EVAPORATION - an operation whereby a fluid changes from the liquid state into the vapor state

- is conducted by vaporizing a portion of the solvent to produce concentrated solution of thick liquor
In chemical engineering practice, the term evaporation is used to denote the removal of a valueless component from a mixture
by a process involving vaporization. The mixture ordinarily consists of a non-volatile solute and a volatile liquid usually water.

Two basic processes involved in evaporation:

1. Transfer of heat - heat must be supplied to the mixture to furnish the energy necessary for the vaporization
2. Transfer of mass – the volatile liquid changes to a vapor and this vapor must be removed

LIQUID CHARACTERISTICS:
The physical and chemical properties of the solution being concentrated and of the vapor being removed have a great
effect on the type of evaporator used and on the pressure and temperature of the process. Some of the most important
properties of the evaporating liquids are as follows:
A. Concentration in the liquid
Usually, the liquid feed to an evaporator is relatively dilute, so its viscosity is low, similar to water, and relatively high
heat transfer coefficients are obtained. As evaporation proceeds, the solution may become very concentrated and quite
viscous, causing the heat transfer coefficient to drop markedly. Adequate circulation and/or turbulence must be present
to keep the coefficient from becoming too low.
B. Solubility
As solutions are heated and concentration of solute increases, the solubility limit of the material in solution may be
exceeded and crystals may form. This may limit the maximum concentration in solution which can be obtained by
evaporation.
C. Temperature sensitivity of materials
Many products maybe temperature-sensitive and degrade at higher temperatures or after prolonged heating. The
amount of degradation is a function of the temperature and length of time.
D. Foaming or Frothing
In some cases, materials, especially organic substances, form a foam or froth during boiling. This foam accompanies the
vapor coming out of the evaporator and entrainment losses occur.
E. Pressure and temperature
The boiling point of the solution is related to the pressure of the system. The higher the operating pressure of the
evaporator, the higher the temperature at boiling. Also, as the concentration of the dissolved material in solution
increases by evaporation, the temperature of boiling may rise. This phenomenon is called boiling-point rise or
elevation. To keep the temperatures low in heat-sensitive materials, it is often necessary to operate under 1 atm (i.e.
under vacuum)
F. Scale deposition and materials of construction
Some solutions deposit solid materials called scale on the heating surfaces. These could be formed by decomposition
products or solubility decreases. The result is that the overall heat-transfer coefficient decreases and the evaporator
must eventually be cleaned. The materials of construction of the evaporator are important to minimize corrosion.
TYPES OF EVAPORATION EQUIPMENT AND OPERATION METHODS
In evaporation, heat is added to a solution to vaporize the solvent, which is usually water. The heat is generally provided
by the condensation of a vapor such as a steam on one side of the metal surface with the evaporating liquid on the other
side. The types of equipment depend primarily on the configuration of the heat-transfer surface and on the means
employed to provide agitation or circulation of the liquid.
General Types of Evaporators:
1. Open kettle or pan 5. Falling Film-type evaporator
2. Horizontal-tube natural circulation evaporator 6. Forced-circulation-type evaporator
3. Vertical-type natural circulation evaporator 7. Agitated-film evaporator
4. Long-tube Vertical-type evaporator 8. Open pan solar evaporator

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Fig 8.2-1 (Geankoplis) Different types of evaporators: (a) horizontal-tube type (b) vertical-tube type
(c) long-tube vertical type (d) Forced-circulation type
Methods of Operation of Evaporators:
A. Single-Effect Evaporators
- the vapor from the boiling liquid is condensed and discarded.
- although it is simple, it utilizes steam ineffectively

B. Multiple-Effect evaporators
- a series of evaporator bodies connected so that vapors from one body act as the heat source for the next body
1. Forward-feed multiple-effect evaporators: In forward feed operation, the fresh feed is added to the first effect and
flows to the next in the same direction as the vapor flow.

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 2. Backward-feed multiple effect evaporators: In the backward-feed operation, the fresh feed enters the last and the
coldest effect and continues on until the concentrated product leaves the first effect

PERFORMANCE OF TUBULAR EVAPORATORS:

The principal measures of the performance of a steam-heated tubular evaporators are the capacity and the economy.
Capacity is defined as the number of kilograms of water vaporized per hour
Economy is the number of kilograms vaporized per kilogram of steam fed to the unit.
The steam consumption, in kilograms per hour, is also important. It equals the capacity divided by the economy.

CALCULATION METHODS FOR SINGLE-EFFECT EVAPORATORS:

Vapor , mv = mf – m,
H* = Hv + (Cp·BPE)
P, Tv
Feed (thin liquor), mf
Hf, Tf

Steam, ms
HsV , Ts

Condensate, ms
HsL , Ts

Product (thick liquor), m

H, T∞ = Tv + BPE

Heat Transfer in Evaporators:

The basic equation in a single-effect evaporator can be written as:
q = UAT = U A ( Ts – T∞ )
Where: U = overall heat transfer coefficient based on the outside tube area
A = outside tube area
T = difference between saturated steam temperature and the elevated boiling point of the
Solution

Heat and Material Balances (around an evaporator)

In making calculations dealing with evaporators, it is generally acceptable to make certain assumptions in order to simplify the
work. Some of the more important of these are summarized as follows:
1. Superheat in the steam and subcooling of steam condensate maybe neglected.
2. Boiling point rise calculations for continuous evaporators are based on a mixture having the same
concentration as the liquid leaving the evaporator.

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 3. For feeds of inorganic salts, the heat capacity maybe assumed as equal to that of water alone.
4. The sensible heat necessary to heat the feed to the boiling point maybe approximated by assuming
the heat capacity of the original feed is constant until the feed has reached the boiling temperature of
the mixture.

Heat Balance: Heat entering = Heat leaving

mf Hf + ms HsV = (mf – m) H* + ms HsL + mP HP
Rearranging: q = ms(HsV – HsL) = mvH* + mH - mfHf
As an approximation (neglecting heat of dilution)
Heat transferred to the thin liquor
q = to change its temperature from Tf + Heat to accomplish the evaporation
to the boiling point T
q = qf + qv

If the specific heat of the thin liquor is assumed constant over the temperature range from Tf to T∞, then
qf = mf Cp,f ( T∞ – Tf ) and qv = ( mf – m ) v
where: Cp,f = specific heat of the feed (thin liquor)
V = latent heat of vaporization from thick liquor

therefore:
q = mf Cp,f ( T∞ – Tf ) + ( mf – m ) v

The above equation simply states that the heat from the condensing steam is utilized to
(1) vaporize the water from the solution
(2) heat the feed to the boiling point

BOILING POINT ELEVATION OF SOLUTIONS:

In the majority of cases in evaporation, the solutions are not such dilute solutions. In most cases, the thermal properties of the
solution being evaporated may differ considerably from those of water. The concentrations are high enough so that the heat
capacity and boiling point are quite different from that of water. The increase in boiling point over that of water is known as the
boiling-point elevation (BPE).
For strong solutions of dissolved solutes, the boiling point elevation due to the solutes in the solution usually cannot be
predicted. However, a useful empirical law known as Duhring’s rule, which states that the boiling point of a given solution is a
linear function of the boiling point of water at the same pressure, can be used.

Problems:
1. A solution of organic colloids in water is to be concentrated from 8 to 45 percent solids in a single effect evaporator.
Steam is available at a gauge pressure of 1.03 atm at 120.50C. A pressure of 102 mmHg absolute is to be maintained
in the vapor space. The feed rate to the evaporator is 20,000 kg/hr. The overall heat transfer coefficient can be taken
as 2800 W/m2.C. The solution has a negligible elevation in boiling point and negligible heat of dilution. Calculate the
steam consumption, the economy and the heating surface required of the evaporator if the feed temperature is (a)
51.70C, (b) 21.10C, and (c) 93.30C. The specific heat of the feed solution is 3.77 J/g.C, and the latent heat of
vaporization of the solution may be taken equal to that of water. Radiation losses may be neglected.
2. A solution of organic colloids is to be concentrated from 15% to 50% solids in a vertical tube evaporator. The solution
has a negligible elevation in boiling point and the specific heat of the feed is 0.93. Saturated steam is available at 0.8
atm abs and the pressure in the condenser is 100 mmHg abs. The feed enters at 15C. The overall heat transfer
coefficient is 1700 W/m2.C. The evaporator must evaporate 25000 kg of water per hour. How many square meters of
surface are required and what is the steam consumption in kg/hr?

3. Tomato juice having a concentration of 12 wt% solids is being concentrated to 25% solids in a film type evaporator.
The maximum allowable temperature for the tomato juice is 135F, which will be the temperature of the product. The
feed enters at 100F. Saturated steam at 25 psia is used for heating. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 600
BTU/h.ft2.F and the area is 50 ft2. The feed capacity of the feed is estimated as 0.95 BTU/ lbm.F. Neglect any boiling-
point rise if present. Calculate the feed rate of tomato juice to the evaporator.

4. A forced-circulation evaporator is to concentrate 60,000 kg/hr of 44% NaOH to 65% using steam at 3 atm pressure.
The feed temperature and the condensing temperature are both 40C. The density of the feed solution is 1450 kg/m 3.
If the overall heat transfer coefficient is 2000 W/m 2.C, calculate (a) the steam requirement in kg/hr, (b) the heat
transfer area required
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 5. An evaporator is concentrating F (kg/hr) at 311 K of a 20% by weight NaOH solution to 50%. The saturated steam used
for heating is at 399.3 K. The pressure in the vapor space of the evaporator is 13.3 kPa abs. The overall heat transfer
coefficient is 1420 W/m2.K and the area is 86.40 m2. Calculate the feed rate, F.

6. A single-effect evaporator is being used to concentrate a feed of 10,000 lb/hr of a cane juice at 80F and containing a
sugar content of 15Brix to 30Brix for use in food process. Saturated steam at 240F is available for heating. The vapor
space in the evaporator will be at 1 atm abs. pressure. The overall heat transfer coefficient, U = 350 BTU/hr.ft 2.F and
the heat capacity of the feed is 0.91 BTU/lbm.F. The boiling point rise can be estimated from the equation: BPR(OF) =
3.2 x + 11.2 x2 where x is the weight fraction of sugar in the solution. The heat of solution can be considered negligible.
Calculate the area required for the evaporator and the amount of steam used per hour.

7. A single effect evaporator is to concentrate 20,000 lbs/hr of 20% solution of NaOH to 50%. The gauge pressure of the
steam is to be 20 psig. The absolute pressure in the evaporator space is to be 100 mmHg. The overall coefficient is
estimated to be 250 BTU/ft2.hr.F. The feed temperature is 100F. Calculate the amount of steam consumed, the
economy and the heating surface.

8. An evaporator is used to concentrate 4536 kg/hr of a 20% solution of NaOH in water entering at 60C to a product of
50% solids. The pressure of the saturated steam used is 172.4 kPa and the pressure in the vapor space of the evaporator
is 11.7 kPa. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 1560 W/m 2.K. Calculate the steam used, the steam economy in kg
vaporized /kg steam used, and the heating surface area in m2.

9. A double-effect evaporator is employed to concentrate 10,000 kg/h of caustic soda solution from 9% to 47% by wt.
NaOH. For this purpose, backward feed arrangement is used. The feed enters the evaporator at 309K. Process steam at
686.616 kPag is available and in the second effect a vacuum of 86.66 kPa is maintained. Design a suitable forced
circulation system with equal heating surface in both the effects. Calculate the steam consumption and evaporation in
each effect. Neglect boiling point rise effects. The overall heat transfer coefficients in the first and second effects are
2326 and 1744.5 W/m2.K, respectively. Take the specific heat value of 3.77 kJ/kg.K for all caustic streams.

10. A triple-effect, backward feed evaporator is to be used to produce 50% NaOH solution from a feed containing 25%
NaOH. Saturated steam is available at 320°F. The steam temperature decreases by 95°F, 50°F, and 55°F from the first
effect, respectively. If equal amounts of water are removed in each effect, (a) what would be the concentrations in the
intermediate products, (b) boiling-point elevation in each effect, and (c) the net temperature differences available for
heat transfer? (d) Based from the heat balance of the first effect, what is the mass of steam used?

ChE 421: Heat and Mass Transfer_Rev2019

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