12/20/2019 Energy loss due to friction

Energy loss due to friction

Energy loss in pipes due to friction
Friction losses in laminar flows
Friction losses in turbulent flows
Hydraulic Diameter
Minor Losses
Sudden Enlargement
Exit Loss
Sudden Contraction
Entrance Loss
Valves and Fittings

Energy loss in pipes due to friction

When a fluid travels in a pipe energy is dissipated by friction. The amount of energy lost depends on a
number of factors such as the fluid’s speed and viscosity. If the flow is turbulent it can even depend on
the roughness of the pipe walls.

Losses due to friction will cause the pressure to decrease along the length of the pipe, therefore
increasing the amount of power that a pump must deliver to maintain the flow. These losses can become
significant in systems where long stretches of piping are employed (for example, in heat exchangers, oil
pipelines, fire protection systems, etc.).

We start off this section with the general energy equation:

𝑝1 + 𝑧1 + 𝑣21 + ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝑅 − ℎ𝐿 = 𝑝2 + 𝑧2 + 𝑣22 ,
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
The quantity ℎ𝐿
represents the energy loss in the system and in this section we will learn how to
compute it. We will first examine the energy loss from friction as fluid flows through a round pipe. Next
we will generalize this to pipes or tubes of noncircular cross sections. Finally we will look energy losses
due to valves and fittings (called minor losses).

We use Darcy’s equation to calculate the loss due to friction in pipes,

ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 × 𝐷𝐿 × 2𝑔𝑣 .
2

In the above expression 𝐿 is the length of pipe, 𝐷 its diameter, and 𝑣 the average velocity of flow. The
dimensionless quantity 𝑓 is called the friction factor. The method of obtaining 𝑓 will depend on whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent. We all have an intuitive notion of what we mean by laminar and
turbulent flow. Laminar flow has the appearance of a smooth and steady stream while turbulent flow
appears chaotic and irregular and may contain eddies and swirls of fluid. But how can we predict the
flow’s behavior, in particular if the flow is occurring in an opaque pipe where observations can’t be made.

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Laminar and turbulent water flow.

In a 1883 paper Osborne Reynolds showed that a single dimensionless number, now called the Reynolds
Re
number ( ), determines whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. The Reynolds number for round pipes
is

Re = 𝑣𝐷𝜌
𝜂 𝜈= 𝑣𝐷
The two definitions above are identical and simply result from the relation between dynamic and
kinematic viscosity, 𝜈 = 𝜂/𝜌
. The quantities entering into the definition of the Reynolds number are
summarized in the following table.

Quantity Symbol SI units US units

Velocity 𝑣 m/s ft/s
Diameter 𝐷 𝐷 ft
Density 𝜌 kg/m3 slugs/ft 3
Dynamic Viscosity 𝜂 kg/m s ⋅ ⋅
slugs/ft s
Kinematic Viscosity 𝜈 m2 /s ft2 /s
Quantities that enter into the determination of the Reynolds
number for round pipes.

For practical purposes, if Re < 2000

the flow is laminar and if Re > 4000
the flow is turbulent. For a
Reynolds number between 2000 and 4000 it is difficult if not impossible to resolve the nature of the flow.
The design of most systems should avoid flows in this transition region due to their unpredictable
behavior.

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Glycerin at 25∘ C is pumped through a DN 125 schedule 80 steel pipe at an average

velocity of 𝑣 = 5 m/s . Is the flow laminar or turbulent?

To determine the nature of the flow we compute the Reynold’s number.

Re = 𝑣𝐷𝜌
𝜂
From the Properties of common liquids table we find that for glycerin at 25∘ C:
𝜌 = 1263 kg/m3 , 𝜂 = 9.50 × 10−1 Pa ⋅ s
From the Schedule 80 Steel Pipe Data Table we find that for DN 125 schedule 80
pipe 𝐷 = 122.3 mm. We now have everything we need to find the Reynolds number
𝑣𝐷𝜌
Re = 𝜂 = (5 m/s)(0.1223 m)(1263 kg/ m3)
= 813
9.50 × 10−1 Pa ⋅ s
Notice that all the units cancel resulting in a dimensionless quantity. Since
Re = 813 is less than 2000
the flow is laminar.

The first step in an energy loss calculation is to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent by
computing the Reynolds number. The next step is to compute the friction factor, , that appears in 𝑓
Darcy’s equation for the energy loss ℎ𝐿
. The procedure to compute the friction factor is different for
laminar and turbulent flow. The procedure for laminar flow is more straightforward and will be discussed
next. We will then discuss the procedure for turbulent flows.

Friction losses in laminar flows

If after computing the Reynolds number we find that the flow is laminar (i.e. the Reynolds number is less
than 2000) the friction factor is given by the formula,

64
𝑓 = Re (Laminar flow circular duct)
The above expression can be derived from first principles but that goes beyond the scope of these notes.
Here is an example.

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Glycerin at25∘ C is pumped through 100 m of DN 125 schedule 80 steel pipe at an

average velocity of 𝑣 = 5 m/s . Determine the energy loss.

From the previous example we found Re = 813 and therefore predict laminar flow.
The energy loss is determined from Darcy’s equation

𝐿 𝑣
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 × 𝐷 × 2𝑔
2

Since the flow is laminar we use

64 = 64 = 0.0787
𝑓 = Re 813
Now that we have the friction factor we compute the energy loss,

(5 m/s) 2
100 m
ℎ𝐿 = 0.0787 × 0.1223 m × 2(9.81 m/𝑠2) = 82 m
Remember that the quantity ℎ𝐿 is the energy loss per unit weight. We can write it
as ℎ𝐿 = 82 N ⋅ m/N = 82 J/N. In practice this means that for every newton of
glycerin that flows through this system 82 joules of energy is dissipated.

You should be aware of another commonly used expression for the friction loss in laminar pipe flows, the
Hagen-Poiseuille equation,

ℎ𝐿 = 32𝜂𝐿𝑣
𝛾𝐷2 .
This can be obtained by substituting 𝑓 = 64/Re into Darcy’s equation along with the Reynolds number
for circular sections, Re = 𝑣𝐷𝜌/𝜂 . It is therefore identical to the procedure of using 𝑓 = 64/Re in
Darcy’s equation. However, the Hagen-Poiseuille equation is valid only for laminar flows. Darcy’s equation
is appropriate for laminar or turbulent flows as long as the proper friction factor is used. In practice I
never use the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.

Friction losses in turbulent flows

For turbulent flows we again use Darcy’s equation, however in this case there is no longer a nice
𝑓
expression for the friction factor. The friction factor, , must be found empirically (i.e. from experiment).
It turns out that the friction factor depends on two dimensionless numbers; the Reynolds number and
the relative roughness ( 𝜖/𝐷
) of the pipe.

𝜖
The relative roughness is the ratio of , a characteristic scale representing the roughness of the pipe’s
𝐷
inside surface, divided by its inner diameter, . Approximate values of pipe roughness for various
materials are listed in the following table.

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Pipe Material 𝜖 [inches] 𝜖 [mm]

Commercial or Welded Steel 0.0018 0.046
PVC, Glass, Other Drawn Tubing 0.00006 0.0015
Cast iron 0.01 0.26
Galvanized iron 0.006 0.15
Smooth concrete 0.012 0.3
Rough concrete 0.12 3.0
Roughness for various pipe materials.

The Moody diagram is a graphical representation of thousands of pipe flow experiments showing how the
𝑓
friction factor, , depends on the Reynolds number, Re
, and the relative roughness, , of the pipe. 𝜖/𝐷

Moody diagram showing the friction factor vs Reynolds number. Download a pdf version for printing.

There is a lot going on in this plot. I recommend making a full page printout using this pdf. Let’s walk
through all the features in succession. First, note that this is a double-log plot (i.e. both the x and y axis
are in log scale). For a Reynolds number less than 2000 we know the flow is laminar. The friction factor
in this case is 𝑓 = 64/Re
and plotted as a straight line labelled “Laminar” (remember, appears 𝑦 = 1/𝑥
as a straight line when plotted on a log plot).

The “Transition Region” occurs between a Reynolds number of about 2000 to about 4000 and
represented by the shaded region. Even though we extend the curves into this region, reliable results for
the friction factor are unavailable. Avoid working in this region if possible.

Above a Reynolds number of 4000 the flow is turbulent. The friction factor depends not only on the
Reynolds number but also on the relative roughness ( 𝜖/𝐷
) of the pipe. Each blue curve shows how the
friction factor varies with Reynolds number for a fixed value of relative roughness. The bottom most blue
curve is the “smooth pipe” limit if the roughness is small enough to be considered negligible.

At a large enough Reynolds number each blue curve becomes flat (i.e. no longer depends on the
Reynolds number). This flow regime is called the Zone of complete turbulence and is located to the right
of the dotted curve. In the zone of complete turbulent the Reynolds number has no effect on the friction
factor. It does, however, still depend on the pipe roughness.

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Turpentine at25∘ C is pumped through 100 m of DN 125 schedule 80 steel pipe at

an average velocity of 𝑣 = 5 m/s . Determine the energy loss.

The starting point is the same as before but we now must reevaluate the Reynolds
number since the properties of turpentine differ from that of glycerin.

From this table turpentine at 25∘ C has the following properties:

𝜌 = 870 kg/m3 , 𝜂 = 1.375 × 10−3 Pa ⋅ s
The density of turpentine is lower by about 30%, but the dynamic viscosity
decreases by a factor of 700! Let’s see how this affects the Reynolds number.

𝑣𝐷𝜌
Re = 𝜂 = (5 m/s)(0.1223 m)(870 kg/m3)
= 3.87 × 10 5
1.375 × 10 Pa ⋅ s
−3
The Reynolds number is well above 4000 so we predict turbulent flow. The energy
loss is still determined from Darcy’s equation but the friction factor must be found
from Moody’s diagram. In order to accomplish this we first estimate the relative
roughness of the pipe. For commercial steel the roughness is 0.046 mm. Earlier on
we found the inside diameter of the pipe to be 𝐷 = 122.3 mm. The dimensionless
relative roughness is therefore,

𝜖/𝐷 = 0.046 mm = 0.00038.

122.3 mm
Looking at the Moody diagram we find no curve for this specific value of 𝜖/𝐷. We’re
going to have to approximate and use the nearby curve for 𝜖/𝐷 = 0.0005 instead.
Here is how to find the friction factor from the Moody diagram. First, identify the
curve corresponding to 𝜖/𝐷 = 0.0005
. I’ve highlighted it in order to not be
distracted by the other curves. Locate the Reynolds number of Re = 4 × 105
(yes, I
rounded up) on the x-axis (remember, log scale) and draw a vertical line up. The
intersection with the highlighted curve represents the value of the friction factor at
this Reynolds number. Following the horizontal line to the y-axis we read off a
friction factor of 𝑓 = 0.018
(again, log scale).

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For a Reynolds number of Re = 4 × 105 and relative roughness 𝜖/𝐷 = 0.005 a

friction factor of 𝑓 = 0.018 is found.

Now that we have the friction factor we compute the energy loss using Darcy’s
equation

(5 m/s) 2
100 m
ℎ𝐿 = 0.018 × 0.1223 m × 2(9.81 m/𝑠2) = 18.8 m
The energy loss is about four times smaller than the previous example of glycerin
where the flow was laminar at the same velocity. Less energy is dissipated because
the viscosity of turpentine is lower.

Alternatively an online Darcy friction factor calculator could be used. Entering the
Reynolds number and roughness from above results in a friction factor , 𝑓 = 0.017
close to the value of 𝑓 = 0.018
found from the Moody diagram.

Hydraulic Diameter
It turns out that the methods used for the calculation of friction losses in circular pipes can be extended
in a straightforward fashion to non-circular tubes. In order to do this we introduce a new variable called
the hydraulic diameter ( 𝐷𝐻
) representing the characteristic dimension of the noncircular cross section.
The hydraulic diameter is defined as

4𝐴 = 4 × Area
𝐷𝐻 = WP Wetted Perimeter
The wetted perimeter, WP
, is the length of the boundary that is in contact with (wetted by) the fluid.
𝐴
The Area, , represents the cross sectional area of the flow. Once the hydraulic diameter is calculated all
the techniques from the previous section can be used by simply replacing the diameter, , by the 𝐷
hydraulic diameter, 𝐷𝐻
. For noncircular cross-sections we therefore make the following three
replacements.

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1. Re = 𝑣𝐷𝜂𝐻 𝜌 𝐿 𝑣 2
2. ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 𝐷𝐻 2𝑔 3. 𝜖/𝐷 ⟶ 𝜖/𝐷𝐻

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A shell and tube heat exchanger is a common design of heat exchanger comprising
of an outside shell (pressure vessel) and a bundle of tubes inside it. One fluid runs
through the tubes and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the shell) in
order to exchange heat between the two fluids.

The figure below shows a very simple shell and tube heat exchanger consisting of
one circular tube that runs horizontally through the middle of a rectangular shell.
The inside tube carries 50 L/min of oil at 200∘ F . The shell carries 4500 L/min of
sea water at 25∘ C to carry heat away from the oil. If the length of the shell is 1.8 m
estimate the energy loss and pressure drop of the sea water. Assume that the
surface roughness is the same as drawn brass or copper tubing (𝜖 = 0.0015 mm ).

Note that even though the flow rate and temperature of the oil is provided it is
irrelevant to the problem at hand. We are focusing on the energy dissipated by the
sea water flowing through the outer shell of the heat exchanger.

The first step is to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. In order to
do this we must compute the Reynolds number but that requires the hydraulic
diameter. Here is how to compute the hydraulic diameter for the shell the sea water
is flowing in. The hydraulic diameter is defined as,

4𝐴 .
𝐷𝐻 = WP
The area 𝐴
is the cross-sectional area where the sea water flows. Looking at the
cross section of the heat exchanger the net flow area is the difference between the
area inside the square shell and the outside the tube:

𝐴 = (250 mm)2 − 𝜋 (150 4mm) = 44,800 mm2 .

2

The wetted perimeter 𝑊𝑃 is the length of surface touched by the fluid. The sea
water touches the walls of the rectangular shell and the outside surface of the tube.
The total perimeter wetted by the fluid is therefore the sum of these two surfaces:

WP = 4 × (250 mm) + 𝜋(150 mm) = 1470 mm.

The hydraulic diameter is therefore

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𝐷𝐻 = WP4𝐴 = 4 × 44,800 mm2 = 122 mm.

1470 mm
To compute the Reynolds number (Re = 𝑣𝐷𝐻 𝜌/𝜂) we will need the density and
viscosity of sea water which I take from this table:

𝜌 = 1030 kg/m3 , 𝜂 = 1.03 × 10−4 Pa ⋅ s.

The last quantity we need is the velocity of the sea water. This we can calculated
from the continuity equation since we were given the volume flow rate of
4500 L/min. First we convert the area and flow rate into the standard SI units:
2
1 m
𝐴 = 44,800 mm × ( 1000 mm ) = 0.0448 m2
2

𝑄 = 4500 L/min × ⎛⎜⎜ 1 m /𝑠 ⎞⎟⎟ = 7.5 × 10−2 m3 /𝑠.

3
⎝ 60,000 L/min ⎠
The continuity equation 𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴 can be rearranged to solve for the average flow
velocity, 𝑣 = 𝑄/𝐴 ,

𝑣 = 𝑄𝐴 = 7.5 0.0448
× 10−3 m3 /𝑠 = 1.67 m/𝑠.
m2
The Reynolds number is then

Re = 𝑣𝐷𝜂𝐻 𝜌 = 1.67 m/𝑠1.03

× 0.122 m × 1030 kg/m = 2037400 3
× 10−4 Pa ⋅ s
Since the Reynolds number is greater than 4000 the flow is turbulent. We will
therefore need to use the Moody diagram to find the friction factor. The relative
roughness is

𝜖/𝐷𝐻 = 0.0015 mm = 0.000012

122 mm
Our version of the Moody diagram has a curve for 𝜖/𝐷 = 0.00001 which is close
enough for our purposes. At a Re = 2 × 106 the friction factor is 𝑓 ≈ 0.011 . Now
that we have the friction factor the energy loss is computed with Darcy’s equation:

(1.67 m/𝑠) 2
𝐿 𝑣 2 1.8 m
ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓 𝐷𝐻 2𝑔 = 0.011 × 0.122 m × 2(9.81 m/ 2) = 0.023 m
𝑠
Assuming the heat exchanger is horizontal the pressure drop across the shell is

Δ𝑝 = 𝛾ℎ𝐿 = 10.10 mkN3 × 0.023 m = 0.233 kPa = 233 Pa.

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Minor Losses
Energy losses through valves, bends, expansions, contractions, gauges, flow meters, etc, are generally
referred to as minor losses. Note that the cumulative effect of a number of minor losses can be
substantial. Energy losses are proportional to the velocity head near the component of interest. The
energy loss can be expressed as

ℎ𝐿 = 𝐾 ( 2𝑔𝑣 )
2

where 𝐾 𝑣
is a resistance coefficient and is the average flow velocity in the component. For expansions
and contractions I use the convention that the velocity is taken in the smaller section of pipe.

Sudden Enlargement
As fluid flows through an enlargement the decrease in velocity (think continuity eqn) is accompanied by
an increase in pressure (think Bernoulli's eqn). If the enlargement is sharp or sudden regions of
turbulence develop in the corners of the larger pipe. The regions of turbulence result in the dissipation of
kinetic energy into internal energy. The energy loss (expressed as a loss of head) is written as

ℎ𝐿 = 𝐾 ( 2𝑔𝑣1 )
2

where 𝑣1 is the velocity in the smaller section of pipe.

Cartoon of flow through an abrupt enlargement.

Under some simplifying assumptions the resistive coefficient can be derived:

𝐴 1
𝐾 ≈ [1 − 𝐴2 ]
2

The above expression works fairly well for moderate velocities and is a reasonable starting point for
estimating losses due to a sudden expansion. If the sudden transition between pipe sizes can be made

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more gradual the energy loss can be reduced. A diffuser is a device that converts kinetic energy to
pressure energy by a gradual enlargement in pipe size. It turns out that a gradual enlargement having a
cone angle of about 7∘
minimizes the energy loss.

Exit Loss

When a fluid flows from a pipe into a large tank or reservoir all of the kinetic energy is dissipated (the
kinetic energy in the static tank is zero). This can be treated as a limiting case of sudden expansion by
taking 𝐴1 → 0in our expression for the resistive coefficient. This results in 𝐾→1
and a head loss of

𝑣 21
ℎ𝐿 = 1.0( 2𝑔 )

Exit loss results from a fluid flowing into a static reservoir.

Sudden Contraction
A sudden contraction in a pipe results in a drop in pressure due to the sudden increase in velocity and
the loss of energy due to turbulence. The energy loss (expressed as a loss of head) is written as,

𝑣 22
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐾 ( 2𝑔 ) ,
where 𝑣2 is the velocity in the smaller section of pipe downstream of the contraction.
The mechanism of energy loss in a contraction is much more complex than that of an expansion. The
cartoon below shows the path of the flow stream. Regions of turbulence develop both before the

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contraction and after the contraction. The region where the cross-section is minimum is known as the
vena contracta.

A number of empirical equations for the resistance coefficient for sudden contraction can be found in the
literature. One of the simplest I found is a good starting point for estimating losses in sudden
contractions:

𝐾 ≈ 0.5[1 − 𝐴𝐴21 ] .
More accurate resistive coefficients should be taken from other resources such as CRANE Technical Paper
410.

Cartoon of flow through a sudden contraction.

Entrance Loss

The losses that occur when a fluid flows from a larger reservoir or tank into a pipe are called entrance
losses. For a square-edged inlet as shown in the cartoon below the resistive coefficient is 𝐾 ≈ 0.5
. This
is the limiting case of 𝐴1 → ∞
in the equation for 𝐾
above. Chamfered and rounded inlets have smaller
resistance coefficients. For a chamfered inlet 𝐾 ≈ 0.25
and for a well-rounded inlet . 𝐾 ≈ 0.04

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Entrance loss results from a fluid flowing from a large tank or reservoir into a pipe.

Valves and Fittings

For valves and fittings we use the same formula,

ℎ𝐿 = 𝐾 ( 2𝑔𝑣 )
2

where the resistance coefficient is typically expressed as

𝐾 = (𝐿𝑒/𝐷) 𝑓𝑇 .
The factor (𝐿𝑒/𝐷)
is known as the equivalent length ratio and is taken as a constant for a given type of
valve or fitting. The table below provides equivalent length ratios for some common styles of valves and
fittings. 𝑓𝑇
is the friction factor in the zone of complete turbulence. Remember, in the zone of complete
turbulence the friction factor is independent of Reynolds number and is a function of relative roughness.
We use the relative roughness of the pipe connected to our fitting. The tables for Schedule 40 and
Schedule 80 list the values of 𝑓𝑇
for commercial steel pipes.

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Fitting Type Equivalent Length, 𝐿𝑒 /𝐷

Gate valve (fully open) 8
Globe valve (fully open) 340
Angle valve (fully open) 150
Butterfly valve (fully open):
50 mm (2") - 200 mm (8") 45
250 mm (10") - 350 mm (14") 35
400 mm (16")- 600 mm (24") 25
Check valve (swing type) 135
Check valve (in-line ball type) 150
90° standard elbow 30
45° standard elbow 16
Close pattern return bend 50
Equivalent length ratios for valves and fittings. Based on ℎ𝐿 = 𝑓𝑇 𝐿𝐷𝑒 𝑣2𝑔2 .
The value of 𝐿𝑒 is called the equivalent length of pipe; it is the length of straight pipe that would produce
the same loss as the valve. For example a 2” fully open globe valve (𝐿𝑒 /𝐷 = 340) has 𝐿𝑒 ≈ 57 ft . This
value of 𝐿𝑒 can than be added to the actual length of pipe to determine the total losses. While
convenient, this procedure is only accurate when the actual pipe flows are in the zone of complete
turbulence.

Left: Wafer type centerline butterfly valve. Middle: Knife gate valve. Right: A DIN globe valve. Images
from Metals Valve.

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A 2-in schedule 40 steel pipe that is 100 ft long is attached to 60 ft of 3-in schedule
40 steel pipe. The 2-in pipe contains a gate valve. If 75 gpm of hexane flows from
left to right determine the pressure drop . 𝑝1 − 𝑝2

This problem requires that we put together everything we learned thus far. We start
off with the generalized energy equation:

𝑝1 + 𝑧1 + 𝑣21 + ℎ𝐴 − ℎ𝑅 − ℎ𝐿 = 𝑝2 + 𝑧2 + 𝑣22
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
Since the pipe is horizontal we can ignore the elevation terms. There are no devices
(pumps or motors) so we can also ignore those two contributions. We are therefore
left with:

𝑝1 + 𝑣21 − ℎ𝐿 = 𝑝2 + 𝑣22
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
With some algebra we can rearrange and solve for the quantity of interest, the
pressure drop:

𝑣 22 − 𝑣21
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝛾 2𝑔 + 𝛾ℎ𝐿
The first contribution represents Bernoulli’s principle; a decrease in the speed of a
fluid occurs simultaneously with an increase in pressure. The continuity equation
tells us that𝑣2 𝑣1
will be less than . Therefore the quantity (𝑣22 − 𝑣21 )will be
negative and if there were no losses (ℎ𝐿 = 0 ) the quantity 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 would be
negative (i.e. 𝑝2 would be greater than 𝑝1 ). In other words, if losses were negligible
Bernoulli’s equation tells us there would actually be a pressure rise. This is a
consequence of conservation of energy; the kinetic energy decreases from pipe 1 to
pipe 2 so the pressure energy must increase accordingly.

Let us now actually calculate this. First, we need the velocity in each pipe. This can
be found from the continuity equation where 𝑄 = 𝑣𝐴 𝐴
is the flow area taken from
this table. The volume flow rate, Q, is

𝑄 = 75 gpm × ⎜ ⎛ 1 ft3 /𝑠 ⎞
⎟ = 0.167 ft3 /𝑠
⎝ 449 gpm ⎠
and the velocities in the 2-in pipe (labeled 𝑣1 ) and 3-in pipe (labeled 𝑣2 ) are,

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0.167 ft3 /𝑠 = 7.167 ft/𝑠

𝑣1 = 𝐴𝑄 = 0.02330
2-in ft2
0.167 ft3 /𝑠 = 3.253 ft/𝑠
𝑣2 = 𝐴𝑄 = 0.05134
3-in ft2
The change in velocity head is therefore

𝑣22 − 𝑣21 = (3.253 ft/𝑠)2 − (7.167 ft/𝑠)2 = −0.633 ft

2𝑔 2 × 32.2 ft/𝑠2
From this table we the density of hexane is 𝜌 = 41.00 lb/ft and we find that,
3
2
𝑣 22 − 𝑣21 lb 1 ft
(𝑝1 − 𝑝2 )ideal = 𝛾 2𝑔 = 41 lb/ft (−0.633 ft) = −25.953 2 × ( 12 in ) = −0.180 psi
3
ft
I put the label ideal on the pressure drop (actually a rise) in order to remind us that
this would be the change in pressure without losses. In this problem we must
consider four different sources of losses (the labels should be self-explanatory):

ℎ𝐿 ( ) = ℎ𝐿 (
total 2-in pipe ) + ℎ𝐿 ( 3-in pipe ) + ℎ𝐿 ( expansion ) + ℎ𝐿 ( )
gate valve

First we calculate the friction losses in the 2-in and 3-in pipes. Since the procedure
is identical for the two pipes we will do these calculations simultaneously. The first
step is to compute the Reynolds number for each pipe:

𝜌𝑣 𝐷
Re = 1 𝜂 = (1.27)(7.167)(0.1723)
2-in
2-in

6.20 × 10 −6 = 2.53 × 10 5
𝜌𝑣 𝐷
Re = 2 𝜂 = (1.27)(3.253)(0.2557)
3-in
3-in

6.20 × 10 −6 = 1.70 × 10 5

In both pipes the Reynolds number is larger than 4000 so the flow is turbulent. We
therefore need the relative roughness of each pipe. Given an absolute roughness of
𝜖 = 0.0018 inches for commercial steel we find

(𝜖/𝐷) = 0.000871
2-in

(𝜖/𝐷) = 0.000587
3-in

With the Reynolds number and relative roughness we can find the friction factors
from the Moody diagram. From this online tool I find:

𝑓 = 0.0202
2-in

𝑓 = 0.0195
3-in

Now that we have the friction factors it is straightforward to find the head loss in
each pipe:

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) = 𝑓 × 𝐷𝐿 × 2𝑔𝑣1 = (0.0202) 0.1723

100 (7.167)2 = 9.35 ft
2
ℎ𝐿 ( 2-in pipe 2-in
2-in

2 × 32.2
2-in

) = 𝑓 × 𝐷𝐿 × 2𝑔𝑣2 = (0.0195) 0.2557

60 (3.253)2 = 0.75 ft
2
ℎ𝐿 ( 3-in pipe 3-in
3-in

2 × 32.2
3-in

Next we compute the losses at the expansion fitting. We assume a sudden

expansion

ℎ𝐿 ( expansion
𝑣
) = 𝐾 2𝑔
21

where 𝑣1
has been correctly chosen to be the velocity of the entrance flow (the
𝐾
smaller pipe). The resistance coefficient, , is estimated from,

𝐾 = [1 − 𝐴𝐴12 ] = [1 − 0.02330
2 2
0.05134 = 0.298
]
Putting in the numbers we find,

ℎ𝐿 ( expansion
𝑣 21 (7.167)2
) = 𝐾 2𝑔 = (0.298) 2 × 32.2 = 0.238 ft.
The last loss we compute is that in the gate valve. The loss is expressed as,

) = 𝐾 ( 2𝑔𝑣1 )
2
ℎ𝐿 ( gate valve

where 𝑣1
is the velocity at the valve. The resistance coefficient, , is the equivalent 𝐾
length ratio times the friction factor in the zone of complete turbulence. The
equivalent length ratio for a fully open gate vale is 8. The friction factor in the zone
of complete turbulence for a 2-in schedule 40 pipe is 𝑓𝑇 = 0.019
. The resistance
coefficient is therefore:

𝐾 = (𝐿𝑒/𝐷) 𝑓𝑇 = 8 × (0.019) = 0.128.

The energy loss at the gate valve is:

) = 𝐾 2𝑔𝑣1 = (0.128) (7.167)2 = 0.102 ft.

2
ℎ𝐿 ( gate valve
2 × 32.2
We now return to our original expression for the pressure drop:

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝛾 𝑣2 2𝑔− 𝑣1 + 𝛾[ℎ𝐿 (
2 2
2-in pipe ) + ℎ𝐿 ( 3-in pipe ) + ℎ𝐿 ( ) + ℎ𝐿 (
expansion )]
gate valve

We already found the pressure drop (actually rise) from the first term to be -0.180
psi. Adding in the pressure drops due to the four sources of frictional losses results
in

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = −0.180 psi + 41 lb/ft3 [9.35 ft + 0.75 ft + 0.238 ft + 0.102 ft] × ( 1 ft )2

12 in
𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = −0.180 psi + [2.662 psi + 0.214 psi + 0.068 psi + 0.029 psi]
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You could just compute the answer in one shot. I think it is good practice to write it
like I did above in order to see the magnitude of each loss. In this problem, the
biggest loss occurs from the pressure drop in the 2-in pipe. The final answer is

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = −0.180 psi + 2.973 psi = 2.793 psi

Depending on the magnitude of the losses the pressure 𝑝2 might end being larger
or small than 𝑝1 . If the energy dissipated is larger than the reduction in kinetic
energy the pressure will end up decreasing (𝑝1 will end up being larger than 𝑝2 and
the quantity 𝑝1 − 𝑝2 will be positive). The only way to see if this is the case is to
compute ℎ𝐿 .

| Kevin Dusling | Applied Fluid Mechanics Resources & Notes

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