Department of Marine Engineering

Faculty of Marine Technology

Institut Teknologi Sepuluh Nopember
2022

Fluid Mechanics
ME184335

Internal and External Fluid Flow

Prepared by:
Fadilla I. Prastyasari

1
Introduction
Flow regimes

TURBULENT occurs when the fluid is

flowing fast and the LAMINAR when
it is flowing slowly.

In laminar flow the motion of the

particles of fluid is very orderly with all
particles moving in straight lines
parallel to the pipe walls.

The average velocity producing

turbulent flow is greater than that for a
laminar flow of a given fluid in a given
duct.
Osborne Reynolds demonstrated an
experiment in 1883 (Manchester) by
injecting a dye filament into the flow.

2
Introduction
Flow regimes
𝑉𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝐷 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑅𝑒 = = = à
𝜈 𝜇 𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

Laminar flow Turbulent flow

• Re < 2000 • Re > 4000
• 'low' velocity • 'high' velocity
• Dye does not mix with water • Dye mixes rapidly and completely
• Fluid particles move in straight • Particle paths completely irregular
lines • Average motion is in the direction of the
• Simple mathematical analysis flow
possible • Cannot be seen by the naked eye
• Rare in practice in water • Changes/fluctuations are very difficult to
systems. detect. Must use laser.
• Mathematical analysis very difficult - so
experimental measures are used
Transitional flow
• 2000 > Re < 4000
• 'medium' velocity
Flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of
• Dye stream wavers in water - inertial forces to viscous forces in the fluid.
mixes slightly. This ratio is called the Reynolds number

3
Darcy - Weisbach Formula
• Consider a duct of length L, cross-sectional area Ac, surface area As, in which
a fluid of density, is flowing at mean velocity V.
• The forces acting on a segment of the duct are that due to pressure
difference and that due to friction at the walls in contact with the fluid.
• If the acceleration of the fluid is zero, the net forces acting on the element
must be zero, hence

• According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion for a constant velocity flow:

Σ𝐹 = 0
• The force due to pressure on either side of the section is equal to the friction
force resisting the flow:
(𝑃! −𝑃" )𝐴# − (𝑓𝜌𝑉 " /2)𝐴$ = 0

4
Darcy – Weisbach Formula
• Where the pressures act normal to the flow direction on the area of cross-
section Ac, and the frictional force acts on the circumferential wall area As,
separating the fluid and the pipe’s surface.
• Let hf denote the head lost (m) due to friction over a duct length L, i.e.
𝑝! − 𝑝" = 𝜌𝑔ℎ%
• Substituting we get
𝐴$ 𝑉 "
ℎ% = 𝑓
𝐴# 2𝑔
• For a pipe,
𝐴$ 𝜋𝐷𝐿 4𝐿
= =
𝐴# 1 𝜋𝐷 " 𝐷
4

4𝑓𝐿 𝑉 "
The Darcy-Weisbach Formula ℎ% =
𝐷 2𝑔

5
The Friction Factor
The value of friction factor (f) depends on two parameters:
1. Reynolds number, and
2. Surface roughness

Laminar flow (Re<2000)

The value is irrespective to the nature of the surface.
16
𝑓=
𝑅𝑒

Turbulent flow (Re>4000)

The value is irrespective to the nature of the surface.

Blausius equation 𝑓 = 0.079𝑅𝑒 &."(

For Re>2000 and Re<4000, known as the critical zone and the value of the
friction factor is uncertain and not quoted on the Moody diagram

6
The Friction Factor
The value of friction factor (f) depends on two parameters:
1. Reynolds number, and
2. Surface roughness

• In the turbulent zone, if the surface of the pipe is not perfectly smooth, then
the value of the friction factor has to be determined from the Moody diagram.

• The relative roughness (k/d) is the ratio of the average height of the surface
projections on the inside of the pipe (k) to the pipe diameter (D). In common
with Reynolds number and friction factor this parameter is dimensionless.
Values of k are tabled on the Moody chart for a sample of materials.

7
Moody Diagram

8
Flow Obstruction Losses
› When a pipe changes
direction, changes diameter or
has a valve or other fittings
there will be a loss of energy
due to the disturbance in flow.
This loss of energy (ho) is
usually expressed by:

𝑉"
ℎ! = 𝐾
2𝑔
› Where V is the mean velocity
at entry to the fitting and K is
an empirically determined
factor.

9
Fluid Power
› The fluid power at a given point for a fluid is “the product of
mass, acceleration due to gravity and the fluid head”
› Since the mass flow rate is defined as the volume flow rate
multiplied by the fluid density.

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄ℎJKJLM
For a pump, htot represents the head required to overcome pipe friction (hf),
obstruction losses (ho) and to raise the fluid to any elevation required (hz).
ℎ)*)+, = ℎ- + ℎ% + ℎ*
If the delivery tank operates at pressure in excess of the supply tank, the head
pressure (hp) must be added to the required head equation as this pressure
rise must also be supplied by the pump.

10
Fluid Power
If the pump efficiency ηp is introduced, the actual pump head
requirement is:
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄ℎJKJLM /𝜂O

For a turbine with efficiency ηt, the power output is given by:

𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄ℎJKJLM ×𝜂J
Where htot = hz – (hf + ho)

11
Example #1
Water flows in a 40mm diameter commercial steel pipe (k = 0.045
x 10-3 m) at a rate of 1 litre/s. Determine the friction factor and
head loss per metre length of pipe using:
a) The Moody diagram
b) Smooth pipe formulae.
Compare the results.
Take: ρ = 1000 kg/m3, µ = 1 x 10-3 kg/ms

12
Example #2
Determine the input power to an electric motor (ηm = 90%) supplying a
pump (ηp = 80%) delivering 50 l/s of water (ρ = 1000 kg/m3, µ = 0.001
kg/ms) from tank1 to tank 2 as shown below if the pipeline length is
200m long, of 150 mm diameter galvanised steel (assumed surface
roughness k=0.15mm).

13
External Fluid Flow

14
Regimes of External Flow
Internal flow: the flow of a fluid that is filly bounded by the surface
that makes the development of boundary layer is restricted. E.g.: a
pipe flow.
External flow: the flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface, so that
the flow boundary layer can grow freely in one direction. For
example: the flows over ship hull, airfoils, turbine blade, etc.

Source: http://www.engr.mun.ca/muzychka/Fluids-Section-5.pdf

15
Regimes of External Flow

The potential flow and boundary layer

theory makes it possible to treat an
external flow problem consisting
broadly of two distinct regimes
1. that immediately adjacent to the
body’s surface, where viscosity is
predominant and where frictional
forces are generated, and
2. that outside the boundary layer,
where viscosity is neglected but
velocities and pressure are
affected by the physical presence
of the body together with its
associated boundary layer.

16
Regimes of External Flow

In addition, there is the

stagnation point at the frontal
of the body and there is the
flow region behind the body
(known as the wake).

The wake starts from the point at which the boundary layer
separation occurs.
Separation occurs due to adverse pressure gradient, which
combined with the viscous forces on the surface produces flow
reversal.
Thus, causes the stream to detach itself from the surface.
The same situation exists at the rear edge of a body as it
represents a physical discontinuity of the solid surface.

17
Separation
› An important observation is that fluid flow is always irreversible,
because of its viscosity, and whenever velocity gradients appear in
the flow there will be friction and energy dissipation due to viscous
stresses.
› The separation point is defined as the point between the forward
and backward flow, where the shear stress is zero.
› The fluid flow becomes detached from the surface of the object,
and instead takes the forms of eddies and vortices.
› It is worth noting that sharp corners almost always produce a
separated flow, but they are not the only cause of separation.
› For example, the flow over a cylinder can produce a large region of
separated flow downstream of the cylinder. This region is called a
wake.

18
Structure of External Flow
› The structure of the external flow is often dependent on the
body in the flow.
› Three categories of bodies are:
– Two-dimensional objects
– Axisymmetric bodies
– Three-dimensional bodies

19
Categories of Bodies
› Another classification of body shapes are:
– Streamlined bodies (defined as that body whose surface coincides with the
stream lines. The separation of flow will take place only at the trailing
edge.)
– Blunt bodies (defined as that body whose surface does not coincide with
the streamlines. The flow is then separated from the surface of the body
much ahead of its trailing edge with the result of a very large wake
formation zone)

20
Drag and Lift
The interaction between the body and the fluid:
– Stresses-wall shear stresses 𝜏. due to viscous effects.
– Normal stresses, due to the pressure 𝑝.
Any object moving through a fluid experiences drag – the net force
in the direction of flow due to pressure and shear stress forces on
the surface of the object.
While the resultant force normal to the upstream velocity is termed
lift.
Drag force can be calculated by:
1
𝐹/ = 𝐶0 × ×𝜌×𝐴×𝑈 " Lift
2

𝐶! is drag coefficient
𝜌 is density of the fluid
U is flow velocity Drag
A is characteristic frontal area of the body,
normal to the flow direction

21
Drag and Lift
• Without detailed information concerning the shear stress and pressure
distributions on a body, the drag and the lift are difficult to obtain by
integration
• A widely used alternative is to define dimensionless lift and drag coefficients
and determine their approximate values by means of either a simplified
analysis, some numerical technique, or an appropriate experiment

Drag coefficient
𝐷
𝐶/ =
1
×𝜌×𝑈 " ×𝐴
2

Lift coefficient
𝐿
𝐶1 =
1
×𝜌×𝑈 " ×𝐴
2

22
Boundary Layers Concepts

• Introduced by Ludwig Prandtl, a German aerodynamicist, in

1904.
• Many viscous flows can be analyzed by dividing the flow into
two regions, one close to solid boundaries, the other
covering the rest of flow.
• Only in the thin region adjacent to a solid boundary (the
boundary layer) is the effect of viscosity important.
• In the region outside of the boundary layer, the effect of
viscosity is negligible and the fluid may be treated as
inviscid.
• The boundary layer concept permitted the solution of viscous
flow problems that would have been impossible through
application of the Navier-Stokes to the complete flow field.

23
Boundary Layers Concepts

• Boundary layers may be either laminar (layered), or turbulent (disordered)

depending on the value of the Reynolds number.
• The external flow reacts to the edge of the boundary layer just as it would to
the physical surface of an object.
• The effects of the boundary layer on lift are contained in the lift coefficient
and the effects on drag are contained in the drag coefficient.

24