UNIT VI

FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Syllabus: Flow through Pipes: Loss of head through pipes, Darcy-Wiesbatch equation, minor losses, total
energy equation, hydraulic gradient line, Pipes in series, equivalent pipes, pipes in parallel, flow through
laterals, flows in dead end pipes, siphon, power transmission through pipes, nozzles. Analysis of pipe
networks: Hardy Cross method, water hammer in pipes and control measures, branching of pipes, three
reservoirproblem.

1. Define Reynold number in laminar flow.

The flow through the circular pipe will be viscous or laminar, if the Reynold number (Re*) is less
than 2000. The expression for Reynold number is given by
𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = 𝜇

Where ρ = Density of fluid flowing through pipe

V = Average velocity of fluid
D = Diameter of pipe
µ = Viscosity of fluid
2. Define Shear stress.
Shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y, It is denoted by symbol
τ (Tau).
𝑑𝑢
τ ∝ 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
τ = µ 𝑑𝑦

3. Discuss the importance of Darcy-Weisbach formula?

The Darcy–Weisbach equation is a phenomenological equation, which relates the head loss or
pressure loss due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average velocity of the fluid flow. The
equation is named after Henry Darcy and Julius Weisbach.
The Darcy–Weisbach equation contains a dimensionless friction factor, known as the Darcy friction
factor. This is also called the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor or Moody friction factor. The Darcy friction
factor is four times the Fanning friction factor.
4. Write the Darcy-Weisbach formula to find the head loss?
Head loss can be calculated with

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 𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝑓 = 𝑓𝐷 𝐷 2𝑔

Where,
• hf is the head loss due to friction (SI units: m);
• L is the length of the pipe (m);
• D is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (for a pipe of circular section, this equals the internal diameter
of the pipe) (m);
• V is the average velocity of the fluid flow, equal to the volumetric flow rate per unit cross-sectional
wetted area (m/s);
• g is the local acceleration due to gravity (m/s2);
• fD is a dimensionless coefficient called the Darcy friction factor.
5. What is Moody diagram and its use in pipe flow? (OR) Write the significance of Moody diagram?
The Moody chart or Moody diagram is a graph in non-dimensional form that relates the Darcy-
Weisbach friction factor, Reynolds number and relative roughness for fully developed flow in a circular pipe.
It can be used for working out pressure drop or flow rate down such a pipe.
It is used to find out the roughness of the pipe.
6. Write Reynolds equation, Navier-Stokes equation and Euler’s equation of motion?
Reynolds equation: (Fg)x+(Fp)x+(Fv)x+(Ft)x
Navier-Stokes equation: (Fg)x+(Fp)x+(Fv)x
Eulers equation of motion: (Fg)x+(Fp)x
7. Two horizontal plates are placed 15 mm apart, the spaces between them being filled with oil of
viscosity15 poise. Calculate the shear stress in the oil, if the upper plate is moved with a velocity of 3.0
m/sec.
t = 15 mm = 15 X 10-3 m µ = 15 poise = 1.5 Ns/m2
1 𝑑𝑝
u = 3.0 m/sec τ = − 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑡
1 𝑑𝑝 1 𝑑𝑝
u = − 8𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝑡2 3 = − 8 𝑋 1.5 𝑋 𝑑𝑥 𝑋 (15 𝑋 10−3 )2
𝑑𝑝
= 160000 N/m2 per m
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑝 1
τ = − 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑡2 = − 2 𝑋(160000)𝑋 (15 𝑋 10−3 )2 = 1200 N/m2

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8. Explain Couette flow?
Couette flow is the laminar flow of a viscousfluid
in the space between two parallel plates, one of which is
moving relative to the other.
The flow is driven by virtue of viscous drag force
acting on the fluid and the applied pressure gradient
parallel to the plates.

9. Define the terms major energy loss and minor energy loss in pipe?
The loss of head (or) energy due to friction in a pipe is known as major energy (head) loss.
The loss of energy due to the change of velocity of the following fluid in magnitude or direction (due
to sudden expansion, sudden contraction, bend, pipe fittings, obstruction in pipe, entrance of a pipe, the exit
of pipe and various pipe fitting) is called minor energy loss.

10. How will you determine the major energy loss by using (i) Darcy formula and (ii) Chezy’s formula?
And define head loss co-efficient.
(i) Darcy-Weisbach Formula:
(4𝑓𝐿𝑉 2 )
ℎ𝑓 = = head loss co-efficient
2𝑔𝐷

Where,
hf→ head loss due to friction
f→ friction co-efficient
L→length of pipe
D→diameter of pipe
(ii) Chezy’s Formula:
𝑉 = 𝐶 √𝑚𝑖
Where
m→hydraulic mean depth = A / P
i→ hf / L C→ chezy’s constant P→ wetted perimeter.

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11. State Hagen Poiseullie formula for finding the head loss in a pipe line due to viscous flow.
𝑷𝟏 −𝒑𝟐 𝟑𝟐𝝁ū𝑳
= 𝒉𝒇 =
𝝆𝒈 𝑫

̅ = 𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝒖 L = length of pipe
µ = Dynamic viscosity D = Diameter pipe
𝑷𝟏 − 𝒑𝟐
= 𝒉𝒇 = 𝑳𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒅
𝝆𝒈
12. What do you understand by (a) total energy line, (b) hydraulic gradient line?
Total energy line:
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head datum head and kinetic head of a
flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line.
Hydraulic gradient line:
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head of a flow fluid in a pipe
with respect to some reference line. Sometimes, the hydraulic grade line is also known as piezometric head.
13. What is an equivalent pipe?
An equivalent pipe is defined as the pipe of uniform diameter having loss of head and discharge equal
to the loss of head and discharge of a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of different length and
diameters.
𝑳 𝑳 𝑳 𝑳𝟑
= 𝒅𝟏𝟓 + 𝒅𝟐𝟓 +
𝒅𝟓 𝟏 𝟐 𝒅𝟓𝟑

14. What do you understand by (a) pipe in series (b) pipes in parallel?
Pipes in series:
Pipes in serious (or) compound pipes are defined as the pipes of different length and of different
diameters are connected end to end to form a pipe line.
Pipe in parallel:
Pipe are said to be parallel, when a main pipes divide in to two are more parallel pipes which again
join together downstream and continues as a main line. The pipes are connected in a parallel in order to
increase the discharge passing through the main.
15. Under what conditions does a minor loss become a major loss?
In long pipes, minor losses are insignificant in magnitude compared to friction losses which is
justifiably treated as major loss. If the pipe is short, minor losses may be become the major component of the
total head loss.

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16. Define water hammer in pipes?
In a long pipe ,when the following water is suddenly brought to rest by closing the valve (or) by any
similar causes, there will be a sudden rise in pressure due cot the momentum of water being destroyed.
*A pressure wave is transmitted along the pipe.
*A sudden rise in pressure has the effect of hammering action on the walls of the pipe.
*This phenomenon of sudden rise in pressure is known as water hammer (or) hammer blow.
17. Define critical velocity?
The velocity which at the flow changes from the laminar to turbulent for the case of given fluid at a
given temperature and given pipe is known as critical velocity.
18. Write the expression for calculating the loss of head due to sudden expansion of pipe
(𝑉1 −𝑉2 )
ℎ𝑒 = 2𝑔

V1,V2= Velocity
g = Acceleration
19. Define Hydraulic gradient line.
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head (p/w) and datum head (z) of a flowing in
a pipe with respect to some reference line or it is the line which is obtained by joining the top of all vertical
ordinates, showing the pressure head (p/w) of a slowing fluid in a pipe from the centre of the pipe.
20. What are the characteristics of laminar flow?
It is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid particles move along well-defined paths stream
lines and all the stream lines are straight and parallel.
If the Reynold number less than 2000, the flow is called laminar flow.
21. What is scale of turbulence?
If the Reynold number is more than 4000, the flow is called turbulent flow.
22. Differentiate between pipes in parallel and pipes in series.
Pipes in Series:
1. The pipes of different lengths and different diameters connected end to end.
2. Q = A1V1 = A2V2 =A3V3
Pipes in Parallel:
1. The main pipe is divided into two or more branches
2. The branch pipes are said to be connected in parallel, Q = Q1+Q2

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23. Differentiate between ‘drag’ and ‘lift’.
Drag: The component of the total force (FR) in the direction of motion is called ‘drag’. This
component is denoted by FD.
Lift: The component of the total force (FR) in the direction perpendicular to the direction of motion is
called ‘lift’. This component is denoted by FL.
24. Define Total Energy Line.
It is defined as the line which gives the sum of pressure head, datum head and kinetic head of a
flowing fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. It is also defined as the line which is obtained by
joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the sum of pressure head and kinetic head from the centre of
the pipe. It is briefly written as T.E.L. (Total Energy Line).
25. Sketch the shear stress and velocity distribution for laminar flow across a pipe section.

26. Distinguish hydraulic gradient and energy gradient.

Hydraulic gradient Energy gradient

It is defined as the line which gives the sum of It is defined as the line which gives the sum of
pressure head (p/w) and datum head (z) of a flowing pressure head, datum head of a flow fluid in a pipe
fluid in a pipe with respect to some reference line. with respect to some reference line.

It is the line which is obtained by joining the top of It is also defined as the line which is obtained by
all vertical ordinates, showing pressure head (p/w) of joining the tops of all vertical ordinates showing the
a flowing fluid in a pipe from the centre of the pipe. sum of pressure head and kinematic head from the
centre of the pipe.

The hydraulic grade line lays one velocity head below A turbine in the flow reduces the energy line and a
the energy line. pump or fan in the line increases the energy line.

27. Define mechanical efficiency of the pump?

The ratio of the power available at the shaft of the turbine (known as S.P or B.P) to the power
delivered to the runner is defined as mechanical efficiency. Hence, mathematically, it is written as

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 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒
m =
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟

28. What is suction head of the pump?

It is the vertical height of the centre line of the centrifugal pump above the water surface in the tank
or pump from which water is to be lifted. This heightis also called suction lift and is denoted by ‘h s’.
29. Express Borda-carnot Equation, Mention its usefulness.
Borda-carnot Equation is an empirical description of the mechanical energy losses of the fluid due to
a sudden flow expantion.
30. Define major and minor losses
The loss is due to friction is called major loss.
The losses are due to sudden enlargement of pipe, sudden contraction of pipe, Bend of pipe, An
obstruction in pipe, Pipe fittings, etc…
31. Recall the types of pipe flow based on viscosity
The pipe flow is classified based on viscosity is laminar flow and turbulent flow .
PART – B
1. Drive an expression for the velocity distribution for the viscous flow through circular pipe and sketch the
shear stress distribution and distribution across the section of pipe. (Or) derive the Hagen-Poisuille equation
and state the assumptions made. Prove that the ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity is 2 for the
viscous flow through a circular pipe.

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2. An oil of viscosity 0.096 Nsm-2 and specific gravity of 1.59 flows through a horizontal pipe of 50 mm
diameter with a pressure drop of 6 kN/m2 per metre length of pipe. Determine (1) Rate of flow (2) The
shear stress at the pipe wall (3) The power required for 100 m length of the pipe to maintain the flow.

Solution:

Diameter of pipe, D = 50 mm = 0.05 m Length, L = 100 m

Pressure = 6 X 103 N/m2

Viscosity, µ = 0.096 Ns/m2

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 Specific gravity, S = 1.59

Density, ρ = 1.59 X 1000 = 1590 kg/m3

Pressure drop (P1-P2) = 6 X 103 N/m2

To find: Q, τ, P
32𝜇ū𝐿
(i) Pressure drop (P1-P2) =
𝐷

32 𝑋 0.096 𝑋ū 𝑋 1
6 X 103 =
0.05

ū = 97.656 m/sec
𝜋
Q = AV = 𝐷2 𝑋ū
4
𝜋
= (0.05)2 𝑋 97.656
4

Q = 0.192 m3/sec

(ii) Shear stress at the pipe wall

𝜕𝑝 𝑅
τ=
𝜕𝑥 2

𝜕𝑝 𝑝2 −𝑝1 𝑝1 −𝑝2 𝑝1 −𝑝2 (60 𝑋 103 )

= = = =
𝜕𝑥 𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝑥2 −𝑥1 𝐿 1

= 60 X 103 N/m3
𝐷 0.05
R= = = 0.025 𝑚
2 2

0.025
τ = 60 X 103 X
2

τ = 75 N/m2

(iii) Power required = W X hf

W= Weight of the oil = ρg X Q

32𝜇ū𝐿
hf =
𝑔𝐷2

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 32𝜇ū𝐿
Power required = ρgQ X
𝑔𝐷2

0.192 𝑋 32 𝑋 0.096 𝑋 97.656 𝑋 100

=
(0.05)2

= 2304 kW

3. Determine the pressure drop when a fluid flows through a tube of 20 cm diameter and 120 meters
length at a flow rate of 0.19 m3 per second. Take kinematic viscosity = 1.22X10-5 m2/sec, Specific
gravity=1.59.

Solution:
Diameter of pipe = 20 cm = 0.2 m
Kinematic viscosity, ν = 1.22X10-5 m2/sec
Specific gravity, S = 1.59
Density, ρ = 1.59 X 1000 = 1590 kg/m3
Viscosity, µ = ν X ρ = 1.22X10-5 X 1590 = 0.0194 Ns/m2
Length, L = 120 m
Flow rate, Q = 0.19 m3/sec
32𝜇ū𝐿
Pressure drop (P1-P2) =
𝐷
𝜋
Q = AV = 𝐷2 𝑋ū
4
𝜋
0.19 = (0.2)2 𝑋 ū
4

ū = 6.051 m
32 𝑋 0.0194 𝑋 6.051 𝑋 120
Pressure drop (P1 - P2) = = 2253.876 N/m2
0.2

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4. Drive an expression for the velocity distribution for the viscous flow through a two parallel plates
and sketch the shear stress distribution and distribution across the section of plates and drive drop of
pressure head. Prove that the ratio of maximum velocity to average velocity is 3/2 for the viscous flow through
a two parallel plates.

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7. Two parallel plates kept 100 mm apart have laminar flow of oil between them with a maximum
velocity of 1.5 m/sec. Calculate (i) the discharge per metre length (ii) the shear stress at the plates (iii)
the difference in pressure between two points 20 m apart (iv) the velocity gradient at the plates and (v)
the velocity at 20 mm from the plates. Assume viscosity of oil to be 24.5 poise.
Solution
Distance between parallel plates, t = 100 mm = 0.1 m
Maximum velocity, Umax = 1.5 m/sec µ = 24.5 poise = 2.45 N sec/m2
(i) The discharge per metre length
2 2 𝑚
𝑢= 𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 = × 1.5 = 1.0 𝑞 = 𝑢 × 𝑏 = 0.1 × 1.0 = 0.1 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐/𝑚
3 3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
(ii) The shear stress at the plates
𝑏3 𝜕𝑝 0.13 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 0.1×12×2.45
𝑞= (− 𝜕𝑥 ) 0.1 = 12×2.45 (− 𝜕𝑥 ) (− 𝜕𝑥 ) = = 2940 𝑁/𝑚2
12𝜇 0.13

The shear stress at any section

1 𝜕𝑝 1
𝜏 = [− ]𝑏 𝜏 = × 2940 × 0.1 = 147 𝑁⁄ 2
2 𝜕𝑥 2 𝑚
iii) The difference in pressure between two points 20 m apart
𝜕𝑝 𝑁
(− 𝜕𝑥 ) = 2940 𝑚2 −𝜕𝑝 = 2940 𝜕𝑥

Integrating w.r.t. x
𝑝2 2 𝑥
∫𝑝 −𝜕𝑝 = ∫𝑥 2940 𝜕𝑥
1 1

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 2940 (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) = 2940 × 20 = 5800 𝑁⁄𝑚2 (𝑜𝑟) 58.8 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2

(iv) The velocity gradient at the plates

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝜏0 147
𝜏0 = 𝜇[ ]𝑦=0 [ ]𝑦=0 = = = 60 𝑠 −1
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝜇 2.45

(v) The velocity at 20 mm from the plates

1 𝜕𝑝 1
𝑢= (− ) (𝑏𝑦 − 𝑦 2 ) = × 2940 × (0.1 × 0.02 − 0.022 ) = 0.96 𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜇 𝜕𝑥 2 × 2.45

8. Show that the momentum correction factor and energy correction factor for laminar flow through a
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circular pipe are & 2.0 respectively.(Apr/May 2010)
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9. Drive the equation for the friction loss in pipe line. Or derive an expression for Darcy-Weisbach equation?
(or) Derive an expression for loss of head due to friction. (May 13, Nov’06)

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10. A fuel oil is pumped in a 300 mm diameter and 1.6 kilometer long pipeline eat the rate of 100 lit/se.
The pipe is laid at an upgrade of 1:100. The specific weight of the fuel oil is 9 kN/m3 and its kinematic
viscosity is 21.4 stokes. Find the power required to pump the oil.
Solution:
Dia. of the pipe, D = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Length of pipe, L = 1.6 km = 1600 m
Rate of flow, v = 100 lit/sec = 0.1 m3/sec
Slope of the pipe, i = 1:100 = 1/100
𝑤 9 𝑋 1000
Specific weight, w = ρg = 9 kN/m3 ρ= = = 917.43 kg/m3
𝑔 9.81

Kinematic viscosity, ν = 21.4 stokes

𝜇
ν= 1 stoke = 10-4 m2/sec
𝜌

ν = 21.4 X 10-4 m2/sec

𝑄 0.1 0.1
Velocity of flow, ū = =𝜋 =𝜋 - 1.415 m/sec
𝐴 𝐷2 (0.3)2
4 4

𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
Power required, P=
1000

Total head against which pump is to work,

H = hf + ( i X L )

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 4𝑓𝐿ū2
Head loss due to friction, hf =
2𝐷𝑔
16
Co-efficient of friction, f =
𝑅𝑒
𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝑣𝐷
Reynolds number, Re = = v=ū
µ 𝜈
1.415 𝑋 0.3
=
21.4 𝑋 10−4

Re = 198.36
As the Reynolds number is less than 2000, the flow is viscous
16 16
f= = = 0.0807
𝑅𝑒 198.36
4𝑓𝐿ū2 4 𝑋 0.0807 𝑋 1600 𝑋1.4152
hf = = = 175.69 m
2𝐷𝑔 0.3 𝑋 2 𝑋 9.81

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H = hf + ( i X L ) = 175.69 + (( ) 𝑋 1600) = 191.63 m
100
𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻 917.43 𝑋 9.81 𝑋 0.1 𝑋 191.69
Power required to pump the oil, P= =
1000 1000

P = 172.52 kW.
11. An oil specific gravity 0.7 is flowing through a pipe of diameter 300 mm at the rate of 500 litres/s.
Find the head lost due to friction and power required to maintain the flow for a length of 1000 m. Take
ν = 0.29 stokes.
Solution:
Specific gravity of oil, S = 0.7
Dia. of pipe, d = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Discharge, Q = 500 litres/s = 0.5 m3/s
Length, L = 1000 m
𝑄 0.5 0.5
Velocity, v = =𝜋 𝜋 = 7.073 m/sec
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑑 2 (0.3)2
4 4

𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝑣𝑑 7.073 𝑋 0.3

Reynolds number, Re = = = = 7.316 X 104
µ 𝜈 0.29 𝑋 10−4
0.79 0.79
Co-efficient of friction, f = =
𝑅𝑒 1/4 7.316 𝑋 10(1/4)

f = 0.0048

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 4𝑓𝐿𝑣 2 4 𝑋 0.0048 𝑋 1000 𝑋 7.0732
Head loss due to friction, hf = = = 163.18 m
𝑑 𝑋 2𝑔 0.3 𝑋 2 𝑋 9.81
𝜌𝑔 𝑋 𝑄 𝑋 ℎ𝑓
Power required to pump the oil, P= kW
1000

Density, ρ = 0.7 X 1000 = 700 kg/m3

700 𝑋 9.81 𝑋 0.5 𝑋 163.18
Power required = = 560.28 kW
1000
12. An oil of kinematic viscosity 4 X 10-5 m2/s is flowing at the rate of 0.2 m3/s. Find the lost due to
friction for a length of 175 m of the pipe.
Solution:
Kinematic viscosity, ν = 4 X10-5 m2/s
Dia. of pipe, d = 250mm = 0.25 m
Discharge, Q = 0.2 m3/sec
To find head loss due to friction for a length of 175 m of the pipe
𝑄 0.5 0.5
Velocity, v = =𝜋 =𝜋 = 4.074 m/sec
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑑2 (0.25)2
4 4

𝜌𝑣𝐷 𝑣𝑑 4.074 𝑋 0.25

Reynolds number, Re = = = = 25462.5
µ 𝜈 4 𝑋 10−5

As Re lies between 4000 to 100000, the value of f is given,

0.79 0.79
Co-efficient of friction, f = =
𝑅𝑒 1/4 25462.5 (1/4)

f = 6.254 X 10-3
4𝑓𝐿𝑣 2 4 𝑋6.254 𝑋 10−3 𝑋 175 𝑋4.0742
Head loss due to friction, hf = = = 3.636 m
𝑑 𝑋 2𝑔 0.25 𝑋 2 𝑋 9.81

13. Determine the friction in a pipe of 400 m long and 200 mm diameter when the discharge is 3
m3/min and the resistance coefficient f=0.01.
Solution:
d = 200 mm = 0.2 m
L = 400 m
f = 0.01
Q = 3 m3/min = 3/60 = 0.05 m3/sec

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 𝑄 0.19 0.19 𝑚
𝑉= = 𝜋 2 =𝜋 = 6.051
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐷 ×(0.2)2 𝑠𝑒𝑐
4 4

4𝑓𝐿𝑣 2 4 × 0.01 × 400 × 6.051

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, ℎ𝑓 = = = 24.673 𝑚
𝑑 𝑋 2𝑔 0.2 × 2 × 9.81

14. A 2500 m long pipe line is used for transmission of power 120 kW power is to be transmitted
through the pipe in which having pressure of 4000 kN/m 2 at inlet is flowing. If the pressure drop one
the length of the pipe is 800 kN/m2 and f = 0.006 find (i) Diameter of the pipe (ii) Efficiency of
transmission.
Solution:
L = 2500 m Power = 120 kW

Pressure at inlet = 4000 kN/m2 = 4000X103 N/m2

𝑝 4000×1000
𝐻= = = 407.7 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝑤 1000×9.81

800×1000
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝, ℎ𝑓 = = 81.5 𝑚 Coefficient of friction, f = 0.006
100×9.81

(i) Diameter of the pipe

Head available at the end of the pipe = H - hf = 407.7 – 81.5 = 326.6 m

𝑃 = 𝑤𝑄(𝐻 − ℎ𝑓 ) 𝑘𝑊

120 = 9.81 × 𝑄 × 326.6

Q = 0.0375 m3/sec
𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐴 × 𝑉 = 𝐷2
4

𝑄×4 0.0375×4 0.0477

𝑉= = =
𝜋𝐷2 𝜋×𝐷2 𝐷2

4𝑓𝐿𝑣 2
ℎ𝑓 =
𝑑 𝑋 2𝑔

0.0477 2
4×0.006×2500×( )
𝐷2
81.5 =
2×9.81×𝐷

D = 0.1535 m (or) 153.5 mm

29
(ii) Efficiency of transmission

(𝐻−ℎ𝑓 ) 407.7−81.5
𝜂= = = 0.8 (𝑜𝑟) 80%
𝐻 407.7

15. Briefly explain the hydraulic gradient line and energy gradient line.

30
16. What are the major and minor losses when there is a flow through pipes? And how to find major
losses in pipes.
Major losses: this is due to friction and it is calculated by Darcy-Weisbach formula and Chezy’s formula.
Minor losses:
1. Sudden expansion 2. Sudden contraction
3. Bend in pipe 4. Pipe fittings
5. An obstruction in pipe

31
32
17. Drive an expression for the loss of head due to sudden enlargement and sudden contraction of a
pipe.

33
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 .

18. At a sudden enlargement of a water main from 240 mm to 480 mm diameter, the hydraulic
gradient rise by 10 mm. Estimate the rate of flow.
Solution:
Dia. at inlet, D1 = 240 mm = 0.24 m
𝜋 𝜋
Area, A1 = D12 = 𝑋(0.24)2 = 0.0452 m2
4 4
Dia. at throat, D2 = 480 mm = 0.48 m
𝜋 𝜋
Area, A2 = D22= 𝑋(0.48)2 = 0.181 m2
4 4

35
 𝑃2 𝑃1
Rise of hydraulic gradient = ( + 𝑍2 ) − ( + 𝑍1 )
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
10 1
= 10 mm = = m
1000 100
Applying Bernoulli’s equation,
𝑝1 𝑣1 2 𝑝2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + Head loss due to enlargement
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

(𝑣1 −𝑣2 )2
Head loss due to enlargement, he =
2𝑔

From continuity eqn, A1 v1 = A2 v2

𝐴2 𝑣2
v1 =
𝐴1
𝜋
𝐷 2 𝑋 𝑣2 𝐷2
4 2
V1 = 𝜋 = ( )X V2
𝐷 2 𝐷1
4 1

0.48
=( )X v2
0.24

V1= (2)2 X v2 = 4 V2
(4𝑣2 −𝑣2 )2 (3𝑣2 )2 9 𝑣2 2
he = = =
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝1 (4𝑣2 )2 𝑝2 𝑣2 2 9 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 +
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔
16𝑣2 2 𝑣2 2 9 𝑣2 2 𝑝2 𝑝1
− − =[ + 𝑧2 ] − [ + 𝑧1 ]
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

16𝑣2 2 1
=
2𝑔 100

√2 𝑋 9.81
V2 =
6 𝑋 100
V2 = 0.181 m3/sec
Rate of flow, Q = A2 V2
= 0.181 X 0.181
= 0.03276 m3/sec
Q = 32.76 litres/sec

36
19. A horizontal pipe of diameter of diameter 500 mm is suddenly contracted to a diameter of 250
mm. The pressure intensities in the in the large and smaller pipe is given as 13.734 N/cm 2 and 11.772
N/cm2 respectively. Find the loss of head to contraction if Cc = 0.62. Also determine the rate of flow of
water.

Solution:
Dia. Of large pipe, D1 = 500 mm = 0.5 m
𝜋 𝜋
Area, A1= D12 = 𝑋(0.5)2 = 0.1963 m2
4 4
Dia. smaller pipe, D2 = 250 mm = 0.25 m
𝜋 𝜋
Area, A2= D22 = 𝑋(0.25)2 = 0.04908 m2
4 4
p1 = 13.734 N/cm2 = 13.734 X 104 N/m2
p2 = 11.772 N/cm2 = 11.772 X 104 N/m2
Cc = 0.62
𝑣2 2 1
hc = [ − 1.0]2
2𝑔 𝐶𝑐

𝑣2 2 1 𝑣2 2
= [ − 1.0]2 = 0.375
2𝑔 0.62 2𝑔
𝜋
𝐴2 𝑣2 𝐷 2 𝑋 𝑣2 𝐷
4 2
v1 = == 𝜋 = ( 2 )X V2
𝐴1 𝐷 2 𝐷 1
4 1

0.25 𝑣2
=( ) X v2 =
0.50 4
𝑝1 𝑣1 2 𝑝2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + Head loss due to contraction
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑝1 𝑣1 2 𝑝2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑧1 = + + 𝑧2 + hc
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Z1 = Z2
𝑝1 𝑣1 2 𝑝2 𝑣2 2
+ = + + hc
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔
𝑣
13.734 𝑋 104 ( 2 )2 11.772 𝑋 104 𝑣2 2 𝑣2 2
4
+ = + + 0.375
9.81 𝑋 1000 2𝑔 9.81 𝑋 1000 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑣2 2 𝑣2 2
14.0 + = 12.0 + 1.375
16 𝑋 𝑔 2𝑔

37
 𝑣2 2 𝑣2 2
14 – 12 = 1.375 -
2𝑔 16 𝑋 𝑔

√2 𝑋 2 𝑋 9.81
V2 =
1.3125

V2 = 5.467 m/sec
𝑣2 2
(i) Loss of head due to contraction hc = 0.375
2𝑔

(5.467)2
hc = 0.375
2 𝑋 9.81

hc = 0.571 m
(ii) Rate of flow, Q = A2 V2
= 0.04908 X 5.467
= 0.2683 m3/sec
Q = 268.3 litres/sec
20. Drive an expression for flow through pipes in series and parallel

38
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 May/June 2016

44
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27. What is meant by equivalent pipe. (Nov/Dec 2007)

48
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29. Explain the following:
1. Manometric efficiency
2. Mechanical efficiency
3. Overall efficiency
Manometric efficiency (man):
The ratio of the manometric head to the head imparted by the impeller to the water is known as
manometric efficiency. Mathematically, it is written as
𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
max =
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
𝐻𝑚 𝑔𝐻𝑚
= 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 =
( ) 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2
𝑔

The power at the impeller of the pump is more than the power given to the water at the outlet of the
pump. The ratio of the power given to water at outlet of the pump to the power available at the impeller is
known as manometric efficiency.
𝑊𝐻𝑚
The power given to water at outlet of the pump = kW
1000
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
The power at the impeller = kW
1000
𝑊 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2
= 𝑋 kW
𝑔 1000
𝑊𝐻𝑚
𝑔𝑋𝐻𝑚
max = 𝑊 1000
𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2 =𝑉
𝑋 𝑤2 𝑋 𝑢2
𝑔 1000

Mechanical efficiency(m):
The power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is more than the power available at the impeller of the
pump. The ratio of the power available at the impeller to the power at the shaft of the centrifugal pump is
known as mechanical efficiency. It is written as
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟
m = 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
The power at the impeller in kW = 1000
𝑊 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2
=𝑔 𝑋 1000
𝑊 𝑉𝑤2 𝑢2
𝑋
m = 𝑔 1000
𝑆.𝑃

50
Where S.P = Shaft power
Overall sefficiency (o):
It is defined as ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the pump. The power output
of the pump in kW.
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑋 𝐻𝑚 𝑊𝐻𝑚
o = =
1000 1000

Power input to the pump = power supplied by the electric motor

= S.P. of the pump.
𝑊𝐻𝑚
=
o = 1000
S.P.

o = man X m
30. A horizontal pipeline 40m long is connected to a water tank at one end and discharges freely into
the atmosphere at the other end. For the first 25 m of its length from the tank, the pipe is 150 mm
diameter and its diameter is suddenly enlarged to 300 mm. The height of water level in the tank is 8 m
above the centre of the pipe. Considering all losses of head which occur; determine the discharge. Take
the Darcy’s co-efficient of friction as 0.01 for both section of the pipe.
Solution. Given:
Total length of pipe, L = 40 m
Length of 1st pipe, L, = 25 m
Dia. of 1st pipe, d, = 150 mm = 0.15 m
Length of 2nd pipe, L2 =40 - 25 = 15 m
Dia. of 2nd pipe, d2 = 300 mm = 0.3 m
Height of water, H = 8 m
Co-efficient of friction, f = 0.01
Applying Bernoulli's theorem to the free surface of water in the tank and outlet of pipe as shown in
Fig. and taking reference line passing through the centre of pipe.

51
52
31.Discuss in detail about the test procedure, apparatus and observation of Reynold’s experiment with neat
sketch
• The apparatus consists of a precision-bore glass pipe (test tube) held vertically in a large shroud.
• The shroud is open at the front and the inside surface is light coloured. This allows the students to see the flow
clearly.
• Water enters a constant head tank (reservoir) above the test tube and passes through a diffuser and stilling bed.
It then passes through a specially shaped bell-mouth into the test tube.
• This arrangement ensures a steady, uniform flow at entry to the test tube. A thermometer measures the
temperature in the constant head reservoir.
• A fixed overflow pipe in the reservoir connects to a suitable drain. At the bottom of the test pipe is a valve
which controls the flow rate through the pipe, without disturbing the flow.
• Students collect a known quantity of water in a measured time to find the flow rate. Included is a measuring
cylinder.
• To see the pattern of flow in the pipe, students use a dye injector (included). They use it to inject a fine
filament of dye into the top of the tube.
• The dye injector is a dye reservoir connected to a fine hypodermic tube.
• The base of the apparatus has adjustable feet for levelling prior to use (included is a levelling device).
• The optional Heater Module (H215a) is a separate freestanding unit. It connects to the water supply line to heat
the water, varying its temperature and viscosity.
• Controls on the module vary the electrical heat input and the flow rate, to give steady conditions over a range
of temperatures.
• In early experiments with flow in pipes, it was discovered that two different flow regimes exist. At low flow
rates, laminar flow exists in a system and the fluid flows in smooth layers.
• A fluid particle in one layer will remain in that particular layer. The layers of fluid slide by each other without
any apparent eddies or swirls.
• At higher flow rates, turbulent flow will exist. For this flow regime, eddies and vortices mix the fluid by
moving particles in very haphazard paths about the cross section.
• The existence of the two types of flow regimes is easily visualized by examining results of experiments that
were originally conducted by Osborne Reynolds.
• His apparatus is shown schematically in Figure 1(a). A transparent tube is attached to a constant head tank with
water as the fluid. The opposite end of the tube has a valve and flow meter to control and measure the flow
rate.

53
 • Dyed water is injected into the water at the tube inlet, and the resulting flow pattern may be observed. For low
flow rates the flow pattern will look similar to Figure 1(b).
• The dye pattern should be regular and form a single line in the tube. There should be no lateral mixing in any
part of the tube. This type of flow is called laminar or viscous flow.
• As the flow rate of water is increased beyond a certain point, the dye is observed to disperse. The dye mixes
thoroughly with the water as shown in Figure 1(c) as a result of erratic fluid behavior in the pipe. This type of
flow is called turbulent flow

Figure 1. (a) The Reynolds experiment for visualizing flow regimes, (b) dye pattern for laminar flow, (c) dye
pattern for turbulent flow.

• This experiment could be repeated with several pipes of different diameter; however, a dimensional analysis
will indicate that the criterion for distinguishing between these flows is the Reynolds number:

where: V = average velocity of the pipe flow, D = inside diameter of the tube, r = fluid density, m = fluid dynamic
viscosity, n = fluid kinematic viscosity

54