Belt, Rope and Chain Drives Denition: M Arshad Zahangir Chowdhury

Denition Classication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2 Tc Max-Power Chain Problems Denition Classication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2
sication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2 Tc Max-Power Chain Problems
Denition
Belt, Rope and Chain Drives
M Arshad Zahangir Chowdhury
B.Sc. (Hons.) in Mechanical Engineering , BUET

Lecturer, Department of Mechanical & Production Engineering
Ahsanullah University of Science and Technology
Dhaka-1208, Bangladesh
arshad.mpe@aust.edu
http://arshadzahangir.weebly.com/me-201.html
ME 201
M Arshad Zahangir Chowdhury (AUST) Theory of M/C & M/C Design ME 201 1 / 45 M Arshad Zahangir Chowdhury (AUST) Theory of M/C & M/C Design ME 201 2 / 45
Denition Classication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2 Tc Max-Power Chain Problems Denition Classication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2 Tc Max-Power Chain Problems
Denition Example
Belts or ropes are used to transmit power from one shaft to another by means of pulleys
which rotate at the same speed or at different speeds.
The amount of power transmitted depends upon
1 Belt velocity
2 Belt Tension
3 Contact/lap angle
4 Operating conditions
If the distance between shafts are too close, gears or gear trains are preferred for power
transmission.
Limitation: If the distance between shafts are greater than approximately 8m or 25 feet,
these drives become poor transmission element.
Belt Materials.
1 Leather
2 Cotton/Fabric
3 Rubber
Example Example
Types of Belt Classication of Belt Drive

The power from one pulley to another one or more pulleys may be transmitted by any of the
following types of belt drives:
Open Belt Drive

The open belt drive is used with shafts arranged parallel and rotating in the same direction.
Advantages: Simple & spacious
Disadvantages: Doesn’t provide enough belt tension.
Cross Belt Drive

The cross belt drive is used with shafts arranged parallel and rotating in the opposite direction.
Advantages: Compact, provides enough tensions.
Figure: Types of Belts. Disadvantages: Less spacious, rubbing causes excessive wear.
Flat belts are used for distance of 8m or less. Quarter Turn Belt Drive
V-belts are used for very close distance pulleys. The quarter turn belt drive also known as right angle belt drive is used with shafts arranged at
Ropes or circular belts are used for 10m or more distance. right angles and rotating in one definite direction.
Advantages: Compact, provides enough tensions.
Disadvantages: Less spacious, rubbing causes excessive wear.
Classication of Belt Drive (contd.) Open Belt Drive

Belt Drives with idler pulleys
A belt drive with an idler pulley is used with shafts arranged parallel and when open belt drive
can’t be used due to small angle of contact on the smaller pulley.
Advantages: Transmission over large distance ,Desired velocity ratio & Flexible design.
Disadvantages: Lots of pulleys & belts required and subsequent complexities.
Compound Belt Drive

If there is more than one pulley in a transmission shaft the arrangement is said to be a
compound belt drive.
Advantages: Speed variation, Flexible Design.
Disadvantages: Spacious, Expensive.
Figure: Open Belt Drive.
Stepped or Coned Pulley Drive
A stepped or cone pulley drive is used for changing the speed of the driven shaft while the main
or driving shaft runs at constant speed. This is accomplished by shifting the belt from one part of Open Belt Drive
the steps to the other. The open belt drive is used with shafts arranged parallel and rotating in the same direction.
Advantages: Multi-speed capability. Advantages: Simple & spacious
Disadvantages: Wear and tear of belt. Disadvantages: Doesn’t provide enough belt tension.
Cross Belt Drive Quarter Turn Belt Drive
Figure: Cross Belt Drive. Figure: Quarter Turn Belt Drive.
Quarter Turn Belt Drive

Cross Belt Drive The quarter turn belt drive also known as right angle belt drive is used with shafts arranged at
The cross belt drive is used with shafts arranged parallel and rotating in the opposite direction. right angles and rotating in one definite direction.
Advantages: Compact, provides enough tensions. Advantages: Power transmission at right angle.
Disadvantages: Less spacious, rubbing causes excessive wear. Disadvantages: Pulley width must be large.
Belt Drive with idler pulleys Compound Belt Drive
Figure: Compound Belt Drive.

Figure: Belt Drive with idler pulleys.
Belt Drives with idler pulleys Compound Belt Drive

A belt drive with an idler pulley is used with shafts arranged parallel and when open belt drive If there is more than one pulley in a transmission shaft the arrangement is said to be a
can’t be used due to small angle of contact on the smaller pulley. compound belt drive.
Advantages: Transmission over large distance ,Desired velocity ratio & Flexible design. Advantages: Speed variation, Flexible Design.
Disadvantages: Lots of pulleys & belts required and subsequent complexities. Disadvantages: Spacious, Expensive.
Stepped or Cone Pulley Drive Speed Ratio

Derivation
Consider two points on the circular
portion of the belt.
6
If v1 = v2 then the belt will fail due to
tearing or crushing.
) v1 = v2
) d60N = d60
1 1 2 N2
N ]
[* v = ! r ; ! = 260
Figure: Stepped or Cone Pulley Drive. N2 d1
=
Figure: Speed ratio of belt drives. N1 d2
If thickness of the belt is considered

Stepped or Coned Pulley Drive
then r = d2 + 2t
A stepped or cone pulley drive is used for changing the speed of the driven shaft while the main
or driving shaft runs at constant speed. This is accomplished by shifting the belt from one part of Denition N2
= d1 +t
N1 d2 +t
the steps to the other. It is the ratio between the velocities of the
Advantages: Multi-speed capability. driver and the follower or driven.
Disadvantages: Wear and tear of belt.
Speed Ratio of Compound Belt Drives Speed Ratio of Compound Belt Drives
Derivation
Pulleys Speed Ratio Equality
N1
1,2 N
= DD
2
N2 = N3
2 1
N3 D4
3,4 N4
= D3
N3 = N4
N5 D6
5,6 N6
= D5
N5 = N6
... ... ... speed of rst drive Product of no. of diameters on drivens
Nk 1 = (4)
k-1,k Nk
= Dk
Dk 1
Nk 1 = Nk speed of last drive Product of no. of diameters on drivers
Figure: Compound belt drive. N1 D2 D4 D6 : : : Dn (1)

Nn
=
D1 D3 D5 : : : Dn 1
speed of rst drive
= speed ratio (2)
speed of last drive
Features
) More than one pulley per shaft.
) Intermediate shafts are available for Product of no. of diameters on drivens
= speed ratio
changing speed & direction of motion. Product of no. of diameters on drivers
(3)
Slip of Belt Belt Length (L) & Lap Angle ()

Derivation:Let,
s = s1 + s2 = Total Slip
s1 = % slip between driver and belt
s2 = % slip between belt and driven/follower
) velocity of belt passing over driver,
D1 N1 s1
v= (1 ) (5)
60 100
Again, velocity of belt passing over follower,
Figure: Length of open belt drive. Figure: Length of cross belt drive.
D2 N2 s2
Figure: Slip of belt. 60
= v (1
100
) (6)
Substituting v in the later equation we get, Length of Open Belt Drive Length of Cross Belt Drive
D2 N2 = D1 N1 (1 s1 s2
Denition )(1 ) r2 )2
L = (r1 + r2 ) + 2x + (r1 +r2 )2
(r1
60 60 100 100
x L = (r1 + r2 ) + 2x + x
Slip refers to loss of speed of belt.If the ) NN 2
1
= D1
D2
(1 s1
100
s2
100
) [* s1 s2
1000
0]
frictional grip becomes insufficient, the driver
Lap/Contact Angle of Open Belt Drive Lap/Contact Angle of Cross Belt Drive
may move forward without carrying the driven
) NN 2
= D1
(1 s
) [* s = s1 + s2 ]
pulley forward. This is called slip of belt. 1 D2 100
= [180o 2sin 1 ( r1
x
r2
)] 180

= [180o + 2sin 1 ( r1 +r
x
2
)] 180

Power Transmitted Ratio of Belt Tensions

Also consider a small portion of the belt PQ,
subtending an angle at the centre of the
pulley. The belt PQ is in equilibrium under the
following forces :
1 Tension T in the belt at P
2 Tension T + T in the belt at Q
3 Normal reaction RN
4 Friction force F = RN where is the
coefficient of friction between the belt
and the pulley.
Figure: Power Transmitted by a belt Drive.
Figure: Driving tensions.
Power Transmitted, P = (T1 T2 )v
Derivation:
T1 = Tension in tight side of belt (N)
Consider a driven pulley with,
T2 = Tension in slack side of belt (N)
T1 = Tension in tight side of belt (N)
v = Belt velocity (m/s)
T2 = Tension in slack side of belt (N)
= Angle of contact in radians
Ratio of Belt Tensions(contd.) Ratio of Belt Tensions(contd.)

) RN = T 2 + T2 + T 2
) RN = T [* T2 0]
A
Resolving forces in the vertical direction,
RN = (T + T )cos 2
Tcos 2
?
Y is very small ) cos
2
= 1,
) RN = T + T T
x B C
) RN = T
Equating the red and blue equations,
T = T
Figure: PQ portion. ) T =
RTT1 T R
) T T2
=
0

Resolving forces in the horizontal direction, ) [lnT ]TT = 1
Figure: PQ portion. Figure: PQ portion. ) ln TT = 1

2
RN = (T + T )sin
2
+ Tsin
2
2
) RN = (T + T ) 2 + T

2 ) T1
T2
= e
[* is very small ) sin
2
=
2
]
Ratio of Belt Tensions for V-belts Ratio of Belt Tensions(contd.)

Resolving the reactions vertically to the
groove,
R = R1 sin + R1 sin = 2R1 sin

) R = 2R1 sin
) R1 = 2sinR
Friction force F = 2RN [RN = Normal
Reaction to the pulley = R]
F = 2 2sin R
= sin = Rcosec
R
Figure: V-belt(grooved pulley) Rest of the proof is same as before.

Resolving forces in horizontal direction
R = T
Derivation: Figure: V-belts
Consider a grooved pulley with, Resolving forces in vertical
R1 = Normal Reaction between the belt and F = T
sides of the groove (N)
R = Total Reaction in the plane of the groove
) Rcosec = T For V-belts and Ropes,
(N) ) (T )cosec = T
= Coefficient of friction between the belt Integrate.
T1
T2
= ecosec ; 2 = Angle of groove
and sides of the groove.
= Angle
M 2Arshad Zahangir
of Chowdhury
the groove(AUST)
(degrees orTheory of M/C & M/C Design
radians) ME 201 25 / 45 M Arshad Zahangir Chowdhury (AUST) Theory of M/C & M/C Design ME 201 26 / 45
Ratio of Belt Tensions(contd.) Centrifugal Tension(Tc )

Consider, a small portion PQ of the belt ,
subtending angle d and
m = mass of belt per unit length (kg/m)
v= belt velocity (m/s)
r = pulley radius (m)
Tc = Tangential Centrifugal Tension at P,Q (N)
) Length of belt, PQ = rd

) Mass of belt, PQ = m(rd)
) Centrifugal Force acting on belt PQ,
mrd v 2
Fc = r
= mv 2 d
Resolving forces horizontally,

Figure: Centrifugal Tension. 2Tc sin( d2 ) = Fc = mv 2 d
) 2Tc ( d2 ) = mv 2 d
Figure: Ropes Since the belt continuously runs over the
pulleys, therefore some centrifugal force is [ d2 is very small ) sin d2 d2 ]
caused that increase tension on both tight and
T1
= ecosec ; 2 = Angle of groove slack side. However , below 10 m/s belt ) Tc = mv 2
T2 velocity Tc is negligible.
Centrifugal Tension(contd.) Centrifugal Tension (contd.)
) Tension in,
Tight side , Tt1 = T1 + Tc
Slack side , Tt2 = T2 + Tc
) Power Transmitted, P = (Tt 1
Tt2 )v = (T1 T2 )v
) Ratio of belt tension ,
T1
T2
= e
) TT t1
t2
Tc
Tc
= e
Initial Tension, T0 Condition for Maximum Power Transmission

Power Transmitted by a belt, P = (T1 T2 )v ) To transmit maximum power, the
maximum tension in tight side must equal
The belt is assembled with an initial tension, T0 .
) P = (T1 )v [* T1
e
T1
T2
= e ] to three times the centrifugal tension.
When power is being to transmitted, the tension in the tight side increases fro T0 to T1 ) P = T1 (1 e1
)v Again,
and slack side decreases from T0 to T2 . ) Tt1 = 3mv 2
If the belt is assumed to obey Hooke’s law and its length remain constant, then the
) P = T1 Cv [* ; = Const. C = 1 1
e
]
q p
increase in length of the tight side is equal to the decrease in length of the slack side, i.e., ) P = (Tt Tc )Cv [* Tt = T1 + Tc ]
1 1 ) vmax =
Tt1
3m
= T
3m
T1 T0 = T0 T2 ) P = (Tt mv 2 )Cv [* Tc = mv 2 ]
1
This is the expression for velocity when a belt
) T0 = T1 +T2
2
For maximum power transmission, dP
dv
=0 is transmitting maximum power.
If centrifugal tension is considered, ) dvd [(Tt v mv 3 )C] = 0

1
) T0 = T1 +T2 +2Tc
2
) Tt 3mv 2 = 0
1
) Tt1 = 3mv 2 = 3Tc

This is the required condition.
Chain Drives Chain Drives

Features
) Made of rigid links.
) Links are flexible for warping.
) Wheels have projecting teeth. (called
sprockets)
) Wheel and chain are constrained to move

together ensuring no slip and perfect velocity
Figure: Sprocket and Chain ratio.
Classication
1 Hauling or Hoisting Chain: Cranes.
2 Tractive Chain: Conveyor Belts.
3 Power transmitting chain: Bicycles.
Problem 1 Problem 1 (contd.)

Open belt drive Now, for open belt drives ,angle of lap, Torque on shaft with larger pulley,

TL = (T1 T2 )rL 657:6 Nm (Ans.)
An open belt drive connects two pulleys 1.2m & 0.5m in diameter on shafts 4m apart.
Mass of belt is 0.9 kg per metre length & maximum tension should be checked not to Torque on shaft with smaller pulley,
180
r1 r2
exceed 2000 N. Coefficient of friction is 0.3. The 1.2m driver pulley runs at 200 rpm. Due to = 2sin 1
(
x
) TS = (T1 T2 )rS 274 Nm (Ans.)
belt slip on one of the pulleys , the speed in the driven shaft is only 450 rpm. Determine, 0:6 0:25
torque on the two shafts, power transmitted, power lost in friction & drive efficiency. = 180 2sin 1
( ) Power transmitted by belt,
4 P = (T1 T2 )v 13:78 kW (Ans.)
= 180 2(5:02 )
Solution: Here, Now,Maximum (Allowable) Tension,
169:96
Now, Input power,
) =
PI = TL !L = 657:6 2 200 13:78 kW
60
d1 N1 1:2 200 T T1 + Tc For a flat belt, Again, Output power,

Belt velocity; v = = =

PO = TS !S = 274 2 450 12:91 kW

60
12:57 m/s
60
) T1 = T Tc
60
= 2000 142 T1
) Power lost in friction
= e PLOST = PI PO = 13:78 12:91 = 0:87
) T1 1858 N T2 kW (Ans.)
T1 1858
) T2
e0:3169:96 180
= =
Centrifugal Tension; Tc = mv 2 = 0:9 12:572 e
Now, Drive efficiency,
= PPO = 12 :91 = 0:937 = 93:7% (Ans.)
142 N =
1858 I 13:78
2:438
) T2 = 762 N

V-belts
Two V-belts construct a belt drive on grooved pulleys of the same size. The angle of
groove is 30o . The cross-sectional area of each belt is 750 mm2 and coefficient of friction Maximum Tension in belt; T = Max. Stress Cross-sectional Area
is 0.12.The density of belt material is 1:2Mg =m3 and maximum allowable stress in the = 7 10 6 750 10 6
material is 7 MPa. Determine, power transmitted between pulleys of 300mm diameters = 5250 N
running at 1500 rpm and the shaft speed at which maximum power will be transmitted.
Solution: Here, Angle of groove, 2 = 30 Now,

Again, T1 = T Tc = 5250 500 4750 N
Now, for same sized pulleys ,angle of lap, = 180 = radians

dN 0:3 1500 Centrifugal Tension; Tc mv 2
Belt velocity; v = = =
For v-belts,

60
23:56 m/s
60
= 0:9 23:562
500 N
T1
= ecosec
T2

e0:12cosec15
T1
) =
Mass of belt per unit length; m = Area Length Density T2
) T2 1105 N
= 750 10 6 1 1200
0:9 kg/m
Problem 2 (contd.) Problem 3

Ropes
Power transmitted, P = (T1 T2 ) v 2 [* 2 V-belts] A rope drive transmits 600 KW from a 4m pulley running at 90 rpm. Lap angle is 160o ;
) P = (4750 1105) 23:56 2

groove angle is 45o ; coefficient of friction is 0.28;mass of rope is 1.5 kg/m & allowable
tension in each rope is 2400 N. Find, how many ropes are required for the drive.
) P = 171:75 KW (Ans.) Solution: Here, Angle of groove, 2 = 45 Now,Maximum (Allowable) Tension,
For maximum power transmission,

q q Rope velocity; v =
dN
=
4 90 T = T1 + Tc
vmax = Tmax
= 5250

3 0:9
= 44:1 m/s 60 60
) T1 T Tc
3m 18:84 m/s
=
= 2400 533
Again,
) T1 1867 N
vmax = DN60shaft
) 44:1 = 0:603Nshaft Centrifugal Tension; Tc = mv 2 = 1:5 18:842
) Nshaft 2809 rpm (Ans.) 533 N
Problem 3 (contd.) Problem 4

For ropes,
T1
= ecosec
T2
Design Problem

e0:28160 180 cosec22:5 = 2:05
T1
) T2
=

A flat belt is to be designed to transmit 110kW at a belt speed of 25 m/s between two
) T2 240 N
pulleys of diameters 250mm and 400mm, having a centre distance of 1m. The allowable
belt stress is 8.5 MN =m2 and belts are available having a thickness-to-width ratio of 0.1
and a material density of 1100 kg =m3 . Given that the coefficient of friction is 0.3.
Power transmitted by a single rope, P = (T1 T2 ) v 30:67 kW Determine the required belt width.
[Hint: Find Angle of lap,Centrifugal Tension, Total (Maximum) Tension and Power
If number of ropes required is n & total power transmitted is PTotal , then transmitted then solve for width]
Try Yourself
PTotal =
P n
PTotal 600
)n =
P
=
30:67
)n 19:56
(Ans. : 20 ropes are required)


Force
Special Problem p= Area
Two parallel horizontal shafts, whose center lines are 4.8m apart, one being vertically Force
above the other, are connected by an open belt drive. The pulley on the upper shaft is
=
length width
1.05m diameter, that on the lower shaft is 1.5m diameter. The belt is 150mm wide and the
2 3000 sin d2
initial tension in it when stationary and when no torque is being transmitted is 3kN. The
=
0:525d 0:15
belt has a mass of 1.5 kg/m length; the gravitational force on it may be neglected but 23000 d2
0:525d 0:15
centrifugal force must be taken into account. The material of the belt may be assumed to =
obey Hooke’s Law, and the free lengths of the belt between pulleys may be assumed to be
straight. The coefficient of friction between the belt and either pulley is 0.3.
) p 38100 N
m2
(Ans.)
Calculate:(a) the pressure in N =m2 between the belt and the upper pulley when the belt Solution:
and pulleys are stationary and no torque is being transmitted, (a): Here, width of belt = 150 mm = 0.15m
and initial tension T0 = 3000 N.Consider an
(b) the tension in the belt and the pressure between the belt and the upper pulley if the
element of the belt subtending an angle d at
upper shaft rotates at 400 rev/min and there is no resisting torque on the lower shaft,
the center. Let, the pressure acting on the
hence no power being transmitted, and
element be p. Now by resolving forces(initial
(c)the greatest tension in the belt if upper shaft rotates at 400 rev/min and the maximum tension) in the radial (perpendicular to the
possible power is being transmitted to the lower shaft. element) we have,
Denition Classication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2 Tc Max-Power Chain Problems
Problem 5 (contd.)
Solution: (b): ) Effective tension = T Tc =
3000 725 = 2275N
dN 1:05 400 Since the area remains the same,

Belt velocity; v =
60
=
60
p = 2275
3000

38100 28900 mN2 (Ans.)
21:99 m/s (c):Angle of Lap,
= 180 2sin 1 ( r1
x
r2
)
= 180 2sin 1 ( 0:75 0:525 )

4:8
) = 174:6 = 3:05 rad Now,

Centrifugal Tension; Tc = mv 2 = 1:5 222
Tt1 + Tt2 = 2T0 = 6000 : : : (1)
725 N
Again,
Tt1 Tc
The total length of the belt remains constant
Tt2 Tc
= e
and the material obeys Hooke’s law however
no power is transmitted, therefore the total ) TT = e0:33:05 = 2:5 : : : (2)
t1 725
tension remains constant at 3000 N but some t2 725
of this tension are now absorbed as Solving equations (1) and (2) we get,
centrifugal tension. Tt1 = 3970 N (Ans.)
M Arshad Zahangir Chowdhury (AUST) Theory of M/C & M/C Design ME 201 45 / 45

Belt, Rope and Chain Drives Denition: M Arshad Zahangir Chowdhury

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Denition Classication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2 Tc Max-Power Chain Problems Denition Classication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2

sication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2 Tc Max-Power Chain Problems

M Arshad Zahangir Chowdhury

B.Sc. (Hons.) in Mechanical Engineering , BUET

Types of Belt Classication of Belt Drive

Open Belt Drive

Cross Belt Drive

Classication of Belt Drive (contd.) Open Belt Drive

Compound Belt Drive

Cross Belt Drive Quarter Turn Belt Drive

Figure: Cross Belt Drive. Figure: Quarter Turn Belt Drive.

Quarter Turn Belt Drive

Belt Drive with idler pulleys Compound Belt Drive

Figure: Compound Belt Drive.

Belt Drives with idler pulleys Compound Belt Drive

Stepped or Cone Pulley Drive Speed Ratio

If thickness of the belt is considered

Figure: Compound belt drive. N1 D2 D4 D6 : : : Dn (1)

Slip of Belt Belt Length (L) & Lap Angle ()

Power Transmitted Ratio of Belt Tensions

Ratio of Belt Tensions(contd.) Ratio of Belt Tensions(contd.)

Figure: PQ portion. Figure: PQ portion. ) ln TT =  1

Ratio of Belt Tensions for V-belts Ratio of Belt Tensions(contd.)

R = R1 sin + R1 sin = 2R1 sin

Figure: V-belt(grooved pulley) Rest of the proof is same as before.

Ratio of Belt Tensions(contd.) Centrifugal Tension(Tc )

) Length of belt, PQ = rd

Resolving forces horizontally,

Centrifugal Tension(contd.) Centrifugal Tension (contd.)

Initial Tension, T0 Condition for Maximum Power Transmission

If centrifugal tension is considered, ) dvd [(Tt v mv 3 )C] = 0

) Tt1 = 3mv 2 = 3Tc

Chain Drives Chain Drives

) Wheel and chain are constrained to move

Problem 1 Problem 1 (contd.)

 d1 N1  1:2 200 T T1 + Tc For a flat belt, Again, Output power,

Problem 2 Problem 2 (contd.)

Solution: Here, Angle of groove, 2 = 30 Now,

Now, for same sized pulleys ,angle of lap,  = 180 =  radians

Problem 2 (contd.) Problem 3

) P = (4750 1105) 23:56 2

For maximum power transmission,

Problem 3 (contd.) Problem 4

(Ans. : 20 ropes are required)

Problem 5 Problem 5 (contd.)

 dN  1:05 400 Since the area remains the same,

= 180 2sin 1 ( 0:75 0:525 )

)  = 174:6 = 3:05 rad Now,

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Denition Classication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2 Tc Max-Power Chain Problems Denition Classication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2

sication Speed Ratio Slip T1 =T2 Tc Max-Power Chain Problems

Types of Belt Classication of Belt Drive

Classication of Belt Drive (contd.) Open Belt Drive

Slip of Belt Belt Length (L) & Lap Angle ()

Figure: PQ portion. Figure: PQ portion. ) ln TT = 1

) Length of belt, PQ = rd

d1 N1 1:2 200 T T1 + Tc For a flat belt, Again, Output power,

Solution: Here, Angle of groove, 2 = 30 Now,

Now, for same sized pulleys ,angle of lap, = 180 = radians

dN 1:05 400 Since the area remains the same,

= 180 2sin 1 ( 0:75 0:525 )

) = 174:6 = 3:05 rad Now,