#3 MECHANICS OF DEFORMABLE

BODIES

FLEX Course Material

Discuss the concept of
deformation and strain
Familiarize with the
different types of strain.
Draw normal stress- strain
diagram and identify the
critical points in the
FUNDAMENTAL
diagram.
CONCEPT OF
Sir Marvin Bartido

Discuss the mechanical

properties of materials
Compute axial STRAIN AND
DEFORMATION
deformation of a body
Draw shear stress- strain
diagram and identify the
critical points in the
diagram.
Discuss the concept of
Poisson’s ratio and
generalized Hooke’s law Marvin M. Bartido, RCE
Solve statically
indeterminate members
using compatibility
equations
Compute thermal
deformation and stress on
a body due to change in
temperature

2ND TERM AY 2020-2021

 I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13

Deformation
Whenever a force is applied to a body, it will tend to change the
body’s shape and size. These changes are referred to as deformation,
and they may be either highly visible or practically unnoticeable.
In a general sense, the deformation of a body will not be
uniform throughout its volume, and so the change in geometry of any
line segment within the body may vary substantially along its length.
Hence, to study deformational changes in a more uniform manner, we
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will consider line segments that are very short and located in the
neighborhood of a point. Realize, however, that these changes will
also depend on the orientation of the line segment at the point. For
example, a line segment may elongate if it is oriented in one direction,
whereas it may contract if it is oriented in another direction.

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Philippians 4:13

Strain
In general terms, strain is a geometric quantity that measures
the deformation of a body. There are two types of strain: normal
strain, which characterizes dimensional changes and shear strain,
which describes distortion (changes in angles).
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Horizontal ground displacements caused by an earthquake

produced excessive strains in these bridge piers until they
fractured. The material properties of the concrete and steel
reinforcement must be known so that engineers can properly
design this structure and thereby avoid such failures.

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Philippians 4:13

Normal (Axial) Strain

Normal or axial strain is defined as the ratio of change in length
of a line per unit length.
𝛿 ∆𝐿 𝐿′ −𝐿𝑜
𝜖= = =
𝐿𝑜 𝐿𝑜 𝐿𝑜
where:
𝜖 𝑒𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑛 = normal (axial) strain
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𝛿 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑡𝑎 , ∆𝐿, 𝐿′ − 𝐿𝑜 = axial deformation, may be caused by an

applied axial force, or an expansion due to an increase in temperature,
or even a force and a temperature increase acting simultaneously.
𝐿𝑜 = original length

Note that normal strain, being change in length per unit length,
is a dimensionless quantity. However “units” such as in./in. or
mm/mm are frequently used for normal strain.

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Philippians 4:13

Shear Strain
Shear stress causes the deformation shown in the figure.
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The lengths of the sides of the element do not change, but the
element undergoes a distortion from a rectangle to a parallelogram.
The shear strain, which measures the amount of distortion is
the angle 𝛾, always expressed in radians.

𝜋
𝛾= − 𝜃′
2

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Small Strain Analysis

Most engineering design involves applications for which only

small deformations are allowed. In this discussion, therefore, we will
assume that the deformations that take place within a body are
almost infinitesimal. In particular, the normal strains occurring within
the material are very small compared to 1, so that 𝜖 ≪ 1. This
assumption has wide practical application in engineering, and it is
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often referred to as a small strain analysis. It can be used, for example,

to approximate sin 𝜃 = 𝜃, cos 𝜃 = 1 and tan 𝜃 = 𝜃, provided 𝜃 is very
small.

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 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. When force P is applied to the rigid lever arm ABC in Fig. 2–5a, the
arm rotates counterclockwise about pin A through an angle of 0.05°.
Determine the normal strain developed in wire BD.
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Find: 400 𝑚𝑚
tan 𝛼 = 300 𝑚𝑚
normal strain developed in wire 400
BD 𝛼 = tan−1 300
𝛼 = 53.13010°
Solution 1:
The orientation of the lever arm Then
after it rotates about point A is 90° + 0.05° = 𝛼 + 𝜑
shown in Fig. 2–5b. From the
geometry of this figure, 𝜑 = 90° + 0.05° − 𝛼
𝜑 = 90° + 0.05° − 53.13010°
𝜑 = 36.9199°

For triangle ABD the

Pythagorean theorem gives
𝐿𝐴𝐷 2 = 3002 + 4002
𝐿𝐴𝐷 = 3002 + 4002
𝐿𝐴𝐷 = 500 𝑚𝑚

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 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Using this result and applying the law of

cosines to triangle AB’D,
𝐿𝐵′ 𝐷 2 = 𝐿𝐴𝐷 2 + 𝐿𝐴𝐵′ 2 −
2𝐿𝐴𝐷 𝐿𝐴𝐵′ cos 36.9199°
𝐿𝐵 ′ 𝐷 =
5002 + 4002 − 2 500 400 cos 36.9199°
𝐿𝐵′ 𝐷 = 300.34908 𝑚𝑚
Solution 2:
Since the strain is small, this
same result can be obtained by
approximating the elongation of
wire BD as ∆𝐿𝐵𝐷 , shown in Fig.
2–5b. Here,

Normal Strain:
𝐿𝐵′ 𝐷 −𝐿𝐵𝐷
𝜖𝐵𝐷 = 𝐿𝐵𝐷
300.34908−300
𝜖𝐵𝐷 =
300
𝜖𝐵𝐷 = 0.0011636 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚
Sir Marvin Bartido

tan 𝜃 = 𝜃
∆𝐿
𝜃 = 400 𝐵𝐷
𝑚𝑚
∆𝐿𝐵𝐷 =
𝜋
(0.05°) 400 𝑚𝑚
180°
∆𝐿𝐵𝐷 = 0.34907 𝑚𝑚

Therefore,
∆𝐿𝐵𝐷
𝜖𝐵𝐷 = 𝐿𝐵𝐷
0.34907
𝜖𝐵𝐷 =
300
𝜖𝐵𝐷 = 0.0011636 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚

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 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

2. Due to a loading, the plate is deformed into the dashed shape shown
in Fig. 2–6a. Determine (a) the average normal strain along the side AB,
and (b) the average shear strain in the plate at A relative to the x and y
axes.

Find:
(a) the average normal strain along the side
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AB, and
(b) the average shear strain in the plate at A Part (b). As noted in Fig. 2–6c, the once 90°
relative to the x and y axes. angle BAC between the sides of the plate at
Solution: A changes to 𝜃′ due to the displacement of
𝜋
B to B’. Since 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = − 𝜃′, then 𝛾𝑥𝑦 is the
2
angle shown in the figure. Thus,

Part (a). Line AB, coincident with the y axis,

becomes line AB’ after deformation, as
shown in Fig. 2–6b. The length of AB’ is
(𝐴𝐵′ )2 = 2482 + 32
𝐴𝐵′ = 2482 + 32
𝐴𝐵′ = 248.01814 𝑚𝑚
3 𝑚𝑚
The average normal strain for AB is tan 𝛾𝑥𝑦 =
248 𝑚𝑚
therefore 3 𝜋
−1
𝐴𝐵′ −𝐴𝐵 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = tan 𝑥
𝜖𝐴𝐵 = 248 180°
𝐴𝐵
248.01814−250 𝛾𝑥𝑦 = 0.012096 𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝜖𝐴𝐵 = 250
𝜖𝐴𝐵 = −0.0079274 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚

The negative sign indicates the strain causes

a contraction/compression of AB.

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 ASSESSMENT TASK

Assessment Task No. 3.1

Write the problem and the given illustrations. Show your complete
solution and box your final answer.

1. The plate shown in Fig. 2–7a is fixed connected along AB and held in
the horizontal guides at its top and bottom, AD and BC. If its right side
CD is given a uniform horizontal displacement of 2 mm, determine (a)
the average normal strain along the diagonal AC, and (b) the shear
strain at E relative to the x, y axes.
Sir Marvin Bartido

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 ASSESSMENT TASK

2. When force P is applied to the rigid arm ABC, point B displaces

vertically downward through a distance of 0.2 mm. Determine the
normal strain developed in wire CD.
Sir Marvin Bartido

3. If the applied force P causes the rigid arm ABC to rotate clockwise
about pin A through an angle of 0.02°, determine the normal strain
developed in wires BD and CE.

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 ASSESSMENT TASK

4. The two wires are connected together at A. If the force P causes

point A to be displaced horizontally 2 mm, determine the normal
strain developed in each wire.
Sir Marvin Bartido

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 REFERENCES

Mechanics of Materials by R.C. Hibbeler (Eighth Edition)

Mechanics of Materials by Andrew Pytel (Second Edition)
Sir Marvin Bartido

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 I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13

Mechanical Properties of Materials

The strength of a material depends on its ability to sustain a
load without undue deformation or failure.
Stress and strain are two fundamental concepts of mechanics of
materials. Their relationship to each other defines the mechanical
properties of a material, the knowledge of which is of the utmost
importance in design.
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This property is inherent in the material itself and must be

determined by experiment. One of the most important tests to
perform in this regard is the tension or compression test. Although
several important mechanical properties of a material can be
determined from this test, it is used primarily to determine the
relationship between the average normal stress and average normal
strain in many engineering materials such as metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composites.

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 I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13

Tension Test

- The specimen is placed in the grips of a testing machine (Fig. 3-2)

- Continuous readings are taken of the applied load and the
elongation of the gage length.
- The testing machine elongates the specimen at a slow, constant rate
until the specimen ruptures.
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- The data are then converted to stress and strain

𝑃
𝜎= nominal (engineering) stress
𝐴𝑜
𝛿
𝜖= nominal (engineering) strain
𝐿𝑜

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Stress-Strain Diagram

If the corresponding values of 𝜎 and 𝜖 are plotted so that the

vertical axis is the stress and the horizontal axis is the strain, the
resulting curve is called a conventional stress–strain diagram.
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that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

• Elastic Behavior
Elastic behavior of the material occurs when the strains in the
specimen are within the light orange region shown in Fig. 3–4. Here the
curve is actually a straight line throughout most of this region, so that the
stress is proportional to the strain. The material in this region is said to be
linear elastic. The upper stress limit to this linear relationship is called the
proportional limit, 𝜎𝑝𝑙 . If the stress slightly exceeds the proportional limit,
the curve tends to bend and flatten out as shown. This continues until the
stress reaches the elastic limit. Upon reaching this point, if the load is
removed the specimen will still return back to its original shape. Normally for
steel, however, the elastic limit is seldom determined, since it is very close to
the proportional limit and therefore rather difficult to detect.
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• Yielding
A slight increase in stress above the elastic limit will result in a
breakdown of the material and cause it to deform permanently. This
behavior is called yielding, and it is indicated by the rectangular dark orange
region of the curve. The stress that causes yielding is called the yield stress
or yield point or yield strength, 𝝈𝒀 , and the deformation that occurs is called
plastic deformation. Although not shown in Fig. 3–4, for low-carbon steels or
those that are hot rolled, the yield point is often distinguished by two values.
The upper yield point occurs first, followed by a sudden decrease in load-
carrying capacity to a lower yield point. Notice that once the yield point is
reached, then as shown in Fig. 3–4, the specimen will continue to elongate
(strain) without any increase in load. When the material is in this state, it is
often referred to as being perfectly plastic.

• Strain Hardening
When yielding has ended, an increase in load can be supported by the
specimen, resulting in a curve that rises continuously but becomes flatter
until it reaches a maximum stress referred to as the ultimate stress or
ultimate strength, 𝜎𝑢 . The rise in the curve in this manner is called strain
hardening, and it is identified in Fig. 3–4 as the region in light green.
The ultimate strength is commonly used as the maximum stress that
the material can carry.

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 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

• Necking
Up to the ultimate stress, as the specimen elongates, its cross-
sectional area will decrease. This decrease is fairly uniform over the
specimen’s entire gauge length; however, just after, at the ultimate
stress, the cross-sectional area will begin to decrease in a localized
region of the specimen. As a result, a constriction or “neck” tends to
form in this region as the specimen elongates further, Fig. 3–5a. This
region of the curve due to necking is indicated in dark green in Fig. 3–
4. Here the stress–strain diagram tends to curve downward until the
specimen breaks at the fracture stress (rupture stress or rupture
strength), 𝜎𝑓 , Fig. 3–5b.
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Instead of always using the original cross-sectional area and

specimen length to calculate the (nominal/engineering) stress and
strain, we could have used the actual cross-sectional area and
specimen length at the instant the load is measured. The values of
stress and strain found from these measurements are called true
stress and true strain, and a plot of their values is called the true
stress–strain diagram.
Although the true and conventional stress–strain diagrams are
different, most engineering design is done so that the material
supports a stress within the elastic range.

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Philippians 4:13

Working Stress and Factor of Safety

The working stress, also called the allowable stress, 𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒐𝒘, is
the maximum safe axial stress used in design. In most designs, the
working stress should be limited to values not exceeding the
proportional limit so that the stresses remain in the elastic range (the
straight-line portion of the stress-strain diagram). However, because
the proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, it is
customary to base the working stress on either the yield stress, 𝜎𝑌 ,or
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the ultimate stress, 𝜎𝑢 , divided by a suitable number F.S., called the

factor of safety. Thus,
𝜎𝑌 𝜎𝑢
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = or 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 =
𝐹.𝑆. 𝐹.𝑆.

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 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Fig. 3–6 shows an actual conventional stress–strain diagram for a

mild steel specimen. In order to enhance the details, the elastic region
of the curve has been shown in light blue color using an exaggerated
strain scale, also shown in light blue.
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Tracing the behavior, the proportional limit is reached at 𝝈𝒑𝒍 =

𝟑𝟓 𝒌𝒔𝒊 (241 MPa), where 𝝐𝒑𝒍 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟐 𝒊𝒏./𝒊𝒏. This is followed by an
upper yield point of 𝝈𝒀 𝒖 = 𝟑𝟖 𝒌𝒔𝒊 (262 MPa), then suddenly a lower
yield point of 𝝈𝒀 𝒍 = 𝟑𝟔 𝒌𝒔𝒊 (248 MPa). The end of yielding occurs at
a strain of 𝝐𝒀 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟎 𝒊𝒏./𝒊𝒏., which is 25 times greater than the
strain at the proportional limit! Continuing, the specimen undergoes
strain hardening until it reaches the ultimate stress of 𝝈𝒖 = 𝟔𝟑 𝒌𝒔𝒊
(434 MPa), then it begins to neck down until a fracture occurs, 𝝈𝒇 =
𝟒𝟕 𝒌𝒔𝒊 (324 MPa). By comparison, the strain at failure, 𝝐𝒇 =
𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝒊𝒏./𝒊𝒏., is 317 times greater than 𝜖𝑝𝑙 !

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 I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13

Stress–Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle

Materials

Materials can be classified as either being ductile or brittle, depending

on their stress–strain characteristics.
• Ductile Materials
Any material that can be subjected to large strains before it fractures
is called a ductile material. Mild steel, as discussed previously, is a typical
example. Engineers often choose ductile materials for design because these
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materials are capable of absorbing shock or energy, and if they become

overloaded, they will usually exhibit large deformation before failing.
One way to specify the ductility of a material is to report its percent
elongation or percent reduction in area at the time of fracture. The percent
elongation is the specimen’s fracture strain expressed as a percent. Thus, if
the specimen’s original gauge length is 𝐿𝑜 and its length at fracture is 𝐿𝑓 ,
then
𝐿𝑓 −𝐿𝑜
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = (100%)
𝐿𝑜

As seen in Fig. 3–6, since 𝜖𝑓 = 0.380 𝑖𝑛./𝑖𝑛., this value would be 38%
for a mild steel specimen.

The percent reduction in area is another way to specify ductility. It is

defined within the region of necking as follows:
𝐴0 −𝐴𝑓
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = (100%)
𝐴𝑜
Here 𝐴0 is the specimen’s original cross-sectional area and 𝐴𝑓 is the
area of the neck at fracture. Mild steel has a typical value of 60%.

Besides steel, other metals such as brass, molybdenum, and zinc may
also exhibit ductile stress–strain characteristics similar to steel, whereby they
undergo elastic stress–strain behavior, yielding at constant stress, strain
hardening, and finally necking until fracture.

21
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

In most metals, however, constant yielding will not occur

beyond the elastic range. One metal for which this is the case is
aluminum. Actually, this metal often does not have a well-defined
yield point, and consequently it is standard practice to define a yield
strength using a graphical procedure called the offset method.
Normally a 0.2% strain (0.002 in./in.) is chosen, and from this point on
the 𝜖 axis, a line parallel to the initial straight-line portion of the
stress–strain diagram is drawn. The point where this line intersects the
curve defines the yield strength. An example of the construction for
determining the yield strength for an aluminum alloy is shown in Fig.
3–7. From the graph, the yield strength is 𝜎𝑌 = 51 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (352 MPa).
Sir Marvin Bartido

Note: In this discussion, however, we will assume that the yield

strength, yield point, elastic limit, and proportional limit all coincide
unless otherwise stated.

22
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

• Brittle Materials
Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure are
referred to as brittle materials.
Gray cast iron is an example, having a stress–strain diagram in
tension as shown by portion AB of the curve in Fig. 3–9. Here fracture
at 𝜎𝑓 = 22 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (152 MPa) took place initially at an imperfection or
microscopic crack and then spread rapidly across the specimen,
causing complete fracture. Since the appearance of initial cracks in a
specimen is quite random, brittle materials do not have a well-defined
tensile fracture stress. Instead the average fracture stress from a set of
observed tests is generally reported. A typical failed specimen is
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shown in Fig. 3–10a.

23
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

Compared with their behavior in tension, brittle materials, such

as gray cast iron, exhibit a much higher resistance to axial
compression, as evidenced by portion AC of the curve in Fig. 3–9. For
this case any cracks or imperfections in the specimen tend to close up,
and as the load increases the material will generally bulge or become
barrel shaped as the strains become larger, Fig. 3–10b.
Like gray cast iron, concrete is classified as a brittle material, and
it also has a low strength capacity in tension. The characteristics of its
stress–strain diagram depend primarily on the mix of concrete (water,
sand, gravel, and cement) and the time and temperature of curing. A
typical example of a “complete” stress–strain diagram for concrete is
given in Fig. 3–11. By inspection, its maximum compressive strength is
almost 12.5 times greater than its tensile strength, 𝜎𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 5 𝑘𝑠𝑖
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(34.5 MPa) versus 𝜎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.40 𝑘𝑠𝑖 (2.76 MPa). For this reason,
concrete is almost always reinforced with steel bars or rods whenever
it is designed to support tensile loads.

It can generally be stated that most materials exhibit both

ductile and brittle behavior. For example, steel has brittle behavior
when it contains a high carbon content, and it is ductile when the
carbon content is reduced. Also, at low temperatures materials
become harder and more brittle, whereas when the temperature rises
they become softer and more ductile.

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 I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13

Hooke’s Law
As noted in the previous section, the stress–strain diagrams for most
engineering materials exhibit a linear relationship between stress and strain
within the elastic region. Consequently, an increase in stress causes a
proportionate increase in strain. This fact was discovered by Robert Hooke in
1676 using springs and is known as Hooke’s law. It may be expressed
mathematically as
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖
Here E represents the constant of proportionality, which is called the
modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, named after Thomas Young, who
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published an account of it in 1807.

The equation 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 actually represents the equation of the initial
straight-lined portion of the stress–strain diagram up to the proportional
limit. Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity represents the slope of this line.
Since strain is dimensionless, from the equation 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖, E will have
the same units as stress, such as psi, ksi, or pascals.
As an example of its calculation, consider the stress–strain diagram for
steel shown in Fig. 3–6. Here 𝜎𝑝𝑙 = 35 𝑘𝑠𝑖 and 𝜖𝑝𝑙 = 0.0012 𝑖𝑛./𝑖𝑛., and so
that
𝜎
𝐸 = 𝜖 𝑝𝑙
𝑝𝑙
35 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐸= 0.0012
= 29166.67 𝑘𝑠𝑖 ≈ 29 103 𝑘𝑠𝑖 𝑜𝑟 200𝐺𝑃𝑎

It should be noted that the modulus of elasticity is a mechanical

property that indicates the stiffness of a material. Materials that are very
stiff, such as steel, have large values of E [𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 29 103 𝑘𝑠𝑖 or 200 GPa],
whereas spongy materials such as vulcanized rubber may have low values
[𝐸𝑟 = 0.10 𝑘𝑠𝑖 or 0.70 MPa].
The modulus of elasticity is one of the most important mechanical
properties used in the development of equations presented in this text. It
must always be remembered, though, that E can be used only if a material
has linear elastic behavior. Also, if the stress in the material is greater than
the proportional limit, the stress–strain diagram ceases to be a straight line
and so equation 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 is no longer valid.

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 I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13

Strain Hardening
If a specimen of ductile material, such
as steel, is loaded into the plastic region and
then unloaded, elastic strain is recovered as
the material returns to its equilibrium state.
The plastic strain remains, however, and as a
result the material is subjected to a
permanent set.
For example, a wire when bent
Sir Marvin Bartido

(plastically) will spring back a little (elastically)

when the load is removed; however, it will
not fully return to its original position. This
behavior can be illustrated on the stress–
strain diagram shown in Fig. 3–14a. Here the
specimen is first loaded beyond its yield point
A to point A’. Since interatomic forces have to
be overcome to elongate the specimen
elastically, then these same forces pull the
atoms back together when the load is
removed, Fig. 3–14a. Consequently, the
modulus of elasticity, E, is the same, and
therefore the slope of line O’A’ is the same as
line OA.
If the load is reapplied, the atoms in
the material will again be displaced until
yielding occurs at or near the stress A’ and
the stress–strain diagram continues along the
same path as before, Fig. 3–14b. It should be
noted, however, that this new stress–strain
diagram, defined by O’A’B, now has a higher
yield point (A’), a consequence of strain-
hardening. In other words, the material now
has a greater elastic region; however, it has
less ductility, a smaller plastic region, than
when it was in its original state.

26
 I can do all things through Christ who gives me strength.
Philippians 4:13

Strain Energy
As a material is deformed by an external load, the load will do external work,
which in turn will be stored in the material as internal energy.
This energy is related to the strain of the material and is called strain energy.
For applications, it is often convenient to specify strain energy per unit of
volume. This is called strain-energy density.
Strain Energy Density
∆𝑈 1
𝑢= = 2 𝜎𝜖
∆𝑉
Sir Marvin Bartido

Where:
𝑢 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
∆𝑈 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
∆𝑉 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝜎 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝜖 = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

If the material behavior is linear elastic, then Hooke’s law applies, 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 and
therefore we can express the elastic strain-energy density as
1 𝜎2
𝑢=
2𝐸
Modulus of Resilience
In particular, when the stress 𝜎 reaches the proportional limit, the strain-energy density
is referred to as the modulus of resilience, i.e.,
1 1 𝜎𝑝𝑙 2
𝑢𝑟 = 2 𝜎𝑝𝑙 𝜖𝑝𝑙 = 2 𝐸
From the elastic region of the stress–strain diagram, Fig. 3–16a, notice that 𝑢𝑟 is
equivalent to the shaded triangular area under the diagram. Physically a material’s
resilience represents the ability of the material to absorb energy without any
permanent damage to the material.

27
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

Modulus of Toughness
Another important property of a material is the modulus of
toughness, 𝑢𝑡 . This quantity represents the entire area under the
stress–strain diagram, Fig. 3–16b, and therefore it indicates the strain-
energy density of the material just before it fractures.
Sir Marvin Bartido

28
 SUMMARY

• Loads will cause all material bodies to deform

and, as a result, points in a body will undergo
displacements or changes in position.
• Normal strain is a measure per unit length of the
elongation or contraction of a small line segment in
the body, whereas shear strain is a measure of the
change in angle that occurs between two small line
segments that are originally perpendicular to one
another.
• A conventional stress–strain diagram is important
in engineering since it provides a means for
obtaining data about a material’s tensile or
Sir Marvin Bartido

compressive strength without regard for the

material’s physical size or shape.
• Engineering (Nominal) stress and strain are
calculated using the original cross-sectional area
and gauge length of the specimen.
• A ductile material, such as mild steel, has four
distinct behaviors as it is loaded.They are elastic
behavior, yielding, strain hardening, and necking.
• A material is linear elastic if the stress is
proportional to the strain within the elastic
region.This behavior is described by Hooke’s law,
where the modulus of elasticity E is the slope of
the line.
• Important points on the stress–strain diagram are
the proportional limit, elastic limit, yield stress,
ultimate stress, and fracture stress.
• The ductility of a material can be specified by the
specimen’s percent elongation or the percent
reduction in area.

29
 SUMMARY

• If a material does not have a distinct yield point,

a yield strength can be specified using a graphical
procedure such as the offset method.
• Brittle materials, such as gray cast iron, have
very little or no yielding and so they can fracture
suddenly.
• Strain hardening is used to establish a higher
yield point for a material. This is done by straining
the material beyond the elastic limit, then releasing
the load. The modulus of elasticity remains the
same; however, the material’s ductility decreases.
Sir Marvin Bartido

• Strain energy is energy stored in a material due

to its deformation. This energy per unit volume is
called strain-energy density. If it is measured up to
the proportional limit, it is referred to as the
modulus of resilience, and if it is measured up to
the point of fracture, it is called the modulus of
toughness. It can be determined from the area
under the diagram.

30
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A tension test for a steel alloy results in the stress–strain diagram

shown in Fig. 3–18. Calculate the modulus of elasticity and the yield
strength based on a 0.2% offset. Identify on the graph the ultimate
stress and the fracture stress.
Sir Marvin Bartido

Find: Ultimate Stress:

Modulus of Elasticity, Yield Strength,
Ultimate Stress, Fracture Stress This is defined by the peak of the
𝜎 − 𝜖 graph, point B in Fig. 3–18.
Solution: 𝜎𝑢 = 108 𝑘𝑠𝑖
Modulus of Elasticity:
We must calculate the slope of the
initial straight-line portion of the graph. Fracture Stress:
Using the magnified curve and scale
shown in blue, this line extends from When the specimen is strained to
point O to an estimated point A, which its maximum of 𝜖𝑓 = 0.23 𝑖𝑛./𝑖𝑛.,
has coordinates of approximately
(0.0016 in./in., 50 ksi). Therefore, it fractures at point C. Thus,
𝐸=𝜖
𝜎 𝜎𝑓 = 90 𝑘𝑠𝑖
50 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐸 = 0.0016 = 31250 𝑘𝑠𝑖

Yield Strength:
For a 0.2% offset, we begin at a strain of
0.2% or 0.0020 in./in. and graphically
extend a (dashed) line parallel to OA
until it intersects the 𝜎 − 𝜖 curve at A’.
The yield strength is approximately:
𝜎𝑌 = 68 𝑘𝑠𝑖

31
 ASSESSMENT TASK

Assessment Task No. 3.2

Write the problem and the given illustrations. Show your complete
solution and box your final answer.

1. The stress–strain diagram for an aluminum alloy that is used for

making aircraft parts is shown in Fig. 3–19. If a specimen of this
material is stressed to 600 MPa, determine the permanent strain that
remains in the specimen when the load is released. Also, find the
modulus of resilience both before and after the load application.
Sir Marvin Bartido

32
 ASSESSMENT TASK

2. An aluminum rod shown in Fig. 3–20a has a circular cross section

and is subjected to an axial load of 10 kN. If a portion of the stress–
strain diagram is shown in Fig. 3–20b, determine the approximate
elongation of the rod when the load is applied. Take 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 70 GPa.
Sir Marvin Bartido

33
 ASSESSMENT TASK

3. Data taken from a stress–strain test for a ceramic are given in the
table. The curve is linear between the origin and the first point.
Determine the modulus of elasticity and the modulus of resilience.
Sir Marvin Bartido

34
 REFERENCES

Mechanics of Materials by R.C. Hibbeler (Eighth Edition)

Mechanics of Materials by Andrew Pytel (Second Edition)
Sir Marvin Bartido

35
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

Axial Deformation
Figure 2.7 shows a bar of length L and constant cross-sectional area A that is
loaded by an axial tensile force P. We assume that the stress caused by P is below the
proportional limit, so the Hooke’s law 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜖 is applicable. Because the bar deforms
𝛿 𝑃
uniformly, the axial strain is 𝜖 = 𝐿 and the axial stress is 𝜎 = 𝐴, which upon substitution
𝑃 𝛿
into Hooke’s law yields =𝐸 . Therefore, the elongation of the bar is:
𝐴 𝐿
𝑷𝑳
𝜹 = 𝑨𝑬
Sir Marvin Bartido

Here, the bar has a constant cross-sectional area A; the material is

homogeneous, so E is constant; and the internal force P throughout the length of the
bar is also constant.
For composite rods with various properties, cross-sectional area and internal
axial force, the total elongation is:
𝑷𝑳
𝜹=σ
𝑨𝑬
Note: The magnitude of the internal force P must be found from equilibrium analysis.
Note that the sign convention for the summation is positive (+) for tensile internal force
(causes elongation) and negative (-) for compressive internal force (causes
compression).

In the case of members with varying cross-section:

𝑳 𝑷
𝜹 = ‫𝟎׬‬ 𝑨 𝒙 𝑬
𝒅𝒙

where 𝐴 𝑥 is the equation of the varying cross-section A as function of x.

36
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. The steel propeller shaft ABCD carries the axial loads shown in the
figure. Determine the change in the length of the shaft caused by these
loads. Use 𝐸 = 29 𝑥 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 for steal.

Find:
Change in the length of the shaft
(total axial deformation)
Sir Marvin Bartido

Solution: σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
For rods with various cross- 𝑃𝐶𝐷 − 4000 = 0
sectional area and internal axial 𝑃𝐶𝐷 = 4000 𝑙𝑏
force, the total elongation is:
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=σ
𝐴𝐸 Summing up all deformation:
(positive for elongation, negative
Solve for the internal forces in for compression)
each bar first, 𝑃𝐿
𝛿=σ 𝐴𝐸
𝛿
𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝑃𝐿
= + −
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐸 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐸 𝐶𝐷
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → + 2000 𝑙𝑏 (60 𝑖𝑛)
𝛿=𝜋 +
𝑃𝐴𝐵 − 2000 = 0 4
0.5 𝑖𝑛 2 (29 𝑥 106 𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑖𝑛2 )
2000 𝑙𝑏 (48 𝑖𝑛)
𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 2000 𝑙𝑏 𝜋 −
4
0.75 𝑖𝑛 2 (29 𝑥 106 𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑖𝑛2 )
4000 𝑙𝑏 (48 𝑖𝑛)
𝜋
4
0.75 𝑖𝑛 2 (29 𝑥 106 𝑙𝑏ൗ𝑖𝑛2 )

𝛿 = 0.013581 𝑖𝑛. (elongation)

σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → +
𝑃𝐵𝐶 − 2000 = 0
𝑃𝐵𝐶 = 2000 𝑙𝑏

37
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

2. Rigid beam AB rests on the two short posts shown in the figure. AC is
made of steel and has a diameter of 20 mm, and BD is made of
aluminum and has a diameter of 40 mm. Determine the displacement
of point F on AB if a vertical load of 90 kN is applied over this point.
Take 𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

Find:
Displacement of point F Displacement. The displacement
Sir Marvin Bartido

of the top of each post is

Solution:
Post AC:
Internal Force. The compressive
forces acting at the top of each post 𝑃𝐴𝐶 𝐿𝐴𝐶
are determined from the equilibrium 𝛿𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴𝐶 𝐸𝑠𝑡
of member AB, Fig. 4–8b. These
forces are equal to the internal forces −60000 𝑁 (300 𝑚𝑚)
in each post, Fig. 4–8c. 𝛿𝐴 = 𝜋
20 𝑚𝑚 2 (200000 𝑁ൗ𝑚𝑚2 )
4
𝛿𝐴 = −0.28648 𝑚𝑚
σ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ↻ +
−𝑃𝐵𝐷 600 + 90 200 = 0 𝛿𝐴 = 0.28648 𝑚𝑚 ↓
𝑃𝐵𝐷 = 30 𝑘𝑁
Post BD:
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ +
𝑃𝐵𝐷 𝐿𝐵𝐷
𝑃𝐴𝐶 + 𝑃𝐵𝐷 − 90 = 0 𝛿𝐵 = 𝐴𝐵𝐷 𝐸𝑎𝑙
𝑃𝐴𝐶 = 60 𝑘𝑁 −30000 𝑁 (300 𝑚𝑚)
𝛿𝐵 = 𝜋
4
40 𝑚𝑚 2 (70000 𝑁ൗ𝑚𝑚2 )

𝛿𝐵 = −0.10231 𝑚𝑚
𝛿𝐵 = 0.10231 𝑚𝑚 ↓

38
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

A diagram showing the

centerline displacements at A, B,
and F on the beam is shown in
Fig. 4–8d. By proportion of the
blue shaded triangle, the
displacement of point F is
therefore
Sir Marvin Bartido

𝛿𝐹 −0.10231 0.28648−0.10231
=
400 600
𝛿𝐹 = 0.10231 +
400
0.18417 600
𝛿𝐹 = 0.22509 𝑚𝑚 ↓

39
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

3. The cross-section of the 10-m-long flat steel bar AB has a constant

thickness of 20mm, but its width varies as shown in the figure.
Calculate the elongation of the bar due to the 100-kN axial load. Use E
= 200 GPa for steel.

Find: 𝑥
𝐴(𝑥) = 800 + 2400 − 800 10000
Elongation of the bar 𝐴 𝑥 = 800 + 0.16𝑥
Sir Marvin Bartido

Solution: 𝛿 10000
= 100000 𝑁
‫׬‬0 𝑑𝑥
In the case of members with varying 800+0.16𝑥 𝑚𝑚2 (200000 𝑁ൗ
𝑚𝑚2
)
cross-section: 𝛿=
10000
0.5 ‫׬‬0
𝑑𝑥
𝐿
𝑃 10000
800+0.16𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝛿= න 𝑑𝑥 𝛿= 0.5 ‫׬‬0
0 𝐴 𝑥 𝐸 1
800+0.16𝑥
10000
𝛿= 0.5 0.16 ln 800 + 0.16𝑥 ቃ
0
1
𝛿= 0.5 0.16 ln(800 +
1
0.16(10000)) − 0.5 ln(800 +
0.16
0.16(0))
𝛿 = 3.43316 𝑚𝑚

𝐴 = 𝐴(𝑥)
By proportion:
𝐴−𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐵 −𝐴𝐴
2 2
=
𝑥 𝐿
𝐴−𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐵 −𝐴𝐴
= 2𝐿
2𝑥
𝐴 −𝐴 (2𝑥)
𝐴− 𝐴𝐴 = 𝐵 2𝐿𝐴
𝑥
𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐴𝐵 − 𝐴𝐴 𝐿

𝐴𝐴 = 40 20 = 800 𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝐵 = 120 20 = 2400 𝑚𝑚2
𝐿 = 10000 𝑚𝑚

40
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

Poisson’s Ratio
When a deformable body is subjected to an axial tensile force, not only does it
elongate but it also contracts laterally. For example, if a rubber band is stretched, it can
be noted that both the thickness and width of the band are decreased. Likewise, a
compressive force acting on a body causes it to contract in the direction of the force
and yet its sides expand laterally.
Consider a bar having an original radius r and length L and subjected to the
tensile force P in Fig. 3–21. This force elongates the bar by an amount 𝛿, and its radius
contracts by an amount 𝛿′. Strains in the longitudinal or axial direction and in the lateral
or radial direction are, respectively,
𝜹 𝜹′
𝝐𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 = 𝑳 and 𝝐𝒍𝒂𝒕 =
Sir Marvin Bartido

In the early 1800s, the French scientist S. D. Poisson realized that within the
elastic range the ratio of these strains is a constant, since the deformations 𝛿 and 𝛿′ are
proportional. This constant is referred to as Poisson’s ratio, 𝑣 (nu), and it has a
numerical value that is unique for a particular material that is both homogeneous and
isotropic. Stated mathematically it is
𝝐
𝒗 = − 𝝐 𝒍𝒂𝒕
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈

The negative sign is included here since longitudinal elongation (positive strain)
causes lateral contraction (negative strain), and vice versa. Notice that these strains are
caused only by the axial or longitudinal force P; i.e., no force or stress acts in a lateral
direction in order to strain the material in this direction.
Poisson’s ratio is a dimensionless quantity, and for most nonporous solids it has
a value that is generally between ¼ and 1/3. For an “ideal material” having no lateral
deformation when it is stretched or compressed Poisson’s ratio will be 0. Furthermore,
the maximum possible value for Poisson’s ratio is 0.5. Therefore, 0 ≤ 𝑣 ≤ 0.5.

41
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

The Shear Stress-Strain Diagram

Deformation for Shear: Shear Strain
The lengths of the sides of the element do not change, but the
element undergoes a distortion from a rectangle to a parallelogram.
The shear strain, 𝛾, which measures the amount of distortion is
expressed in radians.
Sir Marvin Bartido

The behavior of a material subjected to pure shear can be studied in a

laboratory.
The data obtained from the laboratory experiment can be used to
determine the shear stress and shear strain, and a shear stress–strain
diagram plotted.
An example of such a diagram for a ductile material is shown in Fig. 3–
24. Like the tension test, this material when subjected to shear will exhibit
linear-elastic behavior and it will have a defined proportional limit 𝜏𝑝𝑙 . Also,
strain hardening will occur until an ultimate shear stress 𝜏𝑢 is reached. And
finally, the material will begin to lose its shear strength until it reaches a
point where it fractures, 𝜏𝑓 .
For most engineering materials, like the one just described, the elastic
behavior is linear, and so Hooke’s law for shear can be written as
𝝉 = 𝑮𝜸
Here G is called the shear modulus of elasticity or the modulus of
rigidity.
𝜏𝑝𝑙 Its value represents the slope of the line on the diagram, that is,
𝐺 = 𝛾 . Notice that the units of measurement for G will be the same as
𝑝𝑙
those for 𝜏 (Pa or psi), since 𝛾 is measured in radians, a dimensionless
quantity.

42
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16
Sir Marvin Bartido

43
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

The three material constants, E, v and G are actually related

by the equation
𝑬
𝑮 = 𝟐(𝟏+𝒗)
Provided E and G are known, the value of v can then be
determined from this equation rather than through experimental
measurement. For example, in the case of A-36 steel, 𝐸𝑠𝑡 =
𝐸
29 103 𝑘𝑠𝑖 and 𝐺𝑠𝑡 = 11 103 𝑘𝑠𝑖 so that from 𝐺 = 2(1+𝑣), 𝑣𝑠𝑡 =
0.32.
Sir Marvin Bartido

44
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

Generalized Hooke’s Law

A. Uniaxial loading: Poisson’s ratio

𝜖
For uniaxial loading in the x-direction, Poisson’s ratio is 𝑣 = − 𝜖 𝑙𝑎𝑡 , where 𝜖𝑙𝑎𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔
is the lateral (transverse) strain.
𝝐 𝝐 𝝐𝒚
𝒗 = − 𝝐 𝒍𝒂𝒕 = − 𝝐𝒛 = − 𝝐
𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈 𝒙 𝒙

From Hooke’s law:

𝜎𝑥 = 𝐸𝜖𝑥
Sir Marvin Bartido

𝝈𝒙
𝝐𝒙 =
𝑬

𝝈𝒙
𝝐𝒚 = 𝝐𝒛 = −𝒗𝝐𝒙 = −𝒗 𝑬

B. Multiaxial Loading
Biaxial Loading. Poisson’s ratio permits us to extend Hooke’s law for uniaxial loading to
biaxial and triaxial loadings.

Consider an element of the material that is subjected simultaneously to normal

stresses in the x- and y-directions, as in Fig. 2.9(a). The strains caused by 𝜎𝑥 alone are
𝜎 𝑣𝜎 𝜎𝑦
given as 𝜖𝑥 = 𝐸𝑥 and 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜖𝑧 = − 𝐸𝑥 . Similarly, the strains due to 𝜎𝑦 are 𝜖𝑦 = 𝐸 and
𝑣𝜎𝑦
𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑧 = − . Using superposition, we write the combined effect of the two normal
𝐸
stresses as
𝟏 𝟏 𝒗
𝝐𝒙 = 𝑬 𝝈𝒙 − 𝒗𝝈𝒚 𝝐𝒚 = 𝑬 𝝈𝒚 − 𝒗𝝈𝒙 𝝐𝒛 = − 𝑬 𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒚
which is Hooke’s law for biaxial loading in the xy-plane (𝜎𝑧 = 0).

45
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

Superposition - this principle states that the effect of a given

combined loading on a structure can be obtained by determining
the effects of the various loads separately and combining the
results.
The first two equations can be inverted to express the stresses
in terms of the strains:
𝝐𝒙 +𝒗𝝐𝒚 𝑬 𝝐𝒚 +𝒗𝝐𝒙 𝑬
𝝈𝒙 = 𝝈𝒚 =
𝟏−𝒗𝟐 𝟏−𝒗𝟐
Two dimensional views of the stresses and the resulting
deformation in the xy-plane are shown in Figs. 2.9(b) and (c). Note
that for biaxial loading, 𝜖𝑧 is not zero; that is, the strain is triaxial
Sir Marvin Bartido

rather than biaxial.

Triaxial Loading. Hooke’s law for the triaxial loading in Fig. 2.10 is
𝜎
obtained by adding the contribution of 𝜎𝑧 , 𝜖𝑧 = 𝑧 and 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑦 =
𝑣𝜎𝑧 𝐸
− , to the strains in biaxial loadings, which yields
𝐸
𝟏
𝝐𝒙 = 𝝈𝒙 − 𝒗(𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒛 )
𝑬
𝟏
𝝐𝒚 = 𝝈𝒚 − 𝒗(𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒛 )
𝑬
𝟏
𝝐𝒛 = 𝝈𝒛 − 𝒗(𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒚 )
𝑬
Note: For all the equations here in this discussion, they are valid for
both tensile and compressive effects. It is only necessary to assign
positive signs to elongations and tensile stresses and, conversely,
negative signs to contractions and compressive stresses.

46
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

Dilatation and Bulk Modulus

When an elastic material is subjected to normal stress, its volume will

change. For example, consider a volume element which is subjected to the
principal stresses 𝜎𝑥 , 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎𝑧 .
Sir Marvin Bartido

The volume, considering the deformations, is expressed as:

𝑣 = (1 + 𝜖𝑥 )(1 + 𝜖𝑦 )(1 + 𝜖𝑧 )
Neglecting the products of the strains since the strains are very small,
we have
𝑣 = 1 + 𝜖𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦 + 𝜖𝑧
The change in volume per unit volume is called the “volumetric strain”
or the dilatation, e. It can be written as
𝑒 = 𝑣 − 1 3 = 1 + 𝜖𝑥 + 𝜖𝑦 + 𝜖𝑧 − 1
𝒆 = 𝝐 𝒙 + 𝝐𝒚 + 𝝐𝒛
∆𝑉
𝑒= 𝑉𝑜
Also, if we use Hooke’s law for triaxial loading, we can write the
dilatation in terms of the applied stress. We have
𝟏−𝟐𝒗
𝒆= (𝝈𝒙 + 𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒛 )
𝑬
By comparison, the shear strains will not change the volume of the
element, rather they will only change its rectangular shape.

47
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16
Sir Marvin Bartido

When a volume element of material is subjected to the uniform

pressure p of a liquid, the pressure on the body is the same in all
directions and is always normal to any surface on which it acts. Shear
stresses are not present, since the shear resistance of a liquid is zero.
This state of “hydrostatic” loading requires the normal stresses to be
equal in any and all directions, and therefore an element of the body is
subjected to principal stresses 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧 = −𝑝
1−2𝑣
𝑒= (−3𝑝)
𝐸
𝑝 𝐸
= −
𝑒 3(1−2𝑣)

Introducing a constant, k (called the volume modulus of

elasticity or the bulk modulus)
𝑬
𝒌=
𝟑(𝟏−𝟐𝒗)

Therefore:
𝒑
𝒆=−
𝒌

48
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A bar made of A-36 steel has the dimensions shown in Fig. 3–22. If
an axial force of 𝑃 = 80 𝑘𝑁 is applied to the bar, determine the change
in its length and the change in the dimensions of its cross section after
applying the load. The material behaves elastically.

Find: 𝑣𝑠𝑡 = 0.32 as found from

change in length, change in the the table, the lateral contraction
Sir Marvin Bartido

dimensions of cross section strains in both the x and y

Solution: directions are
The normal stress in the bar 𝜖 𝜖
𝑣𝑠𝑡 = − 𝜖𝑥 = − 𝜖𝑦
is 𝑧 𝑧
𝑃 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑦 = −𝑣𝑠𝑡 𝜖𝑧
𝜎𝑧 =
𝐴
𝜎𝑧 =
80000 𝑁 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑦 = −0.32 (0.00008)
100 𝑚𝑚 (50 𝑚𝑚)
𝜎𝑧 = 16 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜖𝑥 = 𝜖𝑦 = −0.0000256 𝑚𝑚/
𝑚𝑚
From the table, for A-36 Thus the changes in the
steel 𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎, and so the dimensions of the cross section
strain in the z direction is are
𝜎
𝜖𝑧 = 𝑧 𝛿𝑥 = 𝜖𝑥 𝐿𝑥
𝐸𝑠𝑡
16 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝛿𝑥 = −0.0000256 (100 𝑚𝑚)
𝜖𝑧 =
200000 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜖𝑧 = 0.00008 𝑚𝑚/𝑚𝑚 𝛿𝑥 = −0.00256 𝑚𝑚

The axial elongation of the 𝛿𝑦 = 𝜖𝑦 𝐿𝑦

bar is therefore
𝛿𝑧 𝛿𝑦 = −0.0000256 (50 𝑚𝑚)
𝜖𝑧 =
𝐿𝑧
𝛿𝑧
𝛿𝑦 = −0.00128 𝑚𝑚
0.00008 =
1500 𝑚𝑚
𝛿𝑧 = 0.12 𝑚𝑚

49
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

2. The copper bar in Fig. 10–24 is subjected to a uniform loading along

its edges as shown. If it has a length 𝑎 = 300 𝑚𝑚, width 𝑏 = 50 𝑚𝑚
and thickness 𝑡 = 20 𝑚𝑚 before the load is applied, determine its new
length, width, and thickness after application of the load. Take 𝐸𝑐𝑢 =
120 𝐺𝑃𝑎, 𝑣𝑐𝑢 = 0.34.
Sir Marvin Bartido

1
Find: 𝜖𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣𝜎𝑥
𝐸
new length, width, and 1
𝜖𝑦 = 120000 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ሾ−500 𝑀𝑃𝑎 −
thickness after application of the 0.34(800 𝑀𝑃𝑎)ሿ
load 𝜖𝑦 = −0.00643

𝑣
Solution: 𝜖𝑧 = − 𝐸 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦
0.34
By inspection, the bar is 𝜖𝑧 = − 120000 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (800 𝑀𝑃𝑎 −
subjected to a state of plane 500 𝑀𝑃𝑎)
stress. From the loading we have 𝜖𝑧 = −0.000850
𝜎𝑥 = 800 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (tension)
𝜎𝑦 = −500 𝑀𝑃𝑎 (compression) The new bar length, width, and
thickness are therefore
𝜎𝑧 = 0 𝜖=𝐿
𝛿

The associated normal 𝑎′ = 300 𝑚𝑚 + 0.00808(300 𝑚𝑚)

strains are determined from the 𝑎′ = 302.424 𝑚𝑚
generalized Hooke’s law, that is,
1
𝜖𝑥 = 𝐸 𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣𝜎𝑦 𝑏 ′ = 50 𝑚𝑚 + (−0.00643)(50 𝑚𝑚)
1
ሾ800 𝑀𝑃𝑎 − 𝑏 ′ = 49.6785 𝑚𝑚
𝜖𝑥 =
120000 𝑀𝑃𝑎
0.34(−500 𝑀𝑃𝑎)ሿ
𝑡 ′ = 20 𝑚𝑚 +
𝜖𝑥 = 0.00808 (−0.000850)(20 𝑚𝑚)
𝑡 ′ = 19.983 𝑚𝑚

50
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

3. The principal stresses at a point are shown in the figure. If the

material is aluminum for which 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 10 103 𝑘𝑠𝑖 and 𝑣𝑎𝑙 = 0.33,
determine the principal strains.

Find:
Sir Marvin Bartido

principal strains

Solution:
𝜎𝑥 = −15 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝜎𝑦 = −26 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝜎𝑧 = 10 𝑘𝑠𝑖

1
𝜖𝑥 = 𝜎 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )
𝐸 𝑥
1
𝜖𝑥 = ሾ−15 𝑘𝑠𝑖 −
10000 𝑘𝑠𝑖
0.33(−26 𝑘𝑠𝑖 + 10 𝑘𝑠𝑖)ሿ
𝜖𝑥 = −0.000972

1
𝜖𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑧 )
𝐸
1
𝜖𝑦 = ሾ−26 − 0.33(−15 +
10000
10)ሿ
𝜖𝑦 = −0.002435

1
𝜖𝑧 = 𝜎𝑧 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 )
𝐸
1
𝜖𝑧 = 10 − 0.33(−15 − 26)
10000
𝜖𝑧 = 0.002353

51
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

4. If the rectangular block shown in Fig. 10–25 is subjected to a uniform

pressure of 𝑝 = 20 𝑝𝑠𝑖, determine the dilatation and the change in
length of each side. Take E = 600 psi, v = 0.45.

Find: Thus, the change in length of

dilatation and the change in each side is
Sir Marvin Bartido

length of each side 𝛿

𝜖= 𝐿

Solution: 𝛿𝑎 = −0.00333 (4 𝑖𝑛)

Dilatation. The dilatation can be
𝛿𝑎 = −0.01332 𝑖𝑛
determined with 𝜎𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 =
𝜎𝑧 = 20 𝑝𝑠𝑖. We have
1−2𝑣 𝛿𝑏 = −0.00333 (2 𝑖𝑛)
𝑒= (𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )
𝐸
1−2(0.45)
𝛿𝑏 = −0.00666 𝑖𝑛
𝑒= 3(−20 𝑝𝑠𝑖)
600 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑒 = −0.01 𝑖𝑛3 /𝑖𝑛3 𝛿𝑐 = −0.00333 (3 𝑖𝑛)
𝛿𝑐 = −0.00999 𝑖𝑛
Change in Length. The normal
strain on each side can be The negative signs indicate that
determined from Hooke’s law; each dimension is decreased.
that is,
1
𝜖 = 𝐸 𝜎𝑥 − 𝑣(𝜎𝑦 + 𝜎𝑧 )
1
𝜖 = 600 𝑝𝑠𝑖 ሾ−20 𝑝𝑠𝑖 −
0.45(−20𝑝𝑠𝑖 − 20𝑝𝑠𝑖)ሿ
𝜖 = −0.00333 𝑖𝑛/𝑖𝑛

52
 ASSESSMENT TASK

Assessment Task No. 3.3

Write the problem and the given illustrations. Show your complete
solution and box your final answer.

1. The rigid bar BC in the figure is supported by the steel rod AC of

cross-sectional area 0.25 𝑖𝑛2 . Find the vertical displacement of point C
caused by the 2000-lb load. Use 𝐸 = 29 𝑥 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 for steel.
Sir Marvin Bartido

2. The A-36 steel bar shown in the figure is made from two segments
having cross-sectional areas of 𝐴𝐴𝐵 = 1 𝑖𝑛2 and 𝐴𝐵𝐷 = 2 𝑖𝑛2 .
Determine the vertical displacement of end A and the displacement of
B relative to C.

53
 ASSESSMENT TASK

3. The 30-mm-diameter A-36 steel rod is subjected to the loading

shown. Determine the displacement of end A with respect to end C.

4. The aluminum block has a rectangular cross section and is subjected

to an axial compressive force of 8 kip. If the 1.5-in. side changed its
Sir Marvin Bartido

length to 1.500132 in., determine Poisson’s ratio and the new length
of the 2- in. side. Use E = 10000 ksi.

5. A fabric used in air-inflated structures is subjected to a biaxial

loading that results in normal stresses 𝜎𝑥 = 18 𝑘𝑠𝑖 and 𝜎𝑧 = 24 𝑘𝑠𝑖.
Knowing that the properties of the fabric can be approximated as 𝐸 =
12.6 𝑥 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖 and v = 0.34, determine the change in length of
(a) side AB
(b) side BC
(c) diagonal AC

54
 ASSESSMENT TASK

6. The acrylic plastic rod is 200 mm long and 15 mm in diameter. If an

axial load of 300 N is applied to it, using E = 2.70 GPa and v = 0.40,
determine the:
a. Change in length in mm.
b. Change in diameter in mm.
c. Dilatation
d. Change in Volume
Sir Marvin Bartido

55
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

Compatibility Equation: Solution to Statically

Indeterminate Members
If the equilibrium equations are sufficient to calculate all the
forces (including support reactions) that act on a body, these forces
are said to be statically determinate. In statically determinate
problems, the number of unknown forces is always equal to the
number of independent equilibrium equations.
If the number of unknown forces exceeds the number of
independent equilibrium equations, the problem is said to be statically
indeterminate.
Sir Marvin Bartido

Consider the bar shown in Fig. (a) which is fixed supported at

both of its ends. From the free-body diagram, Fig. (b), equilibrium
requires
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ +
𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐴 − 𝑃 = 0

This type of problem is called statically indeterminate, since the

equilibrium equation(s) are not sufficient to determine the two
reactions on the bar.

56
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

In order to establish an additional equation needed for solution,

it is necessary to consider how points on the bar displace. Specifically,
an equation that specifies the conditions for displacement is referred
to as a compatibility equations or kinematic condition. Because the
source of the compatibility equations is displacements, these
equations contain as unknowns either strains or deformations. We
can, however, use Hooke’s law to express the deformation measures in
terms of stresses or forces. The equations of equilibrium and
compatibility can then be solved for the unknown forces.

Procedure for Solving Statically Indeterminate Problems

Sir Marvin Bartido

- Draw the required free-body diagrams and derive the equations of

equilibrium
- Derive the compatibility equations. To visualize the restrictions on
deformation, it is often helpful to draw a sketch that exaggerates the
magnitudes of the deformations.
- Use Hooke’s law to express the deformations (strains) in the
𝑃𝐿
compatibility equations in terms of forces (or stresses). 𝛿 = or
𝜎 𝐴𝐸
𝜖=
𝐸
- Solve the equilibrium and compatibility equations for the unknown
forces.

57
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. Consider the bar shown in figure (a) which is fixed supported at both
of its ends. If P = 40 kN, 𝐿𝐴𝐶 = 600 𝑚𝑚, 𝐿𝐶𝐵 = 800 𝑚𝑚, 𝑑 = 12 𝑚𝑚
and 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎, determine the reactions at support A and B.
Sir Marvin Bartido

Find:
Reactions at support A and B Hooke’s law
𝛿𝐴 − 𝛿𝐵 = 0
𝐹𝐴 𝐿𝐴𝐶 𝐹𝐵 𝐿𝐶𝐵
Solution: − =0
𝐴𝐴𝐶 𝐸 𝐴𝐶𝐵 𝐸
Equilibrium 𝐹𝐴 (600 𝑚𝑚)
𝜋 −
4
12 𝑚𝑚 2 (200000 𝑀𝑃𝑎)
𝐹𝐵 (800 𝑚𝑚)
𝜋 =0
4
12 𝑚𝑚 2 (200000 𝑀𝑃𝑎)

0.000026526𝐹𝐴 −
0.000035368𝐹𝐵 = 0
𝐹𝐴 = 1.33332 𝐹𝐵

From eq. 1
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ + 𝐹𝐵 + (1.33332 𝐹𝐵 ) − 40000 =
0
𝐹𝐵 + 𝐹𝐴 − 40000 𝑁 = 0 (eq.
1) 𝐹𝐵 = 17142.96 𝑁

Compatibility 𝐹𝐴 = 1.33332(17142.96)
𝛿𝐴 − 𝛿𝐵 = 0 𝐹𝐴 = 22857.04 𝑁

58
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

2. The concrete post in the figure is reinforced axially with four

symmetrically placed steel bars, each of cross-sectional area 900 𝑚𝑚2 .
Compute the stress in each material when the 1000-kN axial load is
applied. The moduli of elasticity are 200 GPa for steel and 14 GPa for
concrete.

Equation 1 is the only independent

equation of the equilibrium that is available
in this problem. Because there are two
unknown stresses, we conclude that the
problem is statically indeterminate.

Compatibility
For the deformations to be compatible, the
changes in the lengths of the steel rods and
the concrete must be equal; that is 𝛿𝑠𝑡 =
Sir Marvin Bartido

𝛿𝑐𝑜 . Because the lengths of steel and

concrete are identical, the compatibility
equation, written in terms of strains, is
Find: 𝜖𝑠𝑡 = 𝜖𝑐𝑜 (eq. 2)
Stress in each material (𝜎𝑠𝑡 , 𝜎𝑐𝑜 )
Hooke’s law
Solution: From Hooke’s law, eq. 2 becomes
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝜎𝑐𝑜
Equilibrium =
𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑐𝑜
The FBD in the figure was drawn by isolating 𝐸
𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 𝐸𝑠𝑡 𝜎𝑐𝑜
the portion of the post above section a-a, 𝑐𝑜
where 𝑃𝑐𝑜 is the force in the concrete and 𝜎𝑠𝑡 =
200000 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎
𝑃𝑠𝑡 denotes the total force carried by the 14000 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑐𝑜
steel rods. 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 14.28571 𝜎𝑐𝑜

Substituting the cross-sectional areas

𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 4(900𝑚𝑚2 )
𝐴𝑠𝑡 = 3600 𝑚𝑚2

𝐴𝑐𝑜 = 300 𝑚𝑚 300 𝑚𝑚 − 3600 𝑚𝑚2

𝐴𝑐𝑜 = 86400 𝑚𝑚2

From eq. 1
For equilibrium, we must have 𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 + 𝜎𝑐𝑜 𝐴𝑐𝑜 = 1000 103
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ + 14.285713 𝜎𝑐𝑜 (3600) + 𝜎𝑐𝑜 (86400) =
𝑃𝑠𝑡 + 𝑃𝑐𝑜 − 1000 103 𝑁 = 0 1000 10
𝜎𝑐𝑜 = 7.25539 𝑀𝑃𝑎
which, written in terms of stresses,
becomes 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 14.28571(7.25539)
𝜎𝑠𝑡 𝐴𝑠𝑡 + 𝜎𝑐𝑜 𝐴𝑐𝑜 = 1000 103 𝑁 (eq. 1) 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 103.648 𝑀𝑃𝑎

59
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

3. The steel rod shown in figure (a) has a diameter of 10 mm. It is fixed
to the wall at A, and before it is loaded, there is a gap of 0.2 mm
between the wall at and the rod. Determine the reactions at A and B’ if
the rod is subjected to an axial force of P=20 kN as shown. Neglect the
size of the collar at C. Take 𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

Find: Hooke’s law

This displacement can be expressed in terms of
reactions at A and B’ the unknown reactions using the load–
displacement relationship, applied to segments
Sir Marvin Bartido

AC and CB, figure (c).

Solution:
Equilibrium
As shown on the free-body
𝐹𝐴 𝐿𝐴𝐶 𝐹𝐵 𝐿𝐶𝐵
diagram in figure (b), we will 𝛿𝐵/𝐴 =
𝐴𝐸
−
𝐴𝐸
assume that force P is large 0.2 𝑚𝑚 = 𝜋
𝐹𝐴 (400 𝑚𝑚)
−
enough to cause the rod’s end B to 𝐹𝐵 (800
10 𝑚𝑚 2 (200000 𝑁ൗ𝑚𝑚2 )
4 𝑚𝑚)

contact the wall at The problem is 𝜋

4
10 𝑚𝑚 2 (200000 𝑁ൗ𝑚𝑚2 )
statically indeterminate since there 0.2 = 0.000025465 𝐹𝐴 − 0.000050930 𝐹𝐵
(eq. 2)
are two unknowns and only one
equation of equilibrium.
From eq. 1
𝐹𝐴 = −𝐹𝐵 + 20000

Substituting to eq. 2
0.2 = 0.000025465 (−𝐹𝐵 + 20000) −
σ 𝐹𝐻 = 0 → + 0.000050930 𝐹𝐵
𝐹𝐵 = 4048.69 𝑁
−𝐹𝐴 − 𝐹𝐵 + 20000 𝑁 = 0 (eq.
1)
𝐹𝐴 = −𝐹𝐵 + 20000
𝐹𝐴 = 15951.31 𝑁
Compatibility
Since the answer for 𝐹𝐵 is positive, indeed end B
The force P causes point B to move contacts the wall at B’ as originally assumed.
to with no further displacement.
Therefore the compatibility NOTE: If 𝐹𝐵 were a negative quantity, the
condition for the rod is problem would be statically determinate, so
that and 𝐹𝐵 = 0 and 𝐹𝐴 = 20 𝑘𝑁.
𝛿𝐵/𝐴 = 0.2 𝑚𝑚
0.2 𝑚𝑚 = 𝛿𝐴 − 𝛿𝐵

60
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

4. The three A-36 steel bars shown in the figure are pin connected to a
rigid member. If the applied load on the member is 15 kN, determine
the force developed in each bar. Bars AB and EF each have a cross-
sectional area of 50 𝑚𝑚2 , and bar CD has a cross-sectional area of
30 𝑚𝑚2.
Sir Marvin Bartido

Find: Compatibility.
Force developed in each bar The applied load will cause the horizontal
line ACE shown in figure (c) to move to the
inclined line A’C’E’. The displacements of
points A, C, and E can be related by similar
Solution: triangles.
Equilibrium.
The free-body diagram of the rigid
member is shown in Fig. 4–14b. This
problem is statically indeterminate
since there are three unknowns and
only two available equilibrium
equations. Thus the compatibility equation that relates
these displacements is
𝛿𝐴 −𝛿𝐸 𝛿 −𝛿
𝐶 𝐸
= 400
800 𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚
𝐶𝛿 −𝛿
𝐸
𝛿𝐴 − 𝛿𝐸 = 400 (800 𝑚𝑚)
𝑚𝑚
𝛿𝐴 = 2𝛿𝐶 − 2𝛿𝐸 + 𝛿𝐸
𝛿𝐴 = 2𝛿𝐶 − 𝛿𝐸

σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ + Hooke’s law
𝐹𝐴 𝐿𝐴𝐵 𝐹 𝐿 𝐹 𝐿
𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝐶 + 𝐹𝐸 − 15000 = 0 (eq. 1) = 2 𝐴𝐶 𝐶𝐷 − 𝐴𝐸 𝐸𝐹
𝐴𝐴𝐵 𝐸 𝐶𝐷 𝐸 𝐸𝐹 𝐸
𝐹𝐴 (500 𝑚𝑚)
=
50 𝑚𝑚2 (200000 𝑁ൗ𝑚𝑚2 )
σ 𝑀𝐴 = 0 ↻ + 𝐹 (500 𝑚𝑚)
2 30 𝑚𝑚2𝐶(200000 𝑁 −
ൗ𝑚𝑚2 )
15000 𝑁 200 𝑚𝑚 − 𝐹𝐸 (500 𝑚𝑚)
𝐹𝐶 400 𝑚𝑚 − 𝐹𝐸 800 𝑚𝑚 = 0 50 𝑚𝑚2 (200000 𝑁ൗ
𝑚𝑚2)
(eq. 2) 0.00005𝐹𝐴 = 0.00016667𝐹𝐶 − 0.00005𝐹𝐸
𝐹𝐴 = 3.3334𝐹𝐶 − 𝐹𝐸 (eq. 3)

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 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

From eq. 1 and eq. 3

𝐹𝐴 + 𝐹𝐶 + 𝐹𝐸 − 15000 = 0
(3.3334𝐹𝐶 − 𝐹𝐸 ) + 𝐹𝐶 + 𝐹𝐸 −
15000 = 0
4.3334𝐹𝐶 = 15000
𝐹𝐶 = 3461.49 𝑁

From eq. 2
15000 𝑁 200 𝑚𝑚
− 𝐹𝐶 400 𝑚𝑚 − 𝐹𝐸 800 𝑚𝑚
=0
15000 𝑁 200 𝑚𝑚 −
Sir Marvin Bartido

(3461.49 𝑁) 400 𝑚𝑚 −
𝐹𝐸 800 𝑚𝑚 = 0
𝐹𝐸 = 2019.255 𝑁

From eq. 3
𝐹𝐴 = 3.3334(3461.49) −
2019.255
𝐹𝐴 = 9519.28 𝑁

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 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

Thermal Deformation

A change in temperature can cause a body to change its

dimensions. Generally, if the temperature increases, the body will
expand, whereas if the temperature decreases, it will contract.
Ordinarily this expansion or contraction is linearly related to the
temperature increase or decrease that occurs. If this is the case, and
the material is homogeneous and isotropic, it has been found from
experiment that the displacement of a member having a length L can
Sir Marvin Bartido

be calculated using the formula

𝛿𝑇 = 𝛼 𝐿 ∆𝑇
where
𝛼 = a property of the material, referred to as the linear coefficient of
thermal expansion. The units measure strain per degree of
temperature. They are 1/℉ (Fahrenheit) in the FPS system, and 1/℃
(Celsius) or 1/𝐾 (Kelvin) in the SI system.
∆𝑇 = the algebraic change in temperature of the member
𝐿 = the original length of the member
𝛿𝑇 = the algebraic change in the length of the member, 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖

The change in length of a statically determinate member can

easily be calculated using 𝛿𝑇 = 𝛼 𝐿 ∆𝑇, since the member is free to
expand or contract when it undergoes a temperature change.
However, in a statically indeterminate member, these thermal
displacements will be constrained by the supports, thereby producing
thermal stresses that must be considered in design. Consequently, the
analysis of thermal stresses follows the same principles that we used:
equilibrium, compatibility and Hooke’s law. The only difference here is
that we must now include thermal expansion in the analysis of
deformation.

63
 For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son,
that whoever believes in Him shall not perish but have eternal life.
John 3:16

Procedure for Deriving Compatibility Equations

• Remove the constraints that prevent the thermal deformation to
occur freely (this procedure is sometimes referred to as “relaxing the
supports”). Show the thermal deformation on a sketch using an
exaggerated scale.
• Apply the forces that are necessary to restore the specified
conditions of constraint. Add the deformations caused by these
forces to the sketch that was drawn in the previous step. (Draw the
magnitudes of the deformations so that they are compatible with
the geometric constraints.
• By inspection of the sketch, write the relationships between the
Sir Marvin Bartido

thermal deformations due to the constraint forces.

Conversion:
℃ = (℉ − 32)/1.8
℉ = ℃ × 1.8 + 32
𝐾 = ℃ + 273.15

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 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. The horizontal steel rod, 2.5 m long and 1200 𝑚𝑚2 in cross-sectional
area, is secured between two walls as shown in Fig. (a). If the rod is
stress-free at 20℃, compute the stress when the temperature has
dropped to −20℃. Use 𝛼 = 11.7 𝑥 10−6 /℃ and E = 200 GPa.
Assume that
(1) the walls do not move
(2) the walls move together a distance of ∆= 0.5 𝑚𝑚

Find: (2)
Sir Marvin Bartido

(1) Stress assuming that the walls do

not move Compatibility
(2) Stress assuming that the walls
move together a distance of ∆=
0.5 𝑚𝑚

Solution:
(1)
Compatibility

𝛿𝑇 − 𝛿𝑃 = ∆

Hooke’s law
𝜎𝐿
𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝐿 − =∆
𝐸
𝛿𝑇 = 𝛿𝑃 −6
11.7𝑥10 /℃ ሾ−20℃ −
20℃ ሿ 2500 𝑚𝑚 −
Hooke’s law: 𝜎 2500 𝑚𝑚
𝛿𝑇 = 𝛿𝑃 = 0.5 𝑚𝑚
200000 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎𝐿 𝑃
𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝐿 =
𝐸
(𝜎 = )
𝐴
𝜎 = −53.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎
11.7𝑥10−6 /℃ ሾ−20℃ −
𝜎(2500 𝑚𝑚)
20℃ ሿ 2500 𝑚𝑚 = 200000 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜎 = −93.6 𝑀𝑃𝑎

65
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

2. The rigid beam shown in Fig. 4–19a is fixed to the top of the three
posts made of A-36 steel and 2014-T6 aluminum. The posts each have
a length of 250 mm when no load is applied to the beam, and the
temperature is 𝑇1 = 20℃. Determine the force supported by each post
if the bar is subjected to a uniform distributed load of 150 kN/m and
the temperature is raised to 𝑇2 = 80℃.

Find: The final position of the top of each

Sir Marvin Bartido

Force supported by each post post is equal to its displacement

caused by the temperature increase,
plus its displacement caused by the
Solution: internal axial compressive force, Fig.
(c).
Equilibrium. The free-body diagram
of the beam is shown in Fig.(b).
Moment equilibrium about the
beam’s center requires the forces in
the steel posts to be equal.

Thus, for the steel and aluminum

post, we have
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = − 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝑇 + 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝐹
Summing forces on the free-body
diagram, we have 𝛿𝑎𝑙 = − 𝛿𝑎𝑙 𝑇 + 𝛿𝑎𝑙 𝐹
σ 𝐹𝑉 = 0 ↑ +
2𝐹𝑠𝑡 + 𝐹𝑎𝑙 − 90000𝑁 = 0 (eq. Applying Eq. 2 gives
1) 𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙
− 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝑇 + 𝛿𝑠𝑡 𝐹 = − 𝛿𝑎𝑙 𝑇 +
Compatibility. 𝛿𝑎𝑙 𝐹
Due to load, geometry, and material
symmetry, the top of each post is Hooke’s law:
displaced by an equal amount. 𝐹 𝐿
Hence, − 𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝐿 𝑠𝑡 + 𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡 =
𝐴𝐹𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝐿𝑠𝑡
𝛿𝑠𝑡 = 𝛿𝑎𝑙 ↓+ (eq. 2) − 𝛼 ∆𝑇 𝐿 𝑎𝑙 + 𝐴𝑎𝑙𝐸𝑎𝑙
𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑙

66
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

From the table: To be consistent, all numerical

𝛼𝑠𝑡 = 12 × 10−6 /℃ data has been expressed in
terms of newtons, millimeters,
𝐸𝑠𝑡 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎
and degrees Celsius. Solving Eqs.
𝛼𝑎𝑙 = 23 × 10−6 /℃ 1 and 3 simultaneously yields
𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 73.1 𝐺𝑃𝑎 2𝐹𝑠𝑡 + 𝐹𝑎𝑙 − 90000 = 0
2(−165875.82 +
−ሾ12 × 10−6 /℃(80℃ − 1.21602𝐹𝑎𝑙 ) + 𝐹𝑎𝑙 − 90000 =
20℃)(250 𝑚𝑚)ሿ + 0
𝐹𝑠𝑡 (250 𝑚𝑚)
𝜋 2
= 𝐹𝑎𝑙 = 122886.57 𝑁
40 𝑚𝑚 (200000 𝑀𝑃𝑎)
4
− ሾ23 × 10−6 /℃(80℃ −
20℃)(250 𝑚𝑚)ሿ + 𝐹𝑠𝑡 = −165875.82 +
𝐹𝑎𝑙 (250 𝑚𝑚) 1.21602(122886.57)
Sir Marvin Bartido

𝜋
60 𝑚𝑚 2 (73100 𝑀𝑃𝑎)
4 𝐹𝑠𝑡 = −16443.29 𝑁
−0.18 + 0.00000099472𝐹𝑠𝑡 =
− 0.345 + 0.0000012096𝐹𝑎𝑙
0.00000099472𝐹𝑠𝑡 = The negative value for 𝐹𝑠𝑡
− 0.165 + 0.0000012096𝐹𝑎𝑙 indicates that this force acts
opposite to that shown in Fig.
𝐹𝑠𝑡 = −165875.82 + (b). In other words, the steel
1.21602𝐹𝑎𝑙 (eq. 3) posts are in tension and the
aluminum post is in
compression.

67
 ASSESSMENT TASK

Assessment Task No. 3.4

Write the problem and the given illustrations. Show your complete
solution and box your final answer.

1. Let the allowable stresses in the post be 𝜎𝑠𝑡 = 120 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and 𝜎𝑐𝑜 =
6 𝑀𝑃𝑎. Compute the maximum safe axial load P that may be applied.
The moduli of elasticity are 200 GPa for steel and 14 GPa for concrete.
Each steel bar has cross-sectional area of 900 𝑚𝑚2 .
P
Sir Marvin Bartido

2. The aluminum post shown in the figure is reinforced with a brass

core. If this assembly supports an axial compressive load of P = 9 kips
applied to the rigid cap, determine the average normal stress in the
aluminum and the brass. Take 𝐸𝑎𝑙 = 10 103 𝑘𝑠𝑖 and 𝐸𝑏𝑟 =
15 103 𝑘𝑠𝑖.

68
 ASSESSMENT TASK

3. The figure shows a rigid bar that is supported by a pin at A and two
rods, one made of steel and the other of bronze. Neglecting the
weight of the bar, compute the stress in each rod caused by the 50-kN
load, using the following data:
Sir Marvin Bartido

4. Before the 400-kN load is applied, the rigid platform rests on two
steel bars, each of cross-sectional area 1400 𝑚𝑚2 , as shown in the
figure. The cross-sectional area of the aluminum bar is 2800 𝑚𝑚2 .
Compute the stress in the aluminum bar after the 400-kN load is
applied. Use 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝑃𝑎 for steel and 𝐸 = 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎 for aluminum.
Neglect the weight of the platform.

69
 ASSESSMENT TASK

5. The A-36 steel bar shown in Fig. 4–18a is constrained to just fit
between two fixed supports when 𝑇1 = 60℉. If the temperature is
raised to 𝑇1 = 120℉, determine the average normal thermal stress
developed in the bar.
Sir Marvin Bartido

6. Figure (a) shows a homogeneous, rigid block weighing 12 kips that

is supported by three symmetrically placed rods. The lower ends of
the rods were at the same level before the block was attached.
Determine the stress in each rod after the block is attached and the
temperature of all bars increases by 100℉. Use the following data:

70