ENGINEERING HYDRAULICS

Chapter
1
Flow of Fluids in Pipes
1.1. Description of a Pipe Flow

Incompressible Flow
• Pipe Flow: refers to a full fluid flow in a
closed conduits or circular cross section
under a certain pressure gradient.

• The pipe flow at any cross section can be

described by:
• cross section (A),
• elevation (h), measured with respect to a
horizontal reference datum.
• pressure (P), varies from one point to another, for
a given cross section variation is neglected
• The flow velocity (v), v = Q/A.
3
Difference between open-channel flow and the pipe flow

Pipe flow Open-channel flow

• The pipe is completely filled • Water flows without
with the fluid being transported. completely filling the pipe.

• The main driving force is likely • Gravity alone is the

to be a pressure gradient along driving force, the water
the pipe. flows down a hill.
4
 Types of Flow
Based on time criterion
❑ Steady and unsteady flow
Steady flow: conditions at any point remain constant,
but may differ from point to point. Velocities do not
change with time.

Unsteady flow: velocities change with time.

5
 Types of Flow
Based on space criterion

❑ Uniform and non-uniform flow

Uniform flow: velocity is the same at any given point in
the fluid.

Non-uniform flow:

6
Examples
✓ The flow through a long uniform pipe diameter at a constant rate is
steady uniform flow.
✓ The flow through a long uniform pipe diameter at a varying rate is
unsteady uniform flow.
✓ The flow through a diverging pipe diameter at a constant rate is a
steady non-uniform flow.
✓ The flow through a diverging pipe diameter at a varying rate is an
unsteady non-uniform flow.

7
 ❑ Laminar and turbulent flow
Laminar flow:
The fluid particles move along smooth well defined path or streamlines that are
parallel, thus particles move in laminas or layers, smoothly gliding over each
other.

Turbulent flow:
The fluid particles do not move in orderly manner and they occupy different
relative positions in successive cross-sections.
There is a small fluctuation in magnitude and direction of the velocity of the fluid
particles

transitional flow
The flow occurs between laminar and turbulent flow
9
 1.2 Reynolds Experiment
Reynolds performed a very carefully prepared pipe flow
experiment.

10
Increasing
flow
velocity

11
 Reynolds Experiment
• Reynold found that transition from laminar to turbulent
flow in a pipe depends not only on the velocity, but also
on the pipe diameter and the viscosity of the fluid.

• This relationship between these variables is commonly

known as Reynolds number (NR)

It can be shown that the Reynolds number is a measure of the

ratio of the inertial forces to the viscous forces in the flow

12
 Reynolds number

where V: mean velocity in the pipe [L/T]

D: pipe diameter [L]
ρ: density of flowing fluid [M/L3]
μ: dynamic viscosity [M/LT]
ν: kinematic viscosity [L2/T]

13
14
It has been found by many experiments that for flows in
circular pipes, the critical Reynolds number is about 2000

Flow laminar when NR < Critical NR

Flow turbulent when NR > Critical NR

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow does not always

happened at NR = 2000 but varies due to experiments
conditions….….this known as transitional range

15
 Laminar vs. Turbulent flows
Laminar flows characterized by:
• low velocities
• small length scales
• high kinematic viscosities
• NR < Critical NR
• Viscous forces are
dominant.
Turbulent flows characterized by
• high velocities
• large length scales
• low kinematic viscosities
• NR > Critical NR
• Inertial forces are
dominant
16
 Example 1.1
40 mm diameter circular pipe carries water at 20oC.
Calculate the largest flow rate (Q) which laminar flow can
be expected.

17
 1.3 Forces in Pipe Flow
Cross section and elevation of the pipe are varied along
the axial direction of the flow.

18
 For Incompressible and Steady flows:

Conservation law of
mass

Mass enters the Mass leaves the

control volume control volume

Continuity equation for

Incompressible Steady
flow 19
Apply Newton’s Second Law:

Fx is the axial direction force exerted on the control volume by

the wall of the pipe.

Conservation of
moment
equation 20
 Example 1.2
dA= 40 mm, dB= 20 mm, PA= 500,000 N/m2, Q=0.01m3/sec.
Determine the reaction force at the hinge.

21
 1.4 Energy Head in Pipe Flow
Water flow in pipes may contain energy in three
basic forms:

1- Kinetic energy,
2- potential energy,
3- pressure energy.

22
Consider the control volume:
• In time interval dt:
- Water particles at sec.1-1 move to sec. 1`-1` with velocity V1.
- Water particles at sec.2-2 move to sec. 2`-2` with velocity V2.

• To satisfy continuity equation:

• The work done by the pressure force

……. on section 1-1

……. on section 2-2

-ve sign because P2 is in the opposite direction to distance traveled ds2

23
• The work done by the gravity force:

• The kinetic energy:

The total work done by all forces is equal to the change in

kinetic energy:

Dividing both sides by ρgQdt

Bernoulli Equation
Energy per unit weight of water
OR: Energy Head 24
Energy head and Head loss in pipe flow

25
Energy = Kinetic + Pressure +
Elevation
head head head head

Notice that:
• In reality, certain amount of energy loss (hL) occurs when the
water mass flow from one section to another.

• The energy relationship between two sections can be written

as:

26
Example 1.3 & 1.4

27
Example
In the figure shown:
Where the discharge through the system is 0.05 m3/s, the total losses through
the pipe is 10 v2/2g where v is the velocity of water in 0.15 m diameter pipe,
the water in the final outlet exposed to atmosphere.
Calculate the required
height (h =?)
below the tank
Without calculation sketch the (E.G.L) and
(H.G.L)
Basic components of a typical pipe
system

31
 Calculation of Head (Energy) Losses:
In General:
When a fluid is flowing through a pipe, the fluid experiences some
resistance due to which some of energy (head) of fluid is lost.
Energy Losses
(Head losses)

Major Losses Minor losses

loss of head due to pipe Loss due to the change of
friction and to viscous the velocity of the flowing
dissipation in flowing fluid in the magnitude or in
water direction as it moves
through fitting like Valves,
Tees, Bends and Reducers.
32
 1.5 Losses of Head due to Friction

loss through friction in the length of pipeline is commonly

the major loss hf
the loss of head due to pipe friction and to the viscous
tion in flowing water.
studies have been found the resistance to flow in a pipe is:

dependent of pressure under which the water flows

nearly proportional to the pipe length, L
versely proportional to some water power of the pipe diameter D
oportional to some power of the mean velocity, V
lated to the roughness of the pipe, if the flow is turbulent
 Major losses formulas
• Several formulas have been developed in the past.
Some of these formulas have faithfully been used in
various hydraulic engineering practices.

1. Darcy-Weisbach formula
2. The Hazen -Williams Formula
3. The Manning Formula
4. The Chezy Formula
5. The Strickler Formula

34
The resistance to flow in a pipe is a function of:

• The pipe length, L

• The pipe diameter, D
• The mean velocity, V
• The properties of the fluid ()
• The roughness of the pipe, (the flow is
turbulent).

35
 Darcy-Weisbach Equation
Where:
f is the friction factor
L is pipe length
D is pipe diameter
Q is the flow rate
hL is the loss due to
friction
It is conveniently expressed in terms of velocity (kinetic) head in the
pipe
The friction factor is function of different
terms:

Renold Relative
number roughness
Friction Factor: (f)
• For Laminar flow: (NR < 2000) [depends only on
Reynolds’ number and not on the surface roughness]

• For turbulent flow in smooth pipes (e/D = 0) with

4000 < NR < 105 is

37
For turbulent flow ( NR > 4000 ) with e/D > 0.0, the friction factor
can be founded from:
• Th.von Karman formulas:

• Colebrook-White Equation for f

There is some difficulty in solving this

equation
So, Miller improve an initial value for f ,
(fo)

The value of fo can be use 38

 Friction Factor f
The thickness of the laminar sublayer δ decrease with an increase in
NR
laminar flow f independent of relative
NR < 2000 Smooth roughness e/D
e

pipe wall

f varies with NR and e/D

transitionally
rough
e

pipe wall
Colebrook formula

turbulent flow
f independent of NR
NR > 4000 rough
e

pipe wall
 Moody diagram
• A convenient chart was prepared by Lewis F. Moody and commonly
called the Moody diagram of friction factors for pipe flow,
There are 4 zones of pipe flow in the chart:

• A laminar flow zone where f is simple linear function of NR

• A critical zone (shaded) where values are uncertain because
the flow might be neither laminar nor truly turbulent
• A transition zone where f is a function of both NR and relative
roughness
• A zone of fully developed turbulence where the value of f
depends solely on the relative roughness and independent of
the Reynolds Number
41
Laminar

Marks Reynolds Number

independence
Typical values of the absolute roughness (e) are given in
table 1.1

43
Notes:

• Colebrook formula
is valid for the entire nonlaminar range (4000 <
Re < 108) of the Moody chart

In fact , the Moody chart is a graphical representation

of this equation

44
Problems (head loss)
Three types of problems for uniform flow
in a single pipe:
✓ Type 1:
Given the kind and size of pipe and the flow rate head loss ?

✓ Type 2:
Given the kind and size of pipe and the head loss flow rate ?

✓ Type 3:
Given the kind of pipe, the head loss and flow rate size of pipe ?
 Example 1
The water flow in Asphalted cast Iron pipe (e = 0.12mm) has a diameter 20cm
at 20oC. Is 0.05 m3/s. determine the losses due to friction per 1 km

46
 Example 2
The water flow in commercial steel pipe (e = 0.045mm) has a diameter 0.5m
at 20oC. Q=0.4 m3/s. determine the losses due to friction per 1 km
✓ Type 1:
Given the kind and size of pipe and the flow rate head loss ?
 Use other methods to solve f

1- Cole brook
 Example 3
Cast iron pipe (e = 0.26), length = 2 km, diameter = 0.3m. Determine the
max. flow rate Q , If the allowable maximum head loss = 4.6m. T=10oC
✓ Type 2:
Given the kind and size of pipe and the head loss flow rate ?
 Trial 1

Trial 2
 Example 1.5
Compute the discharge capacity of a 3-m diameter, wood stave
pipe in its best condition carrying water at 10oC. It is allowed to
have a head loss of 2m/km of pipe length.
✓ Type 2:
Given the kind and size of pipe and the head loss flow rate ?

Solution
1:
• Solve by trial and error:
• Iteration 1:

Iteration 2:
Alternative Method for solution of Type 2 problems

Type 2. Given the kind and size of pipe and the head loss flow rate ?

Determines relative roughness e/D

Given and e/D we can determine f (Moody diagram)

Use Darcy-Weisbach to determine velocity and flow rate
Because V is unknown we cannot calculate the Reynolds number
However, if we know the friction loss hf, we can use the Darcy-Weisbach equation
to write:

We also know that:

unknowns

Can be calculated based on Quantity plotted along the top of the Moody diagram
available data
 Moody Diagram
Lam
inar

Fully rough pipes

flo
Resistance Coefficient f

Relative roughness e/D

Tr
an
sit
ion
all
yr
ou
gh
pi
pe
s

Smooth pipes

Reynolds number
 Example 1.5
Compute the discharge capacity of a 3-m diameter, wood stave pipe in its best
condition carrying water at 10oC. It is allowed to have a head loss of 3m/km
of pipe length.

Type 2: Given the kind and size of pipe and the head loss flow rate ?
Solution
2:
f = 0.0121
 Example (type 2)
1

H = 4 m, L = 200 m, and D = 0.05 m

H
What is the discharge through the
2 galvanized iron pipe?

L
Example (continued)
 Initial estimate for f
A good initial estimate is to pick the f value that is valid for a fully rough pipe with the
specified relative roughness

e/D = 0.003
fo = 0.026
Solution of Type 3 problems-uniform flow in a
single pipe

Given the kind of pipe, the head loss and flow rate size of pipe ?
Determines
equivalent roughness e

Without D we cannot calculate the relative

Problem?
roughness e/D, NR, or

Solution procedure: Iterate on f and D

1. Use the Darcy Weisbach equation and guess an initial value for f
2. Solve for D
3. Calculate e/D
4. Calculate NR
5. Update f
6. Solve for D
7. If new D different from old D go to step 3, otherwise done
 Example (Type 3)
A pipeline is designed to carry crude oil (S = 0.93, ν = 10 -5 m2/s) with a discharge of 0.10 m3/s
and a head loss per kilometer of 50 m. What diameter of steel pipe is needed? Available pipe
diameters are 20, 22, and 24 cm.
From Table 3.1 : Steel pipe: e = 0.045 mm
Darcy-Weisbach:

Make an initial guess for f : fo = 0.015

Now we can calculate the relative roughness and the Reynolds number:

update f
f = 0.021
 Updated estimate for f

f1 = 0.021

e/D = 0.00024
Example Cont’d
 Example 1.6
Estimate the size of a uniform, horizontal welded-steel pipe installed to carry 14
ft3/sec of water of 70oF (20oC). The allowable pressure loss is 17 ft/mi of pipe
length.
A better estimate of D can be obtained by substituting the latter
values into equation (a), which gives
 Empirical Formulas 1
• Hazen-Williams
Simplifie
d
 Empirical Formulas 2

Manning Formula

• This formula has extensively been used

for open channel designs

• It is also quite commonly used for pipe

flows

68
• Manning
d
Simplifie

69
• n = Manning coefficient of roughness (See Table)
• Rh and S are as defined for Hazen-William
formula.

70
71
 The Chezy Formula

where C = Chezy coefficient

72
• It can be shown that this formula, for circular pipes, is
equivalent to Darcy’s formula with the value for

[f is Darcy Weisbeich coefficient]

• The following formula has been proposed for the value of

C:

[n is the Manning coefficient]

73
 The Strickler Formula:

where kstr is known as the Strickler coefficient.

Comparing Manning formula and Strickler formula, we can see that

74
Relations between the coefficients in Chezy,
Manning, Darcy, and Strickler formulas.

75
 Example
New Cast Iron (CHW = 130, n = 0.011) has length = 6 km and diameter = 30cm.
Q= 0.32 m3/s, T=30o. Calculate the head loss due to friction using:

a) Hazen-William Method

b) Manning Method
 Minor losses

It is due to the change

of the velocity of the
flowing fluid in the
magnitude or in
direction [turbulence
within bulk flow as it
moves through and
fitting] Flow pattern through a valve

77
 • The minor losses occurs due to:

• Valves
• Tees
• Bends
• Reducers
• And other appurtenances

• It has the common form

“minor” compared to friction losses in long pipelines but,

can be the dominant cause of head loss in shorter pipelines 78

 Losses due to contraction
A sudden contraction in a pipe usually causes a marked drop in
pressure in the pipe due to both the increase in velocity and the loss of
energy to turbulence.
Along wall

Along centerline
Value of the coefficient Kc for sudden
contraction

V
2
Head Loss Due to a Sudden Contraction

81
Head losses due to pipe contraction may be greatly reduced by
introducing a gradual pipe transition known as a confusor

Figure 3.11

0.5
1=
/A
A2

6
0.
7
0.
0.8

0.9
 Head Loss Due to Gradual Contraction
(reducer or nozzle)

a 100 200 300 400

KL 0.2 0.28 0.32 0.35

A different set of data is :

83
 Losses due to Enlargement
A sudden Enlargement in a pipe
 Head Loss Due to a Sudden Enlargement

or :

85
 Note that the drop in the energy line is much
larger than in the case of a contraction

abrupt expansion

gradual expansion

smaller head loss than in the case of an abrupt expansion

Head losses due to pipe enlargement may be greatly reduced by
introducing a gradual pipe transition known as a diffusor
Head Loss Due to Gradual Enlargement
(conical diffuser)

a 100 200 300 400

KL 0.39 0.80 1.00 1.06

88
Gibson tests

89
 Loss due to pipe entrance
General formula for head loss at the entrance of a pipe is
also expressed in term of velocity head of the pipe

90
Head Loss at the Entrance of a Pipe
(flow leaving a tank)

Reentrant Sharp
(embeded) edge
KL = 0.8 KL = 0.5

Slightly
rounded
Well
KL = 0.2
rounded
KL = 0.04

91
Different pipe inlets

increasing loss coefficient

Another Typical values for various amount of rounding of
the lip

93
 Head Loss at the Exit of a Pipe
(flow entering a tank)
KL = 1.0 KL = 1.0

KL = 1.0 KL = 1.0

the entire kinetic energy of the exiting fluid (velocity V1) is

dissipated through viscous effects as the stream of fluid mixes
with the fluid in the tank and eventually comes to rest (V2 = 0).
94
Head Loss Due to Bends in Pipes

R/D 1 2 4 6 10 16 20
Kb 0.35 0.19 0.17 0.22 0.32 0.38 0.42

95
 Miter bends
For situations in which space is limited,

96
 Head Loss Due to Pipe Fittings
(valves, elbows, bends, and tees)

97
98
The loss coefficient for elbows, bends, and tees

99
Loss coefficients for pipe components (Table)
Minor loss coefficients (Table)
Minor loss calculation using equivalent
pipe length
Energy and hydraulic grade lines

Unless local effects are of particular interests, the

changes in the EGL and HGL are often shown as abrupt
changes (even though the loss occurs over some
distance)
 Example
In the figure shown below, two new cast iron pipes are in
series, D1 =0.6m, D2 =0.4m, length of each pipe is 300m,
level at A =80m , Q = 0.5m3/s (T=10oC). There is a sudden
contraction between Pipe 1 and 2, and Sharp entrance at pipe 1.
Find the water level at B?

e = 0.26mm
v = 1.31×10-6
Q = 0.5 m3/s
Solutio
n
 Example
A pipe enlarge suddenly from D1=240mm to D2=480mm. the
H.G.L rises by 10 cm calculate the flow in the pipe
Solutio
n
• Note that the above values are average
typical values, actual values will depend
on the manufacturer of the components.
• See:
– Catalogs
– Hydraulic handbooks !!

109
111
Where:
CH = corrected value
CHo = value from table
Vo = velocity at CHo
V = actual velocity

112