aC, (provided aC ~ I and Re a < 0), (6)

where the complex parameter a is seen to be almost independent of the cosine of the angle of in-
cidence C. These results were based mainly on studying an exponential permittivity profile of
the form

(7)
Propagation in a Model Earth-Ionosphere Waveguide 927

where Ko (the reference permittivity) is taken to be unity, and L = wv/w'f, and {3 (a constant) is a
measure of the sharpness of the gradient of the permittivity profile. Here v and Wp are the colli- .
sion frequency and plasma frequency at the reference height y= 0.
The (complex) values of a have been plotted [Wait, 1963] for >..o= 15 km and L= 1/2 as a func-
tion of {3. It has been seen that for {3= 1/2 [km]- 1 (an appropriate value for quiet daytime con-
ditions), the real part of a is approximately- 2.85. (The imaginary part of a has been disregarded,
since its effects can be taken into consideration by the choice of an appropriate reference height.)
Now, for a sharply bounded ionosphere whose normalized surface impedance is z, the reflec-
tion coefficient for vertically polarized waves is given by

C-z
RJ,C)=--=-
C+z
[ 1 -2~
z
- =-exp - ,
z
{2C} (8)

provided 2C ~ 1. Comparing (8) with (6), one gets

z

ZTM -2
z=--=-·
71 a
Hence, ZTM = 0. 702 T) (9)

(71 being the free-space ~ave impedance).

It is interesting to note that this value for ZTM corresponds very well with one derived by as-
suming a sharply bounded homogeneous ionosphere with a complex permittivity e;= 1-i(1/L)
= 1- i. The surface impedance at the interface between such a homogeneous, isotropic medium
and free space for vertically polarized waves (TM modes) can be shown to be [Wait, 1960]

(E;- 5~)1/ 2
ZTM;11,o=TI Ei • (10)

where S,. is the sine of the angle of incidence on the surface of the ionosphere boundary. The
principal mode (n = 1) is of grazing incidence (S.- 1); hence

(- i)l/2
ZTM
. I,0 = T)
-z = 0. 707 Tl·
_1___ (11)

In general, Z™ is a function of the angle of incidence. Since the attenuation constant for
highly oblique incidence is proportional to [(L)l/2 + (L)- 112 ] [Wait, 1962a] for this particular value
of L (equal to unity), the attenuation is minimum.
To simulate this more realistic model of the ionosphere boundary in the dual-model waveguide,
it is therefore necessary to replace (both) the narrow conducting walls by a slab of material whose
relative electromagnetic constants Ew and J.Lw are

Ew = J.L; = 1 and J.Lw=-=

E; 1 -~·
. (12)
IL E

Since the ionosphere is assumed homogeneous in this model, this slab must be at least several
skin depths thick, so that it could be assumed to be a semi-infinite medium insofar as the waves
within the waveguide are concerned. Although a few ferrite materials exhibit a relative perme-
ability ILr = 1- i, they all have rather high relative permittivities (Er = 10), together with some other
undesirable properties (such as nonlinearity).
928 E. Behar

Because materials for the exact dual model could not be obtained, it was necessary to make
some compromise in the rigid duality requirements. In an exact dual model there will be a cor-
respondence between all the surface impedances Zp, 0(pth mode) in the earth-ionosphere wave-
guide and the surface admittance Y11, dn = 2p- l) in the dual-model waveguide. Since this is not
manageable~ it was decided to simplify the duality requirements such that the dual relationship
would .hold exactly for the principal mode (p = n = 1) and only approximately for higher-order modes.
This dual relationship can be expressed as [Maley and Bahar, 1963] ·

[Z TM: 1, 0 ] ionosphere= 7] 2[YTE, t.o ] dual model. (13)

The surface impedance corresponding to the nth mode is defined as the ratio E 11 t/H,11 , where
Ent and H 11 r are, respectively, the tangential components of the electric and magnetic fields (as-
sociated with the nth mode) at the boundary.
Rather than replace the narrow conducting walls of the idealized model waveguide used in
the earlier investigations [Bahar, 1965], it was found to be preferable to "load" the conducting walls
with a lossy dielectric material, as illustrated in figure l. It is obvious that, from the point of view
of construction of the model waveguide, it would be very d.esirable to leave the conducting narrow
walls in position, but this has further advantages. A homogeneous lossy slab turns out to be very
thick if it is to be considered electrically semi-infinite. (This is discussed in more detail by Maley ·
and Bahar [1963].)
It now remains to determine the relative complex permittivity of the lossy dielectric slab
Ew (IJ.w is assumed to be unity) and its thickness/= g- h, such that (13) is satisfied. This equation
involves complex quantities, and a range of values fo~ (complex) Ew can be found that satisfy the
equation as a function of the parameter f It is first necessary to evaluate the surface admittance
Y TE: t.o at the inner boundary of the lossy dielectric slab.
Considering only TE 11 ,o modes (with n=2p-1, p= 1, 2, 3 . . . , such that Hnr=O at the plane
of symmetry, y= 0), the electric field for the nth mode can be readily shown to be given by

IYI ~h

Ennz =a/In sin [kll"(g-jyi)] exp [- '}'u"x], h~ IYI ~g. (14)

BRASS WALLS

ELECTRIC CONDUCTING WALLS

Ht=O ON THE PLANE OF
SYMMETRY (DUAL OF THE
PERFECTLY CONDUCTING EARTH)
FIGURE l. Cross section of the dual-model waveguide with lossy
-~Z
2g dielectric slabs "loading" narrow walls to simulate finite surface
impedance of the ionosphere boundary.

FINITE SURFACE IMPEDANCE

BOUNDARY
Propagation in a Model Earth-Ionosphere Waveguide 929

with

where the subscripts I and II refer to physical quantities in region I, IYI ~ h, and region II, h ~ IYI ~g.
respectively (fig. 1). For instance, k1o and k11 o are the wave numbers in the respective regions.
Boundary conditions at y= h yield [Bahar, 1964]

(l5a)

(15b)

_ iwJ.L1
Z TE;n.O --k- _ iwJ.L11
cot kiuh--k- tan k 1111(g-h). (15c)
In 1111

J.LikuoCu"
Hence, tan (k'10CIn h) tan (k'no C 111J) = k C . (16)
J.Lll (0 (II

This is the modal equation which, together with Snell's law, yields the characteristic values
C1n and Cun (the cosine of the complex angle of inc_idence for the TE,.,o mode on the dielectric
slab). It can be shown that for large values off, (16) reduces to the more familiar form of the
modal equation,

(17)

where TJ = (J.L/E) 1i 2 and Rh(C) is the reflection coefficient for a horizontally polarized wave.
Now on substituting J.LI = J.Ln = J.L, E1 = E, and e 11 =Ewe into (16), one gets

Z TE;n,O (18)

Substitution of (11) and (18) into condition (13) yields

(19)

giving the required relationship between the relative complex dielectric constant Ew and the thick-
ness of the slab f
The numerical solution of (19) has been obtained, giving Ew == Ewr- iew; as a function of f.
It was seen that for thicknesses 0.5 <J < 1.5 em, the values for Ewr and Ewi were well within a
physically realizable range. A dielectric slab with/= 1.585 em (5/8 in.), Ewr = 1.33 and a dissipa-
tion factor EwdEwr = 0.27 was manufactured especially for this purpose, with a deviation in the
parameters of less than lO percent from those required by (19) in the whole slab.
It may be noted that for //A.< l, the values obtained for Ew are such that Zn,n.o is almost inde-
pendent of C1n for oblique incidence. Inspection of (10) and (18) also shows that ZTM and ZTE are
fairly independent of Cn for oblique incidence (lower-order modes). Hence the duality condition
(13) is fairly well met for a few of the lower-order modes. This is quite a significant property,
and it will also be found very useful in applying the surface impedance concept to the solution
of the los.sy boundary problem.
930 E. Bahar

3. Propagation in a Uniform Rectangular Waveguide With

Finite Surface Impedance Boundaries

The electromagnetic fields in a uniform, multimode, rectangular waveguide (fig. 1) with narr.ow
boundaries (y= jhj) of finite surface impedance and broad, perfectly conducting boundaries
(z= jd/2j) are formulated in this section, with special consideration given to the orthogonality of
the propagating modes. It is readily seen that a solution of Maxwell's equations for the electric
field En in a rectangular waveguide, subject to the conditions that the electric field is symmetric
with respect to the axis of the waveguide, can be written in the separable form:

(20)

'Y~ = k~- Jc2 = Jc2 (C~ -1) = ik?-S~ (21)

provided that the surface admittance at jyj = h,

Ylls=HII:r/E~~:rl lui=ll = lWJ.L

_k11 tan k 11 h, (22)

is independent of x. The complex wave amplitude a 11 is a constant. These waves are identi-
fied as the nth characteristic waveguide mode propagating along the x axis with a propagation con-
stant 'Y11· Equation (22) can be rewritten in the more familiar form of the modal equation:

"kC h} = Cn- Y11s"l1

exp {t 11 C +Y (23)
11 ns71

where 71 is the free-space wave admittance and R11(C,.) is the reflection coefficient for horizontally
polarized waves; and C,. can be interpreted to be the cosine of the complex angle of incidence,
with the imaginary part corresponding to absorption at the boundary. Even when the surface
admittance Yns is considered independent of x, in general, it is a function of C,. (10). But as was
pointed out in section 2, the surface impedance can be considered constant, provided jC,.j 2 4; 1,
since it is almost insensitive to small variations in the angle of incidence. In an earlier report
[Bahar, 1965], where the scattering of radio waves in a waveguide with a gradually varying height
profile is investigated, it is demonstrated that the energy from the incident principal mode is pre-
dominantly scattered into the lower-order modes (n ~ 5). Hence, in the following analysis the
surface admittance Y,... is assumed to be constant {equal to the surface admittance of the principal
mode, Yls)- Under these conditions, (23) can be solved for the characteristic values C,. from the
approximation

exp {- 2Cp/71Y1,} exp {- i2kCph} = exp {- i(2p -1)7T} p=1,2,3 . . . . (24)

When the presence of higher-order modes is not negligible, as in the case of an abrupt transition
in the height profile or the surface impedance, the above approximation is not valid, and a more
accurate solution is to be sought 3 • The solutions of (23) are restricted by the condition that the
values of 'Yn (21) are either in the first or in the third quadrant (corresponding to forward and back-
ward propagating waves respectively); hence, the values of C,. must all be in the first quadrant.
Using the (constant) surface impedance concept, it is found that there exist an infinite number
of valid modes (corresponding to the C,.'s) that form a complete set of basis functions. On the

3 See footnole 2.
Propagation in a Model Earth-Ionosphere Waveguide 931

other hand, on inserting the exact expression for Y,.. (involving C,.) into (23), the number of valid
modes Pmax subject to the above condition on y,. is found to be finite [Gallawa, 1964a]. These
modes will not represent a complete set of basis functions for the fields in the waveguide. Never-
theless, in the case of a multimode waveguide, Pmax is large, and indeed, the fields in the nonuniform
multimode waveguide (with the principal mode incident) can be represented to a very good approxi-
mation by considering even a fewer number of modes than Pmax· This has been illustrated in
some detail by Gallawa [1%4a, b], who considers the fields generated by a horizontal electric line
source in a uniform rectangular waveguide with a finite wall impedance.
Furthermore, if the surface admittance Y""' can be regarded to be independent of the charac-
teristic values C,., the basis field functions, cos k,.y, of the waveguide modes are orthogonal. Hence,
the basis field functions for grazing modes can be considered orthogonal, and this property is
especially fortunate since the dual-model waveguide, described in section 2, more nearly satisfies
the duality conditions under these assumptions. The near-orthogonal properties for the grazing
modes in the earth-ionosphere waveguide with boundaries of finite conductivity has been discussed
by Wait [1957].
The propagation constants y,. for the grazing modes in the dual-model waveguide, subject
to the above approximations, can now be obtained from the solution of (21) and (24). With
Yps = Yts= 1/v'2T} (11), the propagation constant '}'n is approximately

y,. = ik(1- qJ 1' 2 = ik(1- CU2) = ik[ 1- ( 2~;)>2 A-2(1 + i2v'2/kh)]. (25)

With h=2.57A, for the principal mode n= l,

Re ')'I-
l)23rV2
- (2p-16h 0.045 dB/wavelength

~d ~~
(2p-l)2
lm ')'1 = k [ 1- 32h 2
y2] = 0.9953 k.
Experimental data taken from the model waveguide show close correspondence with these
values. Data obtained from measurements in the actual earth-ionosphere waveguide at VLF
indicate an attenuation rate of about 2.5 dB/1000 km. This larger attenuation rate is due pri-
marily to the influence of the earth's curvature (neglected in the model waveguide). Furthermore,
as a result of the earth's curvature, the principal mode at VLF is often a slow wave (lm y 1 > k).
The presence of the earth's magnetic field (also neglected in this work) further modifies the expres-
sion for y,.. A summary of the experimental data is given by Wait [1962a], together with an ex-
tensive discussion on the influence of the earth's magnetic field and curvature on VLF propagation.

4. Propagation in a Radial Waveguide With Finite Surface Impedance

A suitable solution for the electric field in the wedge-shaped region of the waveguide (as in
fig. 2), with boundaries of finite surface admittance Y 11s at the azimuth angles !1'=1/J and !p=-1/J,
is [Wait, 1962c]

(27)

Only solutions with symmetric fields are considered; Zv,,(u) is the Hankel function of the first or
second kind of order Vm, and Z ~ ,.(u) is the first derivative of Zv 11(u) with respect to u. The boundary
conditions at !p = 1/J yield, for the surface admittance,
932 E. Behar

UPPER BOUNDARY OF WAVEGUIDE

FIGURE 2. Two adjacent infinitesimal radial waveguide sections

in the transition region with the gradually varying height profile.

(28)

from which the complex characteristic values Vn can be evaluated. Here again, Y118 is in general a
function of the coordinate p and the characteristic values v,.. It can be shown that these modes
are orthogonal only if

v .. tan v,tfJ=v 111 tan Vmt/J=constant (29)

for all n and m. Conditions (29) and (30) are satisfied if

(30)

for all n. In the above equation, Yt_o and Po are constants. As in section 3, Yns can be considered
independent of the characteristic values Vn for modes of grazing incidence. However, the p
dependence of Y,. 8 (p) in (30) cannot be justified, in general; but it will be seen that, subject to a
restriction on the height profile, this condition is not essential. Nevertheless, this simplifying
assumption will be made to facilitate the derivation of a first-order approximation of the scattering
coefficients in a nonuniform, multimode waveguide. Subject to the condition (30), the character-
istic values Wm can be evaluated from the following equation:

Vm - WJ.LpoYxo
exp {i2vm} (31)
Vm + WJ.LpoYto

For modes of grazing incidence, Yms is replaced by Y 18 (the surface admittance for the principal
mode), Vm ~ WJ.LpoYIO, and (31) is approximated by

exp { -2v,,Jwf.LpoY,o} exp'{- i2vmt/J} = exp {- i(2m-1)7T} m=1,2,3,4 . . . . (32)

If Y111s(p) is a slowly varying function of pother than that given by (42), the values for Vm for
grazing modes are approximately

_ (2m-1)7T _(2m-1)7T(l+ i )
Vm- 2[1/J- i/wJLpYms]- 21/J WJLh(p)Ymi..P) ' (33)

where h(p) = p sin t/J = pt/J is the half-height of the waveguide as a function of p. Now, subject to
the above conditions, for grazing modes in a multimode waveguide,
Propagation in a Model Earth-Ionosphere Waveguide 933

WJ-th(p)Ym.(P) ~ 1, (34)

and Vm is approximately equal to its value in a waveguide with perfectly conducting walls. There-
fore, the modes of grazing incidence are near-orthogonal if condition (30) is not satisfied. In the
following analysis, mode conversion in a nonuniform multimode waveguide with a gradually
varying height profile is discussed; hence, the above restrictions are indeed satisfied.

5. Mode Conversion in a Nonuniform Waveguide With Finite Surface Impedance

Boundaries

Consider the scattering of waves in the nonuniform model waveguide in which the half-height
h(~)(an arbitrary function of ~ along the axis of the waveguide) is greater than a wavelength and
the maximum gradient in the height profile is restricted by the condition

lh'(x)lmax :s:; 0.25.

The mode numbers Cn and v,. given in sections 3 and 4 are therefore also functions of f
Represent the nonuniform waveguide with the finite surface admittance by an infinity of infini-
tesimal radial sections (fig. 2). In each infinitesimal section, the fields are expressed by the near-
orthogonal grazing modes discussed in section 4.
Consider first the scattering of an incident wave traveling in the direction of increasing cross
section. Following the analysis developed in the case of the nonuniform waveguide with the
perfectly reflecting boundaries [Bahar, 1965], the differential increment in the nth mode, when the
incident mth mode of amplitude ~(~) advances from one elementary radial section to the next
(fig. 2), is

m=n
(35)

·n=2p-1, p=1,2,3, . . . ,

where cJS:~(~) is the differential scattering coefficient from the incident mth mode to the nth mode.
The WKB solution assumed for the incident mth mode in the nonuniform waveguide with finite
surface admittance is
Sm(O)h(O)J t/ 2
Emz = ~(0) [ Sm(~)hW exp
{ • (
-l JoE f3m(u}du } cos kmTI =a~(~) cos k,.Tj. (36)

In the above expression the complex numbers km and S, and the propagation constants /3m are func-
tions of ~ through their dependence on C,. (21). For the modes of grazing incidence, they are
approximately given by
m7Tk m71"k ~ rn
km(~=kCmW = 2 [kh(~)-iy'2r 2 kh(~) [1-1 v2/khW]

and (37)

with m=2p-1 for the symmetric modes. In the expressions above, the modal surface admit-
tance Ym has been replaced by the value of the surface impedance for grazing incidence, as was
934 E. Bohor

done in section 3. The expression for the imaginary part of {3 11 (~) indicates that the attenuation
increases substantially with increasing mode number. This further justifies the assumption
based on the results obtained in the case of the nonuniform waveguide with conducting boundaries,
that only the lower-order modes are of any significance when the principal mode is incident.
This assumption has further been sustained by the measurements taken on the surface of the
earth in the actual earth-ionosphere waveguide [Crombie, 1964], from which it has been con-
vincingly shown that the second mode (the third in the dual-model waveguide) is the only scattered
mode of substantial amplitude.
The solution of this problem from here on follows along the same lines as in the case of the
nonuniform waveguide with perfectly reflecting boundaries [Bahar, 1965]. The transmission scat-
tering coefficients s:::,(x) are given by

·[sm(O)h(0)] 1 2
Sm(x)h(x) ' exp { - ·Jx [/3m(t) + k (13 + 7T 1m ) Sm(t)hh"] d~ },
L 0 2 2
m=n

Sm(O)h(0)]
S~:i,(x) = [ S11(x)h(x)
1' 2
exp
{- ·l.r
L o f-'11
(l (t.)dt} l6ik mn(-1)T.
~ ~ 7T2 (m2- n2)2 (38)

where Sm(t) and f3mW are given by (37). In general, SmW and f3mW may be considered functions
of both height h(t) and surface admittance Yms(t) at x = g, through (23) for Cm(t).
Special care should be exercised in applying the reciprocity theorem to derive the scattering
coefficients for an incident wave traveling in the direction of decreasing cross section. The rec-
iprocity theorems for rectangular and radial waveguides [Kerns and Beatty, 1966; Bahar and Wait,
1965], used in the earlier work [Bahar, 1965], strictly apply to lossless waveguide junctions in which
the transfer of energy takes place only at the terminal surfaces. In the model waveguide with
finite surface impedance walls, energy is dissipated at the boundaries. Hence the reciprocity
theorem

S AB(O)= h~n(L) SBA L

mn haSm(O) 11m( ) (39)

is at best only an approximation for short transition regions. In order to overcome this difficulty,
apply the reciprocity relationship directly to the infinitesimal waveguide junction bounded by the
cylindrical surfaces p = Pw and p = P2o. Using the reciprocity theorem for radial waveguides
[Bahar and Wait, 1965], the differential scattering coefficient dS:ffr is given by the equation

dS AB(I:.)- Y;;,(t)
pm ~ - }j;(~)
(~>Ump +dSBA\-
mp
~> .
Upm, (40).

yr(t)- 4Y (41)
where II ~ - 7TkpH~~!(kp)H~~.~kp)

is the total characteristic admittance. The scattering coefficient S#l(x) is now derived directly
from dS~,~($ in the same way as Sf.~(x) is derived from dS~j,(t):

(42)
Propagation in a Model Earth-Ionosphere Waveguide 935

where a1,,(t), the amplitude of the incident wave, is given by (36).

Expressions for the reflection coefficients S~~ may be derived in exactly the same manner as
for the perfectly reflecting case [Bahar, 1965], but in view of the attenuation in the transition re-
gion, these can be usually neglected even in the vicinity of the transition region. Similarly, higher-
order approximations for the scattering coefficients may be readily generated from the above solu-
tion, but for the types of transition sections considered in this work they were never used.

6. Typical Examples. Theory and Experiment

Assuming the dominant mode incident on the transition region, the electric field Ez at the far
end of the transition region is plotted as a function of height y in the waveguide. The computed
data (using the analysis developed in this paper) are compared with experimental data from the
model waveguide for the following cases:

(a) 0 ~x ~L, (43)

where L =lOA., h" = 2.57A, hb = 3.33A., Zs = V"i'Y/ (surface impedance for modes of grazing
incidence);

(b) 0 ~x ~L, (44)

where L=20A., h"=2.57A, hb=3.33A., Zs=Y"i'Y}.

The results are plotted in figures 3 and 4, respectively, and the scattering coefficients S~t are
tabulated in tables l and 2. The amplitude of the electric field along the axis of the waveguide
is plotted in figures 5 and 6 for these two cases.
The first height profile (43) represents a night-to-day transition in the effective height of the
ionosphere boundary, and the second height profile (44) represents a localized depression in the
effective height of the ionosphere. To derive the scattering coefficients S1.f for the second height
profile, the transition section is divided into two regions, 0 ~ t ~ L/2 and L/2 ~ t ~ L. In the
first region hW is monotonically decreasing with distance; hence the reciprocity theorem was
employed to derive the transmission scattering coefficients Rflf. In the second region the trans-
mission scattering coefficient Q1.B is derived directly, since h(t) is monotonically increasing.
Finally, the transmission scattering coefficient of the entire transition region is obtained by cascad-
ing the partial solutions in the following manner:

SB A - " QBARBA
111- LJ liP pl• (45)
p

7. Fields at Large Distances From the Transition Region. Amplitude and Phase
Anomalies.

The higher-order modes attenuate at a substantially greater rate than the principal mode (26);
hence, at large distances from the transition regions with varying effective height, essentially only
the principal mode (m = l) is present. Therefore, in these cases, one would only be concerned
with the amplitude and phase of the principal mode, and in particular with the amplitude and phase
anomalies- the deviations of the amplitude and phase from their respective values in the absence
of the perturbation.
 E. Bahar
936

RELATIVE
AMPLITUDE
(CALCULATED)
RELATIVE AMPLITUDE
RELATIVE (CALCULATED)
AMPLITUDE
(EXPERIMENTAL)
w
0 w
:::> 0
1-- ::::> RELATIVE
.....1 1-
a.. AMPLITUDE
....J
:::::!: a. (EXPERIMENTAL)
<t :e
<t
w
> w
1--
>
<t l-
.....1 et
w ...1
0::
w
0:::

o~--------~--~
h 0 = 2.57X WIDTH o~--------------~~
OF NARROW WAVEGUIDE h0 = 3.33A WIDTH
OF NARROW WAVEGUIDE

RELATIVE PHASE
w +100 (CALCULATED) h 0 =3.33A
(/) w
<t (/)
<t RELATIVE PHASE
~ 0 0 ~~-----l~..l.-----~ :r (CALCULATED)
a.
-20° RELATIVE PHASE
w
RELATIVE PHASE > (EXPERIMENTAL)
(EXPERIMENTAL) I- -30 °
<t
.....1
w
0:::-40°

FIGURE 4. Amplitude and phase variations at the transverse plane

x = L, simulating a local depression in the ignosphere height.
Case (b): h.=2.51>., 11.=3.33>., L=20>., Z,=\1'2"11 [eq (44)).

FIGURE 3. Amplitude and phase variations at the transverse plane

x = L for day·to-night path.
Case (a): h,=2.57A, 11.=3.33>., L=!O>.,Z,='Ii21J (eq (43)].
 Propagation in a Model Earth-Ionosphere Waveguide 937

TABLE l. Scattering coefficients S~NL) for the night-to-day propa- TABLE 2. Scattering coefficients s~~(L) for the localized depression
tion path given by (43). in effective height of the ionosphere given by (44).

Re S~f Im s:r n Re s:r Im s:r

0.1003£+01 0.4514£+00 I 0.6017£+00 0.7122£+00
-0.6276£-01 -0.1630£+00 3 0.6857£-01 0.1791£+00
-0.3287£-01 -0.3195£-02 5 0.1023£-01 0.2710£-01
- ·---- -'-----
where E±ij= ]():li where E±ij= JO=U

0
1.2r----------------------,
iil
ii:
01.0
ii: CALCULATED
t;
~0.8
..."' ----
0
w0.6
0
,_:::>
::::;
..
~0.4

"'
..
>
0:0.2
-'
"'"'
OLO-'--D-'-IS-TA-'N-C--'E'--1-N2J-5W_A.J...V_E_,_LE-N-'G-TH_S,_,F~J-~-M-'-E-'DG_E__,_OF-'-D--:A~:'-=5-PA_,_T_H_.(_X..-J•L'--)-X:'+VA 0o 25 50 75 x;,.
DISTANCE IN WAVELENGTHS FROM EDGE OF LOCALIZED DEPRESSION

FIGURE 5. Amplitude variations of the electric field along the axis FIGURE 6. Amplitude variations of the electric field alonf{ the axis
of the waveguide for the case when the principal mode is incident of the waveguide for the case when the principal mode is incident
at the transverse plane x = 0. at the transverse plane x = 0.
The height profile in the transition region is given by (43). The height profile in the transition re~on is .Uven by (44).

The influence of a localized change of the ionosphere height on the propagation of the incident
mode has been investigated by Wait [1961], who treats a symmetrical, sinusoidal depression in
the height profile as a typical example. The expression for the phase anomaly derived in the pre-
ceding sections differ in some details from that developed by Wait (the phase modification to the
WKB solution). It was illustrated that the amplitude of the WKB solution for the incident wave
is a good approximation for the fields in multimode waveguides with gradually varying height
profiles. This is because most of the power loss of the principal mode is due to absorption at the
boundaries, while the power loss due to mode conversion is very small. The modification to the
WKB phase variation is given by the coefficient C~-1,.

for S, =I. (46)

This phase-modification term is often not negligible compared with the phase anomaly predicted
by the WKB solution. For the special case when the gradient of the height profile is zero at the
edges of the transition region [0, L], this phase modification term can also be written as

Cft1,.=exp {ik (.!+-1- ) (L (h') d{} 2 (47)

3 Jo 7T2m2

on integrating by parts. From the above expression, it is obvious that the phase anomaly due to
this term accumulates as the wave advances through the transition region, no matter what par-
ticular form the beight profile h(~) has.
938 E. Bah01

8. Concluding Remarks

The investigations in this work show that the quasi-optical technique developed renders very
satisfactory solutions for the scattering coefficients in nonuniform multimode waveguides with
finite surface impedance boundaries. A significant advantage of these solutions is that they
afford a very clear physical picture of the scattering process. The results of the investigations
in this paper are by no means restricted to the case of propagation in the earth-ionosphere wave-
guide, and applications to other problems have been indicated [Bahar, 1965].
The benefits of the modeling technique in substantiating theoretical investigations have been
clearly shown. Furthermore, the experimental data have also indicated a clue to the possible
solution. This work can be extended to check several other mathematical methods. The pos-
sibility of simulating curvature in the straight model waveguide with the help of volume loading
is one such topic that deserves further investigation. A statistical extension of this work [Bahar,
1964] would also be very interesting to investigate propagation at night when the ionosphere bound-
ary is not as stable as during the day.

The author thanks A. G. Jean, C. T. Johnk, S. W. Maley, and J. R. Wait for their suggestions
and encouragement.

9. References
Bahar, E. (May 1964), Model studies of the influence of ionosphere perturbations of VLF propagation, E.E. Dept., Univ.
of Colo., Tech. Summary Rept., Contract No. CST-7348, ARPA.
Bahar, E. (Aug. 1965), Propagation of VLF radio waves in a model earth-ionosphere waveguide of arbitrary height and per-
fectly reflecting boundaries, theory and experiment, E.E. Dept., Univ. of Colo., Tech. Rept., Contract No. CST-7348,
ARPA.
Bahar, E., and J. R. Wait (Nov. 1965), Propagation in a model terrestrial waveguide of nonuniform height: theory and experi-
ment, Radio Sci. J. Res. NBS 69D, No. 11, 1445-1463.
Barrington, R., B. Landmark, 0. Hoit, and E. Thrane (June 1962), Experimental studies of the ionospheric D-region, Rept.
No. 44, Norwegian Defence Research Establishment, Kjeller, Norway.
Crombie, D. D. (1964), Periodic fading of VLF signals received over long paths during sunrise and sunset, Radio Sci. J. Res.
NBS 68D, No. l, 27-34.
Gallawa, R. L. (May 1964a), Propagation in nonuniform waveguides with impedance walls, E.E. Dept., Univ. of Colo.,
Tech. Rept., Contract No. CST-7348, ARPA.
Gallawa, R. L. (l964h), Propagation in nonuniform waveguides with impedance walls, Radio Sci. J. Res. NBS 68D, No. 11,
1201-1213.
Kane, J. A. (1962), Re-evaluation of ionospheric electron densities and collision frequencies derived from rocket measure-
ments, Radio Wave Absorption in the Ionosphere, ch. 29 (Pergamon Press, Oxford).
Kearns, D. M., and R. W. Beatty (1966), Basic Theory of Waveguide Junctions and Introductory Microwave Network
Analysis, lnternatl. Series of Monographs on Electromagnetic Waves (Pergamon Press, New York, N.Y.).
Maley, S. W., and E. Bahar (Jan. 1963), Model studies of the influence of ionosphere pertubations on VLF propagation,
E.E. Dept., Univ. of Colo., Tech. Summary Rept., Contract CST-7348, ARPA.
Wait, J. R. (1957), The mode theory of VLF ionospheric propagation for finite ground conductivity, Proc. IRE 45, No. 6,
760-767.
Wait, J. R. (1960), Terrestrial propagation of VLF radio waves, J. Res. NBS 64D (Radio Prop.), No.2, 153-204.
Wait, J. R. (1961), Expected influence of a localized change of ionosphere height on VLF propagation, J. Geophys. Res. 66,
No. 10;3119-3123.
Wait, J. R. (1962a), Electromagnetic Waves in Stratified Media (Pergamon Press, Ltd., Oxford).
Wait, J. R. (1962b), On the propagation of VLF and ELF radio waves when the ionosphere is not sharply bounded, J. Res.
NBS 66D (Radio Prop.), No. 1, 53-61.
Wait, J. R. (1962c), An analysis ofVLF mode propagation for a variable ionosphere height, J. Res. NBS 66D, No.4, 453-461.
Wait, J. R., and L. C. Walters (1963), Reflection of VLF radio waves from an inhomogeneous ionosphere, Part I, exponen-
tially varying isotropic models, J. Res. NBS 67D (Radio Prop.), No.3, 361-367.

(Paper 1-8-99)