Mechanical Engineering 

Rolling Contact Bearing Design 

Bimlendra ray 
Tula’s Institute of Management and Technology, 

Uttrakhand Technical University, Dehradun, India 

Abstract 
The design of R​ olling Contact Bearing​ is initiated with introduction, application and 
necessitate of bearing in a different arena and ensuing those, we differentiate the 
type of bearing. Then, we will be seeking anent the flaw and the cause of failure of 
bearing under different contingency. Eventually, we do is the pristine selection of 
the types, their design, and specification of the load for a satisfactory life. Here, we 
also limn some of the research on bearing and their profound result. 

 
 
 

Introduction 
Rolling contact bearing is termed as a ​ ntifriction bearing and rolling bearing. ​The 
prevalently used name is a ​ nti-friction i​ s due to modicum friction comparatively with 
the same ilk of the mechanical instrument like sleeve bearing. The area of 
application is that it must fit into a space of specified dimension, sustain a certain 
load and have a satisfactory life under the specified condition. The factors affecting 
the frictional characteristics are load, speed, lubrication and material properties. So 
designing the bearing intrigue the specialist in the field of f​ atigue loading, friction, 
heat, corrosion resistance, kinematic problems, material properties, lubrication, machining 
tolerances, assembly, use, and cost. 
​The design of bearing, since, affected by multiple 
factors we are unable to precedent the bearing life in a deterministic way so we 
accompany the statistical approach which is typically Weibullian statistics.  
It is a continuous goal for bearing engineers to always 
develop advanced bearings that provide higher efficiency, lower friction, and are less 
sensitive and more reliable even in applications under adverse operating conditions 
[1].so the continuous research is adopted to meet that requirement. 

Bearing Terminology and their Component 

 
Fig. Nomenclature of the tapered roller bearing 

 
2 
 
 

Fig Nomenclature of the roller bearing Fig. Component of the rolling bearing 
 
 
 
 
Bearing Types and their Aptness 
 
Bearing are manufactured to bear 
1.Pure radial load 
2.Pure thrust load 
3.Combination of Radial and Thrust load 
 
Here the roller bearing with different characteristics is delineated 
 
1.Axial load carrying capacity: 
Bearing designed mainly for axial loads (thrust ball bearings) have a contact angle 
α>45 degrees. 
Axial ball bearings and angular contact thrust ball bearings may, 
depending on the design, transfer axial loads in one or both directions( see fig.1). In 
cases of extremely high axial loads, a thrust cylindrical roller or spherical thrust 
roller bearing is typically used.  

 
3 
 
 

 
 
 
Fig.1 (​courtesy: ZKL group) 
 
2.Radial load carrying bearing 
Bearings designed primarily for transferring radial loads are called radial bearings( 
fig.2). They have a nominal contact angle of α ≤ 45 °. Line contact bearing the higher 
axial load carrying capacity than the single-point contact bearing, likely, straight 
roller bearing. 
 
 
 

 
 
Fig.2 (​courtesy: ZKL Group) 
 
 

 
4 
 
 
 
3. Combined load carrying bearing 
Single and double row angular contact ball bearings or tapered roller bearings are 
best for capturing combined loads. Some of the s​ elf-aligning ball bearings ​are also 
favorable with combined load but with a relatively small axial load. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fig. 3 (​courtesy: ZKL 
Group) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
4. Torque load carrying bearing 
 
If the load application point lies outside of the bearing axis, then an overturning 
torque is created. So double row radial load bearing and double row angular contact 
bearing suffice for torque prompting load. Some time pairs of the angular contact 
ball bearing and tapered roller bearing is also used with the same purpose. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
5 
 
 
Fig. 4 (​courtesy: ZKL Group) 
 
 
 
5. Alignment 
With regard to manufacturing inaccuracies and shaft deflections, wobbling of the 
bearing rings occurs in the housing which is compensated by using the ​self-aligning 
ball bearings, double row spherical roller bearings, and thrust spherical roller bearings. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fig. 5(​courtesy: ZKL Group 
 
Bearing Assembly 

 
The assembly of the different bearing vary more or less but the most common 
assembly is as shown in the figure below 
 
The below diagram is lucidly showing us the most typical assembly procedure for 
bearing (ball bearings). Here as shown first finding the mating inner and outer ring 
then place the inner ring eccentrically touching one side of the outer ring( f​ ig: 2)​. 
Prelastly center the inner ring with the outer ring and equally space the rolling 
element and assemble the cage (​separator)​. Add lubricant to the bearing, fit the shield 
and scrutinize the pristine assembly and sealing process. 
 

 
6 
 
 

Fig. 6(​courtesy: JESA Bearing) 

 
 
Design 
 
1. Pathway 
For most of the bearing, the pathways radius of curvature of the inner ring is taken 
51-52 % of the ball diameter whereas 53-54 % of ball diameter for the outer ring. 
When the pathway radius of curvature reaches 50 % of the ball diameter the stress 
between the ball and the pathway decreases. But it will produce more friction while 
rotating because the ball will be held over the shoulder at this condition.  
So the optimum solution 
for keeping a balance between the stress and friction is attained slightly above 50 % 
as mentioned initially for the inner and outer ring. The pathways for the outer ring is 
higher because in the rotational plane outer ring face ball from the concave side 
which exerts low stress. In contrary to the outer ring, inner ring faces the ball from 
the convex side which raises the contact stress.  
 
2. Shoulder 
The radial difference of the deepest part of the pathway to the outer diameter of the 
inner ring or the inner diameter of the outer ring gives the height of the Shoulder. 

 
7 
 
 
Typically, shoulder height is 22- 30 % of the ball diameter for the inner ring and 
18-30 % of the ball diameter for the outer ring. 
 
Characteristics of the Shoulder: 
1. Strength must be high enough to support the load (axial). 
2. Perfect enough to assemble an adequate size of the separator into the bearing. 
3. The thickness of the bottom part of the pathway must be adequate enough to 
bear compressive stress imposed by a ball and​ hoop stresses from press fit 
assembly on the outside​. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fig. showing the Hoop stress 
 
 
Bearing life affecting factors 
 
Material Stressing under Contact Pressure 
 
When the ball or roller bearing of the rolling contact bearing roll, the contact stress 
occurs between the rollers, inner, and outer race. This generated stress at point 
contact is given by the ​Hertzian Stresses( condition: when the radius in the plane of 
rolling is different from the radius in a perpendicular plane). 
At merely elastic deformation, a 
semi-elliptical load distribution takes place in the contact zone of the two elements 
in rolling contact. The resulting stress distribution is shown in figure 7. 
 
 
 

 
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Fig. 7(​courtesy: FAG Aerospace Gmbh) 
 
Material stressing here is evaluated by using the Von Mises Hypothesis. The 
equivalent stress distribution in three dimensional and contour plot is shown by the 
FAG Aerospace Gmbh researcher unveiling the maximum point of equivalent stress 
relative to contact pressure ​P0.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fig. 8 Equivalent stress distribution under 
contact area 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
9 
 
 
 
The maximum equivalent stress occurs at a depth of z/b=0.7; it amounts to 0.56p0. 
At the surface, in the very center of the contact area, the equivalent stress is only 0.4 
times po. This is illustrated by the figure given. 
 

 
 
Fig. 10 Damage propagation from inclusion from surface 
 
A comparison between this theoretical statement and findings from actual rolling 
bearing failures shows that in many cases the damage starts near or at the surface. 
An example of the origin of damage near the surface of a rolling bearing ring is 
shown in Fig.10. It can be clearly seen that the damage started at a weak 
microstructural point (inclusion) and progressed from there into the depth of the 

 
10 
 
 
material until it reached the area of greatest equivalent stress(wide crack paths in 
Fig.10).  

 
If a bearing is clean and properly lubricated, mounted and sealed against the 
entrance of the dirt and dust, is maintained in this condition, and is operated at a 
reasonable temperature, then metal fatigue will be the only cause of failure. 
Here we proceed towards the quantitative measure of bearing life in which we decern 
the number of revolution and hours of use unless the first substantial fatigue 
prompted. According to the AFBMA( Anti-Friction Bearing Manufacturer's 
Association), the failure criterion is the first evidence of fatigue.  
The rating life is given by AFBMA is minimum life(L10), medium 
life(L50). The most typically use rating life is L10. So does L10 means, it says that 90 
percent of the bearing of the same family will accomplish or overwhelm the failure 
criterion (oppositely 10 percent of them will flunk).  
 
Three different way of determining the bearing life are delineated which is the 
statistical approach 
1. Bearing Load-Life Trade-Off at Constant Reliability 
2. Bearing Survival: The Reliability-Life Trade-Off 
3. Load-Life-Reliability Trade-Off 
First one the bearing life at constant reliability whereas second is the bearing life at 
constant load. The third one is the concession between the load, life, and reliability 
where the designer has to be more active. 
 
 
 

  
Fig.1 log-log graph of load-life(Courtesy: Mechanical Engineering design, Shigley) 
 
Using the regression equation we get  
 

 
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F L1/a = constant or F 1 × L 1/a = F 2 × L1/a
2 [ a is constant and 
depends 
on bearing  
a= 3, for ball bearing,a= 10/3 for roller berings] 
 
 
As we described earlier that bearing life is too much detrimental to the lubrication 
layer, shard, particles, improper mounting, the eccentricity of load, corrosion, 
Smearing, electric current, heat, and also due to the deuterium penetration in a 
vacuum all these are the reason of antedate failure. Some of them are reported here 
with a plausible solution. 
 
 
Lubrication 
 
Preamble, we will first proof that how lubrication is more substantial to the bearing 
life. In order to show that we probe the graph of bearing life with respect to contact 
pressure as depicted in figure. it is shown that with minor load changes, the major 
changes in the bearing life may result in well-lubricated elements in rolling contact 
and under a high degree of cleanliness.  

 
Fig. Bearing life Vs Contact pressure 
 

 
12 
 
 
 
In the same time, we have now another graph supporting the maximum attainable 
bearing life antecedent of good lubrication and pristine cleanliness. FAG found the 
actual correlation between the life and the stipulated bearing stressing as rendered 
in the figure(). 
 

 
Fig.3 Limn maximum attainable life by bearing(​courtesy: 
FAG aeronautics) 
 
Here we accomplished the culminated life of bearing but the prerequisite to attaining 
that is  
1. Clean Lubrication 
2. Surface separation by an elastohydrodynamic boundary layer 
  
The strong dependence of the bearing life capability on the amount of stress and on 
the conditions of lubrication and cleanliness is obvious. This is a useful resource for 
the designer to attempt the attainable life. 
 
During lubrication, we have different sort of lubrication  
1. Full fluid lubrication 
2. Mixed friction 
 

 
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According to the known principles, the formation of a separating lubricating film 
between surfaces in rolling contact bearing with oil or grease lubrication, rolling 
bearings reach the longest possible life with full-fluid-film lubrication. Due to 
lubrication, the asperity contact between the races and ball bearing is almost zero.  
This full fluid lubrication is limited to low speed, light load. And the coefficient of 
friction is also meager.  
In contrast to this, there is mixed lubrication which usually lies 
between the full fluid film lubrication and boundary layer lubrication. In the realm of 
Mixed friction, the load is supported partly by the fluid film and partly by the surface 
asperities. If the machine is working under the mixed friction contingency will bring 
wear so we use extreme pressure additive which only causes smoothening of the 
surface or might bring averse damage depending on additive properties. 
 
 

Fig.4 representing elastohydrodynamic lubrication 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
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Fig.5 illustrating Mixed Friction at micro level 
 
 

 
 
Fig.6 Wear pattern vs the running time (bearing 
81212 under short-term test conditions with EP oils I and II at varying temperatures) 
 
 
This can happen with the stationary bearing, for example, due to an improper 
lubricant, and also during the starting and stopping phases of execution otherwise 
bearing will be running under EHD conditions (steady-state operation).  
Due to contact, from Hertzian pressure, bearing 
infer normal force and in addition mixed friction prompt the tangential force which 
will impose over the surface and change the surface topography. The change of 
surface is captured by the SEM(Scanning Electron Microscope). 

 
15 
 
 

Fig.7 SEM microscopic view ( surface topography after the 

mixed friction operation) 
 
The lubricated elements form the boundary 
layer and they renewed in every cycle of revolution. Hence, the boundary layer 
thickness varies between a few tenths of a nanometer (nm) and several nanometers. 
It entails some chemical compounds like sulphur, carbon, nitrogen, copper, and 
zinc. The indulgence of different elements in the formation of the boundary layer 
differ with the penetration and can be analyzed by using Auger analysis which works 
in the nanometer range. 
 
 
 
Particles 
 
The particles ingressed inside the bearing will cause extreme damage to the bearing 
life. The particles might be a flaked part of its own or foreign particle admitted along 
with the lubrication or at the time of mounting and several other reasons will be 
possible.  

 
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The damage done by the particles or grit varies with their strength and 
hardness. The life of the bearing drastically vulnerable to particles size which is 
given by the following graph. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Fig. 8 illustrating the flabbergast deceasing of life 
 
Under certain conditions, particles can get embedded in the surface of one of the 
parts in rolling contact bearing, then act like a cutting tool and wear down the 
mating part abrasively. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Corrosion 
Lubrication will be act as a protective element from the corrosion and prevent from 
coming in contact with water or vapor. If water is unable to abide the water to make 
contact with the bearing, it will cause deep-seated corrosion and fretting corrosion. 
 
Deep-seated corrosion 
 
When a clean steel surface is exposed to the air, it will form a thin oxide layer which 
will act as a protective layer. This oxide protective layer is not strong to impede water 
to make contact. This will lead to deep-seated corrosion which brings premature 
failure.  

 
17 
 
 
Acidic corrosion is more dangerous than alkaline corrosion. The galvanic corrosion 
which flourishes when water containing salt make a contact by the means of 
electrolytic process. This corrosion is more detrimental to bearing life. The flaking 
and fretting process will hasten at this moment. 
 

 
Left Right 
Fig. Left: Corrision on the outer ring, Right: Corrision on the outer ring(water 
etching) 
 
Fretting Corrision 
 
The oxide layer formed over the surface of streel is if penetrated by the water, 
corrosion anent to appear. some contingency prevails that corrosion will occur due 
to the relative motion of the bearing and shaft. This relative motion exfoliate the 
particles from the bearing and then turned into the oxide form when making a 
contact with the atmospheric air. This process of forming corrosion is called 
Fretting 
Corrosion.  

 
18 
 
 
 

 
 
Fig. Fretting corrosion on the outer spherical ball bearing 
 
 
Electric current  
  
If the electric current passes through the bearing it will damage every part of 
bearing. Electric current will act like electric arc welding at the contact surface. It will 
make a fluting etch on the raceways of the bearing.  
Both the alternating and direct current will 
cause bearing damage. Even low amperage current is vulnerable to bearing damage. 
Typically bearing at the rotating stage is more prone to damage where the stationary 
bearing is more resistant. The only solution for this is to prevent the bearing from 
current leakage. 

 
19 
 
 

 
 
Fig. Damage caused by the passage of electric current 
 
 
Coating of the surface in the vacuum 
 
The study investigates the outgassing of bare stainless steel and MoS2 coated ball 
bearings, both of which are widely used in modern high vacuum technological 
equipment. Most measure outgassing species are methane, carbon dioxide, and 
hydrogen.  
Two main processes govern the outgassing from a ball bearing: 
1. local heating of the contact surfaces and  
2. plastic deformation and fracture of counterfaces 
 
Outgassing from a ball bearing is very sensitive to damage of the contacting 
surfaces. 
Mean outgassing rate from the plated ball bearings was 2.5–3 times higher and the 
peak outgassing was 10–20 times higher, than from the bare ball bearings. Thus, the 
plated ball bearings have a durability that is 5–6 times longer than the bare ball 
bearings. The graph depicted below will show you the relation of the speed with 
mean outgassing, torque, and vibrations. 

 
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Three stages, corresponding to the main stages of the lifetime of a ball bearing can 
be well distinguished with time: 
(A) run-in 
(B) gradual wear and 
(C) catastrophic wear 
 
 
 
Inclusion 
Inclusions in the steel cannot be entirely avoided in the steel producing process. Fig.1 
illustrates how the constant impulses from the R&D work of the rolling bearing 
manufacturers on the steel sector have improved the steel quality in recent years. 
And this research has helped in increasing the load rating of rolling element bearing 
by improving the quality of steel. 

 
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Fig.1 Degree of enhancement in the purity of steel 
 
According to the appearances of different types of inclusion in the micrograph, 
they are classified into  
1)streaky sulfides (SS), 2)accumulations of small oxides (OA), 3)streaky oxide (OS),  
4)globular oxides (OG),  5)titanium carbonitrides with TiC and TiN. 
 
 
The major problem pervaded from the inclusion is the flow of stress. If the inclusion 
has a lower modulus of elasticity than the matrix (hosting element) then the flow of 
stress will be more through the matrix and pole will be out of stress. Similarly, if the 
young modulus of elasticity of inclusion is large than the matrix then force flow 
greatly through the inclusion and more force will be convened by the matrix towards 
inclusion. This will immensely increase the stress concentration at that point as 
illustrated in the figure. 
 

 
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Fig.2 Effect of soft and stiff inclusion over stress flow 
 
 
 
 
 
Path patterns and their interpretation 
 
When the roller bearing rotates for a long time it will form some kind of dull surface 
between the inner and outer surface. This is not an indication of wear or any sort of 
indentation but a mark set by rotating the ball inside the race, called patterns. This 
path pattern determines the operating condition of the bearing and one can predict 
the behavior of operating load.  
This one has no significance in the life of bearing. But in 
the majority of the cases, the failure of the bearing occurs within the confined area of 
path pattern so once the path pattern is vetted in a good way one can detect the 
imminent damage in the race. 
Deep groove ball bearing and cylindrical roller bearing is depicted here for path 
patterns 
 
 

 
23 
 
 

 
Fig.1 Unidirectional radial load. The inner ring, rotating. The outer ring, fixed. 
Path pattern is uniform all over the cross-section in inner ring whereabout in outer 
ring path pattern is tapered off. 
 

 
Fig. 2 Uni-directional radial load. The inner ring, stall. The outer ring, rotating. 
Path pattern is extended over all cross-section in outer ring whereas in the inner 
ring it is limited over less than half circumferential surface. 
 

 
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Fig. 3 Uni-directional axial load. Either of rings can be rotating. The path pattern 
form is uniform all over the circumference for both with offset. 
 

 
Fig.3 Uni-directional axial and radial load. Either of rings can be rotating. The path 
pattern formed is all over the circumference. The inner ring has a constant eccentric 
pattern where the outer ring has a tapered ring. 
 
 
 

 
25 
 
 

 
Fig.4 Uni-directional axial load. Rotating washer. Fixed housing washer. 
Path pattern is uniform in both. 
A width of path pattern is uniform all over the cross-section. 

 
Fig.5 Oval compression of the outer ring. The outer ring, fixed. The inner ring, 
rotating. 
Path pattern formed in the outer ring is tapered at the point of pinching but the inner 
ring has a constant width ring. 
 
 

 
26 
 
 

 
 
Fig. 6 Fit too tight. The inner ring, rotating. The outer ring, fixed. Due to over tight 
ring is pre-stressed. The path pattern in the inner ring is constant all over 
circumference wherein the outer ring it is wider at a point of radial load and offset. 

 
 
 
 
Fig.7 Inner ring misaligned. Fixed inner ring and rotating inner ring. 
Path patterns in two diametrically opposed section in the inner ring and constant 
width pattern in the outer ring. 

 
27 
 
 
 
 

 
 
Fig. 8 Misaligned housing washer ring. Rotating shaft washer and fixed housing 
washer.  
Path pattern is uniform all over the circumference in shaft washer. 
Path pattern is off-center extended all over the circumference. 
 
 
 

Conclusion 

The design of the ball bearing was perfectly done by our bearing expertise in past 
time. The most immense abstruse problem we are facing is to extend the life of roller 
bearing which is prevalently used. Considering the life span of bearing most of the 
researcher found lubrication, cleanliness, quality of steel, modes of operation, 
corrosion, and types of foreign particles are the major cause of decreasing the 
bearing life.  

Rolling element bearings can achieve endurance life if bearing stressing, lubrication 
and system cleanliness are adequately taken into consideration. 

Operation of rolling bearings in mixed friction range cannot be prevented in practice. 

In order to eliminate life reducing effects, the lubricant plays a major part in this 
field.  

 
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Reference 

[1]. ​http://www.zkl.cz/en/for-designers 

[2]. Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Design( Mc Grew Hill) 

[3]. Fundamentals of Design and Technology of Rolling Element Bearings Franz-Josef Ebert* FAG Aerospace GmbH & Co. KG, 
D-97421 Schweinfurt, Germany 

[4]. Mechanically stimulated outgassing from ball bearings in a vacuum 

A.G. Peressadko, R.A. Nevshupa*, E.A. Deulin 

[5]. Bearing Failure and their Causes, SKF 

 
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