RADIO SCIENCE, Vol. 1 (New Series), No.

8, August 1966

Diffraction of Radio Waves in a Stratified Troposphere

Irvin H. Gerks and Ronald M. Anderson 1

Collins Radio Company, Cedar Rapids, Iowa 52406, U.S.A.

(Received March 12, 1965; revised January 13, 1966)

The problem of diffraction around a smooth, finitely conducting earth is reexamined with the
objective of obtaining an exact solution for the case of an exponential profile of refractivity. The
methods employed are largely conventional. However, care is taken to avoid approximations of doubt·
ful accuracy, and the solution is illustrated by numerical computations. It is shown that the method
of using an effective earth radius and assuming a homogeneous medium is generally sound.

1 . Introduction

The computation of the diffracted field around a spherical earth is hopelessly complicated
when surface irregularities and arbitrary distribution of refractive index of the atmosphere are
taken into account. The classical treatment by Watson [1918] and van der Pol and Bremmer
[1937, 1938, 1939] for a smooth, homogeneous earth and a homogeneous atmosphere are familiar
and basic. Later work showed that the case of a linearly stratified atmosphere could be solved
by similar methods. Experience since about 1945 has demonstrated that short-wave fields die out
at large distances much more slowly than such diffraction computations predict. A widely ac-
cepted explanation postulates incoherent scattering from turbulent irregularities in the air above
the geometric radio horizon.
Nevertheless, this simple model has not been universally accepted. Certain aspects of experi-
mental results appear not to fit such a model. Moreover, some authors have felt that gravitational
stratification is a more universal characteristic than turbulence and have attempted to show that
a stratified mt!dium can account for much of the observed excess of the observed field strength over
that obtained for a simple linear profile. Carroll and Ring [1955] carried out a solution for a bilinear
model which seemed to substantiate this view. Bullington [1%3] employed an analysis based in
part on geometric optics to show that "internal reflection" is an important mechanism.
Various accounts of mathematical treatments have been published [Pekeris, 1946; Friedman,
1951; Langer, 1951; Bremmer, 1960, 1962] which deal with solutions for analytic profiles ofrefrac-
tivity which can be largely arbitrary. This paper describes the solution for the case of an exponen·
tial profile, which simulates natural stratification more closely than a linear profile. Results
obtained with a digital computer are presented. A glossary of symbols is given in the appendix.

2. Formulation of the Problem

Following Bremmer [1949], we obtain for a radial electric dipole a scalar wave equation,

(1)

where b and r are the distances of the source and observation point from the origin, ()is the polar
angle, 8 is the Dirac delta function, and k* is an effective wave number in terms of the vacuum
value, k, and the refractive index of the atmosphere, n,

(2)
1 Present address. Texas Technological CulleJe. Lubbock. Tex. 79406.

897
898 Gerks ond Anderson

It is easy to show that k* is very well approximated by nk in the troposphere. The vector field
strengths are obtained from IT by differentiation. For a time function exp iwt,

E = (l/n 2) curl curl (arrnll) }

H = i(k/l201T) curl (arrnm (3)

where ar is a unit radial vector.

The solution of (l) must satisfy the radiation condition as r-) oo,

lim 1 o(rm + ikriT 1= o.

,....... or

and the boundary conditions at the surface, which may be deduced from (3):

(4)

The subscript I is used for air and 2 for earth. The earth will be assumed homogeneous with
complex refractive index

(5)

3. Solution of the Wave Equation by Method of Fourier Transforms

The first step is to obtain appropriate solutions of the homogeneous wave equation, (\7 2 + n 2 k2)IT
= 0. This can be done most conveniently by starting with the Legendre transform [Churchill,
1941; Friedman, 1951]

00

IT(r, 0)= L (m+l/2)Pm(cosO)um(r), (6)

m=O

um(r)= J: IT(r, 0) Pm (cos 0) sin 0 dO, (7)

where P m designates the Legendre polynomial of degree m. It can be shown that application of
(7) reduces the wave equation to the form

d2 . /dl8(r- b)
dr2 (rum)+ [(kn)2- m(m + 1)/r2]rum = £ 2 1Twebr · (8)

The boundary conditions are obtained from (4) by substituting d/dr for iJ/iJr and Um for IT. The
solution of (8) for a homogeneous medium in terms of spherical Bessel functions is familiar. The
Hertz potential, IT, is then an infinite series of such functions in accordance with (6). The slow
convergence of this series for large kr can be removed by the Watson transformation.

4. Watson Transformation
In this method, the integer m is replaced by a complex variable t. For convenience, Ut will
be written simply as u, the dependence upon t being implied. The homogeneous form of (8)
becomes
Diffraction in a Stratified Troposphere 899

£P
dr (ru) + [(kn) 2 - t(t + 1)/r2]ru = 0. (9)

We assume two independent solutions of (9), rj{r) and rB(r), with the latter chosen so as to satisfy
the radiation condition at infinity.
Now the method of variation of parameters [Gerks and Anderson, 1964] may be employed
to get the general solution of (8),

u{r) = i Idl [f(r)B(b) _ Df(a)- f'(a) B(r)B(b)] (a ::s;; r ::s;; b), (10)
21rwebW DB( a)- g'(a)

where W is the Wronskian of the two assumed solutions, rf(r) and rB(r), and Dis a surface imped·
ance parameter to be discussed later. For r > b, the first term in brackets becomes f(b)B(r).
When the solution (10) is substituted into (6), with t a real integer m, the series is always very
slowly convergent except when kr is small. In the Watson transformation [Friedman, 1951],
the series is first replaced by a contour integral with poles at positive integral values of t. The
contour is then distorted in such a manner that it no longer encloses these poles, but instead
encloses poles corresponding to zeros of the function DB( a)- g'(a). For a large conducting
sphere, such as the earth, the transformation is exact for practical purposes. The contour integral
can be evaluated in terms of the residues at these new poles, located at t= t 6 , s= 1, 2, 3,.... It
is apparent that these eigenvalues of t are solutions of the equation

DB( a)= g'(a). (i1)

This eigenvalue equation permits elimination of the free-space term, f(r)g(b), from (10), and
yields the relation 2 Df(a)-f'(a)=W/a2 g(a) at t=t,. We arrive finally at the residue series

TI(r ())=-i______!!!!:_ L (t+ l/2)Pt(-cos ()) g(r) g(b) (t = t,). (12)

' 2wea2 b s-J
- sm
•
7Tt ata (g '( a)/g( a)1l g(a) g(a)'

In the differentiation, D has been assumed independent of t, which is quite well justified. The
new series (12) converges well when reflection and diffraction are dominant phenomena. It is
generally unsatisfactory when line-of-sight propagation is the dominant mechanism, because the
free-space term has been lost. The radial function g(r) remains to be determined.

5. The Surface Parameter D

When a normally absorbing earth is considered, the appropriate solution of (9) applying inside
the earth (assumed homogeneous) is u2(r) = hP> (knEr), where this represents a spherical Hankel
function. When this solution is substituted into the boundary equations

l d (rnuJ)=--d
---z-d l d (ru2)} ( )
n r nE r r= a,
nu1 =nEU2

and the first equation is divided by the second, the result is

'The Wronskian is independent of r: W = a'{f(a)&"(a)-J'(a)&(a)).

900 Gerks and Anderson

I d (rnu1) I n 2{a)
= --
2 (I + Rt), (I3)
n (a)U1 (a) d r r=a nE

where Rt = knEa W>' (knEa)/ hp> (knEa).

Investigation of the asymptotic behavior of the spherical Hankel functions shows that, when
lknEal ;l> ltl ;l> I, a good approximation is

Furthermore, since the important eigenvalues of t lie very close to ka, we can write for practical
purposes

Rt = ika (n} -I) 112 •

Substituting this into (I3) and expanding the left-hand member gives

I + a[uaa) + n '(a)]= n2(a) [I + ika(n2 - I)1/2)

u 1(a) n(a) n} E

or

_u~_(a_) = D = i _k_n2-'-(a-")--'(-'n}~--I-'-)1_12
u1(a) ni-
n'(a)
n(a)
_[I- n2(a)].
n}
(I4)

Ordinarily, the formula D= ik(nJ: -I)112fnJ: provides the desired accuracy. This approximation
is equivalent to the introduction of a surface impedance.

6. Modification of the Radial Differential Equation

The next step is to solve (9) for the function g(r). It is convenient to transform (9) by the
following changes of variable [Pryce, I953]:

(15)

It then takes the form

(I6)

where (I7)

y(zt)=[(t+ I/2)/ka)2. (I8)

From the expansion

I z
r-a=z(I+- -+ ... ),
21.a

it is apparent z is approximately equal to the height above the surface. More precisely, z = aln(r/a).
Diffraction in a Stratified Trapasphere 901

The function y(z) is the effective profile function, and z1 is a complex height which satisfies (18)
when t = t 8 • The point z = Z1 is called the turning point for each mode, s.
The problem now is to find a characteristic function which satisfies (16) and the radiation
condition at infinity. That is, the function must take on the nature of a progressive wave at
great heights. At the same time, this function must take on ihe nature of a standing wave as
z-+ 0, so that it can satisfy (ll). For example, for long wavelengths and sufficiently large CT,
ID I = 0, and g'(a) must have zeros. On the other hand, in many short-wave problems, ID I be-
comes quite large, and g(a) must have zeros. For a homogeneous or linearly stratified medium,
an Airy function or modified Hankel function of order one-third [Harvard Univ., 1945] has the
required properties.
The treatment in this paper is restricted to the case of an exponential profile:

y(z) = (l + ae-ziH)e2zfa. (19)

7. Asymptotic Solution for the Height Function

Various authors [Pekeris, 1946; Langer, 1931, 1932, 1951; Friedman, 1951; Bremmer, 1960,
1962] have discussed the asymptotic solution of a differential equation with one turning point,
such as (16). The method, which is closely related to the familiar WKB approximation, is termed
the extended WKB approximation by Bremmer. Langer [1951] shows that the accuracy of the
first-order solution increases with the magnitude of k2y'(zJ). The case where y'(z) approaches
zero for some value of z must be dealt with by a different method. The accuracy of the solution
can be improved by an iterative technique. However, in this paper, k will be chosen large enough
so that the first-order result is adequately accurate.
The following procedure and terminology are based on the work of Langer [1931, 1932]. For
the sake of simplicity, a solution is assumed, and the solution is shown to lead to a "related"
equation which closely resembles the original equation.
Assume a solution

(20)

where h2 is the modified Hankel function of order one-third, which satisfies the Stokes equation,
h~(O + ~h 2 (0 = 0. The other symbols are defined .as follows:

cf>(z) = [y(z)- y(zJ)]l/2'

<l>(z) = fz cf>(z) dz,

Zt
(21)
~(z)= k<l>,
l}l(z) = <f>l/6fcf>l/2,

When the solution (20) is differentiated twice and use is made of Stokes' equation, it is found
that g(z) satisfies the related equation

g'(z) + [k2cf>2(z)- w(z)]g(z) = 0, (22)

902 Gerks and Anderson

where (23)

If it can be shown that w(z) is very small compared with k2cp2(z) near the turning point3 over some
range of wavelengths, then (20) may be considered a solution of (16) to practical accuracy.
For this purpose, we write x=z-zt, and employ the series expansion

(24)

It can be shown from (21) and (19) that

... ,

where R = (a/2/{) -1, S = ae-z,/H. By a series of algebraic operations starting with (24) and (21),
we can show that

(25)

It is now apparent why Langer's y'(z1), which is C1 in .the present notation, must not become too
small.
For numerical illustration, we choose the values a=6X 10-4, H=6 km. We assume ten-
tatively that lztl <tiii H, so that S = a. Then (25) becomes

a 2w(z) = 5.31 X 104-7.18 X 107(x/a)+. (26a)

This is the most pessimistic case. Since Zt will be found to have a positive real component, lSI
becomes smaller and ICtl becomes larger as lzd builds up, i.e., as the order of the eigenvalue, s,
increases.
It is now only necessary to compare a 2w(z) with (ka)2cp 2 (z) = (ka) 2(C1x + . . .). With the
approximationS= a and with the assumed values, cp 2{z) = l.364(x/a)+. At a frequency of

'An estimate of the behavior for large z can be obtained by making the approximations z1 =0, J(z 1)= I, J(z)= e"l•. It can then be shown (Langer, 1931)that

1/>!z)= tan.B

<l>(z)=t~(tan,B-,8),

wlzl=.l [- .2.
n1
{-'!!!.iL)'
36 tan .B- .8
+-5_ _ _I_]
4 sin' .B sin' .8 '

where sec {j=~'·· We find lhal

lim w(z)=-l/35a'. lim 61!z)=l/9a1•

.e--o ,a ... .,.,2
It is easy to show that n'OJ(z) is negligible compared with (ka)'<f>'(z} = (ka)1 tan' .8 for values of ka of practical interest and for .8 not too near zero.
Diffraction in a Stratified Troposphere 903

10 Mc/s, (ka)2= 1.78 X 1012 , and

(ka)2cf>2(z) = 2.43 X 1012(.x/a) +. (26b)

Comparison of (26a) and (26b) shows that, at 10 Mc/s, the undesired term in (.x/a) is about
3 X I0-5 times the desired term in (.x/a). Furthermore, it is found in later computations that the
smallest eigenvalue of (.x/a) has a magnitude of about l. 7 X I0- 4 , so that at this point the fixed term
in (26a) is about 1.3 X I0-4 times the magnitude given by (26b). We conclude that the related
equation (22) is an excellent approximation of the original equation (16) for frequencies no smaller
than about 10 Mc/s and for a realistic exponential profile. Consequently, g(z) as given by (20)
will be taken as an appropriate solution of (16).
It may be noted that 1- RS = 1- ; ; is the reciprocal of the familiar earth-radius factor ke.
The assumed values, a= 6 X I0- 4 , H = 6 km, lead to the figure ke = 1.4675.

8. Determination of the Eigenvalues

Before the solution (20) can be substituted into the eigenvalue equation (11), the changes of
variable (15) must be taken into account. According to (15), u= (a/r)112v. Therefore, the function
g(r) appearing originally must be replaced by (a/r)l1 2g(z), where z =a ln (r/a). It also follows readily
that g'(r) must be replaced by (a/r)11 2 [(a/r)g'(z)-(1/2r)g(z)]. When r=a, z=O. Therefore, in
terms of the variable z, the eigenvalue equation becomes

(D + 1/2a)g(O) = g'(O). (27)

When the solution (20) is substituted into (27), the result can be written in the form

at z=O, (28)

where the scale height, h 0 , is defined by [Pryce, 1953]

ho = (a/2k2)1/3. (29)

The solution of (28) for the modal values of Z1 constitutes the principal part of the computation.
The general procedure is to make a first estimate of a solution and then employ iterative methods
to correct the solution. Since the term h;./h2 is the most important part of (28), it is convenient to
resolve the operation into two steps, as follows. Let

h~(a8)/h2(a.) = b,, (30)

where

(31)

b,= { ( -3)1/3hol/12 [ D+--

1 (1 - - 1-cf>')~
- cf> - } . (32)
a 2a 6 ci> 2 cf> z=O

First, an approximate value of b, is selected and a, is obtained from (30) by known methods [Gerks,
1962]. Equation (31) must now be solved for z1 by an iterative process. Second, a new value of
904 Gerks and Anderson

bs is obtained by substituting the value of z 1 just found into (32). The first operation is now re-
peated. Several repetitions of this process may be necessary until bs converges with the desired
accuracy to a limiting value.
A first estimate of b8 may be obtained by assuming a linear profile, so that only the coefficient
Ct remains in (24). It may be shown that, under this condition, 1/12 = (2/3C1)113 , (1/6) (¢/<f>)- (1/2)
(¢' /4>) = 0, so that b, = (2/aC 1 ) 1 13 ~D. However, as indicated, C1 = 2/kea, so that b, = k~i 3 h 0 D.
This estimate is seen to be independent of the modal index, s.
With the same linear profile, (31) can be solved readily, since f/>(z) = [C1(z- z1)]1/2 and the weak
modal variation of C1 can be neglected. The result is

(33)

Since the values of a, lie in the second quadrant, values of z1 must lie in the fourth quadrant. Its
positive real component has already been mentioned.
Certain singularities which pose difficulty in application of numerical methods should be
mentioned. From (21) it is seen that 1/J approaches 0/0 as z~ Z1. Similar difficulties occur in
computing (1/6)(¢/<f>)- (1/2)(¢' /¢). For this range, the series expansion (24) may be used to
develop suitable formulas:

9. Determination of the Partial Derivative in (12)

It was shown in the preceding section that the function g'(r)/g(r) reduces after the change of
variable to [(a/r)g'(z)/g(z)]-l/2r. Now we set r equal to a(z=O) and differentiate with respect
to t. The relation between Zt and tis given by (18) and (19):

(34)

Differentiation yields the result

dzt e-z,!a(l + S)l/2

(35)
dt k(1-RS)

The partial derivative in (12) becomes

(36)

The ratio in brackets is the left-hand member of (28).

One value of this ratio has been set equal to D + l/2a and the corresponding value of z1 com-
puted. Now z1 can be changed by a small increment and the ratio can be recomputed. In this
way, the derivative can be evaluated numerically. Alternatively, formal differentiation and
simplification with the aid of Stokes' equation and (28) yields the result
Diffraction in a Stratified Troposphere 905

It may be shown that this result simplifies greatly for a linear profile, for which c/> 2(z) = C 1(z
- zt). We approximate D + 1/2a by D and get

_E_·[g'(O,
OZt g(O, z,) -
z!)] -- [-k2CtZt + D2 -.!!_+~+- 1-] (-1)
2zt 16zf 16zf

+(n-l) (l)-l=-k
2zt 2zt 8zf
C z +D 2 1 1 2• (37a)

If we approximate exp (ztfa) and exp (- zt!H) by unity, dzt/dt = ke(1 + a)/k, and C1 = 2/kea. There-
fore, for a linear profile,

j_ [g'(O, zt)] = ke(l +a) ( _ 2k2zi + n2) = ke (_!!:!___+ n 2) = ke [ + (ki/3hoD)2) (38)

at g'(O, z,) k kea k J41 31!:j k(k~l3h0'f ~ e .

It should be noted that k~'3 ho is the scale height computed with an effective earth radius. The
eigenvalue a, is given by (33).

10. Determination of the Function of (J in (12}

The customary asymptotic approximation of the Legendre function is employed [Abramowitz
and Stegun, 1964, pp. 336, 257]:

Pt{-cos 8) = Pc[cos (7T-8)]

f(t+1)
= f(t+ ( 2 ) 1' 2 cos [(t+ 1/2)(7T-8)-7T/4] +O(r 1). (39)
3/ 2) 7T sin 8

Since ltl is on the order of ka, and therefore very .large, terms of order r 1 are negligible. How-
ever, formula (39) applies only when 8 is not too small. Further simplification can be made by
using Stirling's formula for the gamma functions, and by taking advantage of the normally large
negative imaginary component oft. The factor, t + 1/2, appearing in (12) can be replaced by ka.
This leads to the result
(t + l/2)Pt{- cos fJ) )112 exp [i 4-
37T J
( 7T 2ka
sin 8 i(t + l/2)8 · (40)
sin 7Tt

In order to eliminate t, we can employ (34). A very good approximation of the square root
1s 1 +(a/2)e-z,/H, and, for most practical cases, we may write ez,!a = 1 + zda. 4 Since both lzd/a
and a/2 are very small, we can finally write

t + l/2 = ka[l + (z 1 /a) + (a/2)e-z,/H). (41)

In order to achieve conventional notation, we define a scale distance [Pryce, 1953]

do= a/kho = (2a2/k)li 3 • (42)

Also, let 8 in the exponent of (40) be replaced by d/a, where dis the path length along the surface.

4 Equations (40} and (34) may be used directly when betler accuracy is desired.
906 Gerks and Anderson

Then

(t + 1/2)(} = kd + (d/do)[(zdho) + (aa/2h 0 )e-zdH]. (43)

Finally, (40) may be rewritten to show the dependence upon horizontal.distance:

(t+ 1/2)P~-cos 8)
( 'TT 2ka
sin ()
)112
exp i
(3Tr
4- kd) exp- i(d/do)y,, (44)
sin Trt

where

(45)

Here, the multivalued character of y is explicitly indicated, whereas that of Zt has been implied.
For a linear profile, we replace e-z•/H by 1- zdH and get

and the second exponential term in (44) becomes

exp- i (1) 'Ys = exp [ - id (ke~~do + 2 ~~) ] = exp [ - id (ke~~o + k;) ]· (46)

The term exp (- ikda/2) is a correction to the term exp (- ikcl) appearing in (44) to account for
extra refractive index due to the atmosphere. The other term may be written

exp [-i (k~~dJ (kV~hJ l

The first of these factors is d/do, where do is computed with an effective earth radius. The second
factor, according to (33), is approximately- a•.

11. The Complete Residue Series

Let us designate receiving and transmitting antenna heights by Zr and Zt. By substituting
(35), (36), and (44) into (12) and remembering that g(r) = (a/r) 112 g(z), we get

. I dl
n ~- ' 2,-w.a'b
2ka
6 (" •in 8)
1/2 k(1 - RS) exp i

e- "'"(1 +
c:-
S)'~ ~
kd) exp- i(d/ do)y.,.
[ g'(O, Z;) l
a
VbJ' 1'
g(zr) g(zt)
g(O) &(0)
. OZt g(O, ZJ)

= ldlk2 (-.A-) 1' 2 exp i (!!_- kd) 2: (l- RS) exp- i(d/dohs g(zr) g(z1). ( 4 7)
2Trw€by'"";b a sin() 4 s=I e-z•/a(l +S)l/2 _j_ [g'(O, Zt)] g(O) g(O)
az, g(O, Zt)

The g-function is given by (20), the function 1'• by (45), the partial derivative by (37). The param-
eter Zt is the multi valued solution of (28). Also, R = (a/2H) -1, S = ae-z•IH.
It can be shown readily that, for a linear profile, the height-gain function g(z)/g(O), becomes
~((z/W3 ho)+a.]/h2 (a.). When the other functions in (47) are replaced by the expressions for a
liflear profile already mentioned, we obtain the following result [Gerks, 1962]:
Diffraction in a Stratified Troposphere 907

II= Idl(kho)2 (-A.-) 1' 2 exp i (:!!:.-kad) L exp ia,d/d.o h2(a.+zr/ho) h(a,+zt!ho). (4S)
27TwEb W ke a sin 8 4 s= 1 a+ (hoD) 2 ~(a,) h2(a.)

Here for simplicity ho and do are written without the coefficients k~/3 and k~/3 • The parameter ka
is the surface value of k. It may be noted that

For many purposes, it is desirable to express the field in terms of the free-space value. In
this case, the Hertz potential was so defined that its free-space value is ITo=- i(ldl/47Twebd)
exp- ikd. Therefore, the normalized coefficient in (47) becomes (2k2d/W)(X/a sin 8) 112 exp i37T/4.
For normal paths (d and z small), this is essentially (2k2 /a) Vi:d exp i37T/4.

12. Numerical Results

The following results were obtained with a digital computer for a profile with the parameters
a= 6 X I0- 4 , H = 6 km. Eleven terms in the residue series were used, though fewer terms would
have sufficed when zero antenna heights were assumed. With both antennas at a height of l
km, the convergence of the residue series with ll terms was unsatisfactory for distances less than
about 200 km. This is a familiar weakness resulting from the Watson transformation. The
distance to the radio horizon in this case was 273.5 km.
Figure l shows results for a frequency of 10 Mc/s, with both antennas at zero height. The
ordinate represents the Hertz potential relative to its free-space value. Since the curves for the
two profiles are so nearly coincident, it is apparent that the important modes must propagate close
to the surface, where the two profiles differ only shghtly.

"50

·100
- r------ ----... !'...

"'
LINEAR
R._ROFILE
"150
EXPONENTIA~
~
ID
"'C
PROFILE -
-200

-250
'

10 20 30 50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000

DISTANCE-km

FIGURE 1. Hertz potelltial relative to free-space value.

!= 10 Mt·/•. ··= 10, u=O.OI, a=bX w-•. H=6 km, z=U.

214-685 0-66-4
908 Gerks and Anderson

Figure 2 shows results for a frequency of 100 Mc/s. In one case, both antennas were at a
height of 10 m. The curves for the exponential and linear profiles were so nearly coincident that
no distinction could be made on the graph. In the other case, both antennas were at a height of
1 km. Now a significant difference was found for the two profiles. The linear profile corresponds
to greater refraction near the antenna level and therefore higher field strength. These results
are in good agreement with the conclusions reached by Bremmer [1960].
A more accurate comparison of results for the exponential and linear profiles can be made by
tabulating the eigenvalues as which satisfy equation (30). Such a comparison is made in table 1.
The similarity of the values for the two profiles is amazingly close, especially for the higher
frequency.
A simple physical interpretation of the complex height, z~, cannot be given. It should be noted,
however, that according to (31), the eigenvalue a, is obtained by integrating lf>(z) over a range from
Zt to 0. One is tempted to believe that the real part of Zt is a measure of the thickness of a slab
of air near the surface in which a particular mode propagates. The following numerical values
were obtained:

at 10 Mc/s, Zt (1st mode) = 0.5724- i 0.9211 km,

Zt (lith mode)=3.293 - i 5.097 km;

at 100 Mc/s, z1 (1st mode) =0.1199-i 0.2042 km,

Zt (11th mode)=0.7112-i 1.1785 km.

This "track width" is somewhat indistinct because of leakage from the top of the slab, as suggested
by the imaginary part of z 1• However, the preponderant influence of the profile near the surface
seems evident, especially at higher frequencies.
The integration over the range from Zt to 0 is associated with diffraction, i.e., the flow of energy
across the boundary between the optical zone and the shadow zone. For elevated antennas, the
height-gain function is computed by extending the integration from 0 to some real height z. This
integration over real height suggests an optical-zone phenomenon. As shown by Bremmer [1960],
the total path can be resolved into one or two optical components and a diffraction component.
Only the optical part of the path is significantly different for an exponential and a linear profile.

13. Treatment of More Complicated Profiles

The method described is applicable to a smooth, analytic profile in which the gradient of re-
fractivity does not approach the trapping value. However, there is no lack of concern on the part
of the mathematicians with the case where trapping occurs or with the transitional case [Pekeris,
1946; Langer, 1951]. The differential equation may then have two or more turning_points, and it is
necessary to choose .other forms of solution over part of the range of z, such as parabolic. cylinder
functions or Whittaker functions. Both of these are closely related to confluent hypergeometric
functions.
We are not aware of any complete numerical solutions of the boundary value problem under
these circumstances. Such work is contemplated.

14. Conclusion

It has been demonstrated by numerical computations that the concept for an effective earth
radius and a homogeneous atmosphere is amazingly accurate for tropospheric propagation at short
Diffraction in a Stratified Troposphere 909

0
--,
-50
do
r--
---- ~·IOOOm~'\ M 0 ''
''

-100

~ \ 1\'''\\
\

z=IOm
-150

-200
ID
"'C

\ \-.. \ \

-250 \ ~\
-300
\ \\
~\
-350
10 20 30 50 70 100 200 300 500 700 1000
DISTANCE- km

FIGURE 2. Hertz potential relative to free-space value.

/=100 Mc/s, <,=10, u=101, a=6x 10-•, H=6 km.
---exponential profile.
------linear profile.

TABLE 1. Comparison of a. for exponential and linear profiles*

/=10 Mc/s /=100 Mc/s

Mod
No.
exp. ~n. exp. lin.

1 -1.1921+i 1.9844 -1.1916+ i 1.9845 -1.1703+ i 2.0092 -1.1703+ i 2.0092

2 -2.0673+i 3.4997 -2.0664+i 3.4999 -2.0453 + i 3.5246 -2.0452+i 3.5247
3 - 2. 7838 + i 4. 7403 - 2. 7827 + i 4. 7405 -2.7616+i 4.7653 -2.7615+i 4.7653
4 -3.417l+i 5.8367 -3.4158+i 5.8370 -3.3947 + i 5.8618 - 3.3946 + i 5.8618
5 -3.9960+i 6.8389 -3.9945+i 6.8393 - 3. 9734 + i 6.8641 -3.9733+i 6.8642
6 -4.5354+i 7.7728 -4.5337+i 7.7733 -4.5127+& 7.7982 -4.5126+i 7.7982
7 -5.0443+i 8.6539 -5.0424+i 8.6545 -5.0215 + i 8.6793 -5.0213+i 8.6794
8 -5.5686+i 9.5617 -5.5666+i 9.5623 -5.5456+i 9.5872 - 5.5455 + i 9.5873
9 -5.9925+il0.2957 -5.9904+&10.2964 -5.969S+i10.3213 -5.9693+il0.3214
10 -6.4389 + ill.0686 -6.4367+ill.0694 - 6.4158+ ill.0943 -6.4156 + i11.0944
11 -6.8703 + ill.8157 -6.8680+ill.8165 -6.8472+ill.8414 -6.8470+i11.8416

*The normalized values of Hertz potential as a function of distance", as shown in figures

1 and 2, are listed in taljle 2.

TABLE 2. Comparison of Hertz potential/or exponential and linear

profiles (in dB)

: /=10 Mc/s z=O /=100 Mc/s z=IOm /=100 Mc/s z=1000 m

d(km) exp. lin. exp. lin. e:xp. lin.

20 -40.82 -40.74 -35.07 -35.09

100 -59.58 -59.50 -65.91 -65.83
200 -76.31 -75.88 -102,93 -102.64 -17.74 -0.65
500 -128.47 -126.71 -219.38 -218.48 -131.50 -100.67
1000 -219.16 -215.26 -417.10 -415.18 -329.22 -297.36
910 Gerks and Anderson

wavelengths through an atmosphere with an exponential profile of refractivity. The effect of a

nonlinear profile becomes prominent only when the antennas are elevated to heights at which the
actual profile differs considerably from a linear profile (e.g., 1 km). This verifies conclusions
reached by Bremmer [1960, 1962] by analytical methods.
It is therefore apparent that the strong tropospheric fields observed at short wavelengths be-
yond the horizon cannot be explained, even in part, by internal reflection from a stratified medium
having a smooth profile. If we ignore for the moment turbulent irregularities, an explanation must
be sought in the phenomenon of reflection from layers in which the gradient of refractivity ap-
proaches the trapping value. A reliable numerical solution for a perturbed analytic profile seems
to be possible by an extension of the foregoing method.

The assistance of Dr. W. J. Jameson (Collins Radio Co.) in the solution of the eigenvalue equa-
tion and the critical review of the first draft by Dr. Arvids Vigants (Bell Telephone Laboratories)
are gratefully acknowledged.

15. Appendix. Glossary of Symbols

a- earth radius
ar - unit radial vector
as - parameter in eigenvalue equation (see equations (30), (31))
b - distance of source from earth center
b. - parameter in eigenvalue equation (see equations (30), (32))
C 1 , C2 , etc.- coefficients in Maclaurin series for c/J 2 (z) for exponential profile [see (24)]
d - a8, horizontal distance between antennas measured at the surface
do- (2a2/k) 113 , scale distance
D- complex factor similar to surface impedance [see (10), (14)]
E - electrical field vector
f(r)- r/(r) is a solution of (9)
g(r)- rg(r) is a second solution of (9)
g(z) - asymptotic solution of (16) [see (20)]
ho- (a/2k 2)113 , scale height
h\l)(kner) - spherical Hankel function of first kind
h2(a5 ) - modified Hankel function of order one-third, second kind [see (20)]
H - scale height for exponential profile
H - magnetic field vector
Idl- dipole moment (amp-m)
k - wave number in vacuum
ke- equivalent earth radius factor
m- degree of Legendre polynomial [see (6), (7)]
n -refractive index, assumed to vary with r only
nE- complex refractive index of earth, assumed constant [see (5)]
n 2 (z) - profile function in air [see (17), (19)]
Pm(cos 8)- Legendre polynomial [see (6), (7)]
Pt(cos 8) -Legendre function of complex degree t
r - distance of field point from earth center
R - (a/2H)- l, parameter for exponential profile
Rt- boundary value parameter [see (13)]
Diffraction in a Stratified Troposphere 911

s - mode number, s = 1, 2, 3,
S - a exp- zd H, parameter for exponential profile
t - complex degree of Legendre function
t8 - eigenvalue of t
u 111(r), u(r) -Legendre transform of Hertz potential II [see (7), (8), (9)]
v(z)- transform of u(r) [see (15)]
W- Wronskian of the solutions rf(r) and rg(r) [see (10)]
z - approximate height of field point above surface (z= a In r/a)
Zt - turning point of differential equation (16) (complex}
Zr -receiving antenna height
Zt - transmitting antenna height
a - excess of n 2(z) over unity at z = 0
y , - eigenvalue parameter related to z 1 [see (45)]
8(0) - Dirac delta function
E - dielectric permittivity (MKS)
Er - dielectric constant of the earth

'(z)- G{) 2' 3 [see (21)]

0 - polar angle of field point measured from source
A. - wavelength in vacuum
{(z)- k<P(z) [see (21)]
II(r, 0) - scalar Hertz potential
o- - conductivity of earth (mho/m)
1>(z)- function involved in coefficient of radial differential equation [see (21}]
<l>(z) -integral of 1>(z) [see (21)]
tfi(z) - <1> 116 /1> 1' 2 [see (21)]
w - angular frequency
w(z)- err()r term in the related differential equation [see (22), (23)]

Note: differentiation with respect to z is designated by a prime, e.g., 1>'; differentiation with re·
spect to Zt is explicitly indicated.

16. References
Abramovitz, M., and I. A. Stegun, ed. (1964), Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathe·
matical Tables, NBS Appl. Math. Ser. 55.
Bremmer, H. (1949), Terrestrial Radio Waves (Elsevier Pub. Co., New York, N.Y.).
Bremmer, H. (1960), On the theory of wave propagation through a concentrically stratified troposphere with a smooth profile,
Part I, Discussion of the extended W.K.B. approximation,]. Res. NBS 64D (Radio Prop.), No. 5, 467-482.
Bremmer, H. (1962), On the theory of wave propagation through a concentrically stratified troposphere with a smooth
profile, Part II, Expansion of the rigorous solution,]. Res. NBS 66D (Radio Prop.), No. 1, 31-52.
Bullington, K. (1963), Reflections from an exponential atmosphere, Bell System Tech.]. 42, No.6, 2849-2867.
Carroll, T. ]., and R. M. Ring (1955), Propagation of short radio waves in a normally stratified troposphere, Proc. IRE 43,
No. 10, 1384-1390.
Churchill, R. V. (1941), Fourier Series and Boundary Value Problems, p. 191 (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, N.Y.).
Friedman, B. (1951), Propagation in a non-homogeneous atmosphere, Symposium on the Theory of Electromagnetic Waves,
317-350 <Interscience Publishers, New York, N.Y.).
Gerks, I. H. (l%2), Use of a high-speed computer for ground-wave calculations, IRE Trans. Ant. Prop. AP-10, No.3,
292-299.
Gerks, I. H., and R. M. Anderson (1964), Propagation over plane earth through an exponential atmosphere, Radio Sci.].
Res. NBS 68D, No. II, ll93-1199.
Harvard Univ., Computation Lab. (1945), Tables of the Modified Hankel Functions of Order One·Third and of Their Deriva·
tives (Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass.).
912 Gerks and Anderson

Langer, R. E. (1931), On the asymptotic solutions of ordinary differential equations, with an application to the Bessel func-
tions of large order, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. 33, 23.
Langer, R. E. (1932), On the asymptotic solutions of differential equations, with an application to the Bessel functions of
large complex order, Trans. Am. Math. Soc. 34, 447-480.
Langer, R. E. (1951), Asymptotic solutions of a differential equation in the theory of microwave propagation, Symposium on
the Theory of Electromagnetic Waves, 73-84 (lnterscience Publishers, New York, N.Y.). ·
Pekeris, C. L. (1946), Asymptotic solutions for the normal modes in the theory of microwave propagation, J. Appl. Phys.
17, No. 12, 1108-1124.
Pryce, M. H. L. (1953), The diffraction of radio waves by the curvature of the earth, Ad van. Phys. 2, No. 5, 67-95.
van der Pol, B., and H. Bremmer (1937), The diffraction of electromagnetic waves from an electrical point source round a
finitely conducting sphere, with applications to radiotelegraphy and the theory of the rainbow, Phil. Mag. 24, Part I,
No. 159, 141-176, Part II, No. 163, 825-864.
van der Pol, B., and H. Bremmer (1938), The propagation of radio waves over a finitely conducting spherical earth, Phil.
Mag. 25, No. 171, 817-834.
van der Pol, B., and H. Bremmer (1939), Further note on the propagation of radio waves over a finitely conducting spherical
earth, Phil. Mag. 27, No. 182, 261-275.
Watson, G. N. (1918), The diffraction of electric waves by the earth, Proc. Roy. Soc. London, Ser. A 95, 83-99.

16. 1. Additional Related References

Brekhovskikh, L. M. (1960), Waves in Layered Media (Academic Press, New York, N.Y.).
Wait, J. R. (1962), Electromagnetic Waves in Stratified Media (Pergamon Press, London).

(Paper l-8-97)