PIPE FLOW LAB REPORT

Fluid Mechanics 48641

Abstract
Experiments have been performed to investigate the effect of different pipe materials, diameter and
pipework components on fluid flow. Two different material pipe, PVC and galvanised steel were used
to test the impact of channel roughness and frictional coefficients of the respective materials. Three
different pipework components, venturi meter, orifice plate and sudden expansion fitting were utilised
to measure the effect on fluid flow and pressure change. Measured values were compared with
calculated values to examine differences in data due to experimental and human error.

Table of Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................................................1
Introduction.........................................................................................................................................1
Method.................................................................................................................................................3
Equipment.........................................................................................................................................3
Procedure...........................................................................................................................................5
Experiment A: Friction Loss in Pipe-Flow....................................................................................5
Experiment B: Measurement of Flow Rate in a Pipe.....................................................................6
Results..................................................................................................................................................6
Friction Loss in Pipe..........................................................................................................................6
Measurement of Flow Rate in a Pipe.................................................................................................7
Venturi Meter Results....................................................................................................................7
Orifice Plate...................................................................................................................................8
Sudden Expansion.........................................................................................................................9
Discussion...........................................................................................................................................10
Modifications to the Experiment.....................................................................................................10
Conclusion...........................................................................................................................................11
References..........................................................................................................................................12
Appendix............................................................................................................................................13

1
Introduction
This experiment was an inquiry into pipe flow dynamics and how various factors influence the rate at
which fluids pass through pipes. The investigation was conducted at a UTS lab with raw data being
provided by trials undertaken remotely and sent to the authors of this paper for evaluation and
discussion. The aim of this experiment is to investigate some key aspects of fluid pipe flow, and to
highlight the impact of friction loss in fluid flow.
Two pipe materials, PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and galvanized steel of varying nominal diameter were
used to compare and analyse the differences friction loss due to internal roughness and pipe diameter
has on fluid flow. Additionally, measured values for fluid flow passing through different pipework
connections were compared with expected calculated values and results were discussed in order to
understand discrepancies in collected data.
What is Pipe Flow
Pipe flow is the hydraulic field that explores fluid flow within a closed conduit. The state of flow
though pipes is broken up into two categories: Laminar flow and Turbulent flow. This distinction is
determined by the whether the Reynold’s number related to the flow is below the critical value 2040
making it laminar, or above the critical value where sustained turbulent flow begins 1. The difference
between the types of flow is defined as laminar flow where the velocity of the fluid is constant
throughout any point in the fluid, whereas turbulent flow does not share this property. For this reason,
laminar flow is sometimes referred to as streamline flow.
Relevant Equations and Laws
Reynold’s number: measurement used to predict flow patterns in fluid (laminar at low Reynold’s
number, turbulent at higher numbers)
Re = 4 ρ Q / (π d μ)
where:
ρ = density of fluid
Q = volumetric pipe flow
d = diameter of inlet
μ = viscosity of fluid

Darcy-Weisbach equation: standard equation for pipe friction loss.

hf = f (L/D) x (v2/2g)
where:
hf = head loss (m)
f = friction factor
L = length of pipe work (m)
d = inner diameter of pipe work (m)
v = velocity of fluid (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s²)

The Darcy-Weisbach equation contains a dimensionless factor called the Darcy friction factor or flow
coefficient. It is calculated using many pipe characteristics such as diameter and roughness, as well as
fluid characteristics including kinematic viscosity. It is also calculated with using different methods

2
for different fluid flow types. This emphasises the differences between laminar and turbulent flow and
how the flow type has a substantial effect on the head loss caused by friction loss 2.
Piping materials
Pipe flow is greatly influenced by the type of pipe used as surface roughness is a factor in friction
loss. This is because small changes to surface roughness cause large changes to fluid flow type, often
creating a more turbulent flow. The surface roughness (ε) of a pipe can change over time from ε
= 0.0006 for a new pipe to ε = 0.009 in an aged pipe3.

Method
Equipment

Figure 1. Image detailing equipment used for this experiment

All pipes used have 2550 mm of length between pressure measuring points. Below list is diameter of
pipes from top. In this report, let d be ID, ρ water density.

Internal Diameter (ID) / Outside Diameter (OD) [mm]

1 PVC 17.8 / 21.5
2 Galvanized pipes 16.1 / 21.3
3 PVC 28.1 / 33.7
4 Galvanized 27.3 / 33.7

3
The last pipe used for Experiment B includes Venturi meter, Orifice plate and sudden enlargement
pipe, which is shown [Figure 2], [Figure 3], and [Figure 4] with dimension.

Figure 2. Schematic of Venturi meter3.used

Figure Schematic of orifice plate used in
in experiment experiment

Figure 4. Schematic of Venturi meter used

in experiment

In Experiment B: measurement of flow rate in a pipe, venturi meter, orifice plate and sudden
expansion is used. The flow rate obtained from venturi and orifice is compared with one from
flowmeter. The sudden expansion pipe can help to show what difference could be between expected
and real data.
[Table 1] shows other equipment used in the experiment.

Flowmeter To measure flow rate of water

Pump To pump water to go through Flowmeter
Digital Manometer To measure and compare pressure of water
Water-tank To store water
Table 1. Equipment used in the experiment and brief discussion of purpose

Procedure
Experiment A: Friction Loss in Pipe-Flow
Experiment A aims to measure and calculate friction loss in pipe flow. Friction pressure loss is caused
by the energy required to push water through a pipeline. The major reason is due to friction within
pipe and minor is by change of section, valve, bend, so on.
The friction loss will be measured and calculated using below formula.
2
hf =f × L × V
D 2g
Where;

f =¿ friction factor
k =¿ minor loss coefficient

4
 L=¿ length
D=¿ diameter
V =¿ velocity
In this experiment, each flow rate in 4 pipes is measured.
The procedure of this experiment is as follows;

I. Turn on the pump and wait until steady flow has been established.
ð In this step, data of ambient temperature and surface roughness (e) should be
collected regarding [table 2].
II. Collect data of pressure-drop from Digital manometer in Pa.
ð Let this be ∆ Pmeasured .
III. Collect data of water flow rate from Flowmeter.
IV. After collecting all data, calculate flow velocity (V ), Friction coefficient (f ) and
friction pressure drop regarding [table 3].
ð Let ∆ PCalcualted be calculated Friction pressure-drop
V. Compare ∆ PCalcualted with ∆ Pmeasured

Material Roughness e [ mm ]
Galvanised Iron 0.15
PVC 0.0015
Table 2. Comparison of roughness of different material pipes (PipeFlow 2020)

Reynold number ( ℜ) ρvd / μ ρ=¿ density

v=¿ velocity
d=¿ diameter
μ=¿ viscosity
Friction coefficient ( f ) μN μ=¿ Coefficient of
friction
N=¿ Normal force
Table 3. Reynolds number and friction coefficient equations and relevant variable notation

Experiment B: Measurement of Flow Rate in a Pipe

In Experiment B, flow rate is measured using Venturi meter and Orifice plate. A Sudden
expansion connection is used to examine the difference between expected and real data.
I. Turn on the pump and wait until steady flow has been established.
II. Collect data of water flow rate from flowmeter
ð Let this be Q measured
III. Collect data of pressure change for venturi, Orifice and sudden expansion
from digital manometer
ð Let each be ∆ P venturi , ∆ Porifice ,∧∆ P sudden−expansion
IV. Calculate the flow rate through venturi and orifice
ð Let each be Qventuri , ∧Q orifice
V. Compare Qventuri , ¿ Qorifice with Q measured
VI. Repeat IV for Qsudden−expansion

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Results
Friction Loss in Pipe
Flow Reynold’s Frictional Pmeasured Pcalculated Error
rate(Q) Number Factor(f) (KPa) (KPa) (%)
in L/min (Re ×10 4)
PVC Pipe 85 6.408 0.01978 4.2 4.689 10.43
28.1mm/33.7mm 58 4.375 0.02153 2.6 2.377 9.39
Galvanised Pipe 85 6.593 0.03256 7.8 8.906 12.4
27.3mm/33.7mm 58 4.500 0.03313 3.8 4.220 9.95
Table 4. Data and relevant calculated values for friction loss in pipe experiment

Calculated vs Measured friction pressure drop (KPa)

10
8.91
9
8 7.8
Pressure Drop (KPa)

7
6
5 4.69
4.2 4.22
4 3.8

3 2.6 2.38
2
1
0
PVC 28.1 Galvanised 28.1 PVC 27.3 Galvanised 27.3
Pipe Type

Measured friction pressure drop Calculated friction pressure drop

Figure 6. Bar graph comparing measured pressure drop and calculated pressure drop of
Measurement of Flow Rate
pipesinofavarying
Pipe material and diameter.
Venturi Meter Results
Data Set ∆ P( KPa ) Q measured Q calculated Q measured −Q Error %
(L/min) (L/min) calculated
5 7.2 19 17.54 1.46 7.68
7 14.2 26 28.05 -2.05 7.88
20 39.6 42 46.85 -4.85 11.54

Table 5. Data and relevant calculated values for measurement of flow rate in a pipe
experiment; venturi meter results

6
 Venturi Meter Measured vs Calculated Flow Rate
50 46.85
45 42
40
35
Flow Rate Q (L/min)

30 28.05
26
25
20 19
17.54
15
10
5
0
5 7 20

Data set

Q (Measured) L/min Q (Calculated) L/min

Figure #. Bar graph comparing measured flow rate with calculated flow rate for three
sets of recorded data; venturi meter results

Refer to Appendix 2.1. for calculation.

Orifice Plate
Data set ∆ P( KPa ) Q measured Q calculated Q measured −Q Error (%)
(L/min) (L/min) calculated
2 43.4 38 9.48 28.52 75.05
5 12.7 20 5.13 14.87 74.35
6 22.4 27 6.82 20.18 74.74

Table 6. Data and relevant calculated values for measurement of flow rate in a pipe experiment;
orifice plate results

7
 Orifice Plate Measured vs Calculated Flow Rate
40 38

35

30
27
Flow Rate Q (L/m)

25
20
20

15
9.48
10
6.82
5.13
5

0
2 5 6

Data set

Q(Measured) L/m Q(Calculated) L/m

Figure 7. Bar graph comparing measured flow rate with calculated flow rate for three
sets of recorded data; orifice plate results

Refer to Appendix 2.2. for calculation.

Sudden Expansion
Data set ∆ P( KPa ) Q measured Q calculated Q measured −Q Error (%)
(L/min) (L/min) calculated
3 20.2 40 48.09 -8.09 20.23
7 11.6 30 36.36 -6.36 21.22
15 6.3 23 26.8 -3.8 16.52

8
Table 3. Data and relevant calculated values for measurement of flow rate in a pipe experiment;
sudden expansion results
 Q measured VS Q calculated
[sudden-expansion]
60

50 48.09
Flow Rate Q (L/min)

40
40 36.36
30
30 26.8
23
20

10

0
3 7 15
Data Set

Q(measured) L/min Q(calculated) L/min

Figure 8. Bar graph comparing measured flow rate with calculated flow rate for three
sets of recorded data; sudden expansion results

Refer to Appendix 2.3. for calculation.

Discussion
Although this experiment was conducted in the lab equipped with various precision measurement
instrument and under the supervision of lab experts several factors could impact on inaccuracy.
Varying pipes of different material and diameter used in this experiment increases the factors
affecting differences in measured and calculated results. PVC pipe used in this experiment has
negligible surface roughness of 0.0015. This property of this material contributed to obtain less head
loss in this experiment. The flow rate of PVC pipe was 85 L/min and the resulted friction loss was
found to be of 10.43% variation. On the other hand, result on the Galvanised pipe flow rate same as
PVC has error of 12.4 %. As per the information shown above in figure 6, the calculated friction drop
has higher value than measured friction pressure drop value which is due to the greater fluid velocity.
Another factor considered to be influencing the error is assumption on water temperature to be 20

9
degree Celsius which could vary with changing room temperature. Similarly, irregularities in the
dimension of pipe that cause the measurement contrast with theoretical values.
In second part of this experiment the estimated value and the calculated value in orifice plate, sudden
expansion and venturi meter has significant difference. The second flow has volumetric flow rates that
are about half the magnitude of the first one, which objectively would seem to have less difference in
calculation, since the turbulence of the flow was not as sever. Moreover, During the experiment air
bubble seems to be left inside the system which could result in wrong pressure reading. Inside
Surface roughness of Galvanised pipe is not uniform which could impact on value of pipe flow.
Calculation and rounding off the value to the nearest decimal figures could impact in estimations. The
measurement instrument’s precision and error value could result little amount difference in calculated
and real-life reading value.
This experiment could be useful as it helps to provide information on measurement of friction loss
pipe flow of any pipe based on their dimension and physical properties. The testing apparatus and
equipment allows us to determine the type of material that would be the most efficient in term of
required power for distributing fluid for different applications in industrial as well as household
plumbing. Different experiments could be conducted using current testing apparatus. As an example,
by changing the flow rate new sets of data could be recorded as required to test the laminar flow or
turbulence flow of any other fluid.

Modifications to the Experiment

Modification that could improve the experiment and learning:

 The experiment could be repeated more than three times to get more accurate and reliable
result.
 Valves, elbows, and Bends could be introduced to the apparatus to measure a wider range of
minor head loss.
 Piping that changes height as it passes through the apparatus could be used to test if there is
more head loss from gravity or from friction caused by internal roughness.
 Any combination of additional components such as a pump, fan, or a turbine could be
introduced to examine all possible aspects of the expanded energy equation that is derived
from Bernoulli’s Principle.
 PVC and Galvanized pipes could be replaced by Copper pipes and brass pipes.
 The orientation of the outlet of flow meter could be changed from vertical to Horizontal
position so that impact of gravity on this experiment could be solved in some extent.

Conclusion
In experiment A ‘friction loss in pipes’, frictional effects of material and pipe diameter are examined.
Comparing PVC to galvanised pipes, PVC piping had a lower pressure drop than galvanised piping in
both diameters measured. This is due to PVC having a lower frictional coefficient. Additionally, the
pressure drop increase in nominal pipe diameter was significantly higher for both materials. This is
likely due to the reduction in turbulent flow and resulting frictional effects due to a change in pipe
size. The smaller diameter pipe had a less significant head loss as the flow velocity is slightly
increased resulting in a decrease in static pressure.
In comparing measured quantities against expected calculated quantities for fluid flow, differences in
results can be explained by experimental and human error and calculations not fully accounting for
deviations in flow rate of the fluid. Variations in measured and calculated flow rates were smallest for
venturi meter and highest for orifice plate connections. The large difference in orifice plate values is
most likely due to inaccurate manufacturing of the connection due to its small size. The venturi meter

10
is recommended as the most accurate pipework connection to measure flow rate as the recorded
values were closest to the expected calculated values.

References
1. Chen, X. 2019, ‘Laminar-to-Turbulence Transition Revealed Through a Reynolds Number
Equivalence’, Science Direct, Volume 5, Issue 3, June 2019, Pages 576-579
2. Warwick University Engineering, ES2A7 Lab exercises, viewed 6 May 2020,
<https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/eng/staff/ymc/teaching/zhigang/handout.pdf>
3. WTW Cory, B. 2005, Fans and Ventilation, Elsevier Science, Pages 43-75,
<http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978008044626450005X>
4. Sines, J. 2009, Relationship Between Pressure Drop and Flow Rate in a Pipeline, Engineered
Software Knowledge Base, viewed 7th May 2020, <http://kb.eng-software.com/eskb/ask-an-
engineer/theory-equations-and-calculated-results-questions/relationship-between-pressure-drop-and-
flow-rate-in-a-pipeline>.
5. PipeFlow 2020, Pipe Roughness, viewed 7 May 2020, <https://www.pipeflow.com/pipe-pressure-
drop-calculations/pipe-roughness>

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6. UTS Online 2020, LabNote-Pipe Flow Experiment, UTS Online Subject 48641, Lab Note, viewed
7 May 2020, <https://online.uts.edu.au/bbcswebdav/pid-3821378-dt-content-rid-
58410494_1/courses/48641-2020-AUTUMN-CITY/LabNotes-PipeFlow4UTSOnline.pdf>

Appendix
Calculation Coefficients

12
 Figure 9. Venturi meter coefficient Cv (UTS Online 2020)

Figure 10. Orifice meter coefficient (UTS Online 2020)

13
 Figure 11. Flow nozzle coefficient (UTS Online 2020)

1.1. Pipe Flow Loss Calculation

(embedded PDF link)

2.1. Venturi Meter Calculation

14
Using the 5th set of data, namely
Flow rate Qmeasured = 19 l/min = 0.019/60 = 3.17×10-4 m3/s
Pressure change 1-2: P1 − P2 = ΔP = 7.2 kPa = 7 200 Pa.
Temperature 20 ºC => Water Viscosity μ = 0.001 Pa.s
Water density ρ = 1000 kg/m3
Venturi dimensions D = 20 mm (at 1); d = 10 mm (at 2)

Using Qmeasured for estimating Reynolds number:

Re = 4 ρ Q / (π d μ)
= 4.036×102
From Graph “Venturi meter coefficients” Figure 9 (Lab notes), CV = 0.85
Elevation z1 = z2
Area A2 = π d2/4 = 7.85×10−5 m2
A2 / A1 = (d / D)2 = (10 / 20)2 = 1/4

CV A2 ΔP
Qcalculated = A2 2 √
∙ 2
ρ
√ 1−(
A1
)

Q = 2.9237-4 m3/s
=17.54 l/min
This is in good agreement with the measured value of 19 l/min.
Repeated for data sets 7 and 20.
7th: Qmeasured = 26 L/min
Qcalculated = 28.05 L/min

20th: Qmeasured = 42 L/min

Qcalculated = 46.85 L/min

15
2.2. Orifice Plate Calculations

(embedded PDF Link)

16
2.3. Sudden Expansion Calculations

(embedded PDF link)

17