Municipal Wastewater Treatment Guide

Municipal Wastewater Treatment 18CV55
Global Academy of Technology

Accredited by NAAC- ‘A’ grade
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and affiliated to VTU- Belagavi)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
STUDY MATERIAL
Municipal and Industrial Waste Water Engineering

(18CV55)
Student Name :
USN :
Academic Year : 2020 – 2021 (ODD SEMESTER)
Programme (UG/PG) : UG
Year / Semester : III Year/ V Semester
Course Code : 18CV55
Course Title : Municipal Waste Water engineering
References : Environmental Engineering (Vol 2), S K Garg
1
Global Academy of Technology

Accredited by NAAC- ‘A’ grade
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and affiliated to VTU- Belagavi)
Department of Civil Engineering
VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

Become a premier institution imparting quality education in engineering and management to
meet the changing needs of society
MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

M1. Create environment conducive for continuous learning through quality teaching and
learning processes supported by modern infrastructure
M2. Promote Research and Innovation through collaboration with industries
M3. Inculcate ethical values and environmental consciousness through holistic education
programs
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

VISION
To become a leading department oriented to serve the basic wants of human being related to
food, air, shelter and transportation, by providing quality education.
MISSION
M1. Create a favourable environment for learning, teaching & continuous improvement for
implementation of various civil engineering facilities.
M2. Promote professionalism, innovation and research through collaboration with industries to
realize cost & resource effective, stable, quality structures.
M3. Inculcate environmental consciousness and ethical values through interconnected training
programs to ensure sustainability and client satisfaction.
2
PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES-PEO’s

The program educational objectives of Civil Engineering are to enable students in,
PEO-1: Developing careers in government and private civil engineering organizations and
other professionally related domains
PEO-2: Pursuing higher studies, and research to develop innovative solutions and technologies
in civil engineering and other multi disciplinary areas
PEO-3: Improving professional and personal traits aligned to professional ethics and
environmental compulsions
PEO-4: Professional leadership and Successful entrepreneurship
PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES-PSO’s

PSO-1: Comprehend, analyze and design alternatives for execution of civil engineering
facilities
PSO-2: Apply Standard Codes of Practices and schedule of rates for planning, design, quality
control, estimating & costing of civil engineering projects.
PSO-3: Evaluate the buildings for resource conservation.
PROGRAM OUTCOMES-PO’s
Engineering graduates will be able to:
1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics,
natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and
design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and research
methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of
the information to provide valid conclusions.
3
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to complex engineering activities
with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to
the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need
for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and write
effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive
clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and
leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.
BLOOMS TAXONOMY
OUTCOME BASED EDUCATION (OBE): “IT’S NOT ALL ABOUT WHAT WE TEACH, IT’S ALL
ABOUT WHAT WE LEARN”
4
Municipal Waste Water Engineering (18CV55)
COGNITIVE
CO CO STATEMENT MAPPED POs
LEVEL
Elucidate the importance of sanitation, dry and

wet weather flow, sewer materials, appurtenances Understand
CO1
and the aspects involved in the design of (L2) PO1, PSO3
sewerage system.
Determine the hydraulic elements of circular

CO2 Apply (L3) PO1,PO3,PSO1
sewers using rational and empirical formula.
Explain the sampling methods and Understand

CO3 PO1,PO2,PO6, PSO2
characterization of wastewater (L2)
Calculate the dimensions of the physical and PO1,PO3,PO6

CO4 biological treatment units based on standard Apply (L3)
design criteria PSO1
Analyze the self purification phenomenon of

CO5 water bodies and oxygen sag curve using Streeter- Apply (L3) PO1, PO2
Phelps Equation
Design various Advanced Oxidation Processes

CO6 Apply (L3) PO1,PO3,PO6,PSO1
and low-cost treatment units.
5
MODULE-01
Syllabus:
INTRODUCTION:
1. Need for sanitation

2. Necessity and Importance of sewerage system
3. Definitions of some common terms used in the sanitary engineering
4. Methods of domestic waste water/sewage disposal
5. Types of sewerage systems and their suitability
6. Dry weather flow
7. Factors affecting dry weather flow
8. Flow variations and their effects on design of sewerage system
9. Wet Weather Flow
10. Computation of design flow
11. Estimation of storm flow
12. Rational method and empirical formulae of design of storm water drain
13. Time of concentration
14. Materials of Sewers
15. Shapes of Sewers
16. Laying and testing of sewers
17. Ventilation of sewers
18. Sewer appurtenances, manholes, catch basins.
19. Basic principles of house drainage,
20. Typical layout plan showing house drainage connections.
INTRODUCTION:
1. Necessity for sanitation-
Sanitation is the prevention of random outbreak of diseases and can be achieved by controlling
or eliminating such environmental factors that contribute to transmission of diseases. One of
the basic principles of sanitation of the community is to remove all decomposable matter, solid
or liquid away from the premises of dwellings as soon as possible after it is produced, to a safe
place, without causing any trouble and dispose it in a suitable manner so as to make it
permanently harmless.
Every community produces both liquid and solid wastes. The sanitary sewage includes excreta,
domestic sewage such as the used water from home or community and industrial wastes. If the
waste produced by humans, animals as well as industries accumulates, it will decompose and
contaminate or pollute air, water and soil. For e.g., If the waste water is left to accumulate and
is let carelessly into a water body such as river or stream, the organic matter present in
wastewater, will decompose and release malodorous gases, the nutrients present will stimulate
6
aquatic plant life and likely cause eutrophication, and the waste water may also contain toxic
compounds which might be hazardous for human or aquatic life. Also wastewater will
percolate into ground and contaminate ground water.
If proper arrangements for the collection, transport, treatment and disposal of such waste matter
are not made, they will accumulate and create foul condition which will compromise the
sanitary condition of the town or city, and also become a breeding ground for mosquitoes, flies,
bacteria and create nuisance.
Therefore in the interest of community of the city or town, it is most essential to collect, treat
and dispose of all the waste products of the city in such a way that it may not cause any
hazardous effects on people residing in town as well as the environment.
2. Necessity and Importance of sewerage system-

Domestic sewage (black water) and sullage (grey water) is the main source of water pollution
in India. In olden days, waste generated from water closets was collected by conservancy
methods and other liquid waste was transported through open drain to finally join natural
drains. Since, the excreta was carried through carts, it was not hygienic method for
transportation to the disposal point. Thus, sanitary conditions were not maintained. Now,
collection and conveyance of sewage is done through sewerage system, where it is transported
in closed conduit using water as a medium, under the flow of gravity and hence helps in
maintaining sanitary conditions in the city or town and has become need of the time.
Sanitation, though started as a measure for preventive health, has come to be recognized as a
way of life. In this context, development of the sanitation infrastructure of any country could
possibly serve as a sensitive index of its level of prosperity. Hence, for attaining the goals of
good sanitation, sewerage system is very essential. While provision of potable drinking water
takes precedence in the order of provision of Environmental Engineering Services, the
importance of sewerage system cannot be last sight and cannot be allowed to lag behind. All
the water used by the community has to flow back as sewage loaded with the wastes and unless
properly collected, treated and disposed off, this would create a serious water pollution
problem.
The importance of sewerage system can be explained by the following points:
1. Carrying of wastes on head or carts is not required.

2. Bad smell, which was unavoidable during open transport of sewage, is not occurring
due to transport of this polluted water in closed conduits.
7
3. The old system was posing the health hazards to sweepers and to the nearby residents,
because of the possibilities of flies and insects transmitting disease germs from the
accessible carts to the resident’s food. This is avoided in sewerage system because of
transport of night soil in close conduits.
4. The human excreta is washed away as soon as it is produced in sewerage system, thus
storing is not required as required in the old system of manual disposal, thus, avoiding
bad odour.
5. In the old system, the wastewater generated from the kitchen and bathrooms was
required to be carried through open roadside drains for disposal. This is avoided in
sewerage system as the open drains could generate bad odour when used for disposal of
organic wastes.
6. The water carriage system does not occupy floor area, as the sewers are laid
underground.
7. In addition, the construction of toilets one above the other is possible in sewerage
system and combining latrine and bathrooms together as water closets is possible. This
is one of the important advantages of sewerage system.
3. Definitions of some common terms used in the sanitary engineering-

3.1 REFUSE: It is a general term used to indicate what is left out of rejected as worthless. It may be
liquid, semi-solid or solid and is divided into six categories:
3.1.1 Garbage: It indicates dry refuse which includes waste papers, sweepings from streets and
markets, decayed fruits and vegetable peelings, grass and leaves etc. Garbage contains
large amount of organic and putrefying matter.
3.1.2 Rubbish: It indicates a variety of solid wastes from the residencies, offices and other
buildings. It also indicates waste building materials, broken furniture, paper, rags etc.
Rubbish is generally dry and combustible.
3.1.3 Sullage: Wastewater from the bath rooms, kitchens, wash basins etc. It does not emit bad
odour since organic matter is either absent or negligible in it.
3.1.4 Sewage: It is liquid waste from the community. It includes sullage, discharge from the
latrines, urinals, hospitals, stables, industrial waste, and surface runoff admitted into
sewers. It is highly putrescible and upon decomposition produces large amount of
malodorous gases. It may also contain numerous pathogenic bacteria.
3.1.5 Subsoil water: It is the ground water that finds its entry into sewers through leaks.
3.1.6 Storm water: It is the surface runoff obtained during and after the rainfall which enters
sewers through inlet. Storm water is not foul as sewage and hence it can be carried in the
open drains and can be disposed off in the natural rivers without any difficulty.
8
3.2 SANITARY SEWAGE: It indicates the sewage obtained from the residential buildings &
industrial establishments. Being extremely foul it should be carried through underground
conduits. Sanitary sewage may be classified as
3.2.1 Domestic Sewage: It is the sewage obtained from the lavatory basins, urinals & water
closets of houses, offices, theatres & institutions. It is highly foul as it contains human
excreta and urine as it starts putrefying & gives offensive smell. This sewage requires
proper handling & disposal.
3.2.2 Industrial Sewage: It consists of spent water from industries and commercial areas. The
degree of foulness depends on the nature of the industry concerned and processes
involved. It may contain objectionable organic and inorganic compounds that may not be
amenable to conventional treatment processes.
3.3 NIGHT SOIL: It indicates human and animal excreta.
3.4 SEWER: Underground drains or conduits that carry the sewage to a point of discharge or
disposal.
3.5 SEWERAGE: Means the structures, device, equipment and accessories intended for collection,
transportation and pumping of sewage but excluding works for its treatment.
3.6 WASTEWATER: It is now used in place of sewage. It includes both organic and mineral
matter carried through liquid media. The organic matter undergoes decomposition and emits foul
odour and mineral matter may combine with water to form dissolved solids, may form unsightly
sludge deposits and may contribute to the hardness of the water in the effluent.
3.7 DRY WEATHER FLOW (DWF): Domestic sewage and industrial sewage collectively, is
called as DWF. It does not contain storm water. It indicates the normal flow during dry season.
3.8 WET WATER FLOW (WWF): The rate of wastewater flowing at dry weather combined with
storm water introduced into a combined sewer system, and dry weather flow combined with
infiltration/inflow in a separate sewer. Wet weather flow is thereby higher than the dry weather
flow due to the contribution from inflow and infiltration in the sewer system.
3.9 BACTERIA: It belongs to a large group of unicellular microorganisms which have cell walls
but lack organelles and an organized nucleus, including some which can cause disease. These are
the microscopic organisms.
Based on oxygen requirement they can be classified as:
1. Aerobic bacteria: Need Oxygen to survive and grow.
2. Anaerobic bacteria: They do not require oxygen for growth.
3. Facultative bacteria: They can create energy by aerobic respiration if oxygen is present,
but is capable of switching to anaerobic respiration if oxygen is absent.
3.10 INVERT: The lowest point of the internal surface of a drain, sewer or channel at any cross
section.
3.11 SLUDGE: It is the organic matter deposited in the sedimentation tank during treatment.
9
3.12 SEWAGE TREATMENT/WASTEWATER TREATMENT: It applies to any process,

operation or its combination which reduces the objectionable properties of wastewater and
renders it less dangerous and repulsive to man
3.13 SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT: is a facility designed to receive raw sewage and to treat it
using process or operations or combination of both, in such a manner so as to render it less
dangerous and repulsive to man.
3.14 There are three types of SEWER SYSTEMS that are commonly used for sewage collection:
3.14.1 Separate sewers are those which carry the house hold and industrial wastes only.
3.14.2 Storm water drains are those which carry rain water from the roofs and street surfaces.
3.14.3 Combined sewers are those which carry both sewage and storm water together in the
same conduit.
3.15 House sewer (or drain) is used to discharge the sewage from a building to a street sewer.
3.16 Lateral sewer is a sewer which collects sewage directly from the household buildings.
3.17 Branch sewer or sub-main sewer is a sewer which receives sewage from a relatively small area.
3.18 Main sewer or trunk sewer is a sewer that receives sewage from many tributary branches and
sewers, serving as an outlet for a large territory.
3.19 Depressed sewer is a section of sewer constructed lower than adjacent sections to pass beneath
an obstacle or obstruction. It runs full under the force of gravity and at greater than atmospheric
pressure. The sewage enters and leaves the depressed sewer at atmospheric pressure.
3.20 Intercepting sewer is a sewer laid transversely to main sewer system to intercept the dry
weather flow of sewage and additional surface and storm water as may be desirable. An
intercepting sewer is usually a large sewer, flowing parallel to a natural drainage channel, into
which a number of main or outfall sewers discharge.
3.21 Outfall sewer receives entire sewage from the collection system and finally it is discharged to a
common point. Relief sewer or overflow sewer is used to carry the flow in excess of the capacity
of an existing sewer.
4. Methods of domestic waste water disposal/Systems of Sanitation-

For safe disposal of the wastewater generated from a locality, efficient collection, conveyance,
adequate treatment and proper disposal of treated sewage is necessary. To achieve this,
following conditions should be satisfied:
1. Sewage should not pollute the drinking water source, either surface or
groundwater, or water bodies that are used for bathing or recreational purposes.
2. The untreated sewage during conveyance should not be exposed so as to have
access to human being or animals and should not give unsightly appearances or
odour nuisance, and should not become a place for breeding flies.
10
3. It should not cause harm to public health and adversely affect the receiving
environment.
The collection system is meant for collection of the sewage generated from individual houses
and transporting it to a common point where it can be treated as per the needs before disposal.
In olden days, waste generated from water closets was collected by conservancy methods and
other liquid waste was transported through open drain to finally join natural drains. Since, the
excreta was carried through carts, it was not hygienic method for transportation to the disposal
point. Now, collection and conveyance of sewage is done in water carriage system, where it is
transported in closed conduit using water as a medium.
Different Methods of domestic waste water disposal include (Systems of Sanitation)
1) CONSERVANCY SYSTEM
2) WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM
4.1 CONSERVANCY SYSTEM:

• It is an old system in which various types of wastes, such as night soil, garbage, etc are
collected separately in vessels or deposited in pits or pools and then removed periodically
(at least once in 24 hours). As this method involves handling independently the various
types of refuse, it is termed as conservancy system. It is also called as dry system.
• Night soil is collected separately in pans or buckets and carried by sweepers to a central
place from where it is transported to a far place for its final disposal, where it is buried into
ground, in trenches. After 2-3 years the buried night soil is converted into excellent
manure.
• Garbage is collected in dustbins placed along the roads from where it is conveyed by hand
carts, motor van or trucks once or twice a day to the point of disposal.
• The non combustible portion of garbage such as sand, dust, clay etc is used for filling the
low level areas to reclaim land for the future development of the town. The combustible
portion of the garbage such as dry leaves, furniture, etc is burnt. The decaying matters are
dried and disposed of by burning or converting to manure.
• Sullage and storm water are carried separately in closed/open drains to the point of
disposal where they are allowed to mix with a water body without treatment.
This system is usually adopted in small towns, villages, undeveloped areas of big cities, etc,
where there is scarcity of water or is unable to develop infrastructure for water carriage system.
11
Advantages of Conservancy System:

1. Initial cost is low as storm water can pass through open drains and conservancy latrines
are economical.
2. The quantity of sewage reaching the treatment plant before disposal is low.
3. As storm water goes in open drains, the sewer section will be small and will run full for
the major portion of the year, due to which there will be no silting and deposits in
sewer-line.
4. During floods if the water level of river rises at the outfall, it will not be costly to pump
the sewage for disposal.
Disadvantages of Conservancy System:

1. Hygiene and sanitary aspect: It is highly unhygienic and cause insanitary conditions since
the excreta starts decomposing within few hours of its production. Even if cleaning takes place
twice in a day, the excreta remaining in the privies will emit foul smell and create fly nuisance.
2. Transportation aspect: The night soil is transported in open carts through streets and other
crowded areas, which is highly undesirable.
3. Labour aspect: This system is fully depended on human labour. In case of strike by the
sweepers, the privies cannot be used due to foul smell and there is a danger of insanitary
conditions in city.
4. Building design aspect: Privies and lavatories are to be constructed outside the house and
hence building cannot be constructed as compact units.
5. Conditions of drains: Insanitation may be there due to carriage of sullage through open
drains laid in streets.
6. Human aspect: In the present day world, where human has progressed so much, it is
highly humiliating to ask human beings to transport night soil in pails on their heads.
7. Risk of epidemic: Due to improper or careless disposal of night soil, there is a higher chance
of outbreak of epidemic.
8. Pollution problems: The liquid wastes from lavatories, etc., during their washing, may soak
in the ground, thus contaminating the soil. It ground water is at shallow depth, it may also be
polluted due to percolation of waste water.
9. Cost consideration: Though cheap in initial cost, but costly in maintenance and
establishment costs.
10. Land requirement: Requires considerable land for the disposal of sewage.
12
4.2 WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM:
With development and advancement of the cities urgent need was felt to replace conservancy
system with some more improved type of system in which human agency should not be used
for the collection and conveyance of sewage.
In this system, water is used as a medium to convey the waste from its production point to
treatment or disposal point. Thus, it is called as WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM.
The waste is sufficiently diluted with water so as to make it flow just like water. The sewage so
formed in water carriage system consist of 99.9% of water and 0.1% solids. All these solids
remain in suspension and do not change the specific gravity of water; therefore all the
hydraulic formulae can be directly used in the design of sewerage system and treatment plants.
Here, specially designed latrines, called water closets are used which are flushed with 5 -10 L
of water after use, which is led to suitable designed and maintained sewers. The waste from
Kitchen, wash basins, etc are also led to the sewers. The sewers are underground closed pipes
which are laid on suitable longitudinal gradient such that the flow is under gravity and suitable
flow velocity is maintained to keep the sewer clean. The sewers lead the collected sewerage to a
suitable site where it is treated and disposed appropriately by irrigation or dilution.
The garbage is collected as in case of conservancy system to avoid clogged sewers.
This system requires high initial investment and large quantities of water for smooth
functioning. However, if adopted, it is most efficient and hygienic system for sewage disposal.
Advantages:
1. Hygiene and sanitary aspect: The system is very hygienic since the night soil and other
waste water is conveyed through closed conduits which are not directly exposed to
atmosphere. There is no bad smell due to continuous flow.
2. Pollution aspect: The liquid wastes are directly conveyed through the sewers, thus it will not
soak into ground and contaminate soil or groundwater.
3. Compactness of design: As latrines remain clean due to being flushed after every use, there
is no foul smell and hence they can be constructed attached with rooms, therefore buildings
may be compact.
4. Labour aspect: The labour required for operation and maintenance is extremely small. In fact,
the functioning of the system is practically automatic, except for the operation of certain
pumps, etc, there is no labour issue.
13
5. Treatment aspect: The system permits the use of modern methods of treatment of sewage
collected. The treated wastewater and sewage can be safely disposed off without any risk.
6. Land requirement: Because of the availability of treatment facilities, the land required for
disposal is very less compared to that required in Conservancy system .
7. Cost consideration: It involves high initial cost during installation, but low running cost as
manual labour required is very small.
8. Epidemic aspect: As flies and other insects do not have direct access to sewage, risk of
outbreak of epidemic is low.
Disadvantages
1. High installation cost.
2. During monsoon, large volume of sewage is to be treated, whereas very small volume
is to be treated during rest of the year.
Table 1.1: Comparison between Conservancy system & Water Carriage system
SN ASPECT CONSERVANCY SYSTEM WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM
Very cheap in initial cost, but costly in It involves high initial cost, but low
1 Cost
maintenance and establishment costs. running cost.
Due to foul smells from the latrines, As latrines remain clean, there is no
Building they are to be constructed away from foul smell and hence they can be
2
design living room so building cannot be constructed attached with rooms,
constructed as compact units. therefore buildings may be compact.
The liquid wastes from lavatories,
etc., during their washing, may soak in The liquid wastes are directly
Pollution the ground, thus contaminating the conveyed through the sewers, thus it
3
problems soil. It ground water is at shallow will not soak into ground and
depth, it may also be polluted due to contaminate soil or groundwater.
percolation of waste water.
Disposal Land For burial of excremental matter large Less area is required as compared to
4
requirement area is required. conservancy system.
It is highly unhygienic. Excreta are
Excreta are removed immediately
Hygiene and not removed immediately hence its
5 with water, thus no problem of foul
sanitation decomposition starts before removal,
smell or hygienic trouble.
causing foul odour.
This system is fully depended on As very less human labour is involved
human labour. In case of strike by the in this system ,there is no such
6 Labour
sweepers; there is danger of insanitary problem as in case of conservancy
conditions in city. system
Water
7 Low High
consumption
8 Epidemic Risk of spread of epidemic No risk
Sewage is disposed without any
Sewage is treated up to a required
9 Treatment treatment and hence can pollute the
limit of sanitation
natural water courses.
14
5. Types of Sewerage systems/Water carriage systems and their suitability

The water carriage systems can be divided into following three types:
1) SEPARATE SYSTEM
2) COMBINED SYSTEM
3) PARTIALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM
1. SEPARATE SYSTEM:
In this system two sets of sewers are laid. The sanitary sewage (faecal matter, domestic
wastewaters, washings, etc) is carried through sanitary sewers while the storm water is carried
through storm sewers. The sewage is carried to the treatment plant and storm water is disposed of
to the natural streams without any treatment.
ADVANTAGES:
1) The cost of installation is low. The storm water can be disposed off through open channels
along the road sides. Old sewers may also be suitably converted to carry rain water. Thus,
the actual sewers carrying foul sewage will be smaller size.
2) Sewage load on treatment unit will be less, since only foul sewage need to be treated.
3) The sewage will be of uniform characteristics and hence putrefy easily.
4) Storm water can be discharged to rivers without treatment.
5) Sewers of smaller section can be easily ventilated.
DISADVANTAGES:
1) Sewerage being small, difficulty in cleaning them
2) Frequent choking problem will be there
3) Two sets of sewers may prove to be costly in long run.
4) The use of storm sewer is only partial because in dry season they will be converted to
dumping places and may get clogged.
5) Due to lesser air contact in small size sewers, foul smell may be there due to formation of
sewage gas.
2. COMBINED SYSTEM
Here, only one set of sewers are used to carry both sanitary sewage and storm water. This system is
called combined system. Sewage and storm water both are carried to the treatment plant, before its
final disposal. The combined system is advocated on the ground that the street surface washings
are as impure as the sewage itself, and should be treated suitably before entering natural streams.
ADVANTAGES:
1) Size of the sewers being large, chocking problems are less and easy to clean.
2) It proves economical as one set of sewer is laid and maintenance cost is reduced.
15
3) There is more air in large sewers than in smaller ones, hence the sewer gas that may be formed
gets diluted, and reduced the chances of foul smell.
DISADVANTAGES:
1) Size of the sewers being large, difficulty in handling and transportation.
2) Load on treatment plant is unnecessarily increased due to inclusion of storm water.
3) It is uneconomical if pumping is needed because of large amount of combined flow.
4) Unnecessarily storm water is polluted.

3. PARTIALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM/ PARTIALLY COMBINED SYSTEM:
Here, one set of underground sewers is laid. These sewers admit the foul sewage and early
washings of rains. As soon as the quantity of storm exceeds a certain limit, the storm water
overflows and is collected & conveyed in open drains to the natural streams. The foul sewage
however continues to flow in the sewers.
ADVANTAGES:-
1. The sizes of sewers are not very large as some portion of storm water is carried through open
drains.
2. Combines the advantages of both the separate and combined systems.
3. The storm water permitted in the sewers eliminates its chances of choking. The sewers are
completely cleaned during rainy season.
4. The problem of disposing storm water form households is simplified.
DISADVANTAGES:-
1. During dry weather, the velocity of flow may be low.
2. The storm water unnecessary increases load on to the treatment plant..
3. The storm water increases the cost of pumping.
SUITABLE CONDITIONS FOR SEPARATE SEWERAGE SYSTEMS:-

A separate system would be suitable for use under the following situations:
1. When sufficient funds are not available in the beginning, the sewers may be constructed only to
carry domestic sewage, and the rain water may be conveyed through open drains. These drains can
be converted to regular sewers when funds are available.
2. Where rainfall is uneven.
3. Where sanitary sewage is to be pumped.
4. The drainage area is steep, allowing to runoff quickly.

5. Sewers are to be constructed in rocky strata. The large combined sewers would be more
expensive.
16
SUITABLE CONDITIONS FOR COMBINED SYSTEM:-

1. Rainfall in even throughout the year.
2. Both the sanitary sewage and the storm water have to be pumped.
3. The area is heavily built up and space for laying two sets of pipes is not enough.
4. Effective or quicker flows have to be provided.
After studying the advantages and disadvantages of both the systems, present day construction of
sewers is largely confined to the separate systems except in those cities where combined system
already exists. In places where rainfall is confined to one season of the year, like India and even in
temperate regions, separate system are most suitable.
Table -1.2:- Comparison of Separate and Combined systems
Sl. Separate system Combined system

no.
1. The quantity of sewage to be treated is less, As the treatments of both are done, the
because no treatment of storm water is done. treatment is costly.
2. In the cities with more rainfall this system is In the cities with less rainfall this system is
more suitable. suitable.
3. As two sets of sewer lines are to laid, this Overall construction cost is higher than
system is cheaper because sewage is carried in separate system.
underground sewers and storm water in open
drains.
4. In narrow streets, it is difficult to use this It is more suitable in narrow streets.
system.
5. Less degree of sanitation is achieved in this High degree of sanitation is achieved in this
system, as storm water is disposed without any system.
treatment.
Waste water flow rates
1. Dry Weather Flow:

In order to determine the section of sewer, it is essential to know the total quantity of wastewater
that would flow through it.
The total waste water flow may be classified into two components:
1. Dry Weather Flow (D.W.F): The DWF (also known as sanitary sewage) is the flow through the
sewers that would normally be available during non-rainfall periods. It consists mainly of domestic
sewage and industrial waste water.
2. Storm water flow: It is the additional flow that would occur during rainy season. Storm water
consists of runoff available from roofs, yards and open spaces during rainfall.
17
Dry Weather Flow (D.W.F):

The DWF is obtained from following sources:
1) Domestic wastewater: A certain quantity of water is being supplied daily by the Water
Works Department for domestic use. This water gets consumed in various ways and hence
all of it does not reach the sewer. The waste water reaching the sewers will be that part of
water which is used for flushing water closets, urinals, washing clothes, bathing, etc.
2) Industrial wastewater: This is the wastewater generated by the industry after consuming
water for its manufacturing purposes.
3) Wastewater from public facilities: This is the wastewater from schools, cinemas, hotels,
railway stations, street washings.
4) Ground water infiltration: This is the quantity of ground water that infiltrates into the
sewers. It depends upon the nature of soil, material of sewers, nature and condition of sewer
joints, etc.
FACTORS AFFECTING DRY WEATHER FLOW:

The quantity of sanitary sewage or the DWF is mainly depended on the following factors:
1. Population
2. Type of area served
3. Rate of water supply
4. Infiltration and exfiltration
1. Population:-
▪ The quantity of sanitary sewage directly depends on the population. As the population
increases the quantity of sanitary sewage also increases.
▪ The sewerage system is designed for present as well as future population. There are
several methods used for forecasting the population of a community.
2. Type of area served:-
▪ The quantity of sanitary sewage also depends on the type of area served such as
residential, industrial or commercial.
▪ The quantity of sewage produced from residential areas depends on the rate of water
supplied (litres/ capita/ day) to that area and this quantity is obtained by multiplying the
population with this factor.
▪ The quantity of sewage produced by various industries depends on their various
industrial processes, which is different for each industry.
▪ Similarly, the quantity of sewage obtained from commercial and public places can be
determined by studying the development of such places.
18
3. Rate of water supply: -

▪ Theoretically, the quantity of wastewater discharged into a sewer system should be a
little less than the amount of water originally supplied to the community.
▪ This is because all the water supplied does not reach sewers as sewage owing to such
losses as leakage in pipes or such deductions as lawn sprinkling, manufacturing
processes etc.
▪ However, these losses may be largely be made up by such additions as surface
drainage, groundwater infiltration, water supply from private wells etc.
▪ On an average, therefore, the quantity of sewage maybe considered to be nearly equal
to the quantity of water supplied.
4. Groundwater infiltration and exfiltration: -
▪ The quantity of sanitary sewage is also affected by groundwater infiltration through
joints.
▪ The quantity will depend on the nature of soil, materials of sewers, type of joints in
sewer line, workmanship in laying sewers and position of underground water table.
Infiltration causes increase to the legitimate flow in urban sewerage systems. Infiltration
represents a slow response process resulting in increased flows mainly due to seasonally-
elevated groundwater entering the drainage system, and primarily occurring through defects in
the pipe network.
Exfiltration represents losses from the sewer pipe, resulting in reduced conveyance flows and
is due to leaks from defects in the sewer pipe walls as well as overflow discharge into
manholes, chambers and connecting surface water pipes.
The physical defects are due to a combination of factors including poor construction and pipe
joint fittings, root penetration, illicit connections, biochemical corrosion, soil conditions and
traffic loadings as well as aggressive groundwater.
Infiltration and Exfiltration involve flows passing through physical defects in the sewer fabric
and they will often occur concurrently during fluctuations in groundwater levels, and
particularly in association with wet weather events; both of which can generate locally high
hydraulic gradients.
Exfiltration losses are much less obvious and modest than infiltration gains and are therefore
much more difficult to identify and quantify. However, being dispersed in terms of their spatial
distribution in the sewer pipe, exfiltration losses can have potentially significant risks for
groundwater quality.
19
The episodic but persistent reverse pumping effect of hydraulic gain and loss will inevitably
lead to long term scouring of pipe surroundings and foundations resulting in pipe collapse and
even surface subsidence.
DESIGN PERIOD:
The future period for which the provision is made in designing the capacities of the various
components of the sewerage scheme is known as the design period.
The design period depends upon the following:

❖ Ease and difficulty in expansion,
❖ Amount and availability of investment,
❖ Anticipated rate of population growth, including shifts in communities, industries and
commercial investments,
❖ Hydraulic constraints of the systems designed, and
❖ Life of the material and equipment.
Following design period can be considered for different components of sewerage scheme.
1. Laterals less than 15 cm diameter: Full development
2. Trunk or main sewers: 40 to 50 years
3. Treatment Units: 15 to 20 years
4. Pumping plant: 5 to 10 years
20
Variations in sewage flow and their effects on design of sewerage

system
• Variation occurs in the flow of sewage over annual average daily flow.
• Fluctuation in flow occurs from hour to hour and from season to season.
• The typical hourly variation in the sewage flow is shown in the figure below.
• If the flow is analysed near its origin, the peak flow will be quite pronounced. The peak
will delay if the sewage has to travel long distance. This is because of the time required in
collecting sufficient quantity of sewage required to fill the sewers and time required in
travelling.
• As sewage flow in sewer lines, more and more sewage is mixed in it due to continuous
increase in the area being served by the sewer line. This leads to reduction in the
fluctuations in the sewage flow and the lag period goes on increasing.
• The magnitude of variation in the sewage quantity varies from place to place and it is very
difficult to predict.
• For smaller township this variation will be more pronounced due to lower length and travel
time before sewage reach to the main sewer and for large cities this variation will be less.
Figure: Typical hourly variations in sewage flow
21
For estimating design discharge following relation can be considered:
1. Maximum daily flow = 2 times the annual average daily flow (representing seasonal
variations)
2. Maximum hourly flow = 1.5 times the maximum daily flow (accounting hourly variations)
= 3 times the annual average daily flow.
• As the tributary area increases, peak hourly flow will decrease.

• For smaller population served (less than 50000) the peak factor can be 2.5, and as the
population served increases its value reduces.
• For large cities it can be considered about 1.5 to 2.0.
• Therefore, for outfall sewer the peak flow can be considered as 1.5 times the annual
average daily flow.
• Even for design of the treatment facility, the peak factor is considered as 1.5 times the
annual average daily flow.
• The minimum flow passing through sewers is also important to develop self cleansing
velocity to avoid silting in sewers. This flow will generate in the sewers during late night
hours. The effect of this flow is more pronounced on lateral sewers than the main sewers.
• Sewers must be checked for minimum velocity as follows:
Minimum daily flow = 2/3 Annual average daily flow
Minimum hourly flow = ½ minimum daily flow = 1/3 Annual average daily flow
• The overall variation between the maximum and minimum flow is more in the laterals and
less in the main or trunk sewers. This ratio may be more than 6 for laterals and about 2 to 3
in case of main sewers.
STORM WATER FLOW

When rainfall takes place, a part of it infiltrates into the ground surface while the remaining
flows over the land depending upon permeability of the ground, its surface slope, and many
other factors. The amount of water flowing over the ground surface, pavements, house roofs,
etc., is known as ‘runoff’ or ‘storm water’. This storm water is drained through sewers to avoid
flooding.
The various factors affecting the quantity of stormwater flow are:

i. Area of the catchment
ii. Slope and shape of the catchment area
iii. Porosity of the soil
iv. Obstruction in the flow of water as trees, fields, gardens, etc.
22
v. Initial state of catchment area with respect to wetness.

vi. Intensity and duration of rainfall
vii. Atmospheric temperature and humidity
viii. Number and size of ditches present in the area
Time of Concentration
The period after which the entire catchment area will start contributing to the runoff is called as the
time of concentration.
• The rainfall with duration lesser than the time of concentration will not produce maximum
discharge.
• The runoff may not be maximum even when the duration of the rain is more than the time
of concentration. This is because in such cases the intensity of rain reduces with the
increase in its duration.
• The runoff will be maximum when the duration of rainfall is equal to the time of
concentration and is called as critical rainfall duration. The time of concentration is equal
to sum of inlet time and time of travel.
• Time of concentration = Inlet time + time of travel
Figure: Runoff from a given catchment
• Inlet Time: The time required for the rain falling on the most remote point of the tributary area
to flow across the ground surface along the natural drains or gutters up to inlet of sewer is
called inlet time.
• The inlet time ‘Ti’ can be estimated using relationships similar to following. These coefficients
will have different values for different catchments.
23
Ti = [0.885 L3/H]0.385
Where,
Ti = Time of inlet, minute
L = Length of overland flow in Kilometre from critical point to mouth of drain
H = Total fall of level from the critical point to mouth of drain, meter
• Time of Travel: The time required by the water to flow in the drain channel from the mouth to
the point under consideration or the point of concentration is called as time of travel.
Time of Travel (Tt) = Length of drain/ velocity in drain
DESIGN OF SEWERS
1. DESIGN OF SEWERS
1.1 Hydraulic formulae for velocity
1.2 Effects of flow variations on velocity
1.3 Self cleansing velocity and non-scouring velocities
1.4 Design of hydraulic elements for circular sewers flowing full and flowing partially
full
2. MATERIALS OF SEWERS
2.1 Sewer Materials
2.2 Shapes of sewers
2.3 Laying of sewers
2.4 Joints and testing of sewers
2.5 Ventilation and cleaning of sewers
1. Sewer materials
Factors to be considered while selecting a sewer material:

1. Resistance to corrosion: Sewage usually contains acids and other impurities. Thus, the
sewer pipes are likely to be acted upon by sewer gases and hence corrode. Thus, the
sewer material chosen should be corrosion resistant and last for a longer life.
2. Resistance to abrasion: Sewage may contain lot of sand and grit particles. At a high
velocity at the sewage invert, erosion of sewer material may be caused due to abrasion.
Hence the sewer material chosen should withstand possible abrasions.
3. Strength: Sewers are laid below ground level and hence are subjected to heavy external
loads. Also, in soft soils there is a chance of depressing the sewer at some points, which
24
may create beam action in sewer line. To withstand all such conditions sewer material
should be strong.
4. Durability: The material should be durable and not give away quickly to normal wear
and tear, and thus provide a longer life span and avoid frequent replacement.
5. Weight: The material used for sewers should be light, for easy handling and
transportation.
6. Imperviousness: The sewer material should not allow any seepage of sewage from
sewer. The infiltration and exfiltration to the sewer can be estimated to a large extent by
this property.
7. Cost: The cost of sewer should be less so that overall economy is achieved in its
construction.
8. Hydraulic Efficiency: The sewer material should provide smooth interior surface
(Manning’s coefficient as low as possible) so as to provide an hydraulically efficient
surface.
Sewer Materials:
1. Asbestos Cement Sewers:
 Manufactured from a mixture of asbestos fibres, silica and cement and converted to a
homogenous material which has considerable strength.
 Available in size 10 to 100 cm internal diameter and length up to 4.0 m.
 Can be easily assembled without skilled labour with the help of special coupling, called
‘Ring Tie Coupling’ or Simplex joint.
 The pipe and joints are resistant to corrosion and the joints are flexible to permit 12
degree deflection for curved laying.
 Used for vertical transport of water. For example, transport of rainwater from roofs in
multi-storied buildings, for transport of sewage to grounds, and for transport of less foul
sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen and bathroom.
 Advantages:
 These pipes are light in weight and hence, easy to carry and transport.
 Easy to cut and assemble without skilled labour.
25
 Interior is smooth (Manning’s n = 0.011) hence, can make excellent hydraulically

efficient sewer.
 Disadvantages
 These pipes are structurally not very strong.
 These are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric acid. When bacteria produce H2S, in
presence of water, H2SO4 can be formed leading to corrosion of pipe material.
2. Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete:
 Plain cement concrete (1: 1.5: 3) pipes are available up to 0.45 m diameter and
reinforcement cement pipes are available up to 1.8 m diameter.
 These pipes can be cast in situ or precast pipes.
 Precast pipes are better in quality than the cast in situ pipes.
 The main circular circumferential reinforcement in sewers is provided near the inner
surface of pipe for smaller sized pipes (less than 0.8 m dia) which are subjected to
internal pressure only.
 In case of larger sized pipes (greater than 0.8m dia), which are subjected to both
internal and external pressure, two sets of reinforcements are provided (one near inner
face and one near outer face )
 If they face only external pressure, an elliptical cage reinforcement may be provided
Advantages :
 Strong in tension as well as compression.
 Resistant to erosion and abrasion.
 They can be made of any desired strength.
 Easily molded, and can be in situ or precast pipes.
 Economical for medium and large sizes.
 These pipes are available in wide range of size and the trench can be opened and
backfilled rapidly during maintenance of sewers.
Disadvantages:
26
 These pipes can get corroded and pitted by the action of H2SO4.
 The carrying capacity of the pipe reduces with time because of corrosion.
 The pipes are susceptible to erosion by sewage containing silt and grit.
The concrete sewers can be protected internally by vitrified clay linings. With protection lining
they are used for almost all the branch and main sewers. Only high alumina cement concrete
should be used when pipes are exposed to corrosive liquid like sewage.
3. Vitrified Clay or Stoneware Sewers
 These pipes are used for house connections as well as lateral sewers.
 The size of the pipe available is 5 cm to 30 cm internal diameter with length 0.9 to 1.2
m. These pipes are rarely manufactured for diameter greater than 90 cm.
 These are joined by bell and spigot flexible compression joints.
Advantages
 Resistant to corrosion, hence fit for carrying polluted water such as sewage.
 Interior surface is smooth and is hydraulically efficient.
 The pipes are highly impervious.
 Strong in compression.
 These pipes are durable and economical for small diameters.
 The pipe material does not absorb water more than 5% of their own weight, when
immersed in water for 24 h.
Disadvantages
 Heavy, bulky and brittle and hence, difficult to transport.
 These pipes cannot be used as pressure pipes, because they are weak in tension.
 These require large number of joints as the individual pipe length is small.
4. Brick Sewers:
 This material is used for construction of large size combined sewer or particularly for
storm water drains.
27
 The pipes are plastered from outside to avoid entry of tree roots and groundwater
through brick joints. These are lined from inside with stone ware or ceramic block to
make them smooth and hydraulically efficient.
 Lining also makes the pipe resistant to corrosion.
5. Cast Iron Sewers:
 These pipes are stronger and capable to withstand greater tensile, compressive, as well
as bending stresses. However, these are costly.
 Cast iron pipes are used for outfall sewers, rising mains of pumping stations, and
inverted siphons, where pipes are running under pressure.
 These are also suitable for sewers under heavy traffic load, such as sewers below
railways and highways.
 They are used for carried over piers in case of low lying areas.
 They form 100% leak proof sewer line to avoid groundwater contamination.
 They are less resistant to corrosion; hence, generally lined from inside with cement
concrete, coal tar paint, epoxy, etc.
 These are joined together by bell and spigot joint.
 IS:1536-1989 and IS:1537-1976 provides the specifications for spun and vertically cast
pipes, respectively.
6. Steel Pipes:
 These are used under the situations such as pressure main sewers, under water crossing,
bridge crossing, necessary connections for pumping stations, laying pipes over self
supporting spans, railway crossings, etc.
 They can withstand internal pressure, impact load and vibrations much better than CI
pipes. They are more ductile and can withstand water hammer pressure better.
 These pipes cannot withstand high external load and these pipes may collapse when
negative pressure is developed in pipes
 They are susceptible to corrosion and are not generally used for partially flowing
sewers.
28
 They are protected internally and externally against the action of corrosion.
7. Lead Sewers:
 They are smooth, soft and can take odd shapes.
 This pipe has an ability to resist sulphide corrosion.
 However, these pipes are very costly.
 These are used in house connection (smaller lengths and sizes in toilets)
8. Plastic sewers (PVC pipes):
 Plastic is recent material used for sewer pipes. These are used for internal drainage
works in house.
 These are available in sizes 75 to 315 mm external diameter and used in drainage
works.
 They offer smooth internal surface.
 The additional advantages they offer are resistant to corrosion, light weight of pipe,
economical in laying, jointing and maintenance, the pipe is tough and rigid, and ease in
fabrication and transport of these pipes.
2. Shapes of sewers:
 Sewers are generally circular pipes laid below ground level, slopping continuously
towards the outfall.
 These are designed to flow under gravity. Shapes other than circular are also used.
Advantages of circular sewers:
1. Easy to manufacture
2. It provides maximum area for a given perimeter & thus gives greatest HMD when
running full or half full, thus it is most efficient section at these flow rates.
3. Uses minimum quantity of sewer material and thus economical
4. Circular section has uniform curvature all round and hence offers less opportunities for
deposition.
Other shapes used for sewers are:

29
a. Standard Egg-shaped sewer
b. New egg-shaped sewer
c. Horse shoe shaped sewer
d. Parabolic shaped sewer
e. Semi-elliptical section
f. Rectangular shape section
g. U-shaped section
h. Semi-circular shaped sewer
i. Basket handled shape sewer
Standard egg-shaped sewers, also called as ovoid shaped sewer, and new or modified egg-
shaped sewers are used in combined sewers. These sewers can generate self -cleansing velocity
during dry weather flow. This shape has got better hydraulic properties, but it is costly. Due to
longer perimeter more material for constructions is required and due to its odd shape it is difficult
to construct. This sewer requires always a good foundation and proper reinforcement to make it
structurally stable. In India they are rarely used. They are most suitable in case of combined sewers.
The main advantage of this sewer is that it gives a slightly higher velocity during low flow, than a
circular sewer of the same size.
(a) Standard Egg Shaped Sewer (b) New/ Modified Egg shaped Sewer
30
(c) Horse shoe sewer section (d) Parabolic section
 Horse shoe shaped sewers and semi-circular sections are used for large sewers with
heavy discharge such as trunk and outfall sewers. Its top is usually semi-circular with
sides inclined or vertical. The bottom may be flat, circular or paraboloid. Its height is more
than width. This shape gives increased head room.
(e) Semi-elliptical section
31
(f) Rectangular Sewer
 Semi-elliptical sewers: This shape of sewer is more suitable for soft soils as they are more
stable. This shape is not suitable for carrying low discharges and it is normally adopted for
sewers having diameter greater than 180cm or so.
 Rectangular or trapezoidal section is used for conveying storm water as they provide
high HMD at large flows and thus have higher velocities when laid at same slope as
circular sewers.
(g) U-shaped section (h) Semi-circular Section
32
(i) Basket-Handle Section
 U-shaped section is used for larger sewers and especially in open cuts.
 Semi-circular sewer: The semi-circular sewer gives a wider care at the bottom and hence,
it becomes suitable for constructing large sewers with less available headroom. Now a day
there are replaced by rectangular sewers.
 Basket Handle sewer: The shape of this sewer resembles the shape of a basket handle.
Small discharges flow through the bottom narrower portion. During rainy days, the
combined sewage flows in the full section.
3. Joints in sewers:
Joints are used to join various lengths of pipes to develop a sewer line. The type of joint to be
adopted depends on the pipe material, internal pressure and external loads, and many other factors.
The following are the requirements of a good sewer joint.

(i) It should be water tight.
(ii) It should be easy to construct.
(iii) It should be economical.
(iv) Tree roots should not be able to penetrate the joint.
(v) It should be resistant to the acidic, alkaline or gaseous action of sewage.
(vi) It should be flexible enough such that slight settlements in sewer line do not damage it.
Types of Sewer joints:

1. Bell & Spigot Joint
33
2. Collar Joints
3. Simplex or Ring Tie Coupling
4. Flexible or Bituminous Joint
5. Mechanical Joints
6. Open Joints
1. Bell & Spigot Joint:
 Common in plain or reinforced concrete pipes

 Each pipe has a bell or socket end and a spigot end
 Cement mortar of proportion 1:1 or 1:2 is inserted between the space of bell end and
spigot end
 Gasket or jute packing may be placed in the inner side, to maintain the alignment of the
sewer
 The mortar caulked joint is finished at about 45 degrees on the outer face
Figure: Bell & Spigot Joint
2. Collar Joints:
 The plain ends of the consecutive lengths of pipes are kept near each other & a collar of
slightly bigger diameter is placed around.
34
 The annular space between the collar and the end of pipes is then filled with cement
mortar of 1:1 proportion.
 Used for concrete pipes of large diameter
Figure: Collar Joint
3. Simplex Joint:
 Also known as Ring tie coupling
 Like collar joints
 Used for Asbestos cement pipes
 Joint consists of pipe sleeve or coupling of asbestos cement and 2 rubber rings which
are compressed between the exterior of pipes and interior of sleeve
35
 Flexible
Figure: Simplex joint
4. Bituminous / Flexible joint:
 Collar joint is rigid (cement mortar)
 They crack easily due to even slight movements of pipes due to settlements, etc.
 They are made flexible by using bitumen or bituminous compounds instead of cement
mortar.
5. Mechanical Joints:
 Use Mechanical devices such as flanged rings, bolts, screwed end etc to keep two ends
together
 Used for Metallic sewers made of cast iron, steel, etc
36
6. Open joints:
 Used when there is no objection to infiltration
 The bell and spigot ends are simply placed together without inserting filling material in
the annular space.
 Gasket may be inserted to maintain alignment.
 The joint is covered with tar paper, to prevent entry of subsoil into the sewer.
Construction & Layout of sewer lines:

Various steps involved:
1. Setting Out
2. Alignment and gradient
3. Excavation of trenches, Timbering and dewatering
4. Laying and Jointing
5. Testing
6. Backfilling
1. Setting Out:
• From longitudinal section of sewer line, positions of Manholes are located on ground
• A sewer line is laid between two manholes
• The setting out in sewerage work is carried out from tail end/ outfall end , and
proceeded upwards (to use sewers even during initial period of construction)
• The centre line of sewer should be properly maintained during the construction.
• Two methods:
1. A line parallel to the centre line of sewer is drawn and marked. This line is known as
offset line, set at a distance of y=0.5B+0.6 m, B= width of trench.
Pegs are driven along this line at an interval of 7.5 to 15m
2. Two vertical posts are driven into the ground at a known distance from the centre line
peg, and one horizontal rail known as sight rail is fixed between these posts at some
convenient height above ground. Such posts are established at suitable intervals and a
cord is drawn between the sight rail posts.
37
2. Alignment and Gradient:
 The sewers are laid to correct alignment and gradient with the help of boning rods and
sight rails.
 Modified levels of invert are first obtained by adding a suitable vertical length to the
invert levels marked on the L-section.
 These modified levels are marked on the sight rails either by fixing nails on sight rails
or by adjusting the top of sight rails to the modified invert levels of the sewer lines.
 Thus, an imaginary line parallel to the proposed sewer line is obtained on the ground.
 A boning rod or a traveller is a vertical wooden post suitably shod with shoe iron and
fitted with a cross head or tee.
 Its length is made equal to the height of sight rail above the invert line of sewer
 The boning rod can move to and fro in the trench so as to give invert-line on the
prepared bed of the sewer. Both the sight rail as well as boning rod has their centre lines
accurately marked with thin saw-cut and painted black and white for proper visibility.
3. Excavation of trench, timbering and dewatering:
• Excavation is usually carried out in open cutting. The width of trench at or below the
top of the sewer should be minimum necessary for its proper installation, with due
consideration to its bedding.
• The width of trench from the top of the sewer to ground surface is primarily related to
its effect upon the adjoining services and nearby surfaces. Wherever space is available,
excavation is made with side slopes so that the slopes are stable.
• Sometimes, it may be essential to restrict the top width of the trench, and hence the
excavation has to be made with sides vertical.
• When the depth of the trench exceeds 1.5 -2.0 m, and when excavation is made with
side vertical, it becomes necessary to support the side by sheeting and bracing. This is
known as timbering of the trench and may be done using various methods such as Stay
bracing, Box sheeting, Vertical sheeting, Runner Sheeting, Sheet piling.
4. Laying and Jointing:
• Before placing the sewer pipe, the grade of the bottom of the trench should be checked.
38
• The trench should be excavated up to a level equal to the bottom of embedding concrete
(wherever concrete bedding is required) or up to the invert level of the sewer if no
embedding concrete is provided.
• Excavation or filling is carried out so as to bring the top of the boning rod in level with
the string.
• Where large sewer lines are laid or where sloped trench walls results in top-of-trench
width too great for practical use of sight rails or where soils are unstable, stakes set in
trench bottom itself on the sewer line, as rough grade for the sewer is completed, would
serve the purpose.
• A newer technique for the maintaining both line and grade employs a laser beam
generated at a manhole and directed down the pipe as it is placed. Accuracy of line and
grade can be held to within 0.01 % over a range of 300m by the laser beam technique.
5. Testing of Sewer pipes:
• Before backfilling, the sewer pipes are tested for water tight joints, and also for correct
& straight alignment.
1. Test for leakage, called Water Test:
• This test is performed for underground sewer pipes before back filling is done.
39
• The test should be carried out by suitably plugging the lower end of the drain and filling the
system with water.
• A knuckle band shall be temporarily jointed at the top end and a sufficient length of vertical
pipe is joined so as to provide the required test head.
• Subsidence of test water may be due to
o (a) Absorption by pipes and joints
o (b) Leakages at joints etc.
• Any leakage if visible and defective part of work if any should be made good.
2. Test for straightness of alignment and obstruction: -
• For this test, a mirror is placed in front of one end of sewer and the image of the section is
observed. If the sewer line is straight, the image should be circular. If it is not a complete
circle, then it is not straight.
• For testing for obstruction, by inserting a steel ball (of dia 13 mm less than the internal dia
of the sewer pipe) at upper end and if there is no obstruction in the sewer line, the ball will
emerge out from the lower end.
3. Smoke Test:
• This test is carried out for drainage pipes located in buildings. It is conducted to check
the gas-tightness of the sewer.
• The smoke is produced by burning oil, tar paper, etc.
• The pipe is approved gas tight by the smoke test conducted under a pressure of 25 mm
of water , maintained for 15 minutes after all the traps/ seals have been filled with
water.
40
4. Air Testing:
• It is done by subjecting the stretch of pipe to a pressure of 100mm of water by means of

a hand pump.
• If the pressure is maintained at 75mm, the joints shall be assumed to be water tight.
• If the drop in pressure is more than 25mm, the leaking joints shall be traced and
suitably treated to ensure the water tightness.
6. Backfilling:
• Trenches should be backfilled immediately after the pipe is laid and tested, unless Class
A bedding is used in which case the backfilling is delayed until the concrete has set up.
• No water should be permitted to raise in the unbackfilled trenches.
• The soil for backfilling should be selected carefully to ensure future safety of the sewer.
• The filling in the sides and upto about 0.6 to 0.9m above the crown or soffit of the
sewer should be made in the finest selected material free from bush, debris, frozen
material, large rocks, and junk, placed carefully in layers of 15 cm thick, watered and
evenly rammed.
• After this, the excavated top soil, turf, pavement, etc., are replaced as the top filling
material, rammed and satisfactorily maintained till the surface gets reinstated.
• At each stage, the filling should be well rammed, consolidated and completely saturated
with water and only then further line should be continued.
• Before and during the backfilling of a trench, precautions should be taken against the
floatation of the pipe due to large quantities of water into the trench causing an uplift of
the empty or the partly filled pipe line.
Ventilation of Sewer:
• Sewage flowing in sewer has got lot of organic and inorganic matters present in it. Some of
the matters decompose and produce gases.
• These gases are foul smelling, corrosive and explosive in nature.
• If these gases are not disposed of properly they may create a number of difficulties. They
may cause air locks in sewers and affect the flow of sewage.
• They may prove to be dangerous for the maintenance squad working in sewers.
• They may also cause explosions and put the sewer line out of commission.
• For the disposal of these gases, ventilation of sewer line is a must.
41
Methods of Ventilation:
Following are some of the means or fittings which help in the ventilation of sewers,
1. Use of ventilating columns:

• Ventilating columns are placed at intervals of 150 to 300 m along the sewer lines. They are also
provided at the upper end of every branch sewer, and also at every change in the size of the
sewers.
• Ventilating column consists of a vertical shaft made by joining cast iron or steel pipe lengths. A
foundation block is provided at the bottom end of the shaft in order to keep it steady in a
vertical position. A connection is provided in the lower underground portion to join it to the
sewer. A cowl is provided at the top end of the shaft in order to allow the escape of sewer
gases into the atmosphere.
• The diameter of the ventilating column is kept equal to one third of the diameter of the sewer
served by it.
• The ventilating columns should be located in open places, so that they are exposed to sun-
shine for the most part of the day. The heat of sunshine will help in proper air circulation of
air.
2. Use of ventilating manhole covers:
• Manhole covers are provided with perforations, through which the sewer gets exposed to
the atmosphere.
• This will help in ventilation but also cause nuisance due to foul smell. Also, the opening
will permit large quantities of storm water, dust, etc.
• This method is adopted in very isolated places.
3. Laying sewer line at proper gradient.
4. Running the sewer at half full or 2/3 depth.
5. Proper house drainage
6. Use of mechanical devices
7. Unobstructed outlets
42
• SEWER APPURTENANCES: Catch basins, manholes, flushing tanks, oil and grease
traps, Drainage traps.
• Basic principles of house drainage.
• Typical layout plan showing house drainage connections
• Maintenance of house drainage.
SEWER APPURTENANCES:
The structures, which are constructed at suitable intervals along the sewerage system to help its
efficient operation and maintenance, are called as sewer appurtenances.
These include:
(1) Manholes, (2) Drop manholes, (3) Lamp holes,
(4) Clean-outs, (5) Street inlets called Gullies, (6) Catch basins,
(7) Flushing Tanks, (8) Grease & Oil traps, (9) Inverted Siphons
(10) Storm Regulators.
(1) MANHOLES:
• The manhole is masonry or R.C.C. chamber constructed at suitable intervals along the sewer
lines, for providing access into them.
• Thus, the manhole helps in inspection, cleaning and maintenance of sewer along with
helping in joining sewer lengths.
• If the manhole covers are perforated, they also help ventilate the sewer but will lead to
evolution of pungent gases.
LOCATION:
• These are provided at every bend, junction, change of gradient or change of diameter of the
sewer.
• The sewer line between the two manholes is laid straight with even gradient.
43
• For straight sewer line, manholes are provided at regular interval depending upon the
diameter of the sewer.
• The spacing of manhole is recommended in IS 1742-1960.
• For sewer up to 0.3 m diameter or sewers which cannot be entered for cleaning or inspection
the maximum spacing between the manholes recommended is 30 m, and 300 m spacing
for pipe greater than 2.0 m diameter (Refer Table 3.1).
• The internal dimensions required for the manholes are provided in Table 3.2 (CPHEEO,
1993).
• The minimum width of the manhole should not be less than internal diameter of the sewer
pipe plus 150 mm benching on both the sides.
Table 3.1 Recommended Spacing of Manholes

Pipe Diameter Spacing
Dia up to 0.3 m 45 m
Dia greater than 1.5 m 300 m
Table 3.2 The minimum internal dimensions for manhole chambers
Depth of sewer Internal dimensions

0.8 m or less 0.75 m x 0.75 m
Depth between 0.8 m and 2.1 m 1.2 m x 0.9 m
Greater than 2.1 m Circular chambers with min dia of 1.4 m; or
rectangular chamber with min. Dimension
of 1.2 x 0.9 m
Min. Wall thickness
(a) 1.5 m depth 20 cm
(b) > 1.5 m depth 30 cm
CLASSIFICATION OF MANHOLES
Depending upon the depth the manholes can be classified as:

(a) Shallow Manholes, (b) Normal Manholes, and (c) Deep Manholes
(a) Shallow Manholes

Shallow Manholes: These are 0.7 to 0.9 m in depth, constructed at the start of the branch sewer
or at a place not subjected to heavy traffic conditions (Figure 3.1). These are provided with
light cover at top and called inspection chamber.
44
Figure 3.1 Shallow manhole
(b) Normal Manholes: These manholes are 1.5 m deep with dimensions 1.0 m x 1.0 m square
or rectangular with 1.2 m x 0.9 m (Figure 3.2). These are provided with heavy cover at its top
to support the anticipated traffic load.
Figure 3.2 Rectangular manhole for depth 0.9 m to 2.5 m

(c) Deep Manholes:
• The depth of these manholes is more than 1.5 m. The section of such manholes is not
uniform throughout (Figure 3.3).
• The size in upper portion is reduced by providing an offset of RCC.
• Steps are provided in such manholes for descending into the manhole.
• These are provided with heavy cover at its top, with suitable C.I frame to support the
traffic load.
45
Figure 3.3 Deep Manhole
Components of a Deep Manhole:
i) Access shaft ii) Working chamber iii) Bottom or Invert iv) Side walls v) Steps or ladder vi)
Top cover
1. Access shaft:
• The upper portion of a deep manhole is known as Access shaft, which has
dimension lesser than those of working chamber located below it.
• Its minimum size is 0.6 x 0.75 m for a rectangular manhole and 0.6 m to 0.75 m
dia for circular manholes.
• Its depth is equal to the depth of the manhole minus the height of required working
chamber.
2. Working chamber:
• The lower portion of a manhole is known as Working Chamber, and provides working
space to carry out repair works. It is constructed by enlarging the size of access shaft at
its bottom through an offset by providing a RCC slab, or by corbelling or by arching
etc.
• The minimum size of the working chamber for a rectangular manhole is about 0.9 x 1.2
m and that for a circular manhole is about 1.2 m dia. The height of working chamber
should preferably be not less than 1.8 m.
3. Bottom or invert:
• The bottom portion also known as benching or invert is constructed in cement
concrete.
• It facilitates the entry of sewage from branch into main sewer.
• It consists of a semi-circular or U-shaped main channel and sides are made to slope
towards it.
4. Side Walls:
• Constructed either of bricks, stone masonry or RCC.
• They should be strong enough to withstand the earth pressures from the sides.
• The min specified thickness is 22.5 cm (one brick thick)
• The inside and outside of the brickwork should be plastered 20 mm thick with 1:2
cement plaster, so that a minimum total thickness of 250 mm is obtained.
5. Steps or ladder:
• Made of malleable cast iron.
46
• The steps are placed staggered at a horizontal centre to centre distance of 20 cm.
• If wider steps are provided, staggering is not required.
• The vertical distance between the steps may be kept upto 30cm.
• The steps should be firmly embedded in the wall to prevent them from overturning
• In very deep manholes, ladders may be provided.
6. Top cover and frame:
• Manholes are provided with heavy CI covers set in suitable C I frame.
• The depth of the frame is kept 20 to 25 cm, and its width is kept 10 cm.
• The frame and top cover should not be a inconvenience for road traffic.
• The cover should be flat and should be in the plane of pavement.
(2) CATCH BASINS:
• Catch basins are a special type of inlets, provided to stop the entry of heavy debris
(grit, sand, etc) present in the storm water into the sewers.
• At the bottom of the basin, space is provided for the accumulation of impurities.
• Catch basins need periodical cleaning to remove the settled matter, which may
decompose if not removed.
• Perforated cover is provided at the top of the basin to admit rain water into the basin. A
hood is provided to prevent escape of sewer gas (Figure 3.4)
• Nuisance due to mosquito breeding apart from substantial maintenance problems can
be posed by use of Catch basins.
Figure 3.4: Catch Basins
(3) OIL AND GREASE TRAPS:
• Specially built chambers on the sewers to exclude grease and oil from sewage before
they enter the sewer line
• These are located near sources such as automobile repair workshops, garages, kitchens
of hotels, oil and grease industries, which contribute to grease and oil in their
wastewaters.
• For the following reasons grease and oil should be removed from sewage:
47
o They will stick to the interior surface of the sewer conduit & will become hard,
causing obstruction to flow.
o Increases the possibility of explosion in sewer lines
o Due to their presence, floating matter will have tendency to stick to the sides of
sewer.
o Causes difficulty in the treatment of wastewater
o Presence of oil and grease on the surface of wastewater prevents oxygen to
penetrate, resulting in anaerobic decomposition of organic matter and result in
evolution of foul odours.
• It consists of two chambers interconnected through a pipe.
• The inlet with grating is provided near the top, while the outlet is provided submerged
at about 0.6 m above the bottom of the trap.
• As oil & grease are less dense than water, they will float on the top surface of
wastewater.
• Since the outlet is much lower, oil & grease will be excluded.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF HOUSE DRAINAGE
1. The lavatory blocks should be located such that the length of drainage line is minimum.
In case of multi-storey building, they should be located one above the other. At least one
wall of the lavatory block should be an outside wall, to facilitate the fixing of soil & vent
pipes.
2. The drainage pipes should be laid by the side of the building rather than below the building.
3. All the drains should be aligned straight between successive inspection chambers. All the
sharp bends and junctions should be avoided except through chambers.
4. The slope of the drains should be sufficient to develop self cleansing velocity.
5. The size of the drain should be sufficient so as to avoid flooding of the drain during
maximum discharge.
6. The drainage system should contain enough number of traps at suitable locations.
7. The house drain should be disconnected from public sewer by the provision of an
intercepting trap to avoid entry of foul gases into the house drainage system. The public
sewer should be deeper than the house drain.
8. The rain water pipes should drain out the rainwater directly into the street gutters from
where it is carried to the storm water drain.
9. All the connections should be water tight.
10. The entire drainage system should be properly ventilated from the starting point to the final
point of disposal. It should permit free circulation of air.
11. All the materials and fittings of the drainage system should be hard, strong and resistant to
corrosive action. They should be non-absorbent type.
12. The entire system should be so designed that the possibilities of formation of air locks,
siphonage, under deposits, etc are minimised.
48

Municipal Wastewater Treatment Guide

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Municipal Wastewater Treatment Guide

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Municipal Wastewater Treatment 18CV55

Global Academy of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

Municipal and Industrial Waste Water Engineering

Academic Year : 2020 – 2021 (ODD SEMESTER)

Year / Semester : III Year/ V Semester

Course Code : 18CV55

Course Title : Municipal Waste Water engineering

References : Environmental Engineering (Vol 2), S K Garg

Global Academy of Technology

VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

M2. Promote Research and Innovation through collaboration with industries

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES-PEO’s

PEO-4: Professional leadership and Successful entrepreneurship

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES-PSO’s

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

Municipal Waste Water Engineering (18CV55)

Elucidate the importance of sanitation, dry and

Determine the hydraulic elements of circular

Explain the sampling methods and Understand

Calculate the dimensions of the physical and PO1,PO3,PO6

Analyze the self purification phenomenon of

Design various Advanced Oxidation Processes

1. Need for sanitation

2. Necessity and Importance of sewerage system-

The importance of sewerage system can be explained by the following points:

1. Carrying of wastes on head or carts is not required.

3. Definitions of some common terms used in the sanitary engineering-

3.12 SEWAGE TREATMENT/WASTEWATER TREATMENT: It applies to any process,

4. Methods of domestic waste water disposal/Systems of Sanitation-

Different Methods of domestic waste water disposal include (Systems of Sanitation)

2) WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM

4.1 CONSERVANCY SYSTEM:

Advantages of Conservancy System:

Disadvantages of Conservancy System:

4.2 WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM:

The garbage is collected as in case of conservancy system to avoid clogged sewers.

SN ASPECT CONSERVANCY SYSTEM WATER CARRIAGE SYSTEM

5. Types of Sewerage systems/Water carriage systems and their suitability

3) PARTIALLY SEPARATE SYSTEM

2) Load on treatment plant is unnecessarily increased due to inclusion of storm water.

3) It is uneconomical if pumping is needed because of large amount of combined flow.

4) Unnecessarily storm water is polluted.

2. Combines the advantages of both the separate and combined systems.

2. The storm water unnecessary increases load on to the treatment plant..

3. The storm water increases the cost of pumping.

SUITABLE CONDITIONS FOR SEPARATE SEWERAGE SYSTEMS:-

3. Where sanitary sewage is to be pumped.

4. The drainage area is steep, allowing to runoff quickly.

SUITABLE CONDITIONS FOR COMBINED SYSTEM:-

Table -1.2:- Comparison of Separate and Combined systems

Sl. Separate system Combined system

Waste water flow rates

1. Dry Weather Flow:

Dry Weather Flow (D.W.F):

FACTORS AFFECTING DRY WEATHER FLOW:

2. Type of area served

3. Rate of water supply

4. Infiltration and exfiltration

3. Rate of water supply: -

The design period depends upon the following: