Hydraulics New Edited

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
PRELIMINARY READER
in
CE 356 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
S. N. ODAI
FEBRUARY 2007
DR S. N. ODAI - KNUST HYDRAULICS (CE 356)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS ........................................................................2

1.1 DEFINITION...................................................................................................................................................... 2
1.2 HISTORY OF HYDRAULICS .............................................................................................................................. 2
CHAPTER TWO OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW (FREE SURFACE FLOW) ...............................................3
2.1 DEFINITION...................................................................................................................................................... 3
2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWS ......................................................................................................................... 3
2.3 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION ................................................................................................................................ 3
2.4 OPEN CHANNEL UNIFORM FLOW FORMULAS ............................................................................................... 4
2.5 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS .................................................................................................... 5
2.6 MOST EFFICIENT CROSS SECTIONS (BEST HYDRAULIC CROSS SECTIONS) ............................................. 16
2.7 UNLINED AND LINED CHANNELS .................................................................................................................. 18
2.8 NOMOGRAPHIC DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS ............................................................................................ 21
CHAPTER THREE NON-UNIFORM FLOW ..........................................................................................23
3.1 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOWS ............................................................................................................................. 23
3.1.1 Energy Principle ..............................................................................................................23
3.1.2 Specific Energy................................................................................................................25
3.1.3 Flow Measurements ........................................................................................................27
3.1.4 Critical Flow .....................................................................................................................31
3.2 FLOW DEPTH FOR MAXIMUM DISCHARGE AT A GIVEN SPECIFIC ENERGY .................................................. 35
3.3 THE MOMENTUM EQUATION......................................................................................................................... 37
3.3.1 The Hydraulic Jump ........................................................................................................37
3.4 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW .......................................................................................................................... 42
3.4.1 Governing Equations ......................................................................................................42
3.4.2 Classification of Channel Slopes ...................................................................................44
3.4.3 Principles for determining the surface profiles ...........................................................44
CHAPTER FOUR PIPES AND PIPE NETWORKS ..............................................................................51
4.1 DEFINITION.................................................................................................................................................... 51
4.2 LAMINAR FLOW AND TURBULENT FLOW ..................................................................................................... 51
4.3 ENERGY EQUATION OF PIPE FLOW ............................................................................................................. 52
4.4 CONTINUITY EQUATION ............................................................................................................................... 52
4.5 EVALUATION OF HEAD LOSS DUE TO FRICTION ......................................................................................... 53
4.6 MINOR HEAD LOSSES................................................................................................................................... 56
4.7 PIPELINES WITH PUMPS AND TURBINES ....................................................................................................... 58
4.8 PIPES IN SERIES ............................................................................................................................................... 58
4.9 PIPES IN PARALLEL ...................................................................................................................................... 59
4.10 WATER HAMMER ....................................................................................................................................... 65
4.11 PIPE NETWORKS ........................................................................................................................................ 67
CHAPTER FIVE HYDRODYNAMIC MACHINES ...............................................................................72
5.1 HYDRODYNAMIC MACHINES ......................................................................................................................... 72
5.2 PUMPS CLASSIFICATION ............................................................................................................................... 72
5.2.1 Introduction to Centrifugal Pumps ................................................................................73
5.2.2 Introduction to Vertical Pumps ......................................................................................74
5.2.3 Introduction to Positive Displacement ..........................................................................74
5.3 THE CENTRIFUGAL PUMP.............................................................................................................................. 75
5.4 WORKING OF A CENTRIFUGAL PUMP............................................................................................................ 80
5.5 SPECIFIC SPEED OF PUMPS ......................................................................................................................... 80
5.6 RELATIONS FOR GEOMETRICALLY SIMILAR PUMPS ................................................................................... 81
5.7 RELATIONS FOR ALTERATION IN THE SAME PUMP ...................................................................................... 81
5.8 HEAD DEVELOPED AND POWER REQUIRED .................................................................................................. 82
5.9 CAVITATION AND NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD ........................................................................................ 85
5.10 PERFORMANCE OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS................................................................................................... 88
5.11 SINGLE PUMP AND PIPELINE SYSTEM ......................................................................................................... 90
5.12 MULTIPLE PUMP SYSTEM............................................................................................................................ 91
1
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS

1.1 Definition
The term hydraulics refers generally to the study of the behaviour of Liquids. The word
hydraulics comes from the Greek word hydraulikos meaning water. It is the study of the
mechanical behaviour of water in physical systems and processes. It involves flows in open
channels, conduits, porous media, sediments and other contaminants transported with water.
Table 1.1 Differences between Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics

Fluid Mechanics Hydraulics
1. Theoretical 1. Empirical
2. Refers to both liquids and gasses 2. Refers to liquids (often refers to Water)
3. Compressible and incompressible 3. Incompressible flows
Flows
Objective of this study: The application of engineering principles and methods to the planning,
control, transportation, conservation and utilization of water.
Scope of study: The present study will cover the following broad topics or chapters.
1. Free surface flow (Open Channel Flow)

2. Pipe Flow and Pipe Networks
3. Hydrodynamic Machines (Emphasis on Pumps)
4. Dimensional Analysis and Hydraulic Similitude
Liquids are transported from one location to another using natural or constructed conveyance
structures and flow passages. The flow passages may have cross sections that are open or
close at the top. The structures with the closed tops are referred to as closed conduits and
those with open tops are called open channels.
1.2 History of Hydraulics

Early civilizations developed in regions where an abundance of water could be distributed over
fairly flat land for irrigation
In Egypt, to augment the flow of irrigation water during the low flow season, there are signs that
one of the early rulers, King Menes (about 3000 B. C.) had a masonry dam built across the Nile.
This dam was used to divert the river into a canal, thus, to irrigate part of the adjoining and
lands.
Civilization in Mesopotamia (Iraq) started about the same time as in Egypt (3000 B. C.). The
Euphrates and Tigris rivers formed a network of channels before finally emptying into the
Persian Gulf. Furthermore, the people of the area built many canals for irrigating crops, draining
swamps, and water transportation. Early hydraulic engineering in this area included developing
flood protection works and dam construction.
Ancient ruins in the valleys of the Indus River in Asia and the Yellow River in China reveal
evidence of water systems developed at least 3000 years ago.
From about 200 B. C. to 50 A. D., the Romans developed elaborate water-supply systems
throughout their empire. It is reported that aqueducts supplied Rome with about 200 million
gallons of water daily.
2
CHAPTER TWO OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW (FREE SURFACE FLOW)
2.1 Definition
The flow in an open channel or closed conduit having a free surface is referred to as free-
surface flow or open channel flow (open channel Hydraulics). If there is no free surface and
the conduit is flowing full, then the flow is called pipe flow, or pressurised flow.
Open channel flow occurs when a liquid flowing due to gravity has a free surface, and the liquid
is not under pressure other than that caused by its own weight and by atmospheric pressure.
For example, tunnels, pipes and aqueducts are closed conduits whereas rivers, streams,
estuaries, etc, are open channels.
Common examples of open channel flows occur in rivers, canals, storm water drains, and
irrigation canals. A channel with constant shape and slope is known as a prismatic channel.
Fig 2.1 Various Sections of Open Channels
2.2 Classification of Flows

 Steady and unsteady flows (it is w.r.t. time)
 Uniform and non-uniform flows (w.r.t. distance) also called varied flows
 Laminar and turbulent flows (w.r.t movement of liquid particles)
 Sub critical, Supercritical, and critical flows. (w.r.t. Froude Number)----- v gD
2.3 Velocity Distribution

The flow velocity in a channel section usually varies from one point to another. This is due to
shear stress (resistance, friction) at the bottom and the sides of the channel and due to the
presence of free surface.
2.0
° °
0.5
°
Fig 2.2 Velocity Distribution
Curves created by joining points of equal velocities are called isovels.

Velocity distribution in an open channel is not axisymetric due to friction at the walls
3
V
Velocity Distribution Curve
2.4 Open Channel Uniform Flow Formulas

2.5
b) Positive slope, S>0 c) zero slope, S=0 d) negative slope, S<0
Fig 2.3 Open Channel Flow bottom Slopes
Flow in most channels is turbulent, and laminar flow in open channels is very rare. Laminar
open-channel flow is known to exist, however usually where the sheers of water flow over the
ground or where it is created deliberately. The fact that a stream surface appears smooth and
glassy to the observer is by no means an indication that the flow is Laminar: most probably, it
indicates that the surface velocity is lower than that required for waves to form.
T
t Free board
V
D
h
c
θ
Fig 2.4 Open Channel
Where T=Top width of the channel; t=width of water surface for depth h; h= flow depth in
channel; D=Depth of channel after free board is added; b=bottom width; c=length of wetted
sides of channel; θ= angle b/n sloping side and the horizontal
4
(b  t )h
Area of flow: A
2
Wetted Perimeter (P): The sum of the length of that part of the channel sides and bottom, which
are in contact with water
P  2c  b and c= h (1  m 2 )
A
Hydraulic radius R 
P
Hydraulic Slope (S) is the ratio of vertical drop to length of channel travelled
HD
S
L
And the Velocity  S
The flow velocity by the Chezy formula is given by V  C RS
Where C = Chezy coefficient is difficult to determine. An alternative form is the Manning‟s

formula given by
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V=
nR S
Where n= Manning roughness coefficient.
Freeboard
The vertical distance from the top of the channel (retaining banks) to the water surface (highest
anticipated) at the design condition. This distance should be sufficient to prevent waves or
fluctuation in the water surface from overflowing the sides. There is no universal rule for the
determination of the freeboard, since wave action or water surface fluctuation in a channel may
be created by many uncontrollable causes. However, freeboards varying from 5% to 30% of the
depth of flow are commonly used in design.
Table 2.1 Some recommended values for freeboard

Channel flow rate
(m3/s) 2~10 1~2 0.5~1.0 <0.5
Recommended
freeboard (m) 0.4~0.6 0.35 0.25 0.15
2.5 Hydraulic Design of Open Channels

Designs of channel with flow through various cross-sections will be discussed in this section.
There are two main types of design problems encountered in open channel flow studies. They
are
 Given the depth, determine flow rate
 Given the flow rate, determine depth
5
Flow through rectangular and trapezoidal sections
EXAMPLE 1
Water flows in a rectangular concrete open channel of slope 0.0028, width 12.0m, and flow
depth 2.5m. If n=0.013 determine flow velocity and flow rate.
Solution
A 2.5 x12.0
R   1.765m
P 2.5  12.0  2.5
Given S=0.0028, n=0.013
1 2 / 3 1 / 2 1x (1.765) 2 / 3 (0.0028)1 / 2
v R S =  5.945m / s
n 0.013
Q  VA = 2.5 x 12 x 5.945 = 178m3/s
EXAMPLE 2
Water flows in the symmetrical trapezoidal channel lined with asphalt. S=0.001, n=0.015,
determine flow rate.
1
4.5m
3
b=16.0
Fig 2.5 Symmetrical trapezoidal channel

Solution
Given S = 0.001, n = 0.015, m = 3
A  bh  mh 2  (b  mh)h ;
h
P  b  2(1  m 2 ) 2
A= (16 + 3 x 4.5) x 4.5 = 132.75m2,

P = 44.46m
RA
P = 2.987m
A 2 / 3 1 / 2 132.8 x(2.987) 2 / 3 (0.001)1 / 2
 Q  AV = R S   580.297m3 / s
n 0.015
6
Graphical Method
Assume values of d and calculate A, P, R and then Q. The two values of d that bracket the
given Q should also bracket the value of drequired.
h (m) A (m2) P (m) R (m) Q (m3/s)

h1 A1 P1 R1 Q1
h2 A2 P2 R2 Q2
„ „ „ „ „
„ „ „ „ „
hn An Pn Rn Qn
Usually 4~5 trials should bracket the required value.
h
d
(
hreqd
m
)
0 Q (m3/s)
Qgiven
Fig 2.6 Graphical method of determining flow rate
Example 1: How deep will water flow at the rate of 240m3/s in a rectangular channel 20m wide
laid on a slope of 0.0001? Take n = 0.015.
Solution
Employing the Manning's Formula
1 2 1
Q AR 3 S 2
n
A  20h
P  20  2h
2
240h  20h  3
0.0001 2
1
240 =  
n  20  2h 
2
h  20h  3
12 =   0.001
n  20  2h 
2
h  20h  3
1200 =  
0.015  20  2h 
2
 20h  3
18 = h 
 20  2h 
7
3 3  20h 
18 2
 h 2 
 20  2h 
5
20h 2
76.37   AA
20  2h
5
h 2
3.818 
20  2h
h ≈ 7m
h AA
10 7.906
1 0.045
5 1.863
8 5.028
7 3.813
7.01 3.824
Example 2: How wide must a rectangular channel be constructed in order to carry 500m3/s of
water at a depth of 6m on a slope of 0.0004 and n = 0.010?
Solution
Using Manning's Formula
A  bh  6b
P  b  2h  12  b
6b
R
12  b
A 2 3 12
Q= R S
n
2
6b  6b 
0.0004 12
3
500   
0.01  12  b 
2
 6b  3
41.667  b 
 12  b 
3  6b 
268.957  b 2  
 12  b 
5
6b 2
=
12  b
5
b 2
44.82b   AB
12  b
b ≈ 17.8 m
b AB
10 14.37
20 55.9
15 32.27
18 45.82
17 41.08
17.8 44.857
8
Flow through Compound Channels

A compound channel may be defined as a channel in which various sub areas have different
flow properties; e.g. surface roughness, n, flow area, A. A natural river stream having over bank
(flood plain) flow during a flood is a typical example of a compound section. In calculating the
flow through a compound channel the conveyance is found to be of great help.
Channel Conveyance
A = bh+mh2=(b+mh) h A (h)
P = b+2[1+m2] 1/2h  P (h)

R=
A  R (h)
P
1 1/ 6
C= R  C (h)
n
K = CAR  K (h)
For Q = KS, it is clear that only S is independent of h. K is the conveyance of the channel
section given by
Q A 2/3
K=  R
S n
EXAMPLE 1: Determine the normal discharge for the channel shown in Fig 2.7a. The water
surface in the left flood plain is 42m wide and that in the right flood plain is 26m. The manning
roughness value for the flood plain is 0.10, while the Manning roughness value for the channel
is 0.05 for the channel. The longitudinal slope of the channel is 0.0005.
Solution:
n1=0.10 n2=0.05 n3=0.10
2m
2m
5m 5m
12m 30m 15m 16m 10m
12m 12m
Fig 2.7 a
9
Left over bank Channel Right over bank

Area of flow (A)
 12 
A1   30    2 A2  27  5  39  2 A3  21  2
 2
 72m 2  213m2  42m 2
Wetted Perimeter
P2  15  2 122  52 P3  16  102  22
P1  b  x 2  y 2
 41m  26.2m
 30  122  22
 42.2m
 A
Hydraulic Radius  R  
 P
72 213 42
R1   1.71m R2   5.20m R3   1.6m
42.2 41 26.2
 AR 3 
2

Conveyance  K  

 n 
213  5.2 3 42  1.6 3
2 2
72  1.71 3
2
K1  K1  K1 
0.10 0.05 0.10
 1,030m3 / s  12,790m3 / s  575m / s
3
Discharge Q   K Si o
1
2
 1,030  12,790  575  0.0005 2 = 322m3/s
1
EXAMPLE 2: A compound channel is shown in Fig 2.7b. It has the following dimensions: m1 =
1, n1 = 0.03, b1 = 10m, d1 = 2m. The upper part of the channel has the following dimensions m2
= 1.5, n2 = 0.0225, b2 = 5m, d2 = 1.5m. The channel bottom slope is So = 0.0003. Determine the
(i) channel discharge (ii) Average velocity at the cross section.
Solution:
n1=0.03 n2=0.0225 n3=0.03
d1=2m 1
1 d1=2m
1
1
b1=10m d2=1.5m b3=10m
b2=5m
Fig 2.7 b
10
Dividing the channel section a -a and b-b, gives three channels. So=0.0003
Determine the Areas
A1  b1 h1  m1 h1  b1  2m1 h1 h2  10  2  1  2 2  10  2  1  2  1.5  45m 2

2
m2 2 1.5
A2  A3  b2 h2  h2  5  1.5   1.5 2  9.19m 2
2 2
A  A1  2 A2  45  2  9.19  63.38m 2
Determine the Perimeters

P1  b1  2h1 1  m1  10  2  2 1  12  15.64m
2
P2  P3  b2  h2 1  m2  5  1.5 1  1.52  7.7m

2
Determine the hydraulic Radius

A1 45
R1    2.88m
P1 15.64
A2 9.19
R2  R3    1.19m
P2 7.7
Chezy Coefficient for each section

1 16 1
C1  R1   2.88 6  39.76m 2 / s
1 1
n1 0.03
1 16 1
C2  C3  R2   1.19 6  45.8m 2 / s
1 1
n 0.0225
Conveyance for each section

K1  C1 A1 R1  39.76  45 2.88  3036m3 / s
K 2  K 3  C2 A2 R2  45.8  9.19 1.19  459m3 / s
 Q   K i  So  K1  K 2  K 3  So
 3036  459  459 0.0003
 68.49m3 / s
The velocity at the section is

Q 68.49
v   1.08m / s
A 63.38
Flow through channel of circular section
There are two main flow conditions in this kind of cross –section.
(i) flow depth less than radius
(ii) flow depth greater than radius
11
(i) Flow depth less than radius
 2 
Area of sector ADCB = π R2  o 
 360 
1 1
Area of triangle AOC  2 x RSin RCos  R 2 SinCos  R 2 Sin 2
2 2
O
 D

C R
A
h
Fig 2.8 Channel of circular section
Area of flow = Area of sector – Area of triangle
 2  1 2
A  R 2  0 
 R Sin 2
 360  2
The perimeter,
 2 
P  2R 0 
 360 
 The hydraulic radius
 2  1 2  
R 2    R Sin 2 R   RSin 2
 360  2   
0
A 90
Rh  
P  2    
2R   0 
 360   45 
0
A 23
Q  AC Rh S  Rh S
n
(ii) Flow depth greater than radius
Area of flow = Area of (circle +  - sector)
1 2  2 
= R 2  R Sin 2  R 2  o 
2  360 
12
 2    
Perimeter = Perimeter of (circle – sector) = 2R - 2R  o 
= R 2  0 
 360   90 
1  2 
R 2  R 2 Sin 2  R 2  0 
Rh 
A

2  360 
P   
R 2  
 90 0 
 2   
2R  RSin 2  2R  2R  RSin 2  R 
 360    90 
0
Rh 
     
2  2  0   4  0 
 90   45 
A 23
Q  AC Rh S  Rh S
n
EXAMPLE 1: A circular sewer 1m in diameter conveys a discharge of water at a depth of 0.2m.

If the sector is laid at a slope of 1 in 500 find the rate of flow. Take C= 60
Solution
A C
B
 Rh 1  0.3 
  Cos  1
  Cos    53.13
0
 R   0.5 
   1 2
Area of flow = R 2  0 
 R Sin 2 = 0.2319 – 0.12 = 0.1119m2
 180  2
 2 
Perimeter of flow = 2R 0 
= 0.928m
 360 
A 0.1119
Hydraulic radius Rh =   0.1206m
P 0.928
Q  CA Rh S  60 x0.1119 x 0.1206 = 0.1124m3/S

500
Example 2: The depth of water in a circular brick lined conduit 1.8m in diameter is to be 1.5m
and the flow rate 2.16 x 105 m3/day. Find the gradient of the conduit. Take C = 67.
Solution
13
hR 1 0.6
  Cos 1    Cos  48.19 0
 R  0.9
1 2   
Area of flow = R 2  R Sin 2  R 2  0 
2  180 
= 2.5457 + 0.4025 – 0.6735
= 2.2747m2
  
Perimeter P  2R1  
 180 0 
= 4.133m
2.2747
Hydraulic Radius Rh = = 0.55m
4.133
From Q = AC RS
Q2 6.25 1
S 2 2   4.8964 x10  4 
A C R 5.17 x 4489 x0.55 2042
Example 3: A sewer is laid on a slope of 0.0020 and is to carry 83.5m3/s, when the pipe flow
0.9 full. What size of pipe should be used? Take n = 0.015
Solution
1 2  2  D
Area of flow = R 2  R Sin 2  R 2  0 
and R
2  360  2
D 2
D2 2   D 
2
  D2
A  Sin 2  D   1   Sin 2  0.6248D 2  0.12 D 2  0.7448D 2 m 2
 720  4  180  2
0 0
4 8
B
A C
  R
h=0.9D D
 0.9 D  0.5D  1  0.4 

  Cos 1    Cos    36.87
0
 0.5 D   0.5 
     
Perimeter, P  R 2    D1    2.50Dm
 180   180 
0 0
14
A 0.7448D 2
Rh    0.298D
P 2.50D
A 23
Q R S
n
83.5 
1
0.015
 
x 0.7448 D 2 x0.298 D  3 0.0002  2
2 1
8
88.565  0.3323D 3
8
D 3  266.53
D  8.1m
D D8/3
8 256
9 350.466
8.5 300.92
8.2 273.42
8.1 264.62
EXAMPLE 4: A 50cm diameter concrete pipe on a slope of 0.002 is to be used for conveying
water of a flow rate of 0.04m3/s. If n=0.013, determine the flow depth.
Solution
B D = 50 cm

E
A C
D
BE  r  h  0.25  h
AE  CE  r 2
 r  h  
2
 0.25 2
 0.25  h 
2

0.25  h
 = ABE = EBC = ArcCos ( )
0.25
d 2  0.25  h 1  0.25  h
Area ABCDA   2  ar cos    0.001091  ar cos
4x  0.25 360  0.25
Free surface water subtends an angle of 2 at the centre B.

(0.25  h) [(0.252  (0.25  h)2 ]
(Area) ABEA = (Area) BCEB =
2
(Area) AECDA = (Area) ABCDA-2 (Area) ABEA
 0.25  h   (0.25  h) ((0.252  (0.25  h) 2 ) 
(Area) AECDA = (0.001091) arcCos    2  
  0.25   2 
15
  0.25  h 
d .2 arcCos 
P = Length of arc ADC =   0.25 
3600
  0.25  h  
= 0.008728 arcCos   
  0.25  
1 2 / 3 1/ 2
V  R S
n
and therefore Q=VA and Q=
A 2 / 3 1/ 2
R S
n
Now we have A & P and Q, n, S given. Given that n=0.013, S=0.002
A
 0.04m3/s= R 2 / 3 (0.002) 1 / 2
0.013
 AR2/3=0.01163m3/s
2/3
A  A
Since R   R2/3   
P P
A5 / 3
2/3
 0.01163m 3 / s
P
Substituting values into expressions,
5/ 3
   0.25  h   
( 0.001091) arcCos     ( 0.25  h )  0.25  ( 0.25  h ) 
2 2

   0.25   
2/3
 0.01163m 3 / s
   0.25  h  
( 0.008727)  arcCos   
   0.25  
This equation is difficult to solve but a trial-and-error solution yields h=0.166m.
1  d 2  A d
 and P= d  then R=
1
If h=r, A=  
2 4  2 P 4
A 2 / 3 1 / 2 = d 2  d  S 1 / 2
2/3
Hence Q= R S  
n 8n  4 
2.6 Most Efficient Cross Sections (Best Hydraulic Cross Sections)

Some channel cross sections are more efficient then others in that they provide more flow for a
given wetted perimeter. When a channel is constructed, the excavation, and possibly the lining
must be paid for. The best hydraulic section or most efficient cross section for an open channel
is the one that will have the greatest capacity for a given slope, area, and roughness coefficient.
16
The most efficient cross section should be the cheapest because it has the smallest wetted
perimeter and would require the least amount of lining material or surface finishing but may not
necessarily have the minimum cost of construction.
53
A A
Q= R 2 / 3 S 1 / 2 = Q= 2/3
S 1/ 2
n nP
For a trapezoidal section the area
A  bh  mh 2
A
 b m
h
and the perimeter
P  b  2h (1  m 2 )
P
A
h

 mh  2h 1  m 2  f (h)
From the above, it is known that when A and m are constants, then P varies with h.
If these parameters remain constant, it is clear from the equation, that Q will be largest when the
perimeter is smallest.
Taking
dP d  A 2 
   mh  2h 1  m 
dh dh  h 
A
  2  m  2 1 m2
h
Substitute A  b  mhh into

dp
expression to yield.
dh
dp bh  mh 2 b
 2
 m  2 1  m2   2m  2 1  m 2
dh h h
d 2P
For minimum value,
dP
0  and 0 
dh dh 2
b
h

 2 1 m2  m 
b
is the best hydraulic section ratio of width to depth say
h
 best 
b
h
 
  best  2 1  m 2  m  f (m) a function of only m.
m 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 3.00
 best 2 1.56 1.24 1.00 0.83 0.70 0.61 0.53 0.47 0.39 0.32
b
e.g. for m=0, rectangular cross section,  best = 2 =  b = 2h
h
Generally, the most efficient of all cross sections is a semicircle because it has the smallest
wetted perimeter for a given area.
17
2.7 Unlined and Lined Channels

Unlined earth channels are often found in irrigation projects as conveyance systems on the
farms. The advantages of earth unlined channels include the facts that:
- they are understood and accepted by farmers
- they can be built and maintained by unskilled labour
- they do not require special equipment or materials
- construction materials are locally available
Construction of Earth Channels – Some facts

1. They should be built with stable side slopes and with banks strong enough to carry the
required flow safely.
2. They should have ample capacity to carry the design flow at non-erosive velocities.
3. Side slopes should be flat enough so that the banks will neither cake in nor slide when
they are saturated with water.
4. For stiff clay, steep slopes up to ½ to 1 are possible.
5. Loose sand should have flat slopes of about 2 to 1.
6. Channels that are constructed higher than the surrounding field level should have banks
large enough to withstand damage by seepage or trampling.
Earth channels are lined with impervious materials to prevent excessive seepage and growth of
weeds. This is important because if not, a large portion of the water harnessed at high cost,
through the canal network or through wells and pumps, is lost by seepage from unlined
conveyance systems.
In permeable soils like sand and sandy loam, the losses in earth channels may be as high as
20~40% of the water delivered to the channel.
Water losses in unlined channels may occur by:

- seepage
- breaches along the channel through rat holes
- ponding of water in depressions and irregularities in the channel section
- evaporation
The length of the channel affects the quantity of water lost by seepage and evaporation.
One of the main problems in the use of unlined channels is the control of weeds. Weeds in a
channel obstruct the flow of water. If the weeds are allowed to grow up to maturity, their seeds
may spread over the farm through the irrigation water. Thus unlined channels require
continuous maintenance to:
- control weed growth
- repair damage by livestock rodents
- control erosion
Generally, there are several other problems associated with sharing water for irrigation from
unlined channels. Usually the farmer or user at the upstream end gets nearly the full supply of
water due to less seepage. However, the user at the tail end of the channel gets comparatively
much less water due to seepage. Thus providing lining in the channels gives nearly equal
distribution of water amongst all farmers.
Well mixed and well made cement concrete lining and single layer bricks or stones laid in
cement, provide virtually water-proof channel lining. Other materials which are rather
susceptible to damage and thus uneconomical include bituminous mixtures, soil cement,
chemical sealants, polythene film and impervious earth materials.
18
Table: Typical Values of Manning’s n

Materials Manning’s n
Earth channels 0.023 ~ 0.04
Lined channels
concrete 0.015
masonry 0.017 ~ 0.03
metal, smooth 0.011 ~ 0.015
wooden 0.011 ~ 0.014
vegetated waterway 0.02 ~ 0.04
Pipes
cast iron 0.012 ~ 0.013
clay or concrete drain tile 0.011
steel 0.015 ~ 0.017
vitrified sewer pipe 0.013 ~ 0.015
Importance of Lining of Earth Channels

 To avoid excessive loss of water by seepage
 To avoid piping through or under banks
 To provide needed stability
 To avoid erosion
 To avoid water logging of adjacent lands
 To promote the continued movements of sediments
 To facilitate cleaning
 To promote economy by a reduction in excavation
 To reduce flow resistance
 To aid in the control of weeds and aquatic growths
Some materials for lining:

 Concrete
 Brick or stone masonry
 Asphalt lining
 Compacted earth lining
 pre-cast concrete
Permissible Slope of Earth Channels

The natural slope of the land is usually the deciding factor in determining the channel bed slope.
The steeper the channel, the more will be the velocity and the more the discharge for the same
cross-section. But high slopes result in high velocities which cause erosion.
An earth channel should have a gradient of about 0.1 %. However, silting may occur if the
channel has gradient less than 0.05%.
When bed slopes of channels should be determined, the velocity should be checked so that it
does not exceed a certain maximum – thus avoiding erosion.
19
Permissible Velocities for Various Soil Textures

Maximum permissible
Soil type
velocity (m/s)
Bare channels
sand and silt 0.45
loam, sandy loam, silt loam 0.6
clay loam 0.65
Vegetated channels
poor vegetation 0.9
fair vegetation 1.2
good vegetation 1.5
Where earth channels are to be used on steep slopes, it is necessary to control the gradients
and thus the velocity by constructing drop structures or by lining the channel bed.
Structures for Controlling Erosion in Channels (Irrigation)

Often it is necessary to build (irrigation) channels on land slopes so steep that the water will
attain erosive velocities. Severe erosion will occur in earth channels if structures to control the
slope are not provided. Drop structures and chute drops are used to prevent erosion in
channels.
Drop Structures
Drop structures are used to discharge water in a channel from higher level to a lower one. They
may be open type drops or pipe drops. Open drop structures can be made of timber, concrete,
or brick or stone masonry. Timber is usually not preferred due to its short life.
20
Drop points
Drop structures often set up eddy currents in the (irrigation) stream and these currents cause
erosion of the channel section immediately downstream from the structure. Stones or brick
placed over a length of 1 to 2 metres from the structure help to prevent channel erosion near
drop structures. When earth channels are to be constructed on steep slope, it is necessary to
construct a series of drop structures to flatten the channel slope.
Chute Spillways
Chute spillways carry the flow down steep slopes through a lined channel rather than by
dropping the water in free overfall. A chute spillway consists of an inlet, channel section and an
outlet. The structure may be made of concrete, or stone, or bricks laid in cement mortar. A low
cost chute spillway can be made of pre-cast concrete channel sections with a stilling basin at
the outlet.
Check gate
Fig 2.
shaft
10~20 cm
1~2 m
A check gate is often installed at the inlet to regulate the water level in the upstream channel.
The depth of the stilling basin is about 10 – 20 cm below the bed level of the downstream
channel. When the high velocity water is slowed down to a low velocity in a stilling basin, there
is a sudden rise in the depth of flow which is known as a hydraulic jump. Thus the height of the
walls in the downstream channel should be increased as compared to the channel section of the
chute spillway in order to prevent overflow.
Water Control and Diversion Structures

Water control and diversion structures are necessary to give easy and effective control of
irrigation water on the farm. Good control will reduce the labour required to irrigate and check
erosion and water loss. The structures include check gates, portable check dams, diversion
boxes, turnout boxes, siphons and pipe turnouts.
2.8 Nomographic Design of Open Channels

The nomograph allows fast determination of the mean velocity of flow when the values of R, S,
and n are given. It can also be used to determine the value of anyone of the factors R, S, n and
v when any three of the factors are known.
To use the nomograph, a line is drawn to join the S and n values on the respective scales, and
passing through the pivot line. The point of the intersection of this line with the pivot line is the
pivot point. A line originating from the known value on the R scale and passing through the pivot
point when extended to meet the velocity scale provides the required value of the velocity.
21
Fig 1.
Assignment
1. Derive from first principle the chezy equation for uniform flow.
2. A channel 5m wide at the top and 2m deep has sides sloping 2 vertically in 1 horizontally.
The slope of the channel is 1 in 1000. Find the volume rate of flow when the depth of water
is constant at 1m. Take c = 53 in si units. What will be the depth of water if the flow were to
be doubled? [ q = 4.79m3/s, h = 1.6m]
3. A trapezoidal channel is to be designed to carry 280m3/minute of water. Determine the
cross – sectional dimensions of the channel if the slope is 1 in 1600, side slopes 45o and the
cross – section is to be a minimum, take c = 50 in si units. [h = 1.53m, b = 1.27m]
4. A 2.0m diameter concrete pipe on a slope of 0.005 is to carry water at a normal depth of
1.5m. Determine the flow velocity and flow rate. Take n=0.014. Also determine q when
ho=0.75 and h=1.0m
5. Prove that the best hydraulic section for a rectangular channel
6. Determine the best section for a semi-circular cross section.
7. Find the best dimension for a rectangular channel to carry a flow of 0.5m 3/s at a velocity of
1.2m2/s.
22
CHAPTER THREE NON-UNIFORM FLOW
In considering uniform flow in chapter 2 it was assumed that successive cross-sections and
corresponding mean velocities were everywhere the same and that the loss of head in friction
was equal to the fall of the channel bed, so that bed, water surface and energy gradient were
parallel. In non-uniform flow, none of these conditions apply. Depth may vary from section to
section and the energy gradient, water surface and bed would no longer be parallel. Non-
uniform flows are produced by changes in the channel geometry, while changing from one
uniform flow to another.
There are two types of non-uniform flows

 Rapidly varied flow, in which the change in depth takes place over a short distance, hence
friction, can be neglected.
 Gradually varied flow, in which the change in depth extends over a long distance.
3.1 Rapidly Varied Flows
Rapidly varied flow occurs whenever there is a sudden change in the geometry of the channel
or in the regime of the flow. Typical examples of the first type of flow include flow through
regions of rapidly-varied cross section, e.g. venture flume and broad crested weirs. The second
type is usually associated with the hydraulic jump phenomenon in which flow with high velocity
and small depth is rapidly changed to flow with low velocity and large depth. The regime of flow
is defined by the Froude Number.
In regions of rapidly varied flow, the water surface profile changes suddenly and therefore has
pronounced curvature. Therefore, the assumptions of parallel streamlines and hydrostatic
pressure distribution which are used for uniform flow and gradually varied flow do not apply.
Solutions to rapidly varied flow problems rely on the energy and momentum equations.
3.1.1 Energy Principle
Energy gradeline (slope=Sf)

2
v 1/ 2g
Water surface (slope=Sw) v22/ 2g
h1
h2
Channel bottom (slope=So)
Z1
Z2
Datum 2
1
Fig 3.1 Energy Diagram
23
The total energy possessed by a body (volume) of water flowing in an open channel is given by
mv 2
Etotal  mgH  (in kWh)
2
Dividing through by mg, (per unit weight) yields
v2
Etotal H (m)
2g
The kinetic energy component (in m) is given by
v2
E kinetic 
2g
A volume of water V (m3) positioned at elevation Z (m) with flow depth h (m), possesses the
following amount of potential energy:
E potential  Z  h  H
The total energy in an open channel flowing with water at depth h is given by:
v2
Etotal  Z  h 
2g
Writing the energy equation between two sections (sections 1 and 2) in the channel gives the
Bernoulli‟s equation
2
v1 v2
Z1  h1   Z 2  h2  2  H L
2g 2g
Where Z=elevation of the channel bottom above an arbitrary datum; h = the depth of flow;
v=average velocity; HL= head loss between sections 1 and 2. But note that because rapidly
varied flow occurs within a short distance, HL = 0
In the special case of steady uniform flow V1=V2, and h1=h2; and Z1 = Z2 + HL
v2
2g
EGL
v2
2g
supercritical
subcritical flow
flow h1
h2
Fig 3.2 Example of Rapidly Varied Flow – Gated Flow
24
3.1.2 Specific Energy
The energy with respect to the channel bottom is the sum of the flow depth and the velocity
head at the section. This is called the specific energy of the section and it is given by
v2
E  h
2g
Let us consider a steady non-uniform flow. Let the width of the channel be b, and the steady
rate of flow Q. Then the discharge per unit width q will be:
Q
q = constant (Since Q = const, and b = const.)
b
v is the velocity at the section given by
Q Q Q2
v  , therefore E  h
bh A 2gA 2
At various sections of the channel the depth of flow will change with corresponding change in
velocity so that the product 'vh' is constant at all sections. At any section,
v2 q2  q2  1
E  h  h  h  2
2g 2 gh 2  2g  h
Q2
 h
2gA 2
For a given value of q, the specific energy head is a function of the depth of flow
E = E1 + E2
where
E1 = h – static (potential) energy head, and
q2  1 
E2 =   – kinetic energy head
2 g  h2 
When the depth of flow is plotted against the specific energy for a given channel section and
discharge, a specific energy curve is obtained. Studying the Specific Energy Curve BCD, we
find that
(i) The Specific Energy Head, first decreases with increase in depth and reaches a
minimum value of C. (Supercritical flow zone)
(ii) Further increase in depth causes a corresponding increase in the Specific Energy.
(Sub-critical flow zone)
The depth h corresponding to point C at which the specific energy is a minimum is called the
critical depth. For each value of the specific energy head there are two possible flow depths.
Consider the line GHI. The specific energy for this condition is E I = OG, but the flow depth may
be either GH or GI. The depth GH = h1 is less than the critical depth hc, while the depth GI = h2 is
greater than the critical depth. The flow is supercritical when h1 < hc, and it is subcritical when h2
> hc. When the depth of flow is hc, the flow is called critical flow, and the velocity, vc, is called
25
critical velocity. The depths h1 and h2 are known as alternate depths. The critical depth
corresponding to a given flow rate can be determined as presented in the next section.
Depth of flow, h
E=y
E2 Curve B
E = E1 + E2 Curve
Sub-critical Zone
h2 C
H Super critical zone
hc
D
h1
o
O 45 G
Specific Energy, E
Emin
E
Example of rapidly varied flow

The discharge in a rectangular channel of width 5 m and maximum depth 2 m is 10m 3/s. The
normal depth of flow is 1.25m. Determine the depth of flow downstream of a section in which the
bed rises by 0.2 m over a distance of 1 m.
Solution
Assuming frictional losses are negligible, then the following equation applies,
26
2
v1 v22
h1   h2   z
2g 2g
E S1  E S 2  z
In this case,
2
 10 
2  5  1.25
 1.25     1.38m
V1
E S1  h1 
2g 2g
2
 10 

 5h2  22
ES2  h2   h2   1.38m
2g 2 gh22
z  0.2
Hence
22
1.38  h2   0.2
2 gh22
Or
22
1.18  h2 
2 gh22
This is a cubic equation for h2, but the correct solution in this case is about 0.9 m. This is used
as the initial estimate in a trial-and-error solution, as follows:
H2 E S 2  h2  2 / gh22
(M)
(M)
0.9 1.15
1.0 1.2
0.96 1.18
Hence the solution is h2 = 0.96 m
3.1.3 Flow Measurements
A gauging flume is a device for measuring flow in a channel. We have the Parshall flume, the
standing wave flume and the Venturi flume. We will treat the last one.
The Venturi flume

A channel section at which there is a unique relationship between the depth and discharge is
referred to as a control.
27
The figure below shows the elevation and plan of a venturi flume. Let B, H1, v1 be the normal
breadth, flow depth, and flow velocity at the entrance to the flume. Let b, H2, v2 be the
corresponding parameters for the throat.
2
v1
2g
2
v2
2g
H1
H2
Constriction
v v
B b
At the throat, the velocity v2 is greater than v1. Hence there will be a drop in water level at the
throat, as the total energy head practically remains the same.
Due to continuity of flow,
Q  BH 1V1  bH 2V2
A  BH 1 , a  bH 2
Q  AV1  aV2
a
V1  V2
A
By Bernoulli‟s equation
V12 V2
H1   H2  2
2g 2g
2 2
V2 V1
  H1  H 2
2g 2g
V22  V12  2 g ( H1  H 2 )
a2 2
V22  V2  2 g ( H 1  H 2 )
A2
a2
V22 (1  2 )  2 g ( H 1  H 2 )
A
28
A2  a 2
V (
2
2
)  2g (H1  H 2 )
A2
A
V22  2g (H1  H 2 )
A2  a 2
The discharge, Q = aV2

This is the theoretical discharge through the venturi flume. In actual cases the discharge
obtained is slightly less than the above value due to losses in the flume.
Hence
CdaA
Q 2g (H1  H 2 )
A2  a 2
Cd = coefficient of discharge, usually less than 1.0.
Cd is usually = 0.95 – 0.99
The Broad Crested Weir

A broad-crested weir consists of an obstruction in the form of a raised portion of the bed
extending across the full width of the channel with a flat upper surface or crest sufficiently broad
in the direction of flow for the surface of the liquid to become parallel to the crest. The upstream
edge is rounded to avoid separation losses, which will occur at sharp edges.
2
v1
2g
v2
v1 H
h
The flow upstream is sub-critical and there is a free fall downstream. Since there is no
restraining force on the liquid, the discharge over the weir will be the maximum possible and
flow over the weir will take place at the critical depth. For rectangular channels, it is known that
the critical depth
Q2
hc  3  Q  b ghc3
gb 2
1
2  8  2 3
Since hc  E  Q  b g  E 3  = 1.705b E 2
3  27 
The specific energy measured on the crest assuming no losses is
V12
EH
2g
29
V12
If the depth upstream is large compared with the depth over the weir then is negligible and
2g
Q becomes
3
Q = 1.705 bH 2
Thus a single measurement of the upstream depth H is sufficient to determine Q. In actual

cases the theoretical value of Q is higher than the practical value, therefore a discharge
coefficient is introduced to obtain
3
Q = 1.705CdbH 2 (Cd = 0.9 ~ 0.97)
Alternative derivation method
Applying Bernoulli‟s equation to the water surface on the crest and upstream of the crest
v12 v 22
H   h
2g 2g
v12
It is assumed that  H .
2g
v2
 H  h  2  v 2  2 g ( H  h)
2g
But Q = AV therefore discharge over the crest is given by
Q  hb 2 g( H  h) theoretical discharge
Theoretical discharge has discharge coefficient c d applied to it. Thus
Q  c d hb 2 g( H  h)
The thickness of the water at the downstream end would adjust itself in such a way so as to
make the discharge a maximum.
The relation between H and h for maximum discharge can be obtained by alternating Q with
respect to h
dQ

dh dh
d

c d hb 2 g ( H  h) 
 
For maximum discharge, the term Hh 2  h 3 must be a maximum
d
dh
  2
Hh 2  h 3  0  2 Hh  3h 2  h  H
3
2 2 2 2g 3
Qmax  c d b H 2 g ( H  H )  c d bH 2
3 3 3 3
3
Q  1.705cd bH 2
c d  0.9 ~ 0.97
Same results as using the critical depth approach
30
3.1.4 Critical Flow
Given the specific energy head

v2 q2
E  h  h
2g 2 gh 2
For minimum E,
dE
0
dh
dE q2
 1 3
dh gh
q2
h3 = critical depth
g
Q
But q 
b
Q2
 hc  3 = critical depth
gb 2
Again from above
q 2  gh3  vh  gh3 v 2  gh

2
and
v2
h   critical depth
g
At minimum energy we have
v c2 h 3 v c2 v c2 v c2 3 v c2
Emin = hc   hc  c  hc OR hc    
2g 2 2 2g g 2g 2 g
2
 hc  E min
3
Also corresponding to critical flow

v c2
 1 and the Froude number of critical depth for a rectangular channel is given by
ghc
vc
1
ghc
Hence for critical flow, the Froude number, Fr = 1.
For non-rectangular channel (Trapezoidal)
Q2
E  h
2gA 2
31
dE Q 2 dA
Now 1
dh gA 3 dh
dA A
But  B, and h  i.e mean depth
dh B
dE Q2 B dE v2 B v2
  1  1  1
dh gA 2 A dh g A gh
2


Q 

 A   A
B g
At the critical state of flow the specific energy is a minimum, thus
dE
 0, hence
dh
v2 h v2
  h for non prismatic channel.
2g 2 g
This is the criterion for critical flow, which states that at the critical state of flow, the velocity
head is equal to half the mean depth.
Also we can write it in terms of the Froude number.
v
Fr  1 Critical flow
gh C
v
Fr  1 Sub-critical flow
ghC
v
Fr  1 Supercritical flow
ghC
The critical velocity is given
v  gh C
The critical depth can be determined by solving the equation:
A3 Q 2 hc B 3 Q2
 ; 
B g B g
2
 Q 
 hc3  
Q 2
B
hc3 ( B) 2 
g g
32
If the shape of the channel cross section is prismatic, the critical depth, hc, will be constant
throughout for a given discharge (since Q, B and g are constants in the equation)
2
 Q 
 hc  3  B is independent of channel slope for a given flow rate.
g
When h0=hc chezy equation becomes
Q  Ac Cc Rc S c
and Manning‟s equation becomes
Ac Rc2 3 S c1 2
Q
n
2 2
 Qn   nV 
Hence S c   23
  2 c3 
 Ac Rc   Rc 
Example
The triangular channel shown below is to carry water at a flow rate of 10m3/s. if n=0.012,
determine the
i. Critical depth
ii. Critical velocity
iii. Critical slope
1 1
h
3 3
Solution
i. Put hc = critical depth

determine A in hc
A=0.5Bhc
But B=6h=6hc
A=0.5*6hc*hc=3hc2
g=9.81m/s2
33
Q=10m3/s
A3 Q 2
Using the equation 
B g
6hc/(3hc2) 3=9.81/102
4.5hc5=100/9.81
hc5=2.265
hc= 5 2.265 = 1.178m
ii. A=3hc2=4.163m2
Vc=Q/A=10/4.163=2.402m/s
2
 nv 
iii. Sc=  2 /c3 

 Rc 
P  2hc 1  m 2  2 10hc = 7.45m
R = A/P = 4.163/7.45=0.5588m
Sc = [0.012*2.402/(0.5588) 2/3] 2 = 0.00181
Study Example
A trapezoidal channel with bottom width b=10m, side slope m=1.5, the flow rate is 50m3/s.
determine the critical flow depth hc, Vc, and Sc. [Hint: B=b+2mh, A=(b+mh)h, A3/B=Q2/g =
constant, work to obtain A3/B=255]
h B A A3 A3/B
1 13 11.5 117
2 16 1098.5
1.5 14.5 18.375 427.9
„ „ „ „
„ „ „ „
1.2 13.6 14.16 208.76
255 A3/B
34
3.2 Flow depth for Maximum discharge at a given Specific Energy

The Specific Energy Head at any section is given by
v2
E h  v  2 g  E  h
2g

But Q = bhv  Q  bh 2 gE  h  b 2 g Eh 2  h 3 
For Q to be maximum Eh2 – h3 must be maximum

d
dh
 
Eh 2  h 3  0
 2 Eh  3h 2  0
2
h E
3
v2
But E  h 
2g
2 3
When h = E , orE  h, we obtain
3 2
2
3 V h v2 v2
h  h   h
2 2g 2 2g g
v2
or h 
g
v
and  1  Fr
gh
Hence for maximum discharge condition, Fr = 1 is also the condition of critical flow. Thus the
critical depth may be released as the depth that gives the maximum discharge for a specific
energy.
Example 1
The specific energy for a 3 metre wide channel is to be 3m, what would be the maximum
possible discharge?
Solution
E= 3m, b=3
hc = 2/3E = 2/3 x 3 = 2m
Q  b ghc3 = 3x(9.81x23)0.5
= 26.57m3/s
Vc  ghc  9.81x 2  4.429m / s

Qmax = AVc = (3x2) x 4.429 = 26.574m3/s
Example 2
A rectangular channel 4m wide discharges water at a rate of 16m3/s. if the Specific energy is
2.25m, find the possible depths.
35
Solution
Q q 16 4
Q = qb = vbh  v   
bh h 4h h
v2
Specific energy head, E = h   2.25
2g
16
E h  2.25
2x9.81h 2
0.8155
E h  2.25
h2
trial and error gives y1 = 0.73m and y2 = 2.06m
q2 42
The critical depth is obtained as h  3 3 =1.18m
g 9.81
Example 3
Water flows at the rate of 16m3/s in a channel of 10m wide at a velocity of 1.6m/s. Calculate the
specific energy head. Find also the critical depth, the critical velocity and the minimum value of
the Specific Energy Head corresponding to this discharge.
Solution
Q = 16m3/s, b=10m, v=1.6m
Q 16
Q = hbv h=   1m
bv 10 x1.6
 the specific energy head
E  h
v2
 1
1.6  1.1305m
2
2g 2 x9.81
2
 Q 
3  b q 2 3 1.6 2
Critical depth hc  3   0.639m
g g 9.81
Critical velocity Vc  ghc  9.81x0.639  2.504m
The minimum Specific Energy E min
Vc2 2.504 2
E min  hc   0.639   0.9585m OR
2g 2 x9.81
3
E min  hc  0.9585m
2
Example
A channel 5m wide conveys a discharge of 10m3/s of water. Plot graphs of the following:
(i) Static Energy Head
(ii) Kinetic energy Head
(iii) Specific Energy Head
For values of the depth of flow, find also the critical depth and the minimum specific energy
head, corresponding to this discharge.
36
3.3 The Momentum Equation
3.3.1 The Hydraulic Jump

Under special conditions a rapidly flowing stream of liquid in an open channel suddenly changes
to a slowly flowing stream with a large cross-sectional area and a sudden rise in elevation of the
liquid surface. When the flow is changing from supercritical to subcritical flow, then the
phenomenon of hydraulic jump is said to occur. In effect the rapidly flowing liquid expands and
converts kinetic energy into potential energy and losses. At the jump location, there is a sharp
discontinuity in the water surface and considerable amount of energy is dissipated due to
turbulence. That is why only the energy equation cannot be used for its analysis.
Hydraulic jump can be used

1. To dissipate excessive energy – spillways
2. To provide control section
3. For aeration of drinking water
4. For thorough mixing of chemicals in water
Example of hydraulic jump forming in a chute canal or spillway
hc
h1
hc h2
S1>S2
S2<Sc
A hydraulic jump is formed whenever supercritical flow changes to sub-critical flow. Thus, in the
upstream section (S1 > Sc), h1 < hc V1 > Vc i.e. supercritical flow occurs; and in the
downstream section (S2 < Sc), h2>hc V2 < Vc i.e. sub-critical flow occurs. But at critical flow
conditions, S = Sc, h = hc and V = Vc
When a jump occurs there is a change of momentum since the flow is slowed down. The force
producing the change is the difference in hydrostatic pressures resulting from the change of
depth.
v2
y2
v1 F2
y1
F1
Fig. Free body diagram for analysis of hydraulic jump
37
For rectangular channel, the forces are given by
gAh1 gh12 b gh22 b

F1   F2 
2 2 2
Momentum is given by
M '  QVt
Rate of change of momentum
M ' 2  M '1  Q Q 
 QV2  QV1  Q  
t  h1b h2 b 
Net force in the x-direction
gh12 b gh22 b
F1  F2  
2 2
From the Newton‟s second law
F1  F2  M 2  M1
gb q  1
1
2
h
2
1 
 h22    
b  h2 h1 
Substituting q = Q/b
h12  h22 q 2  1 1
   
2 g  h2 h1 
 
h1  h2 h1  h2   q  h1  h2
2
1

2 g  h1 h2 
2
 
1
h1  h2   q  1  (A)
2 g  h1 h2 
Note that Q  V1 h1b  V2 h2  q  v1 h1  v 2 h2
The discharge per unit width q of channel through a jump can be determined, if the sequent
depths are known, and it‟s given by
 h  h2
1/ 2

q 1 ( gh1 h2 )
 2 
Substituting q  v1h1 into (A)
2
h2
h2  h1   V1 h1
2 g
Dividing through by h12 gives
h2 2V12
h2  h1  
h12 gh1
38
h2  h2  2V 2
  1  1  2Fr12
h1  h1  gh1
2
h  h
We obtain a quadratic in (h2/h1) as  2   2  2Fr12  0
 h1  h1
 b  b 2  4ac
And using to solve yields the required depths
2a
Because of the energy dissipated in the jump, h2 is not the alternate depth of h1.Thus h2 is
actually less than the alternate depth, therefore y1 and y2 are called sequent depths or
conjugate depths.
Solution of the above equation yields the sequent depths as
h2 
h1
2
 1  8Fr  1
1
2
This equation specifies a relationship between the upstream and downstream depths of the
jump in terms of Fr1. Proceeding similarly, we can derive the following equation in terms of Fr2:
h1 
h2
2
 1  8Fr  12
2
Noting that q = vh, the energy dissipation in a hydraulic jump is obtained by
 q2   q2 

E  E1  E 2   h1     h2  
2 gh12   2 gh22 
   
q2  1 1 
E  h1  h2   2  2 
2 g  h1 h2 

q2  1 1 
E   2  2   h2  h1 
2 g  h1 h2 

q 2  h22  h12 
E     h2  h1  (B)
2 g  h12 h22 

2
 1 
But we know that
1
h1  h2   q   (A)
2 g  h1 h2 
Substitute (A) into (B)
h1  h2 
E 
4h1 h2
h
2
2 
 h12  h2  h1 
39
h2  h1 h2  h1 h2  h1   4h12 

E 
4h1 h2
h2  h1 h22  h12  2h12 h22  4h12 h22  h2  h1 h22  h12  2h12 h22 
E  =
4h1 h2 4h1 h2
h2  h1 h22  h12 

E 
44h1 h2
The energy lost in a hydraulic jump is given by
(h2  h1 ) 3
E 
4h1 h2
h2
h1
E
∆E
Example
A hydraulic jump is formed in a 5-m wide outlet at a short distance downstream of a control
gate. If the flwo depths just upstream and downstream of the gate are 10m and 2m,
respectively, and the outlet discharge is 150m3/s, determine:
a) flow depth downstream of the jump
b) Head loss in the jump
c) Thrust on the gate
Solution
Assume there are no losses in the flow through the gate.
Given Q = 150 m3/s, B = 5m, h1 = 10 m, h2 = 2 m.
40
1
2 3
q = 150 /5 = 30 m3/s
v2 =q/h2 = 30/2 =15 m/s
v 22 15 2
Fr 2
  11.47
gh2 2  9.81
2
a) Depth downstream of jump: h3

h2
2

1  8 Fr 2  1 

2
2
1  8  11.47  1 
 8.63m
b) Head loss in the jump: E
 E 2  E3
 q2   q2 

  h2     h3  
 2 gh22   2 gh32 
 4.22m
(h2  h1 ) 3
OR using the equation E  gives
4h1 h2
(8.63  2) 3 291.43
E    4.22m
4 * 2 * 8.63 69.04
41
3.4 Gradually varied flow
Gradually varied flow is a steady non-uniform flow in which the depth, area, roughness, bottom
slope, and hydraulic radius change very slowly (if at all) along the channel. The basic
assumption required is that the head-loss rate at a given section is given by the Manning
formula for the same depth and discharge, regardless of trends in depth
3.4.1 Governing Equations

It is known from section 3.1 that the total energy at a channel cross section is given by
Q2
E = Z+h+v2/2g = Z + h +
2gA 2
Energy gradeline (slope=Sf)
V21/ 2g
Water surface (slope=Sw) Q2

V22/ 2g =
2gA 2
h1
h2
Channel bottom (slope=So)
Z1
Z2
Datum 2
1
dE dz dh Q 2 d 1
   ( )
dx dx dx 2 g dx A 2
now
d 1 d 1 dA
( 2) ( )
dx A dA A 2 dx
d 1 d 1 dA dh dA
( 2) ( ) [  B]
dx A dA A 2 dh dx dh
2 B dh

A 3 dx
dE dz dh Q 2 B dh
  
dx dx dx g A3 dx
dE dz dh Q2B
  (1  )
dx dx dx gA 3
dE dz

dh dx dx

dx 1  ( BQ / gA 3 )
2
42
dh S o  S f

dx 1  Fr 2
dh So  S f
 
dx 1  ( BQ 2 / gA 3 )
dh S o  S f

dx 1  Fr2
dE dz
By definition  S f and  So
dx dx
n2v 2 v 2n2 v2
So  Sf  Fr 
2
4 4
hn 3
h 3 gh
The negative sign with Sf and So indicate that both H and z decreases as x increases.
Also
2 BQ Q 2 A 2
  Fr
2
3
gA gA B
Consider an irregular channel

dA
B+dB
dh
B
The incremental area

dA 
1
B  B  dB dh
2
1
dA  (2 B  dB )dh
2
dA  Bdh  dhdB / 2
But dhdB  0
 dA  Bdh
dA
B
dh
43
3.4.2 Classification of Channel Slopes
Channel slope:
So < 0 negative slope, hn is non existent
So = 0 horizontal slope, hn = 
So > 0 positive slope, hn is existent in different forms
Positive slope:
So > Sc steep slope, hn < hc supercritical flow
So = Sc critical slope, hn = hc critical flow
So < Sc mild slope hn > hc sub-critical flow
3.4.3 Principles for determining the surface profiles

dh
1. When  0 or positive. In this case the depth of flow increases with distance. This occurs
dx
when
(a) so  s f and 1  Fr2 the water surface has a
concave profile up and it is
called backwater curve
(b) so  s f and 1  Fr2 / / / / / / / / / / / / /
dh
2. When  0 or negative. In this case the depth of flow decreases with distance. This
dx
occurs when
(a) so  s f and 1  Fr2 the water surface has a
convex profile up and it
(b) so  s f and 1  Fr2 / / / / / / / / / / / / / is called drawdown curve
Approach of the surface profile to the normal depth, critical depth lines and the channel bottom
dh
1. As hhn (uniform flow), Sf-So~0 i.e. SfSo. From equation (A)  0 and provided
dx
Fr1
dh
2. As hhc, Fr1(critical flow) and the denominator tends to zero. Therefore   . [For
dx
dh/dx to approach infinity means x0, and h is big]. Thus the water-surface profile
approaches the CDL vertically. Physically it is impossible. It is assumed that the approach
is very steep.
3. As h, V0. Consequently both Fr and Sf tend to zero. From Equation (A) it implies
dh
 S 0 for very large values of h. since So is assumed to be very small, we may say that
dx
the water surface profile almost becomes horizontal as h becomes large. [But we know that
V=R2/3S1/2/n  for So 0, V0, h , Fr0, Sf0]
4. As h0
a. Chezy formula
Sf=Q2/C2A2h assuming R~h yields
44
dh gB( S o C 2 B 2 h 3  Q 2 )

dx C 2 ( gBh 3  BQ 2 )
As h0, the lim dh  g2  as h0 the profile has a positive finite value, and it is a
h0 dx C
function of the Chezy constant, C.
b. Manning formula
2
 Qn 
Sf =   assume R~h
 2 
 Ah 3 
dh gA 2 ( S o Ah 4 / 3  Q 2 n 2 )

dx h 4 / 3 ( gA 3  BQ 2 )
dy A value
lim dx   No!
h0 0
Surface Profiles
There are 12 different types of surface profiles: 3 for M; 3 for S; 2 for C (zone 2 does not exist,
since hn = hc); 2 for H (zone 1 does not exist since hn = ); and 2 for A (zone 1 does not exist
since hn does not exist).
Zone 1
Zone 2
NDL or CDL
Zone 3
CDL or NDL
B
Zone 1: region above both lines
Zone 2: region between two lines
Zone 3: region between lower line and channel bottom
dh S o  S f
By considering the signs of the numerator and denominator of  , we can make
dx 1  Fr2
quantitative observations about various water-surface profiles.
(A). 1. Sf > So if h < hn 2. Sf < So if h > hn

hese two inequalities will help determine the sign of the numerator.
(B) 1. Fr >1 if h < hc; 2. Fr<1 if h > hc

These two inequalities will also help determine the sign of the denominator.
Example for Mild Slopes

Zone 1: h > hn > hc
Zone 2: hn > h > hc
Zone 3: hn > hc > h
45
Mild slope
Zone 1
 h > hn  Sf < So  numerator is positive
dh 
 h > hc  Fr < 1  denominator is positive   
dx 
h increases as x increases. h hn asymptotically; water surface becomes horizontal as h
increases.
Zone 2
 h < hn  Sf > So  numerator is negative
dh 
 h > hc  Fr < 1  denominator is positive   
dx 
h decreases as x increases. hhn asymptotically; and hhc steeply.
Zone 3
dh 
 h < hc  Fr > 1  denominator is negative   
dx 
h increases as x increases. h  hc steeply and approaches the channel bottom at a finite
positive slope.
M1
Zone 2
NDL
M2
Zone 3
M3 CDL
Steep slopes
Zone 1
dh 
 h > hc  Fr < 1  denominator is positive   
dx 
h increases as x increases. h hc steeply; water surface becomes horizontal as h increases.
Zone 2
dh 
 h < hc  Fr > 1  denominator is negative   
dx 
h decreases as x increases. h hn asymptotically; and hhc steeply.
Zone 3
dh 
 h < hc  Fr > 1  denominator is negative   
dx 
46
h increases as x increases. h  hn asymptotically and approaches the channel bottom at a finite

positive slope.
S1
Zone 1
CDL
Zone 2 S2
NDL
S3
Zone 3
Adverse Slope
Zone 2
CDL
A2
Zone 3
A3
Zone 1 is non existent
Zone 2
So is negative So – Sf < 0 and Numerator is negative
dy 
h > hc  Fr < 1  denominator is positive     drawdown
dx 
Zone 3
h < hc  Fr > 1  denominator is negative
dy 
So – Sf < 0 Numerator is negative    backwater
dx 
Critical Slope
Zone 1 C1
Zone 3 C3 NDL/CDL
 Zone 1
h > hn (= hc) Sf < So  numerator is positive
dy 
h > hc (= hn)  Fr  1 denominator is positive     backwater
dx 
Zone 2 is non-existent
47
Zone 3
h < hn  Sf > So numerator is negative
dy 
h < hc  Fr  1 denominator is negative     backwater
dx 
Horizontal Slope
H2
yn
Zone 2
CDL
H3 yc Zone 3
Zone 1 non existent
Zone 2
So = 0, So –Sf < 0 numerator is negative
dy 
h > hc  Fr < 1 denominator is positive    draw down
dx 
Zone 3
So –Sf < 0 numerator is negative
dy 
h < hc  Fr  1 denominator is negative   backwater
dx 
Example
A rectangular channel 6m wide has a bed slope of 1 in 2000 and under original conditions the
depth is 1m. A dam was placed across the channel, increasing the depth at the dam site to
1.4m. Calculate the depth of flow at 150m upstream, assuming that the flow remains unchanged
and C in Chezy formula remains constant at 60.
Solution
When the depth of flow is 1m
Area of flow A  bh = 6 x 1 6m2
Wetted Perimeter P  2h  b = 2 + 6 = 8m
The hydraulic radius is given by
A 6
R 
P 8
1
Channel Bed Slope S 
2000
48
Therefore velocity v  RS
6 1 
v  60  
8  2000 
v  1.162m / s
When the depth of flow is 1.4m
Q1  Q 2
A1v1  A2 v 2
h1b 1.0
 V2  v1   1.162  0.83m / s
h2 b 1.4
A2  1.4  6  8.4m 2
P2  6  2  1.4  8.8m
8.4
R2   0.9545m
8.8
V2 V2
But S f  and F 
r
2
RC 2 gh
The rate of change of depth with distance is given by

V2
So 
dh S o  S f RC 2
 
dx 1  Fr 2 V2
1
gh
1 0.83 2

 2000 0.9545  60 2
0.83 2
1
9.81 1.40
0.0005  0.0002 0.0003

   0.000316
1  0.0502 0.9498
Assuming the above rate of change of depth to be uniform, change in depth in a distance of
150m
h  150  0.000316  0.047m
 Depth of flow 150m upstream of dam

= 1.4 – 0.047 = 1.353
49
1.4  1.0  0.4m

0.4
 1265.8m
0.00016
h h
 x  x  1265.8m upstream from the dam site
h h
x
Concept of lake created as a result of building a dam.
Example
Sketch the water-surface profile in the channels connecting the two reservoirs, as shown in the figure
below. The bottom slope of channel 1 is steep and that of channel 2 is mild.
Solution
Compute the critical and normal depths for each channel. Then plot the critical-depth line (marked as
CDL in the Fig (b)) and the normal-depth line (marked as NDL in Fig (b))
The water depth at the channel entrance is equal to the critical depth, since the water level in the
upstream reservoir is above the CDL of channel 1. Let us mark this water level at the channel entrance by
a dot. The water level at the downstream end is lower than the CDL at the downstream end of channel 2.
Therefore, the water surface passes through the CDL approximately three to four times the critical depth
upstream of the entrance to the downstream reservoir. Let us again mark this water level at the
downstream end by a dot, as shown in Fig (b).
In channel 1 the water surface at the entrance passes through the critical depth and then it tends to the
normal depth. Thus, we have an S2 profile in cannel 1. The flow decelerates downstream of the junction
of channels 1 and 2 because of mild slope. Hence, the flow depth keeps on increasing until it intersects
the CDL. Approximately at this location, a hydraulic jump is formed. The water surface follows the M2
profile downstream of the jump. Detailed calculations are required to determine the exact location of the
jump.
Fig. Example Water-surface profiles
50
CHAPTER FOUR PIPES AND PIPE NETWORKS
Sometimes referred to as pressure conduits, pressure flow systems, or flow in closed conduits.
4.1 Definition
In closed conduit flow, the conduits flow full, and the fluid is under pressure. Majority of closed
conduits have circular cross sections (such as pipes), hence the name pipe flow. It is also
referred to as pressurised flow. Examples of pressurised flow in practice are shown below.
pump
Intake
pressure
conduit Mountain
Tunnel
Irrigation and A Spillw ay

Domestic pumping
Intake
pow er station
headrace canal
Hydropow er
development
4.2 Laminar Flow and Turbulent Flow

Laminar Flow: adjacent fluid layers move at the same velocity.
Turbulent Flow: adjacent fluid layers move at different velocities and paths of individual fluid
particles do cross and intersect each other.
The friction factor relation depends on the state of flow, which is classified according to the
Reynolds number. For pipes the diameter is used as a characteristics dimension and the
Reynolds number is given by
vD 
Re  -----Dimensionless [   ]
 
Where D =internal diameter of pipe (m); v = average velocity of fluid flow (m/s); v = kinematic
viscosity of fluid (m2/s);  = viscosity (kg/ms);  = density of fluid (kg/m3)
Type of Flow Value of Re

Laminar <2000
Transition to turbulent (critical region) 2000~4000
Turbulent >4000
51
4.3 Energy Equation of pipe Flow
The energy equation between sections 1 and 2 is
 V1  V2
2 2
Z1  P1  Z 2  P2  hloss Usually α = 1.0
 2g  2g
hf is the head loss along the pipe due to friction. The energy gradient Sf=hf/L. Usually additional
losses resulting from valves, fittings, bends and so on are known as the minor losses, hm, and
have to be included when present. In that case, hf in the energy equation is replaced by the total
head loss hloss. Since minor head losses are localised, the energy grade line, represented by
hloss/L will have breaks wherever the minor losses occur.
P/ = pressure head (m); V2/2g = velocity head (m); Z=static head (m); hf = Frictional head loss
between two sections (m); HL = hf + hm = hloss.
4.4 Continuity Equation

The volume of water leaving section 1 will be the same arriving at section 2 if water is not taken
out or added in between these two sections. Thus
1. Q1 = Q2 = Q
A1V1 = A2V2
D12 D22
V1  V2  D12V1  D22V2 or (D1/D2)2=V2/V1
4 4
2. V1=Q/A1 or V2=Q/A2
Example
1
40m
1m
From the large reservoir shown above, water flows at a rate of 10m3/s through a pipe 1m in
diameter. Determine the loss of head in the system.
Solution
Q=10m3/s, D=1m  A= D 2 / 4 =0.78m2
V = Q/A = 10/0.78 = 12.74m/s
Writing the energy equation
D 2 D
 V1  V2
2 2
Z 1  P1  Z 2  P2  hf  R
 2g  2g 4D 4
52
Datum passes through point 2  Z2=0

For reservoir the surface area is considered to be big hence V1=0
Since pressure is atmospheric at points 1 and 2, P1=P2=0
 40 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + (12.74) 2/(2*9.81) + hf
hence hf = 40 - 8.280 = 31.72m
4.5 Evaluation of Head Loss Due to Friction
Darcy-Weisbach Equation
The Darcy-Weisbach equation is the most general formula in the pipe flow application. It is an
empirical formula. According to Chezy‟s formula V=C(RS). Since S=hf/L, R=D/4 for pipe and
treating C=(8g/f) the Chezy‟s equation reduces to
L V2
hf  f and this is Darcy – Weisbach eqn.
D 2g
where f = friction factor (dimensionless); L = length of conduit (m); D = internal diameter of pipe
(m); V = mean velocity of flow in the pipe (m/s)
f is used in American practice and 4f found in old British practice but this has changed in all
modern books. NB: Wherever you see f, note that the factor 4 is already incorporated
Nikuradse’s Experiments
1. For laminar flow, the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number only. It is given by
f=64/Re (dimensionless)
2. In the critical region of Re between 2000~4000 the flow alternates between laminar and
turbulent regimes. Any friction factor relation cannot be applied with certainty in this region.
3. In the turbulence regime, the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number as well as
the relative roughness of the pipe surface. I.e. f=f (Re,/D).
K
Crit ical
x10 -2 region
Rough D
1
30
1
61
1
120
1
f 252
1
504
1
1014
Smoot h Pipe
5 1 04 2 4 1 04 1 05 1 06
Re
Nikuradse’s Experimental Results
53
Nikuradse used smoother pipe coated with sand grains of uniform size K (average diameter of
sand grains). The uniform character of the sand grains used in Nikuradse‟s tests produces a dip
in the f-versus-Re curve before reaching a constant value of f. However, tests on commercial
pipes where the roughness is somewhat random reveal that no such dip occurs.
Based on Nikuradse‟s experimental results, the following relations are obtained for determining
friction factor in the turbulent region.
1   2.51 
 2 log  
 
f  3.7 D Re f 
For very smooth pipes, /D is very small and the equation reduces to
1  2.51 
 2 log 
 Re f 
f  
For fully rough pipe in a turbulent regime, Re is very big and the equation reduces to
1   
 2 log 
f  3.7 D 
A modification of the equation was proposed by Jain in 1976 as
1   5.72 
 2 log  0.9 
f  3.7 D Re 
f is eliminated, therefore iteration is also not necessary.
A. Another common formula for head loss in pipes that has found almost exclusive usage in
water supply engineering is the Hazen William equation given by
V  0.849CR 0.63 S 0.54 SI units
There is a comparison between Chezy formula and Hazen Williams‟s formula.

For R=1 and S=1/1000, the Hazen Williams coefficient C becomes equal to Chezy C. Recent
studies have shown that errors up to 39% could occur if the formula is used indiscriminately.
 because the multiplying factor is supposes to change for different R and S
 the Hazen William C is considered to be related to pipe material only, where as it must also
depend on pipe diameter, velocity, and viscosity, similar to the friction factor of Darcy-
Weisbach.
Now in textbooks a diagram prepared by Moody is used. It is called Moody diagram. He

prepared a diagram between the friction factor versus the Reynolds number and the relative
roughness; this can be used to determine f.
The Moody’s Diagram

By plotting data for commercial pipe from a number of sources, Moody developed a design
chart similar to that shown in the figure below. In the figure below, the variable ks is the symbol
used to denote the equivalent sand roughness. That is, a pipe that has the same resistance
characteristics at high Re values as a sand-roughened pipe of the same size is said to have a
54
size of roughness equivalent to that of the sand-roughened pipe. The figure gives approximate
values of ks and ks/D for various kinds of pipe.
In the figure above, the abscissa (labelled at the bottom) is the Reynolds number, Re, and the
ordinate (labelled at the left) is the resistance coefficient f. Each solid curve is for a constant
relative roughness, ks/D, and the values of ks/D are given on the right at the end of each curve.
To find f, given Re and ks/D, go to the right to find the correct relative-roughness curve; then
look at the bottom of the chart to find the given value of Re and, with this value of Re, move
vertically upward until you reach the given ks/D curve. Finally, from this point, move horizontally
to the left scale to read the value of f. If the curve for the given value of ks/D is not plotted in the
figure above, simply find the proper position on the graph by interpolation between curves of
ks/D, which bracket the given ks/D.
For some problems, it is convenient to enter the figure above using a value of the parameter
Ref1/2. This parameter is useful when hf and ks/D are known but the velocity, V, is not. Basically
three types of problems are involved with uniform flow in a single pipe.
1. Determine the head loss, given the kind and size of pipe along with the flow rate.
2. Determine the flow rate, given the head, kind, and size of pipe.
3. Determine the size of pipe needed to carry the flow, given the kind of pipe, head, and
flow rate.
In the first type of problem, the Reynolds number and k s/D are first computed and then f is read
from the figure, after which the head loss is obtained by the use of the following equation:
L V2
hf  f
D 2g
55
4.6 Minor Head Losses

In addition to the continuous head loss along the pipe length due to friction, local head losses
occur at changes in pipe section, at bends, valves, fittings, entrance to or exit from a conduit.
These losses may be neglected for long pipes but are significant for less than about 30m long
pipes. Since pipe lengths in water supply and wastewater plants are generally short, minor
losses are important. The minor loss is expressed in terms of the applicable velocity head or
considered proportional to the kinematic energy. Thus,
V2
hm  K
2g
where k=loss coefficient, V mean velocity (m/s); g=9.81m/s2
Entrance
Slightly rounded Well rounded

Re-entrant Sharp edged
K=0.2~0.25 K=0.05
K=0.8 K=0.4~0.5
Exit
all K=1.0
Others are: Sudden expansion/contraction, gradual conical expansion/contraction, bends etc

All these minor or local losses should be considered in design.
Example
Two reservoirs are connected by a 200m long cast iron pipeline, as shown below. If the pipeline
is to convey a discharge of 2m3/s at 15.6oC, what is the size of the pipeline required?
Energy line Hydraulic grade line

1
Valve loss
Entrance loss 20m
Bend loss
2 Datum
Exit loss
56
Item K
Entrance loss 0.5
Exit loss 1.0
valve 10.0
Two 90o bends (0.9x2) 1.8
Total 13.3
Solution
1. Applying the energy equation to points 1 and 2 with respect to point 2 as the datum
 V1  V2
2 2
Z 1  P1  Z 2  P2  hloss
 2g  2g
20 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 + hloss
hloss=20m
1. Friction loss
L V2 fl Q2
hf  f 
D 2 g D [ / 4 D 2 ] 2 2 g
LQ 2
 f
12.08D 5
2. Minor losses
hm  
KV 2

K Q2

 KQ 2
2g 2 g ( / 4 D 2 ) 2 12.08D 4
3. hloss = hf + hm = f
LQ 2
+
 KQ 2 = 20
12.08D 5 12.08D 4
f (200)(2 2 ) 13.3(2 2 )
  20
12.08D 5 12.08D 4
200 f 13.3
 5
12.08D 12.08D 4
5
200 f 13.3
 4  60.04
D5 D
200f + 13.3D = 60.04D5  60.04D5 - 200f - 13.3D = 0
5. First trial, assume f=0.03~0.05. Substitute f into equation
60.04D5 - 13.3D - 6 = 0  D=-****
thus V = 4Q/D2 = 4*2/D2 = ****m/s
Re=VD/ =*****/(1.21*10-5) =
57
Now  for cast iron = 8.0 * 10-4
 /D = 8.0 * 10-4/****
using Re and /D, f = *** (from Moody diagram)
First revision: substitute f in 60.04D5 - 200f - 13.3D = 0
Solve (by trial and error), to obtain D=****
Thus V = 4Q/D2 = 8/D2 = ****m/s
Re=VD/ =*****/(1.21*10-5) =
/D = 8.0 * 10-4/****
f = **** (from Moody diagram)
Continue till f stabilizes. Hence D =
4.7 Pipelines with Pumps and Turbines

When there is a pump then energy is being added, ha
When there is a turbine then energy is being removed, hr
The term representing energy added should be added on the left and the term representing
energy removed should be subtracted on the left.
 the Bernoulli‟s equation becomes
 V1  V2
2 2
Z 1  P1  ha  hr  Z 2  P2  hL
 2g  2g
Note
A pump with power P, can raise a liquid of specific weight γ, flow rate Q through a height of ha.
P  QH a in kW
 = 9.81 kN/m3; Q m3/s; H m. (H could be ha or hr)

ha = Pa/Q; hr = Pr/Q. Usually one is added at a time, so it is either ha or hr.
4.8 Pipes in Series
hf1 hf2 hf3
Q1 Q2 Q3 Compound Pipelines
D1 D2 D3
L2
L1 L3
Q1= Q2 = Q3= Q4 = Q
hf = hf1 + hf2 + hf3 + hf4 + ---
This is similar to electricity, where Q (constant) replaces I (constant), hf = hfi replaces R=Ri
58
Pipes in Parallel
Q1,D1,hf1
Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
Q Q2,D2,hf2 Q hf = hf1 = hf2 = hf3
Q3,D3,hf3
Pipe Discharge from a reservoir
For large area reservoir vo = 0
 Vo 0 (1)
hm
v2/2g EGL hf
Z1 HGL
v2/2g
A (2)
The figure shows a pipe of uniform cross – section leading from a reservoir and discharging free
into atmosphere. Applying Bernoulli‟s equation to sections (1) and (2) yields,
2
p1vo p2 v 2
z1    z2    hloss
 2g  2g
v2
z1  0  0  0  0   hm  h f
2g
v2
z1   hm  h f
2g
But for entrance in which pipe is flush with reservoir,
v2
hm  0.5
2g
Lv 2
hf  f
2 gD
v2 L
 z1  (1.50  f )
2g D
59
z1 represents the difference of water levels in the two reservoirs. It is the total head loss in the
system.
v2
Note: The hydraulic grade line is at a distance of below the energy gradient line. As the
2g
liquid flows from A to B, there is a loss of head due to friction, which is h f . At the entrance there
v2
is head loss hm . The exit loss is neglected if it is assumed that the velocity head is due to .
2g
fL
For very long pipes the term is very large compared to 1.50, therefore the entrance and exit
D
v2
losses (1.5 ) may be neglected. Usually when the length of the pipe is greater than 1000D,
2g
only the frictional loss need be considered.
Example 1
A pipe 20cm in diameter and 4m long conveys water at a velocity of 2.5m/s. Find the head lost
in friction.
flv 2
(a) Using the formula h f  taking f = 0.0242
2dg
(b) Using the formula V  C RS , taking C = 57
Solution
flv 2 0.0242 * 45 * 2.5 2
(a) h f    1.73m
2 gd 2 * 9.81 * 0.20
d hf hf d
(b) R  , S , C  57 , V  C SR  V 2  C 2 SR  C 2
4 L L 4
2 2
4V L 4 * 2.5 * 45
hf    1.73m
dC 2 0.2 * 57 2
Example 2
Water is discharged from a large reservoir to atmosphere through a 10cm diameter and 500m
long pipe. Find the discharge if the outlet is 15m below the free surface of water in the reservoir.
Assume the entry to the pipe as sharp. Take f  0.04
Solution.
v2  fl 
From z1  H  1.5  
2g  D
v 
2
500 
15 = 1.5  0.04 * 
2g  0.10 
v2
15 = 201.5
2g
v  1.209m / s

 Q  Av  * 0.12 * 1.209
4
 9.5 * 10 3 m 3 / s
60
Pipe connecting two Reservoirs
hLm
H
2
V
2g
E.G.L
hf H
H.G.L
V2
2g
A
.
The figure shows a pipe of uniform cross-section connecting two reservoirs with liquid surface at
different elevations. The liquid flows from the higher reservoir to the lower reservoir.
At point A there is loss of head at entrance (hm). The frictional head loss takes place throughout
the pipe length. At the exit, there is a head loss of v2/2g.
Writing the Bernoulli‟s equation gives
2 2
p1v p v
Z1   1  Z 2  2  2  hloss
 2g  2g
H  0  0  0  0  0  hloss entry exit
2 2 2 2 hm1 + hm2
v Lv v v
H  hf  hm   f   0.5
2 g 2 gD 2g 2g
 L  v2
H  1.5  f 
 D  2g
Example of Pipes in series:

Q1. Two reservoirs are connected by a pipeline consisting of two pipes, one of 15cm diameter
and length 6m, while the other of diameter 22.5cm and 16m length. If the difference of water
levels in the two reservoirs is 6m, calculate the discharge and sketch the hydraulic as well as
the energy grade line. Take f = 0.04
hL1
H.G.L hf1 H = 6m
hL2
hf2
V2
(2) 2g
(1)
From continuity equation Q1 = Q2
D1 2 D2 2
2
 22.5  2
v1  v 2  v1    v  2.25v 2
4 4  15 
61
2
 2.25v 2 
2 2
v v
i. Loss of head at entrance hm1  0.5 1  0.5   2.53 2
2g  2g  2g
2 2
L1v1 6 v
ii. Loss of head due to friction hf1  f  0.04 * * 1
2 gD1 0.15 2 g
2
=
0.24
2.252 v2  8.1 v1
0.5 2g 2g
iii. Loss due to sudden enlargement hm2 

v1  v2 2
2g
hm2 
2.25  12 v2 2  1.56
v2
2
2g 2g
2 2
Lv 16 v
iv. Loss due to friction hf 2  f 2 2  0.04 * * 2
2 gD2 0.225 2 g
2
v2
 2.84
2g
2
v2
v. Loss of head at exit =
2g
2
v2
But know that H   hloss  hm1  hf1  hm2  hf 2  2g
6
2
2.53  8.1  1.56  2.84  1 v2 6

2g
v2  2.71m / s

Q  A2 v2  * 0.225 * 2.71  0.108m 3 / s
2
EX2 Parallel Example:

Two reservoirs are connected by 2 pipes of the same length laid in parallel. The diameters of
the pipes are 10cm and 30cm. If the discharge through the 10cm pipe is 0.01m3/s, what will be
the discharge through the 30cm pipe? Assume that „f‟‟ is the same for both pipes
Solution: For such problems, it is more convenient to express the Darcy-Weisbach equation in
terms of discharge as
L v2 L Q2 1 16 f L Q2
hf  f  f 
 
* * *
D 2g D  D2 2
2g  2 D5 2g
4
As the pipes are in parallel

hf 1  hf 2
16 fL 1 16 fL 1
* 5 * Q1 
2 2
* 5 * Q2
2 g 2
D1 2 g 2
D2
1 1
Q1 
2 2
Q2
0.1 5
0.30 5
62
Q2  243Q1
2 2
But Q1 = 0.01
Q2  243  0.01  0.0243

2 2
Q2  0.156m3 / s
Siphons
Sometimes it may become necessary to provide a pipeline over an obstacle like a ridge or small
hill and then to a lower level. Quite a part of the pipe line may be situated not only above the
hydraulic gradient but also above the water level of the supply reservoir. Such a pipe is called a
siphon. OR
When a pipe is laid in such a manner that part of it is above the hydraulic gradient line, it is
called a siphon.
D
hm1
hm1
hf1 E.G.L
V2 C hf H
2g H.G.L
E
A
V2
2g
B
The pressure head at any point along the pipe axis is equal to the distance between the HGL
and the axis. It follows that the pressures at points C and E are zero, i.e., the pressure is
atmospheric. The pressure in the pipe CDE, where the pipeline is above the hydraulic grade
line, is negative. The minimum pressure will be at summit point D where the vertical distance
between the point and the HGL is maximum.
Application of siphons
i. Transmission of water from one reservoir to another separated by a ridge

ii. To empty a tank not provided with any outlet
iii. To take out water from a channel
Applying Bernoulli‟s equation yields (between the surfaces of two reservoirs)
v2
H  hm1  hf 
2g
Also applying Bernoulli‟s equation to points G and D with datum at G the reservoir level gives,
2 2
PG VG P V
ZG    Z D  D  D  hf1  hm1
 2g  2g
2
V PD
0  0  0  hD   D  hf1  hm1
 2g
63
2
PD V
 hD  D  hf1  hm1
 2g
L L
hf1  1  H  1 H [equivalent pipe length]
L L
2 2
PD L V V L 1.5V 2
 hD  1 H  D  0.5 D  hd  1 H 
 L 2g 2g L 2g
Example
A pipe of 1m diameter connects two reservoirs having a difference of level of 6m. The total
length of the pipe is 800m and rises to a maximum height of 3m above the level of water in the
higher reservoir at a distance of 200m from the entrance. Find the discharge in the pipe and the
pressure at the highest point. Take f= 0.04, and neglect minor losses.
A 3m
H = 6m
Solution
Neglecting minor losses implies
L V2
H  hf  f
D 2g
2 DgH 2  1.0  9.81  6
V    1.92m / s
fL 800  0.04

Q  VA   12  1.92  1.51m3 / s
4
Loss of head at point C
L V2 200 1.922
hf1  f  0.04    1.5m OR
D 2g 1 2  9.81
L1 200 200
hf1  H H   6  1.5m
L2 800 800
64
Applying Bernoulli‟s equation between A and C and taking datum at level A,
2 2
P1 V1 P V
Z1    Z 2  2  2  hf1
 2g  2g
00 0  3
PC

1.922  1.5
 2  9.81
PC
 3  1.5  0.188

= - 4.69m of water
This is the negative gauge (vacuum) pressure at point C.
The absolute pressure at C
Pc
(absolute )  10.3  4.69  5.61m of water (absolute)

4.10 Water Hammer

The interim stage when a flow changes from one steady state condition to another steady state
condition is known as the transient (unsteady) state of flow. In conduits and open channels,
such conditions occur when the flow is accelerated due to sudden closing or opening of the
controlling valves, starting or stopping of pumps, rejecting or accepting of the load by a
hydraulic turbines or similar situations of sudden increase or decrease in flows. The variations in
velocity result in change of momentum. The fluid is subjected to an impulse force equivalent to
the rate of change of momentum according to Newton‟s second law. An appreciable increase of
pressure occurs with respect to time due to this impulse force. This pressure fluctuation is called
water hammer (or oil hammer) because a hammering noise is usually associated with this
phenomenon. More commonly, this is now referred to as hydraulic transients. The system
design should be adequate to withstand both the normal static pressure and the maximum rise
in pressure due to hydraulic transient.
Definition
When a liquid flowing in a pipeline is abruptly stopped by the closing of a valve, dynamic energy
is converted to elastic energy and a series of positive and negative pressure waves travel back
and forth in the pipe until they are damped out by friction. This phenomenon is known as water
hammer. Local pressure
c
H
t=0 0t<L/c
Steady state Ho=P/ 1 t=0+ 2 Ho
Vo Valve Vo V=0
L Wave of increase pressure
At t=0, V is decreased to zero, causing an C=speed of propagation of pressure or wave

increase in pressure to (P+P)= (H+H) Liquid is compressed. A wave of increased
pressure travels in the upstream direction
65
c
H
H
3 4
t=L/C L/Ct<2L/C
t=L/C+
Wave front Wave front
V=0 Vo V=0
At the end of step 1 the pressure in the pipe is Since the pressure in the reservoir remains
much higher than the pressure in the reservoir. To unchanged, and the pressure in the pipe is much
relieve pressure in the pipe, water begins to flow higher than that in the reservoir, the fluid in the
from the pipe into the reservoir. pipe begins to discharge in the reverse into the
reservoir.
Wave of decreased
pressure
6 C H
5 2L/Ct<3L/C
t=2L/C t=2L/C+
Wave front
Wave front
Vo
Vo
V=0
When the decompressed wave arrives at
the valve, the reversed flow cannot Sudden stoppage causes pressure to drop below
proceed further so the fluid cannot flow normal level. This sends a wave of negative pressure
back to the reservoir. A negative pressure again upstream towards the reservoir.
is generated at the valve which produces a
negative shockwave. This in turn travels
towards the reservoir
H
8 C H
7
t=3L/C 3L/Ct<4L/C
t=3L/C+ Wave front
Wave front
V=0 Vo
V=0
At this point the pressure in the pipeline drops

below that in the reservoir, therefore fluid flows
from the reservoir into the pipe. If the system is assumed to be
frictionless, the pressure wave will travel
back and forth in the pipeline indefinitely
9
with the same flow conditions being
t=4L/C repeated every 4L/c seconds. The time
Ho interval, 4L/c seconds, after which
Wave front
conditions are repeated is referred to as
Vo
the theoretical period of the pipeline.
66
4.11 Pipe Networks

A water supply distribution system consists of a complex network of interconnected pipes,
service reservoirs and pumps which deliver water from the treatment plant to the consumer.
Water demand is highly variable, both by day and season. Supply, by contrast, is normally
constant; consequently, the distribution system must include storage elements, and must be
capable of flexible operation. Water pressures within the system are normally kept above a
minimum of about 15m head.
In addition to new distribution systems, there is a common need for improvement of existing
(often ageing) systems. The two main network configurations used are
Branching system
Ring main system (Grid)
The structure of the branching type of water distribution network is similar to a tree.
Main
Service
mains
Sub-mains
Building
connections
Fig. Branching pattern pipe network
Grid Systems
The ring system is preferred over the branching system because it prevents the occurrence of
“dead ends” with the consequent risk of stagnant water and permits more flexible operation,
particularly when repairs must be carried out.
Fig. Grid pattern pipe network
The distinguished feature of the grid system is that all of the pipes are interconnected and there
are no dead ends. In the grid system, water can reach a given point of withdrawal from several
directions. The grid system overcomes all of the difficulties of the branching system discussed
previously. One disadvantage of the grid system is that the determination of the pipe sizes is
somewhat more complicated.
67
Pipe Network
The city water supply system consists of several loops and branches of pipes. The system is
known as pipe network. The solution of pipe network is very time consuming. Prof. Hardy Cross
developed an ingenious method of successive approximation. By this method, the distribution of
discharge amongst various pipes can be easily obtained. Fig shows a network of pipes
A B C
D E F
E F J
A pipe network must satisfy the following 3 basic conditions:

(1) At any junction the total inflow must be equal to the total outflow.
(2) The algebraic sum of the head losses around any closed circuit is zero.
(3) The head loss equation must be satisfied for each pipe.
The head loss in any element (pipe) of the system may be expressed as
h f  KQ n - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
where hf = head loss or energy loss in the pipe element (m); Q = flow in that element (m3/s); K =
constant depending on pipe diameter, length, type and condition; n = 1.85 to 2 normally,
depending on equation used. (Darcy-Weisbach equation, n = 2)
Procedure
1) Assume a reasonable distribution of flow in various pipes satisfying condition (1).
2) Compute the head loss ( h f ) in each pipe, using the equation given in condition (3).
3) Divide the network into a number of closed circuits so that each pipe is included in at least
one circuit.

4) Compute the algebraic sum of the head losses in each circuit ( h f ). Take suitable sign
convention. Unless the assumed distribution of flow happens to be correct, h f is not
zero and the assumed discharge needs correction.
5) Revise the assumed flow by applying the correction ∆Q obtained as follows:
For any pipe in a loop of the system, the actual flows will differ from an assumed flow by an
amount ∆Q:
Q = Qo + ∆Q - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
Where Q = actual flow in pipe; Qo = assumed flow; ∆Q = required discharge
Substituting (2) into (1) gives
68
h f  kQ n  k Qo  Q n
Using binomial expansion and neglecting higher terms with the assumption that ∆Q is small
compared to Q; and also for a closed loop, the sum of the head losses about the loop must be
equal to zero,
h f 0
Therefore
∑ K (Qno + nQ n-1∆Q) = 0
 Q  
 KQ n

 KQ n

h
 f
 nKQ o
n 1
n KQ
o
n 1
n KQ o
n 1
It must be noted that in the numerator the algebraic sum is taken (signs are considered). In the
denominator, the arithmetic summation is done, without considering the sign. While applying the
correction, the sign of the correction obtained from the above equation must be considered.
Since some pipes are common to more than one circuit, more than one correction will be
applied to such pipes. After the corrections have been applied, new values of assumed
discharge are obtained.
6) Assume a discharge as found in step 5. Repeat the procedure till the correction become
negligibly small.
Examples:
Q1. Find the discharge in each pipe of the network shown below.
50
20
A K=1 B
2
K=2
K =3
K=6
1
C D
100 K=5 30
Solution:
The assumed distribution is shown in fig (b). The corrected flow after the first iteration for the top
horizontal (AB) is determined as 15 + 11.06 = 26.06 and for the diagonal (AC) as 35 + (-21.17)
+ (-11.06) = 2.77. Fig (c) shows the flow after one correction and fig (d) the values after four
corrections. The corresponding changes in discharges after the third iteration are:
Q1  0.0079 and Q2  0.169 ; while the corresponding changes in discharges after the
fourth iteration are: Q1  0.0013 and Q2  0.0003 . It is evident that after the fourth iteration
step, the values of the discharge corrections approach zero, implying the calculated values are
almost stable and the results acceptable.
69
20 50
20 A B 50 A B
15
35
26.06
23.94
2.77
35
70
48.83
30 51.17
100 D C 30
D C
100 30
(b) (c)
20 50
A B
29.24
20.76
-1.51
47.73
52.27
100 D C
30
(d)
First iteration
CIRCUIT PIPE h f  kQ2 h f nkQo

n 1
 nkQ o
n 1
Q  
h f
 nkQ
n 1
o
(1) DA 6 X 702 = 29400 2  6  70  840 28575

 = -21.17
AC 2
3 X 35 = 3675 28575 2  3  35  210 1350 1350
CD -5 X 302 = -4500 2  5  30  300
(2) AB 1  15 2  255 2  1  15  30 2799

 11.06
BC  2  35 2  2450 -2799 2  2  35  140 253 253
CA  3  13.83 2  574 2  3  13.83  83
70
Second iteration
CIRCUIT PIPE h f  kQ2 h f nkQo

n 1
 nkQ o
n 1
Q  
h f
 nkQ
n 1
o
(1) DA 6X48.832 = 14308 2  6  48.83  586

AC 2
3 X2.77 = 23 1241 2  3  2.77  17 1114 1241
 =- 1.114
CD 2
-5X51.17 =-13090 2  5  51.17  511 1114
(2) AB 1  26.06 2  679 2  1  26.06  52 475

 3.006
BC  2  23.94 2  1146 -475 2  2  23.94  96 158 158
CA  3  1.656 2  8 2  3  1.656  10
71
CHAPTER FIVE HYDRODYNAMIC MACHINES
5.1 Hydrodynamic machines

A hydrodynamic machine is a device in which mechanical energy is transferred from the liquid
flowing through the machine to its operating member (turbines) or from the operating member of
the machine to the liquid flowing through it (pump).
5.2 Pumps classification

Pumps are classified according to the way in which energy is imparted to the fluid. The basic
methods are (1) volumetric displacement, (2) addition of kinetic energy, and (3) use of
electromagnetic force.
As shown above, there are several different types of pumps, but the types the civil/hydraulic
engineer will encounter most frequently are classified into two main categories: Turbo-hydraulic
(kinetic) pumps and the Positive-displacement (static) pumps. Pumps in which displacement is
accomplished mechanically are called positive displacement pumps. The analysis of these
pumps involves purely mechanical concepts and does not require detail knowledge of
hydraulics; therefore it is not considered in detail in this study. Our discussion will focus on the
kinetic pumps, in which kinetic energy is imparted to the fluid by means of a rapidly rotating
impeller. Kinetic pumps include mainly the centrifugal pumps and vertical pumps. Its analysis
involves hydraulic principles. The centrifugal pumps are the most common types of kinetic
pumps used and they are the most common used in water and wastewater works because they
have lower capital and maintenance costs while giving high power.
Separately coupled
Overhung Closed coupled

Impeller
Submersible
Centrifugal
pumps
Impeller Axial split
Between
Kinetic bearings Radial split
pumps
Lineshaft pumps
Vertical
Submersible Pumps
pumps
Pumps
Horizontally
mounted axial
flow pumps
Reciprocating
Plunger/piston
pumps
Positive
displacement
pumps Lobe
Rotary
pumps Progressive cavity
Screw
Pump Classification
72
Turbo-hydraulic (kinetic) pumps – Centrifugal Pump
Positive-displacement (static) pumps
5.2.1 Introduction to Centrifugal Pumps

A centrifugal pump consists of two main parts:
1. The rotating element called the impeller and mounted on a rotating shaft
2. The housing/casing encloses the rotating impeller and seals the pressurised liquid inside;
and also has suction and discharge openings for the main flow path.
outlet outlet
Diffuse
volute
volute entrance rotating shaft
vanes impeller
casing/housing volute
casing
impeller
entrance
Parts of Centrifugal Pump
73
Depending on the direction of water flow around the impeller, the centrifugal pump may be
classified as
 Radial flow pump – centrifugal

 Axial flow pump – propeller
 Mixed flow pump – centrifugal
5.2.2 Introduction to Vertical Pumps

Vertical pumps were originally developed for borehole pumping and consequently the outside
diameter is limited to the size of the borehole. Vertical pumps have proved to be very versatile
and are today used in many applications not related to well pumping.
Outflow
6 Pump
Impellers
Inflow
Electric
Motor
Lineshaft Vertical Pump Submersible Borehole Pump
5.2.3 Introduction to Positive Displacement

Positive displacement (PD) pumps generally have lower discharge capacity and higher pressure
when compared with kinetic pumps. They are often used when pumping viscous fluids which
cannot be handled using centrifugal pumps. However, PD pumps are sometimes used for
pumping water, in particular low discharge borehole applications.
Rotary pumps
Rotary pumps operate in a circular motion and displace a constant amount of liquid with each
revolution of the pump shaft. In general, this is accomplished by pumping elements (e.g., gears,
lobes, vanes, screws) moving in such a way as to expand volumes to allow liquid to enter the
pump.
74
A: 3-Lobe Pump B: Screw Pump C: Double Screw Pump

(Progressive Cavity)
Examples of Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps
Table. Summary of Pump type and Application

Parameter Centrifugal Pumps Reciprocating Rotary Pumps
Pumps
Optimum Discharge Medium-High Low Discharge, Low-Medium Capacity,
and Pressure Discharge/Low- High Pressure Low-Medium Pressure
Applications Medium Pressure
Maximum Discharge 50,000+ m3/hr 2,000+ m3/hr 2,000+ m3/hr
Low Discharge No Yes Yes
Capability
Maximum Pressure 4,000+ m head 50,000+ m head 3000+ m head
Requires Relief Valve No Yes Yes
Smooth or Pulsating Smooth Pulsating Smooth
Flow
Variable or Constant Variable Constant Constant
Flow
Self Priming No Yes Yes
Space Considerations Requires Less Requires More Requires Less
Costs Lower Capital Higher Capital Lower Capital
Lower Maintenance Higher Maintenance Lower Maintenance
High Power Lower Power Lower Power
Fluid Handling Suitable for wide range Suitable for clean, Requires clean, clear,
fluids from clean, clear, clear, non-abrasive non-abrasive fluid due to
non abrasive fluids to fluids. Can be close tolerances.
fluids with abrasive adapted for abrasive
high-solid content. slurry service. Optimum performance
Not suitable for high Suitable for high with high viscosity fluids
viscosity fluids. viscosity fluids.
5.3 The centrifugal pump

The pump is driven by power from an external source, usually an electric motor. The wheel of
the centrifugal pump on which the vanes are fitted is known as the impeller. The liquid enters
the pump at the centre (eye). The impeller gives a centrifugal head to the liquid in the pump and
the liquid leaves the pump at the outer periphery with a high pressure and velocity. Part of the
velocity is also converted to pressure, as the liquid leaves the pump. The high pressure
developed in the centrifugal pump may be used to raise the liquid from a lower level to a higher
level or to increase the pressure in the system.
The rotary motion of the impeller creates a centrifugal force that enables the liquid to enter the
pump at the low-pressure region near the centre of the impeller and to move along the direction
75
of the impeller vane towards the higher-pressure region near the outside of the housing
surrounding the impeller as shown in the figure below. The housing is designed with a gradually
expanding spiral shape so that the entering liquid is led towards the discharge pipe with
minimum loss, in which the kinematic energy in the liquid is converted into pressure energy.
Radial Flow Pump Axial Flow Pump
A centrifugal pump consists of the following components

 Impeller: The wheel fitted with a series of backward curved vanes (or blades) is known as
impeller. The impeller is mounted on a shaft which is coupled to an electric motor. There are
three main types of impellers.
a) Closed impeller: The vanes are completely closed by plates on both sides. Thus this
type of impeller is used when the liquid to be pumped is relatively free from debris so
that the passage is not choked. This type has very high efficiency as it provides a
smooth passage for the liquid.
b) Open impeller: the vanes are open on both sides. They have neither the crown plate nor
the base plate. This type of impeller is used when the liquid contains a large amount of
debris – wastewater.
c) Semi-open impeller: In this type there is a plate on the base, and there is no crown plate.
This type of impeller is used when the liquid contains small amounts of debris.
The impeller is the main rotating part that provides the centrifugal acceleration to the fluid. They
are often classified in many ways: based on major direction of flow with reference to the axis of
rotation; on suction type; and on mechanical construction.
Based on major direction of flow with reference to the axis of rotation

 radial flow
 axial flow
 mixed flow
Radial flow and mixed flow pumps are commonly referred to as centrifugal pumps while axial
flow pumps are called propeller pumps. Radial and mixed flow impellers may be either open or
closed, while the axial is open. Generally axial flow pumps have about two to four blades, and
hence, large unobstructed passages that permit handling of liquid containing debris without
clogging.
76
Radial Flow Pump

In a radial flow pump, fluid enters at the centre of the impeller and is out along the impeller
blades in a direction at right angles to the pump shaft (axis)
Radial Flow Pump
Axial Flow Pump

The impellers are shaped so as to move water in the axial direction only. In an axial flow pump,
the impeller pushes the liquid in a direction parallel to the pump axis or shaft (axial direction).
Axial flow pumps are sometimes referred to as propeller pump as they operate in a similar
manner to that of a boat
Flow Centrifugal Pump
Mixed Flow Pump

A mixed flow pump has characteristics of both radial and axial flow pumps. As liquid flows
through the impeller of a mixed flow pump, the impeller blades force the liquid to move out in
both radial and axial directions (away from the pump shaft)
Mixed Flow Centrifugal Pump
77
Based on suction type

 Single-suction: Liquid inlet on one side.
 Double-suction: Liquid inlet to the impeller symmetrically from both sides.
Based on mechanical construction

 Closed: Shrouds or sidewall enclosing the vanes.
 Open: No shrouds or wall to enclose the vanes.
 Semi-open or vortex type.
Impeller type based on mechanical construction
Closed impellers require wear rings and these wear rings present another maintenance
problem. Open and semi-open impellers are less likely to clog, but need manual adjustment to
the volute or back-plate to get the proper impeller setting and prevent internal re-circulation.
Vortex pump impellers are great for solids and "stringy" materials but they are up to 50% less
efficient than conventional designs. The number of impellers determines the number of stages
of the pump. A single stage pump has one impeller only and is best for low head service. A
two-stage pump has two impellers in series for medium head service. A multi-stage pump has
three or more impellers in series for high head service.
Centrifugal Pumps (i) give satisfactory and economic service and (ii) are better suited than other
pumps (rotary and reciprocating) for the pumping of dirty liquids (better for water and
wastewater works – sewage treatment plants).
Other parts of a centrifugal pump

Other parts of a centrifugal pump include
 Casing: It is the airtight chamber covering the impeller. There are the volute, volute with a
vortex chamber and a diffuser pump. In a volute pump, the casing is of a spiral shape. This
type of casing is also known as volute casing. The area of flow gradually increases from the
impeller outlet to the delivery pipe. Thus the kinetic energy is converted into pressured energy.
 Suction pipe: The suction pipe connects the supply reservoir with the pump inlet. The lower
end of the pipe is fitted with a non-return foot valve. The foot valve does not permit the liquid
to drain out of the suction pipe when the pump is not working. This also helps in priming for
water supply pumps; a strainer is usually fitted at the lower end so that only relatively clear
liquid enters the suction pipe. The upper end of the suction pipe is connected to the centre of
the impeller known as the eye of the pump.
 Delivery pipe: The delivery pipe connects the outlet of the casing to the delivery reservoir. A
valve is provided on the delivery pipe to regulate the supply of water. The valve is usually
close to the pump.
78
To delivery reservoir
Impeller
Delivery pipe
Vanes
Casing
Supply reservoir
Foot value
Strainer
Setup of a centrifugal pump
Detailed parts of a centrifugal pump
79
5.4 Working of a centrifugal pump

Fluid enters the pump near the axis of an impeller rotating at high speed. The fluid is thrown
radially outward into the pump casing. A partial vacuum is created that continuously draws more
fluid into the pump. The key idea is that the energy created by the centrifugal force is kinetic
energy. The amount of energy given to the liquid is proportional to the velocity at the edge or
vane tip of the impeller. The faster the impeller revolves or the bigger the impeller, the higher
will be the velocity of the liquid at the vane tip and the greater the energy imparted to the liquid.
Volute centrifugal pumps can pump liquids containing solid particles, but, when pumping liquids
containing more than a small amount of vapour, their suction is broken by cavitation. Volute
centrifugal pumps operate best when pumping relatively non-viscous liquids and their capacity
is greatly reduced when used to pump viscous liquids. In practice most pumps used for drinking
water supply are of the radial type.
A centrifugal pump should be primed before it is started. Priming consists of filling the casing
with water so that air trapped in the pump does not hinder its operation and reduce its efficiency.
Priming is done by filling the pump with water from an outside source while permitting the
displaced air to escape through an exhaust valve. It may be noted that had there been no foot
valve in the suction pipe, the entire liquid poured into the priming funnel would have gone to the
supply reservoir, and priming would not have been complete.
Large pumps are primed by vacuum pumps. Sometimes, a special priming reservoir containing
the liquid is provided on the suction pipe. By directing the flow from this reservoir, it is possible
to prime the pump.
A pump located below the source of supply (submersible pumps) will not ordinarily require
priming although some air may be trapped in the casing of pumps mounted on horizontal shafts.
The following procedure is adopted when operating the pump.

 The delivery valve is closed and the priming of the pump is done
 While the delivery valve is closed, the external energy is supplied to the pump shaft. It is done
by starting the coupled electric motor. This causes an increase in the impeller pressure.
 The delivery valve is then opened. The liquid starts flowing into the delivery pipe.
 A partial vacuum is created at the eye of the centrifugal pump due to the centrifugal action.
The liquid rushes from the supply reservoir to the pump due to the pressure difference at the
two ends of the suction pipe.
 As the impeller continues to run, more and more water is made available to the centrifugal
pump at the eye. The impeller increases the energy of the liquid and delivers it to the
reservoir.
 While stopping the pump, the delivery valve should be first closed otherwise there may be
some backflow from the reservoir.
5.5 Specific Speed of Pumps

It represents the speed of a pump under a head of 1m while delivering a discharge of 1m3/s. All
geometrically similar pumps have the same specific speed. Specific speeds are determined by
the operating characteristics at the point of maximum efficiency.
Three parameters usually important in selecting centrifugal pumps are discharge (Q) to be
delivered (pumped), head (H) to be delivered (overcome), and impeller speed (N). To aid in
analysing pump problems and selecting pumps, these three parameters are often combined into
another dimensionless parameter known as the specific speed, given by
N Q
Ns 
H 3/ 4
Where Ns=specific speed; N=rotational speed (rotative impeller speed) in rpm; Q discharge in
lit/sec (m3/s); H = head in m.
80
Actually, specific speed is not really a speed. Rather it is a useful pump selection parameter that
includes the effect of discharge, head, and rotative impeller speed. The specific speed is a fixed
parameter for all pumps operating under dynamic conditions that are geometrically similar
(homologous) to one another. The parameter is suitable for grouping pump with respect to the
similarity of their design and to compare the performance of the pump of different design. Two
pump impellers having the same shape have the same specific speed although their sizes may
differ.
5.6 Relations for Geometrically Similar Pumps

The relations that relate the parameter of geometrically similar pumps are known as the affinity
Laws. These are useful in predicting the performance of a pump from tests on a model pump or
homologous pump. From dimensional analysis considerations, the affinity laws are
3
Q2 N D 
 2  2 
Q1 N 1  D1 
2 2
H2  N2   D2 
    Dimensionless
H 1  N 1   D1 
3 5
P2  N 2   D2 
   
P1  N 1   D1 
Two units that are geometrically similar and have similar vector diagrams are said to be
Homologous
5.7 Relations for Alteration in the same pump

For a given pump operating at a given speed, there are definite relationships among
parameters, known as the performance characteristics. If the pump size is altered or speed is
changed, the same relations do not hold. For the velocity triangle at the exit from the impeller to
remain the same before and after the alteration in the pump diameter, the following relations
should apply
Q 2 N 2 D2

Q1 N 1 D1
2 2
H2  N2   D2 
    Dimensionless
H1  N1   D1 
3 3
P2  N2   D2 

 N  
D  
P1  1   1 
The efficiency is considered constant with change in speed and diameter in the relations above.
However, when only speed is changed for the same diameter, the relations are as follows
1/ 2 1/ 3
N 2 Q2  H 2  P 
     2  Dimensionless
N 1 Q1  H 1   P1 
For changed diameter at the same speed, the relations are as follows
1/ 2 1/ 3
D1 Q 2  H 2  P 
     2  Dimensionless
D2 Q1  H 1   P1 
The above three equations are used to determine the revised characteristics of a pump for a
desired change in speed or diameter.
81
5.8 Head developed and power required

Pump Heads
1. Static Suction Lift (hs): The vertical distance from the water level in the source tank to the
centreline of the pump. If the pump is located at a lower level than the source tank, the static
suction lift is negative.
2. Static discharge head (hd): The vertical distance from the centreline of the pump to the water
level in the discharge tank.
3. Total static head (Hs): the sum of the static suction lift and the static discharge head, which
is equal to the difference between the water levels of discharge and source tanks.
4. Total dynamic head (TDH): the sum of the total static head and the friction and minor losses.
This is commonly known as the Total Head.
The static power to be overcome by a pump is given by:
Ps  H s Q   hs  hd Q
where hs = (static) suction head; hd= (static) discharge head; Hs= total static head, which is the
difference between the supply reservoir and delivery reservoir.
H m  H s  h fs h fd  d  s  H s   fLQ  5kQ D   H s  hloss

2 2
kv kv 2 2
2g 2g 12 D
where Hm = the manometric head; hfs & hfd = frictional losses in suction and delivery pipes.
Head Hsys = Hs + hloss
Losses
Total dynamic
Head, Hm (m)
Total Static Head
(Hs)
3
Q (m /s)
TYPICAL SYSTEM HEAD CURVE
The plot of the above equation Hm versus Q is known as the system head curve. This curve
representing the behaviour of the pipe system is important in the selection of a pump.
If the velocity head in the delivery and suction pipes are neglected then,
Hm  H s  hf s  hf d
Hm represents the head against which the pump has to work. It is ultimately the head developed
by the pump.
82
Static Static
discharge discharge
head head
Total static Total static

head head
Static Static
Suction Suction
Lift Lift
Total static
head
Static
discharge
head
Pump Power and Efficiencies

The pump is driven by power from an external source, usually a motor. The shaft which is
connected to the impeller receives a power Psh (shaft power) from the motor.
Psh impeller (Pi) Output (P)
Motor Shaft Pump
1. Mechanical Efficiency.
Because of mechanical losses like friction in the bearing, the power imparted to the impeller is
less than the shaft power, that is
Psh = Pi + Mechanical loss (∆Pi)
Psh = Pi + ∆Pi
Pi = Psh - ∆Pi.
83
The ratio of the impeller power to the shaft power is called the mechanical efficiency, ηm. Thus,
Pi Pi
m   <1
Psh Pi  Pi
2. Manometric Efficiency.
The power imparted by the impeller is Pi  QH i
Where Hi is the head imparted by the impeller, and Q is the flow through the impeller. The
power delivered by the pump is less than the impeller power because of hydraulic losses in the
impeller and the casing. The power delivered by the pump is known as the water power, given
by
P = Pi –∆Pm. (manometric losses)
QH m  QH i  h f  h f Q

i c
where hfi = losses in impeller, hfc= losses in casing. The actual head delivered by the pump is
known as the manometric head and it can be measured by a differential manometer installed
across the inlet and exit of the impeller.
The ratio of the waterpower to the impeller power is known as the manometric efficiency and it
is given by
 mano  

P H i  h f i  h fc H 
 m <1
Pi Hi Hi
3. Volumetric Efficiency.
It is the ratio of the discharge from the pump (Q) to the discharge flowing through the impeller
(Q+∆Q). The difference is due to leakage through the shaft and the casing, meant to lubricate
and cool the packing and prevent it from burning out.
Q
v  ≈1
Q  Q
ηv is slightly less than one.
4. Overall efficiency is given by
 o   m   mano   v
Pi P Q
  
Psh Pi Q  Q
Usually ηv is close to one, therefore unless otherwise stated ηv is taken equal to one and the
overall efficiency is
P
o    mano   m
Psh
84
hd D
B C
hs
5.9 Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head

The term ‘cavitation’ comes from the Latin word cavus, which means a hollow space or a
cavity. Webster‟s Dictionary defines the word „cavitation‟ as the rapid formation and collapse of
cavities in a flowing liquid in regions of very low pressure.
Cavitation is one of the most serious problems encountered in the operation of pumps as it can
cause permanent damage and reduce the performance of the pump and it should not occur
throughout its operating capacity range because cavitation causes:
 Erosion of metal from the impeller
 Limitation in the head against which a pump can work
 Reduction in the capacity of pump
 Noise and vibrations during operation with possible eventual drop in operational efficiency.
85
Fig. Effects of cavitation
Vaporous cavitation is the most common form of cavitation found in process plants. Generally it
occurs due to insufficiency of the available NPSH or internal recirculation phenomenon. The extent
of the cavitation damage can range from a relatively minor amount of pitting after years of service
to catastrophic failure in a relatively short period of time.
Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

It is defined as the net head in metres of liquid that is required to make the liquid flow through
the suction pipe from the supply reservoir to the impeller. The term NPSH is frequently used in
the pump industry. The minimum NPSH depends on the pump design, its speed and discharge.
Its value is usually given by the manufacturer.
Apply Bernoulli‟s equation to section A and B gives
2
Ps kv
 s  hs  h fs  0
 2g
Thus the negative head at the inlet of the impeller is given by
86
Ps  kv 2 
  s  hs  h fs 
  2g 
But the absolute pressure at the point is given by
Ps Pa  kv s 2
Pa 
     hs  h fs 
    2g 
where Pa is the atmospheric pressure.
Vapour pressure is the pressure required to keep a liquid in a liquid state. If the pressure
applied to the surface of the liquid is not enough to keep the molecules close together, the
molecules will be free to separate and roam around as vapour. The vapour pressure is
dependent upon the temperature of the liquid. Higher the temperature, higher will be the vapour
pressure. For no cavitation to occur, the absolute pressure at the point B (eye) should be equal
to or greater than the vapour pressure (Pv).
Pa Ps Pv
  or
  
Pv  kv s 2
Pa 
    hs  h fs  or
   2g 
Pa  kv 2 P 
hs    s  hf s  v 
  2 g  
hs gives the maximum suction lift. If hs is installed such that
 kv s 2
Pa P 
hs     h fs  v  then cavitation will occur.
  2g  
Pa P kv
2

Thus the expression   v  s  hs  h fs  should be a positive finite value.
   2g 

This value is the NPSH given by
 PvPa kv s
2

NPSH     hs  h fs  
   2g 

In terms of manometric head Hm, NPSH is expressed as
NPSH = σHm
Where σ = Thoma‟s cavitation number
87
 Pv kv s 2
Pa 
   hs  h fs 
   2g 


Hm
Cavitation will occur if Thoma‟s number is less than the critical value σc given by
4
 Ns  3
 c  0.103 
 1000 
where Ns is the specific speed of the pump.
5.10 Performance of Centrifugal Pumps

For a given pump at a speed, there are definite relationships among the pump discharge
capacity, head, power, and efficiency. These relations are derived from the actual tests on a
given pump or a similar unit and are usually depicted graphically by the pump characteristic
curves, comprising
 Pumping head against discharge
 Efficiency against discharge
 Power input against discharge
The important feature of the curves is that, as head increases the discharge (capacity)
decreases. These curves are supplied by the manufacturer. And since a pump casing can
accommodate impellers of several sizes, the manufacturer supplies a series of sets of curves
drawn on the graph corresponding to various sizes of impellers, which can be derived by use of
the affinity laws explained previously. At a given speed, a pump is rated at the head and
discharge, which gives the maximum efficiency, referred to as the best efficiency. The
characteristic curves, particularly the head-discharge curve is important in pump selection.
Pump
Common
Manifold
Pipe
Suction Tank
Suction Pipework Discharge Pipework

The pump curves relate flow rate and head developed by the pump at different impeller sizes
and rotational speeds. The centrifugal pump operation should conform to the pump curves
supplied by the manufacturer. A pump is designed to work under design speed, discharge and
head. When the pump runs at conditions different from the design conditions, its performance is
quite different. In order to predict varying conditions of speed, discharge and head, tests are
usually performed. The results of these tests are plotted in the form of characteristic curves.
These curves are very useful for predicting the performance of pumps under different condition
of speed, discharge and head. There are about four different curves namely;
 Operating characteristic curves
 Main characteristic curves
 Constant efficiency curves and
 Constant head and constant discharge curves.
88
The operating characteristic curves are obtained by running the pump at the design speed of
the driving motor. The pump is at design speed and the discharge is varied. The design
discharge and head are obtained from the corresponding curves where efficiency is highest.
ηo = efficiency;
Hm Hm = head;
P = Power.
ηo
P
P Hm
ηo
Design Depth
Design
discharge
Question:
A centrifugal pump, impeller 0.5m, when running at 750rev/min gave on test the following
performance characteristics:
Q (m3/min) 0 7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56
H (m) 40.0 40.6 40.4 39.3 38.0 33.6 25.6 14.5 0
η (%) 0 41 60 74 83 83 74 51 0
1. Predict the performance of a geometrically similar pump of 0.35m diameter and running at
1450rev/min. plot both sets of characteristics.
2. Predict the performance if only the diameter of the same pump is changed from 0.5m to
0.35m
3. Predict the performance if only the speed of the same pump is changed from 750rev/min to
1450rev/min.
SOLUTION
Let suffix 1 refers to the 0.5m diameter pump and suffix 2 refers to the 0.35m diameter pump.
3
Q N D 
From 1  1  1 
Q2 N 2  D2 
 3
 N 2  D2 
3
 1450  0.35 
Q2  Q1    = Q1    = 0.663Q1
 N1  D1   750  0.5 
89
2 2
H N  D 
From 1   1   1 
H 2  N 2   D2 
 2 2
 N 2   D2 
2 2
   = H1 
1450   0.35 
H 2  H1     = 1.83H1
 N1   D1   750   0.5 
The values of Q1 and H1 are given by the table above. Therefore by multiplying them by the
multipliers calculated above, Q2 and H2 may be tabulated. These together with some values of
efficiency (is constant) constituted the predicted characteristics of pump 2 as follows;
Q(m3/min) 0 4.64 9.28 13.92 18.56 23.2 27.8 32.5 37.0

H(m) 73.2 74.3 74.0 71.9 69.5 61.5 46.8 26.5 0
η(%) 0 41 60 74 83 83 74 51 0
Solution
3
D 
3
 0.35 
Q2  Q1  2  = Q1   = 0.343Q1
 D1   0.5 
2
D 
2
 0.35 
H 2  H1  2  = H1   =0.49H1
 D1   0.5 
N   1450 
Q2  Q1  2  = Q1   =1.933Q1
 N1   750 
2
N 
2
 1450 
H 2  H1  2  = H1   = 3.738H1
 N1   750 
5.11 Single Pump and Pipeline System

Determination of pump operating condition for single pumps
80
Pump H-Q Curve

70
60
50 Pump Operating Point

Head, m
80
40
70
Efficiency, %
System H-Q Curve

30 60
50
20 hst Efficiency 40
30
10
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
3
Discharge, m /hr
90
The suitability of a given pump for a certain known piping system is determined by
superimposing the system head curve of the piping system on the head-capacity characteristic
curve of the pump. The intersection point of the two curves indicates the operating point (i.e. the
head and discharge of a given pump). The point on any specific system H-Q curve at which a
single speed pump must operate is determined by superimposing the pump H-Q. However if the
efficiency of the pump is too low at this point another pump must be considered.
5.12 Multiple Pump System

A single pump is suitable within a narrow range of head and discharge in proximity of the
optimum pump efficiency. However in a piping system the discharge and head requirements
may vary considerably at different times. Usually a variable-speed motor can accommodate this
variation.
Pumps in Series
Pumps are used in series in a system where substantial head changes take place without
appreciable difference in the discharge (i.e. the system head curve is steep). In series, each
pump has the same discharge.
H = HA + HB
Q = QA = QB
HA  HB

H A / A  H B / B
Q ( H A  H B )
p

The composite head characteristic curve is prepared by adding the ordinates (heads) of all the
pumps for the same values of discharge. The intersection point of the composite head
characteristic curve and he system curve provides the operating condition.
Head, m
30.0 P1
P1
25.0
P2
20.0 P2
P1+P2 (Parallel)
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0
Discharge, m3/hr
Pumps in Parallel
The parallel pumps are useful for systems with considerable discharge variations with no
appreciable head change. In parallel, each pump has the same head
The following relations apply
91
H = HA = HB
Q = QA + QB
The composite head characteristic curve is obtained by summing up abscissas (discharges) of

all the pumps for the same values of head as shown below
30.0 P1
Head, m
One Pump (P1, P2)

25.0
P2
20.0
15.0
10.0
Two Pumps in Parallel (P1+P2)
5.0
0.0
0.0 100.0 200.0 300.0 400.0 500.0 600.0
Discharge, m 3/hr
92

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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

CE 356 HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS ........................................................................2

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION TO HYDRAULICS

Table 1.1 Differences between Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulics

1. Free surface flow (Open Channel Flow)

1.2 History of Hydraulics

CHAPTER TWO OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW (FREE SURFACE FLOW)

Fig 2.1 Various Sections of Open Channels

2.2 Classification of Flows

2.3 Velocity Distribution

Curves created by joining points of equal velocities are called isovels.

2.4 Open Channel Uniform Flow Formulas

b) Positive slope, S>0 c) zero slope, S=0 d) negative slope, S<0

Fig 2.3 Open Channel Flow bottom Slopes

Fig 2.4 Open Channel

And the Velocity  S

The flow velocity by the Chezy formula is given by V  C RS

Where C = Chezy coefficient is difficult to determine. An alternative form is the Manning‟s

Where n= Manning roughness coefficient.

Table 2.1 Some recommended values for freeboard

2.5 Hydraulic Design of Open Channels

Flow through rectangular and trapezoidal sections

Given S=0.0028, n=0.013

Q  VA = 2.5 x 12 x 5.945 = 178m3/s

Fig 2.5 Symmetrical trapezoidal channel

A= (16 + 3 x 4.5) x 4.5 = 132.75m2,

h (m) A (m2) P (m) R (m) Q (m3/s)

Usually 4~5 trials should bracket the required value.

Fig 2.6 Graphical method of determining flow rate

Flow through Compound Channels

P = b+2[1+m2] 1/2h  P (h)

n1=0.10 n2=0.05 n3=0.10

12m 30m 15m 16m 10m

Left over bank Channel Right over bank

n1=0.03 n2=0.0225 n3=0.03

b1=10m d2=1.5m b3=10m

Determine the Areas

A1  b1 h1  m1 h1  b1  2m1 h1 h2  10  2  1  2 2  10  2  1  2  1.5  45m 2

Determine the Perimeters

P2  P3  b2  h2 1  m2  5  1.5 1  1.52  7.7m

Determine the hydraulic Radius

Chezy Coefficient for each section

Conveyance for each section

The velocity at the section is

Flow through channel of circular section

(i) Flow depth less than radius

Fig 2.8 Channel of circular section

Area of flow = Area of sector – Area of triangle

 The hydraulic radius

(ii) Flow depth greater than radius

Area of flow = Area of (circle +  - sector)

EXAMPLE 1: A circular sewer 1m in diameter conveys a discharge of water at a depth of 0.2m.

Q  CA Rh S  60 x0.1119 x 0.1206 = 0.1124m3/S

 0.9 D  0.5D  1  0.4 

Free surface water subtends an angle of 2 at the centre B.

Substituting values into expressions,

This equation is difficult to solve but a trial-and-error solution yields h=0.166m.

2.6 Most Efficient Cross Sections (Best Hydraulic Cross Sections)

Substitute A  b  mhh into

2.7 Unlined and Lined Channels

Construction of Earth Channels – Some facts