FLUIDS 3

Real Fluid Flow

References
Munson, B. R., Okiishi, T. H., Huebsch, W. W. & Rothmayer, A. P., 2013. Fluid Mechanics. 7 ed. Danvers: Wiley.
White, F. M., 2011. Fluid Mechanics. 7 ed. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Douglas, J. F., Gasiorek, J. M., Swaffield, J. A. & Jack, L. B., 2011. Fluid Mechanics. 6 ed. Harlow: Prentice Hall.
 Objectives
• Recognise the significance of the Reynolds
Number, Re, in classifying fluid flow.
• Identify the point of fully developed flow.
• Explain use of the friction coefficient, f and/or
, in the solution of laminar and turbulent flow
problems
• Use moody diagrams to find values for
Reynolds Numbers relating to specific friction
and roughness coefficient
 INITIAL THEORIES
• HAGEN – POISEUILLE
– Hf  V

• D’ARCY
– Hf  V2

• Both proved correct

 Reynolds
“A clear surface of moving water has two
appearances, the one like that of plate glass in
which objects are reflected without distortion, the
other like that of sheet glass, in which the
reflected objects appear crumpled up and
grimacing. These two characters of surface
correspond to the two characters of motion”
Osbourne Reynolds FRS, 1883 in “An experimental investigation of the circumstances
which determine whether the motion of water shall be direct or sinuous, and of the
law of resistance in parallel channels.”
REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT
GRAPH OF HF/L FOR IDEAL FLUID

0.2

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
hf/l
hf/l

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

V (m/s)
 Economic Velocities
Source: CIBSE Guide C Table 4.6

Situation/Diameter Velocity (m.s-1)

Small bore <1.0
15<D<50 mm 0.75 – 1.15
D>50 mm 1.25 – 3.0
Heating/cooling coils 0.5 – 1.5

General case - assume 2 m.s-1 (maximum for fuels)

 TYPES OF FLOW
• Bounded by predominant fluid forces:
– Viscous
– Inertia
• Laminar (Viscous or Streamlined)
• Turbulent
• Critical zone flow occurs between 0.5–1
m/s
 REYNOLDS EXPERIMENT
GRAPH OF LOG HF/L FOR IDEAL FLUID

1 Laminar Critical Zone Turbulent

Flow
Flow

n1.75
Log Hf/l

0.1

n=1
0.01
1 10
Log V (m/s)
FLOW CLASSIFICATION
For internal flow:
• Turbulent Turbulent

– Re>3000
• Critical Zone Transition
– 3000>Re>2000
• Laminar
Laminar
– Re<2000
 LAMINAR FLOW
• Fluid virtually stationary at pipe walls
therefore smooth pipe maintains laminar
flow – can still be laminar in “rough” pipes.
• Viscous forces prominent.
• Inertia forces exist.
 TURBULENT FLOW
• Most likely “real time” flow.
• Roughness of pipe will increase the effects
of turbulence.
• Inertia forces prominent.
• Chaotic mixing of particles.
 DETERMINING FLOW TYPE
• Reynolds:
– Flow types are related to forces acting on
fluid.
– Classified flow by the Reynolds Number Re
– Re = Inertia forces/Viscous forces
 FORCES

l
,v,a l

V=k1l3
m=k1l3
v=k2l/t
a=k3l/t2
INERTIA FORCES
t

l
,v,a l

Finertia =ma (Newton)

k 3l
=k1 l3 
t2
Finertia =(k1k 3 /k 22 ) l2 v 2
VISCOUS FORCES

l
,v,a l

Fviscous = A
dv
= A
dl
 v  2
=   k 5l
k l
 4 
k 
Fviscous =   5  vl
 k4 
Reynolds number
Inertia Force ma
Re  
Viscous Force  A
k1k3 k 4  l 2v 2  lv
Re  2
C
k 2 k5 vl 
or :
 dv dv
Re  
 
 Flow on plates and in tubes
Laminar Transition Turbulent

U
d = Velocity
boundary
layer

U 0.99 U

Laminar Turbulent
Hydrodynamic entrance region velocity velocity
profile profile
 Entrance length
• Fully developed flow requires sufficient pipe length to
evolve.
• Also consider thermal entrance length in heat transfer
problems.
• In some applications it may be desirable to retain the
inviscid core, in others viscous flow may be the goal.
• Full development can be estimated:
Le
 0.06Re
– Laminar d
Le 1
 1.6Re 4 for Re  107
– Turbulent d
 Entry length
• The following simulations are based on a
150mm pipe with the following:
– Laminar flow: Re = 1500
– Turbulent flow: u=2m/s
• Case files and raw velocity profiles on ELE
 Laminar profiles, Re=1500

2m 13.5m

Inlet
5m
Selected velocity profiles
 Turbulent profiles, u=2m/s
(Re290,000)

2m 5.4m

Inlet
5m
Selected velocity profiles
 Losses
• We must be able to predict losses:
– To determine normal transmission losses.
– To account for sudden enlargements
– To account for the effect of fittings
• By doing so we can adequately size plant.
• In fluids there are a large number of coefficients
and relationships that have been developed
theoretically and confirmed empirically.
 Friction losses
• By inspection, the head loss due to friction HL
will depend upon
– The length of the pipe (m); L
– The diameter of the pipe (m); d
– The mean velocity of the flow (m / s); V or v or u
– The viscosity of the fluid (kg / m.s); 
• Less obviously
– The fluid density (kg / m3); ρ
– The roughness height of the internal wall (m); k or 
 Friction losses for flow types
4flv 2 Proof here
hf 
2gd

• For turbulent flow: f  0.08

0.25
(Blasius)
Re
• For laminar flow: 16
f  (Pouiselle)
Re
 “ f ” or “λ” ?
 lv 2
hf  where   4f
2gd
(D'Arcy - Weissbach equation)
64
For laminar flow: 
Re

For turbulent flow 0.316

In smooth pipe   0.25
Re
Pressure loss in laminar flow
• Hagen - Poiseuille equation:

32 lV
P  2
D
Proof here
 Steady and uniform flow
• We can analyze the friction factor with
dimensional analysis. If:
f   d ,v , ,  , k 

• We can show:

  dv k 
f  , 
  d
 Dimensional analysis
• If: f    d , v , ,  , k 
f  [M 0L0T 0 ]
d  L 
v  LT 1 
  ML1T 1 
  ML3 
k  L 

• There are 3 dimensions (M,L,T) and 5

variables, therefore we expect (5-3)
dimensionless groups.
 Dimensional analysis
• Considering v, ,  (measurable, contain
M,L,T)
1  d a , v b  c   2  d a ,v b  c k
b c
M 0L0T 0   L  LT 1  ML1T 1  ML3 
b c
M 0L0T 0   L  LT 1  ML1T 1  L 
a a

M : 0  c 1 M :0  c
L:0  abc 3 L : 0  a  b  c 1
T : 0  b  c T : 0  b  c
So a  1,b  1,c  -1 So a  1,b  0,c  0
 dv k
1  2 
 d
 Dimensional analysis
• From the previous analysis we can see
that the friction factor f is a function of Re
and  the relative roughness (=k/d)
• f was disregarded in the analysis for
simplicity, an analysis with f included
would not change the end result.
 Other dimensionless groups
It is often necessary to
u
Ma  Mach number determine a characteristic
c length in dimensional analysis,
u the term ‘l’ may not always be a
Fr  Froude number
gz distance between 2 points so
hL always check the parameters
Nu  Nusselt number that you are considering.
k
g T 2l 3 The Reynolds number is a very
Gr  Grashof number good example of this as the
2
characteristic length can be
P anything from a distance on a
Cp  Pressure coefficient
 V 2
flat plate, the diameter of a pipe
  or the diameter of a pump
 2 
impeller.
 Friction factor
• When determining the friction factor we note that
relative roughness is a factor and that it is
dependant on pipe diameter.
• Experiments have conclusively shown that the
relative roughness has no effect on the friction
factor at low Reynolds numbers ie laminar flow
hence the differences earlier discussed.
• Equally the roughness does not influence the
friction factor when considering turbulent flow
through “smooth” pipes (very idealised although
modern manufacturing techniques are producing
nearly smooth pipes)
Colebrook white equation

 k 
1  2.51 d 
 2log 
  Re  3.7 
 
[CIBSE C4.3.3, Page 4-3]
 Moody diagram

COLEBROOK –
WHITE
64.4/Re
APPROXIMATION

0.316/Re0.25
 Haaland equation

1  6.9  k / d  1.11

 1.8log    
  Re  3.71  

[CIBSE C4.4.1, Page 4-7]

Pressure loss factor for fittings

1 2
p  v
2
[CIBSE C4.3.3, Page 4-4]
Fittings -

CIBSE Guide C P.4-21

 Example
• A straight pipe of diameter 30 mm and
length L contains cold water flowing at 2
l /s.
– Find the value of Re
– For what range of flow rate will laminar
conditions exist
Kinematic viscosity is 1.01 x 10-6m2s-1
 Example
• Oil is pumped through a circular pipe 150
mm diameter and 500 m long and
discharges at a level 20 m above the
pump. The oil has a density of 850 kg / m3
and a dynamic viscosity of 0.12 Ns / m2.
Determine the power required to pump:
– 25 kg / s oil
– 100 kg / s oil
 Objectives
• Recognise the significance of the Reynolds
Number, Re, in classifying fluid flow.
• Identify the point of fully developed flow.
• Explain use of the friction coefficient, f
and/or , in the solution of laminar and
turbulent flow problems
• Use moody diagrams to find values for
Reynolds Numbers relating to specific
friction and roughness coefficient
 Private study
• Read “The Turbulence Problem – An
Experimentalist’s Perspective”
• Research, but do not dwell on, boundary
layer theory – Schlichting
• ELE tutorial questions
Questions?