CE361 Hydraulics

Guide 1 18.10.2022

A. Abbreviations

A: Area P: Perimeter g: Gravitational Acceleration

D: Diameter P: Pressure N: Newton

𝜆: Darcy Friction Factor Pa: Pascal R: Radius
g: Gravitational Acceleration kL: Loss Coefficient s: Second
ℓ: Length Cc: Contraction Coefficient V: Average Velocity

L: Litre hLmi: Minor Head Loss u: Initial Velocity

α: Correction Factor hLma: Major Head Loss 𝑢∗ : Shear Velocity

𝑘: Roughness Height z: Elevation

B. Some physical properties of liquids at 20oC

Water
Density 𝜌 = 998.3 kg/m3

Specific weight  = 9.78 kN/m3

Kinematic viscosity  = 1.0x10-6 m2/s
Dynamic viscosity  = 1.0x10-3 N.s/m2 (Pa.s)

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C. Some common conversions, formulas and equations for the relevant chapter
1. 1000 L = 1 m3
2. 1000 N = 1 kN
3. 1 Newton N = 1 kg.m/s2
4. Gravitational acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2
5. Area of circle A = πD2/4 or (π.R2)
6. Hydraulic diameter D
7. Kinematic viscosity  = /𝜌 (m2/s)
8. Volumetric flow rate Q = V.A (m3/s)
9. Mass flow rate ṁ = 𝜌.Q (kg/s)
10. Reynolds number Re = VD/
(dimensionless) Figure 1 Hydarulic diameters for different duct types
11. Specific weight  = 𝜌.g (kN/m3)
𝐷𝛥𝑃
12. Shear stress 𝜏𝑜 = (Pa or N/m2) (For fully developed flow)
4ℓ
ℓ 𝜌V2
13. Pressure drop ΔPL = λ D (Pa or N/m2) (Darcy-Weisbach Equation is valid for both
2

laminar and turbulent flows)

ΔPL ℓ V2
14. Head loss hL = = λ D 2g (Darcy-Weisbach Equation is valid for both laminar and
𝜌g

turbulent flows) (m) (head loss throughout the pipe) (major loss)
𝜏 𝜆
15. Shear velocity u* =√ 𝜌𝑜 or √8 𝑉 (for smooth or rough pipes)

P1 V21 P2 V22
16. + 𝛼1 + z1 + hpump = + 𝛼2 + z2 + hturbine + hL (Energy Equation)
𝜌g 2𝑔 𝜌g 2g

1 𝑘/𝐷 2.51
17. = −2log⁡ ( 3.7 + Re ) (Colebrook-White Equation)
√𝜆 √𝜆
𝜋𝐷 4 𝛥𝑃
18. 𝑄 = 128𝜇 . (Hagen-Poiseuille Equation for laminar flow in horizontal circular pipes)
ℓ

19. Viscous sublayer thickness 𝛿∗ = 11.6 𝑢
∗

𝑉2
20. Head loss due to minor losses HLminor = KL2𝑔
ℓ𝑒 ℓ𝑒
21. Entrance length for laminar flows: ≈ 0.06𝑅𝑒; for turbulent flows: ≈ 4.4𝑅𝑒 1/6
𝐷 𝐷

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𝑢 𝑢∗ 𝑦
22. Velocity profile (at the centerline) for turbulent flow 𝑢 = 2.5⁡ln⁡( ) + 5.0
∗ 

D. Remarkable Points

• Velocity profile and shear stress are constant along the flow direction in fully developed
region.
• If laminer flow between two plates is considered, it must be checked that Re value is
smaller than 1400. (Re = 𝜌Va/ ≤1400)
• In horizontal pipes, gravity does not influence flow. So dh/dx = 0 for these pipes.
• Liquids are usually transported in circular pipes because pipes with a circular cross section
can withstand large pressure differences between the inside and the outside without
undergoing any significant distortion.
• Shear stress at the center is zero while it is maximum at the surface of a tube during fully
developed flow.
• Maximum velocity occurs at the centerline of the pipe, while the fluid surrounding the
smooth wall have zero velocity (no-slip condition).

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CE361 Hydraulics

• Even turbulent flows which have a large velocity gradient near a wall have to satisfy the no-
slip condition at every instant.
• Velocity tends to decrease near the pipe’s inner wall to satisfy no-slip condition. This
region of low velocity produces a laminar viscous sublayer near the wall. Flow is laminer
here.
• If laminar flow is maintained in this region, friction factor will be independent of the
roughness of the pipe. Hence, 𝜆 = 64/Re for laminar flows.
• When turbulent flows are considered, if rough elements are under this sublayer this region
is then called smooth region. Only Reynolds number influence friction factor 𝜆. (𝜆 = f(Re)).
(k <⁡𝛿∗ )
• This laminar sublayer will become thinner as the velocity increases and some rough
elements will pass through this layer. This region is called transition region and both
roughness and Reynolds will be important. Hence, f is function of Re and 𝑘/D. (𝜆 = f(Re,
𝑘/D)). (𝛿∗ < 𝑘 < 6𝛿∗ )
• At very large Reynolds numbers, most of the rough elements will penetrate through the
laminar sublayer. Therefore, f friction factor will be a function of only 𝑘/D. (𝜆 = f(𝑘/D)).
This kind of surfaces are called rough surfaces. (𝑘 > 6𝛿∗ )
• Rough surfaces have much higher friction factors than the tubes with smooth surfaces. Thus
surface roughness leads to a much larger pressure drop in turbulent pipe flow.
• Darcy friction factor f can be calculated in three ways for turbulent flows: using Moody
diagram (Re and 𝑘/D), direct computation from Colebrook-White equation (or Haaland
equation can be used) using a solver and performing iterations.

Figure 2 Flow and surface types within pipes

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• For pipe flow, gravity may be important since the pipe does not need to be horizontal.
• If Re<2300, flow is laminar; between 2300 and 4000 it is in transition; if Re>4000 it is
then turbulent flow.
• Driving forces for pipes are pressure gradient along the pipe and gravity.
• Knowledge of the velocity profile can lead directly to other useful information such as
pressure drop, head loss and flowrate.
• The higher the pressure drop in the pipe, the greater the amount of energy consumed to
maintain the desired process flow, requiring a higher horsepower motor.
• Comparison of Hagen-Poiseuille and Darcy-Weisbach equations:

REFERENCES
Cengel, Y. A. (2010). Fluid mechanics. Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
Chin, D. A. (2017). Fluid mechanics for engineers in SI units. Pearson.
Hibbeler, R. C. (2017). Fluid Mechanics in SI Units. Pearson Education India.
Munson, B. R., Young, D. F., & Okiishii, T. H. (2009). i Huebsch W. W. Fundamentals of Fluid
Mechanics.
White, F. M. (2003). Fluid mechanics/Frank M. White. McGraw-hill.