Applied Thermofluids Chapter 3 - Copy

APPLIED THERMOFLUIDS
Chapter 3
Piping systems and Turbomachinery
12492
Official (Closed) - Non Sensitive
Objectives:
• Estimate friction losses from pipes and pipe fittings

• Pump and piping system characteristics
• Affinity Laws for pumps
• Turbomachinery installation
• Turbomachinery in series and parallel
Fluid viscosity
When a fluid is in motion, shear forces are set up
between layers of fluid moving at different
velocities.
Viscosity is a measure of its ability to resist these
shearing stresses.
Also known as dynamic viscosity.

Dynamic viscosity
• Symbol used
• μ (pronounced as mu).
• Unit for viscosity

• Ns/m or Pa-s,
2
• Poise or centiPoise.
(1 Poise = 100 centiPoise (cP))
(1 Ns/m2 = 1000 cP)
Dynamic
viscosity (Ns/m2)
Benzene 0.00066
Crude oil 0.008
Ethyl alcohol 0.0012
Glycerin 1.49
Mercury 0.0016
Water 0.001
kinematic viscosity ()



SI unit of  is m2/s.
Types of Flow
(a) laminar flow
(b) turbulent flow
(c) Transitional flow

Reynolds Number (Re)

Cd
Re 

Where ρ is the density of the fluid (kg/m3),
C is the velocity of flow in the pipe (m/s),
d is the diameter of the pipe (m),
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Ns/m2).
Relationship between types of flow and

Reynolds number
• Laminar flow
Re < 2000
• Transitional flow
2000 < Re < 4000
• Turbulent flow
Re > 4000
Example 4.1
Water flows at a rate of 20 L/min in a pipe of 50
mm diameter. Determine the Reynolds Number.
Solution
Flow rate, V = 20 L/min
= 20 /(60x1000)
= 3.33 x 10-4 m3/s
Area of the pipe, A = [π(0.05)2/4] = 1.96 x 10-3 m2
Applying C  V / A
= (3.33 x 10-4)/(1.96 x 10-3)
= 0.17 m/s
Solution (cont’d)
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
Viscosity of water = 0.001 Ns/m2
Cd
Applying Re 

1000  0.17  0.05
Re 
0.001
= 8500
The flow is ______________.

turbulent
Friction Loss in Straight Pipes

The loss is due to friction between the fluid and the
pipe surface.
Formula used to calculate the frictional loss is called

the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
Darcy-Weisbach equation
2
fL C
hf 
d 2g
where hf = head loss due to friction (m of fluid),
f = Darcy friction factor (range from 0.008 to
0.10),
L = length of the pipe concerned (m),
d = diameter of the pipe (m),
C = velocity of flow (m/s),
g = gravitational acceleration = (9.81 m/s2).
Head loss due to friction (hf)
• The head loss varies directly with the velocity head and
pipe length and inversely with pipe diameter.
• The coefficient of proportionality is a term called friction

factor, f.
Important note:
Unit of head loss is expressed in metre of fluid.
For example,
m of water,
m of oil,
m of sea water,
m of mercury,
m of crude oil
and etc.
Friction Factor
• To determine the head loss (h ) due to friction, we need to know the friction
f
factor (f), which depends on the flow condition.
Friction Factor
(a) Laminar Flow (Re < 2000)
Friction factor (f) can be calculated from the following
equation,
64
f 
Re
Friction Factor (Haaland Equation)
(b) Turbulent Flow (Re > 2000)
[( ) ]
1.11
𝜀
1 𝐷 6.9
where 𝑓 is the Darcy Friction factor,
=−1.8 𝑙𝑜𝑔 +
√𝑓 3.7
𝜀 is the roughness value of pipe interior wall in millimeters 𝑅𝑒
𝐷 is the diameter of pipe
Re is the Reynolds number of the fluid flow in the pipe based on 𝐷
Typical surface roughness for commercial conduits.
Material (new) Roughness, e

(mm)
Riveted steel 1 – 10
Concrete 0.3 – 3
Wool stave 0.2 – 1
Cast iron 0.25
Galvanized iron 0.15
Asphalted cast iron 0.12
Commercial steel or wrought iron 0.05
Drawn brass or copper tubing 0.0015
Glass and plastic Smooth
Moody Diagram
Example 4.2
Water flows at a rate of 20 L/s in a vertical cast-iron pipe of 100
mm in diameter as shown in the figure below. Determine the
difference in pressure between the two pressure tapping
points located 30 m apart.
P2
30 m
P1
Solution:
Given: Flow rate = 20 L/s = 0.02 m3/s
Diameter of pipe = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Velocity of water, C = V / A
= 0.02/[π(0.1)2/4]
= 2.55 m/s
Cd
Reynolds number, Re 

1000  2.55  0.1
Re 
0.001
= 255000 (turbulent)
Solution:
For cast-iron pipe, roughness, e = 0.25 mm
Therefore, relative roughness, e/d = 0.25/100
= 0.0025
With Re = 255000 and e/d = 0.0025,
f = 0.026 from Haaland Equation
fL C 2
Head loss due to friction, hf 
d 2g
0.026  30 (2.55) 2
hf 
0.1 2(9.81)
= 2.59 m of water
Solution:
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2.
C12 P1 C22 P2
Z1    Z2    hloss
2 g g 2 g g
Take datum at 1, Z1 = 0 m, Z2 = 30 m,
C1 = C2 = 2.55 m/s
(2.55) 2 P1 (2.55) 2 P2
0
2g

g
 30 
2g

g h
 2.59
loss = 2.59 m of water
Solution:
(2.55) 2 P1 (2.55) 2 P2
0   30    2.59
2g g 2g g
P1 P2
  30  2.59
g g
P1 - P2 = (32.59) x 1000 x 9.81
P1 - P 2 = 319707.9 Pa
= 319.7 kPa
Minor Losses in Pipes
(a) losses due to abrupt change in pipe diameter.
(b) losses due to pipe fittings such as, valves, reducers, bends
and etc,
• Minor losses are proportional to the kinetic energy of the

fluid and is expressed as,
2
C
hL  k
2g
Loss coefficient
Losses due to sudden enlargement
C1 C2 (C1  C2 ) 2
hL 
2g
where C1 is the upstream velocity (m/s),

C2 is the downstream velocity (m/s),
g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2).
Exit Loss
2
hL  C
C large 2g
reservoir
Losses due to sudden contraction
C1 C2
C22
hL  k
2g
Entrance Loss
2
entrance to pipe
hL  0.5 C
large C 2g
reservoir
Losses due to pipe fittings

valve
C
2
C
hL  k
bend C 2g
Loss coefficients for various pipe fittings

Loss coefficient, K
Fully open valve :
Globe valve -- screwed ends 10.0

-- flanged ends 5.0
Angle valve 5.0
Swing checked valve 2.5
Gate -- screwed ends 0.2

-- flanged ends 0.1
Foot valve 1.5
Fittings :
Close return bend -- screwed ends 2.2

-- flanged ends 0.4
Standard 90o elbow -- screwed ends 0.9

-- flanged ends 0.3
Long radius 90o elbow -- screwed ends 0.6

-- flanged ends 0.2
Standard 45o bend 0.4

Tee -- line flow 0.5
-- branch flow 1.8
NOTE
• The loss coefficient (k) varies with flow condition.
• For calculation purpose, k is taken to be constant.

Example 4.4
Water flows at a rate of 60 L/s from a main reservoir to a subsidiary
through a 700 m long, 175 mm diameter asphalted cast iron pipe as
shown in the figure. The pipeline contains a gate valve, a globe
valve and 4 standard 90o elbows. The entrance and exit are square
edged, and all fittings are flanged ends, determine,
(a) the friction head loss in the pipe,

(b) the total minor losses in the pipeline,
(c) the height, H, between the two reservoirs.
water
H
water
2
Solution:
Given:  60 L/s
Flow rate V= = 0.06 m3/s
Diameter of pipe, d = 175 mm = 0.175 m
Length of pipe, L = 700 m
Velocity of water in the pipe,
C = V / A1
= 0.06/[π(0.175)2/4]
= 2.49 m/s
Cd
Reynolds number, Re 

1000  2.49  0.175
Re 
0.001
= 435750 (turbulent)
For cast-iron pipe, roughness, e = 0.25 mm

Therefore, relative roughness, e/d = 0.25/175
= 0.0014
With Re = 435750 and e/d = 0.0014,
From Haaland equation, f = 0.022
Solution:
(a) Head loss due to friction in the pipe
fL C 2
hf 
d 2g
0.022  700 (2.49) 2
hf 
0.175 2(9.81)
= 27.81 m of water
Solution:
(b) Total minor losses in the pipeline.
(i) One gate valve.
C2
h1  k
2g
(2.49) 2
h1  0.1
2(9.81)
= 0.032 m of water
Solution:
(ii) One globe valve.
C2
h2  k
2g
(2.49) 2
h2  5.0
2(9.81)
= 1.58 m of water
Solution:
(iii) Four standard 90o elbows
C2
h3  k 4
2g
(2.49) 2
h3  0.3 4
2(9.81)
= 0.38 m of water
Solution:
(iv) Entrance loss
C2
h4  k
2g
(2.49) 2
h4  0.5
2(9.81)
= 0.158 m of water
Solution:
(iv) Exit loss
C2
h5  k
2g
(2.49) 2
h5  1.0
2(9.81)
= 0.316 m of water
Therefore, total minor losses,

hm = h1 + h2 + h3 +h4 + h5
= 0.032 + 1.58 + 0.38 + 0.158 + 0.316
= 2.466 m of water
Therefore, total head losses,

hloss = hf + hm
= 27.81+ 2.466
= 30.276 m of water
Solution:
(c) Applying Bernoulli’s equation between 1 and 2.
C12 P1 C22 P2
Z1    Z2    hloss
2 g g 2 g g
Take datum at 2, Z1 = H m, Z2 = 0 m,
C1 = 0 m/s, C2 = 0 m/s
( 0) 2 0 ( 0) 2 0
H 
2 g g
 0 
2 g g
 30.276
hloss = 30.276 m of water
P1 = P2 = Patm = 0 (gauge)
Solution:
( 0) 2 0 ( 0) 2 0
H   0   30.276
2 g g 2 g g
H = 30.276 m
5.1 Classification of Pumps

PUMPS
Positive-displacement Rotodynamic
Rotary Reciprocating Centrifugal Mixed flow Axial flow

Centrifugal pump
Pump Characteristic Curves
• Consist of:
• Pump head versus flow rate
• Power input versus flow rate
• Pump efficiency versus flow rate
Pump Characteristic Curves
Efficiency
Power input
Head
.
Flow rate (V)
2
System Characteristics Curves
12492
Applying modified Bernoulli equation between point 1 and point 2.
𝑃1 𝐶1 2 𝑃2 𝐶2 2 𝑓𝐿 𝐶2
+ + 𝑍1 + 𝐻𝑠 = + + 𝑍2 + ൬ + ෍ 𝐾൰×
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑑 2𝑔
ሺ𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ሻ ൫𝐶2 2 − 𝐶1 2 ൯ 𝑓𝐿 𝐶2
𝐻𝑠 = + + 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + ൬ + ෍ 𝐾൰∙
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑑 2𝑔
2
𝑉ሶ
ሺ𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ሻ ൫𝐶2 − 𝐶1 ൯ 2 2
𝑓𝐿 ൬
𝐴൰
𝐻𝑠 = + + 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 + ൬ + ෍ 𝐾൰∙
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝑑 2𝑔
𝑓𝐿
ሺ𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ሻ ൫𝐶2 2 − 𝐶1 2 ൯ ൬ + σ 𝐾൰
𝑑
𝐻𝑠 = ቈ + + 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 ቉+ ൦ ൪∙ 𝑉ሶ2
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐴2
ሺ𝑃2 −𝑃1 ሻ ൫𝐶2 2 −𝐶1 2 ൯

Let A= ቂ 𝜌𝑔
+ 2𝑔
+ 𝑍2 − 𝑍1 ቃ
𝑓𝐿
ቀ +σ 𝐾ቁ
𝑑
Let B = ቈ ቉
2𝑔𝐴 2
The piping system characteristic becomes
𝐻𝑠 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 ∙ 𝑉ሶ2
12492 T
Pump and System relationship
h  A  BV 2
H e a d r e q u ir e d b y s y s te m
P u m p h e a d ( H ) , S y s te m h e a d ( h sys)
h sys
o p e r a t in g p o in t
H
H e a d a v a ila b le fr o m p u m p
F lo w r a t e (V )
Hydraulic Power of Pump

• This is the power given to the liquid by the pump.
• Hydraulic power of pump can be calculated using,
P  gHV
Where P = hydraulic power (W),
ρ = density of liquid (kg/m3),
V g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2),
= flow rate (m3/s),
H = pump head (m of liquid).
Efficiency of pump
power output by the pump

 () power input to the pump
• Pump efficiency
Power input to the pump is also known as the brake

power (or brake horsepower)
18
System
16
head
70
11.7 63
Head (m of water)
12
Efficiency (%)
50
Eff
8
30
Pump
4
head
10
0
0 10 15 20 25 30 35
5
Flow rate (L/s)
14
(a) Operating discharge = 14 L/s
(b) Operating head = 11.7 m of water
(c) Operating efficiency = 63%
(d) Brake power (or power input to pump)

ghV


1000  9.8111 .7  0.014

0.63
= 2550.6 W
5.5 Pumps Installation

2
Delivery
reservoir hd Discharge
Pump
head
Suction
hs 3 4
head Z2
1
suction
Z1
reservoir
Datum
What is cavitation?
• Cavitation is a phenomenon where liquid boils or

vaporizes inside the pump.
How can liquid boil inside a pump?

Cavitation (cont’d)
• Boiling point of water decreases as pressure reduces.
Absolute Boiling temperature

Pressure (oC)
(kN/m2)
47.4 80
4.2 30
2.3 20
Cavitation (cont’d)
• Cavitation is bad for a pump system because :
(a) as boiling starts, the specific volume increases

thus choking the flow, this seriously affects the
pumping action.
(b) the formation and collapse of vapour bubbles

tend to give an impact effect on the pump impeller
thus causing erosion and pitting.
5.7 Pumps in Series and Parallel
• Sometimes, it may be advantageous to install two or

more pumps in series or in parallel.
Pumps in series
Pump head (H)
H2 Two Pumps
• Pressure in series
increases. . .
V1 V1
H1
• No change in One Pump
flow rate.
. .
Flow rate (V)
V1
Pumps in parallel
Pump head (H)
.
V1 .
. V2
• Flow rate increases. V1
H1 Two Pumps
• No change in in parallel
pressure. One Pump
. .
. V1 V2
Flow rate (V)
Similarity Laws
• A set of similar pumps is called a homologous set
of pumps.
• They are geometrically and dynamically similar.
• Dynamically similar means that the flow vectors

are similar.
Similarity Laws relate a pair of

operating points
H Pump 2
Pump 1
H2
H1
. . .
V1 V2 V
Affinity Laws
V1 V2

N1 N 2
H1g H2 g
2 =
N1 N2 2
P1 P2
3 =
N1 N2 3
1=  2
Affinity Laws
discharge is proportional to speed.
head is proportional to square of speed.
power is proportional to the cube of speed.
efficiency is the same.

Manufacturer pump curve
1x2 – 8
A20
Pump performance curves

40 70
35
63
60
Head (m of water)
30 50
25
Eff (%)
40
20
30
15
11.7 20
10
5 10
0 0
0 5 10 14 15 20 25 30 35
Flow rate (L/s)

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APPLIED THERMOFLUIDS

• Estimate friction losses from pipes and pipe fittings

Also known as dynamic viscosity.

• Unit for viscosity

Crude oil 0.008

Ethyl alcohol 0.0012

kinematic viscosity ()

(a) laminar flow

(b) turbulent flow

(c) Transitional flow

Reynolds Number (Re)

Relationship between types of flow and

Area of the pipe, A = [π(0.05)2/4] = 1.96 x 10-3 m2

The flow is ______________.

Friction Loss in Straight Pipes

Formula used to calculate the frictional loss is called

Head loss due to friction (hf)

• The coefficient of proportionality is a term called friction

Friction Factor (Haaland Equation)

(b) Turbulent Flow (Re > 2000)

Typical surface roughness for commercial conduits.

Material (new) Roughness, e

Minor Losses in Pipes

(a) losses due to abrupt change in pipe diameter.

• Minor losses are proportional to the kinetic energy of the

Losses due to sudden enlargement

where C1 is the upstream velocity (m/s),

Losses due to sudden contraction

Losses due to pipe fittings

Loss coefficients for various pipe fittings

Fully open valve :

Globe valve -- screwed ends 10.0

Angle valve 5.0

Swing checked valve 2.5

Gate -- screwed ends 0.2

Foot valve 1.5

Close return bend -- screwed ends 2.2

Standard 90o elbow -- screwed ends 0.9

Long radius 90o elbow -- screwed ends 0.6

Standard 45o bend 0.4

• The loss coefficient (k) varies with flow condition.

• For calculation purpose, k is taken to be constant.

(a) the friction head loss in the pipe,

Velocity of water in the pipe,

For cast-iron pipe, roughness, e = 0.25 mm

Therefore, total minor losses,

Therefore, total head losses,

5.1 Classification of Pumps

Rotary Reciprocating Centrifugal Mixed flow Axial flow

Pump Characteristic Curves

Pump Characteristic Curves

Applying modified Bernoulli equation between point 1 and point 2.

ሺ𝑃2 −𝑃1 ሻ ൫𝐶2 2 −𝐶1 2 ൯

The piping system characteristic becomes

Pump and System relationship

Hydraulic Power of Pump

power output by the pump

Power input to the pump is also known as the brake

(a) Operating discharge = 14 L/s

(b) Operating head = 11.7 m of water

(c) Operating efficiency = 63%

(d) Brake power (or power input to pump)

5.5 Pumps Installation

• Cavitation is a phenomenon where liquid boils or