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A Comparison of Soil Texture Distribution and Soil Moisture Mapping of

Chennai Coast using Landsat ETM+ and IKONOS Data

Conference Paper · March 2015

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ScienceDirect
Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 1452 – 1460

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON WATER RESOURCES, COASTAL AND OCEAN

ENGINEERING (ICWRCOE 2015)

A Comparison of Soil Texture Distribution and Soil Moisture

Mapping of Chennai Coast using Landsat ETM+ and IKONOS Data
Vidhya Lakshmi,Sa., Jijo Jamesb, Soundariya,S.c*, Vishalini, T.c and Kasinatha Pandian. P.
d

a
Tagore Engineering College, Vandalur- Kelambakkam High Road, Chennai – 600127
b
Tagore Engineering College, Vandalur- Kelambakkam High Road, Chennai – 600127
c
Tagore Engineering College, Vandalur- Kelambakkam High Road, Chennai – 600127
d
Tagore Engineering College, Vandalur- Kelambakkam High Road, Chennai – 600127

Abstract

The Chennai coastline is part of the Marina, the second longest urban beach in the world. This study does an initial description of
coastal zone soil profile from filed observations, involving collection of surface soil samples from different points along the
coast. The samples were lab tested to determine their grain size distribution and moisture content followed by a textural study.
Statistical analysis was carried out to map grain size distribution along with the moisture content. The obtained results were used
to extrapolate a soil properties map of the entire study area using a image classification method known as subpixel classification.
For developing a map of the studied soil properties, a preprocessed image of LANDSAT ETM+ (spatial resolution of 30 m) and
IKONOS (spatial resolution of 4 m) is used and were subject to spectral unmixing (the process of determination of percentage of
several land cover within a single pixel).

©
© 2015
2015Published by Elsevier
The Authors. B.V. This
Published is an open
by Elsevier access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
B.V.
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015.
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015
Keywords:Soil texture, mositure content, image processing, soil map

1. Introduction

Soils form an essential component of life on Earth, both directly and indirectly. Several key functions include: it acts

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: soundariya1501@gmail.com

2214-241X © 2015 Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Peer-review under responsibility of organizing committee of ICWRCOE 2015
doi:10.1016/j.aqpro.2015.02.188
 S. Vidhya Lakshmi et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 1452 – 1460 1453

as base providing the basis for food and biomass production; controlling and regulating environmental interactions,
thereby, regulating water flow and quality; storing carbon and maintaining the balance of gases in the air; providing
valued habitats and sustaining biodiversity; providing a platform for buildings and roads; providing raw material;
and preserving cultural and archaeological heritage. Monitoring of soil through parameters of soil such as soil
moisture, soil texture, soil organic matter content and soil acidity is feasible. Out of all indicators of soil, soil
moisture is a critical component in the water cycle and its assessment is of paramount importance in forecasting
changes in the water balance of a region (Finn, et al. 2011, Salvucci et al., 2002). In agricultural production, the
spatial variability of soil moisture can be responsible for low or spatially variable crop yields, as soil moisture is
required to make nutrients soluble for plant absorption. Soil texture is another indicator of interest for it affects
many of the physical characteristics and behaviour of the soil, such as soil water retention, nutrient holding capacity
and susceptibility to erosion (Greve et al., 2012). However, measurement of soil properties is possible but requires
extensive field work consuming time and costs and due to the inherent heterogeneity in soil (Mohanty et al. 2002).
Soil heterogeneity affects the distribution of soil moisture through variations in texture, organic matter content,
porosity, structure, and macroporosity Introduction of digital technologies, such as remote and soil sensing,
computer processing speed, management of spatial data, quantitative method to describe soil patterns and processes,
and scientific visualization methods have provided new opportunities to predict soil properties soil properties and
processes (McBratney et al., 2003; Lagacherie et al., 2006). Soil moisture content is also directly related with to soil
texture; coarse sandy soils are usually well drained, resulting in low moisture content and relatively high reflectance.
On the other hand, poorly drained fine-texture soils will generally have low reflectance in a satellite image
(Lillesand et al., 2000). In this study, an attempt has been made to relate soil properties such as field measured
values of soil texture and soil moisture content to remote sensing data for a coastal sand system. Digital soil
mapping (DSM) and modeling techniques have proliferated during the past decades to address these soil data and
information needs (Grunwald, 2006a, Lagacherie et al., 2007, Hartemink et al., 2008, Boettinger et al., 2010)

2. Linear spectral unmixing

The spectral unmixing approach to estimate the landcover components at sub-pixel level is called as spectral
mixture modelling. The spectral mixture model assumes either a linear or non-linear mixing of the primary surface
components that are present in the scene. Spectral unmixing has been applied by many researchers for vegetation
mapping (Novo and Shimabukuro 1997, Carpenter et al 1999, Dennison and Roberts 2002 and Lu et al 2003), flood
habitat mapping (Shimabukuro et al 1997), woodland area estimation (Thomas et al 1996), biophysical parameters
estimation (Haro et al 1996, Peddle and Johnson 2000) and mapping of mineral habitats (Bryant et al 1996, Das
2002).

The process of computing the fractional composition of land cover components is termed as spectral unmixing.
The Linear Mixture Model (LMM) assumes that there is no significant amount of multiple scattering between the
different cover types; the energy from the atmosphere has interacted with just one land cover type only. Each pixel
is considered as a combination of reflectance of the land cover constituting it and is proportional to the area covered
by each type. Mathematically, the linear mixture model is expressed as follows:
m
Pi ¦ fj Rij  Hi
j 1
(1)
Where Pi is the reflectance of the pixel P at the ith band.
fj is the proportion of the pixel’s area covered by the jth land cover component,
m is the number of the land cover components,
Rij is the pure spectral reflectance of the jth land cover component at the ith band.
n is the number of spectral bands,
Hi is the residual error.
Subject to:
m
6 fj =1 and fj t 0 for all components.
1454 S. Vidhya Lakshmi et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 1452 – 1460

j=1
LMM is usually assessed using the residuals εi or RMSE (root mean squared error):
n

¦ H 
2
i

RMSE i 1

n (2)

The result of the application of the mixture model is a set of grayscale images, which bring out the fractions of
individual land cover components. An important input to the model is an endmember. An endmember pixel is a pure
pixel containing 100% or almost 100% of a single land cover class. Spectral unmixing requires accurate, well-
characterised endmembers (Milton 1999). Improper choice of end members could result in erroneous computation
of fractions of landcover classes present in an image. The identification and description of the physical and spectral
properties of endmembers is thus, of great importance in spectral unmixing (Milton 1999). Several methods of
endmember selection have been suggested and tried (Schowengerdt 1997, Novo and Shimabukuro 1997, Bateson
and Curtiss 1996, Bajjouk et al., 1998, Bryant 1996, Roberts et al., 1998 and Dennison and Roberts 2003).

3. Study area and dataset

Chennai Marina Beach, India is chosen as the study region. Marina Beach is a natural urban beach in the city of
Chennai, India, along the Bay of Bengal, part of Indian Ocean. The total length of the beach is 13 km and length of
promenade is 6 km. The average width of the beach is 300m and the width of the widest stretch is 437 m. The
latitude and longitude of marina beach are 13° 1’ 45” N, 80° 15’ 26” E. In this study, Landsat ETM+ data with
resolution of 30 m and IKONOS data with resolution 4 m have been used. Multi-temporal data of Chennai from
Landsat ETM+ is available for the year of 2014 and data of same region from IKONOS is available for the year
2013. The data are geometrically co-registered. The Landsat ETM+ data has a striping pattern due to the sensor Scan
Line Corrector (SLC) failure in 2004, the images acquired after the year 2004 consisted of striping throughout the
image. Scaramuzza, et al (2004) developed a technique which can be used to fill gaps in one scene with data from
another Landsat scene. A linear transform is applied to the “filling” image to adjust it based on the standard
deviation and mean values of each band, of each scene. To reconstruct data along the striping pattern, an IDL code
available at for filling in the SLC OFF gaps. The destriping is based on matching histograms from the image data
that is affected with that of the unaffected data. In this study, a global histogram matching method which produces a
minimal artifact on the output image was used. Subject to gapfilling, the images were spatially and spectrally
subsetted to cover the Chennai Marina beach region. IKONOS was originated under Lockheed Martin Corporation
as the Commercial Remote Sensing System (CRSS).

4. Methodology

The methodology for the proposed work is given below in Figure 1. After sample collection, a set of laboratory
tests on 60samples was conducted to determine the soil texture and moisture content. The region containing the
study area was subsetted from both Landsat ETM+ and IKONOS images. To perform spectral unmixing,
endmembers of soil texture (medium sand and fine sand), water and vegetation are the inputs. After the careful
selection of endmembers, linear spectral unmixing was performed to yield fraction images. Fraction images are then
quantitatively compared with laboratory results and also between the Landsat ETM+
and IKONOS images. Results are then plotted and analysed in the following sections.

5. Sampling strategy and laboratory tests on samples

A flowchart depicting the methodology adopted in this study is given in Figure 1. To collect soil samples along
the stretch of the coast, a Landsat ETM+ image of the year 2010 was used. This image was used to select the
location of the sample to be collected. A total of 60 samples along five different series were collected along the
coastal stretch transversely as shown in Figure 2. At each series named A to E, three designations were used which
 S. Vidhya Lakshmi et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 1452 – 1460 1455

denote the left, central, and right of each pixel taken from the Landsat ETM+ image (for instance, AL refers to Left
corner of the pixel identified from the image of the Series A). At every pixel corner, four samples are taken. These
samples were then subject to tests in the laboratory for the estimation of soil moisture and soil texture. The sand
samples were collected from designated points along the coast with coordinates of the points being noted by means
of a handheld GPS. They were collected from a shallow depth after removing the surface sand to avoid foreign
matter. The sand samples were packed into air tight polythene covers and properly marked for identification. The
samples were quickly transported to the lab and tested for water content based on Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
code (BIS, 1973). The water content was determined by drying the samples in a hot air oven at a temperature of
105o C for a period of 24 hours. The water content was calculated as the ratio of weight of water (determined by
getting the difference between the wet and dry weights of samples) to the weight of dry soil expressed in percentage.
Grain size distribution were performed on all the samples based on BIS code (BIS, 1985), by weighing out a known
quantity (500 g) and allowing them to pass through a designated set of sieves.

Sample collection Landsat ETM+ and IKONOS data

Laboratory tests Geometric Registration

MNF Transformation

Sieve Analysis Test Moisture Content test

Endmember Collection

Pixel Purity Index

Grain size distribution and
moisture content

Spectral Unmixing

Fraction images

Correlating results using

scatter plot Extraction of moisture
content and grain size

Figure 1.Methodology for soil texture distribution and soil moisture mapping
The sample was sieved using a mechanical sieve shaker for a period of 10 minutes. Following the sieving,
the weights retained on each sieve were weighed and used to calculate the cumulative percentage passing through
each sieve. This data was used to plot the grain size distribution curve (Particle size Vs Percentage passing).
1456 S. Vidhya Lakshmi et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 1452 – 1460

Table 1. Locational details of samples taken from a Landsat ETM+ image (2010) for Series A
Sample Series Image UTM coordinates
Sample no
Latitude Longitude
ᶱ
1 13 3'42.99"N 80ᶱ17'2.78"E
AL 2 13ᶱ3'42.98"N 80ᶱ17'3.78"E
3 13ᶱ3'42.01"N 80ᶱ17'3.78"E
4 13ᶱ3'42.01"N 80ᶱ17'2.78"E
5 13ᶱ3'43.00"N 80ᶱ17'7.76"E
AC 6 13ᶱ3'43.98"N 80ᶱ17'8.76"E
7 13ᶱ3'42.02"N 80ᶱ17'8.78"E
8 13ᶱ3'42.99"N 80ᶱ17'6.77"E
9 13ᶱ3'42.03"N 80ᶱ17'10.75"E
AR 10 13ᶱ3'43.00"N 80ᶱ17'11.75"E
11

a b

13ᶱ3'42.03"N 80ᶱ17'12.75"E

12 13ᶱ3'42.03"N 80ᶱ17'10.75"E
Figure 2 (a). Sample collection and its designations depicted on Ikonos fraction image and (b) Landsat fraction image (since Landsat ETM+
image has a coarse resolution, only main series are marked)

6. Results and discussion

Figure 3 shows the grain size distribution curves of the five series of samples collected from various points along
the coast. It can be seen that in series A, the variation in distribution is limited to a narrow range of particle sizes
between 0.6 mm and 0.3 mm. In series C and series E, there’s moderate variation in grain size distribution in
comparison. In series C and E, the variation exists over a range of 0.6mm to 0.15mm. In series B and D, there exists
major variation in grain size distribution as seen from the wider scattering of the curves. When comparing the
effective sizes of the sand particles (D10) for different series of samples, the average D10 for different series does
not vary much with the values ranging around 0.17 – 0.18 mm. The coefficient of uniformity (Cu) and coefficient of
curvature (Cc) are two parameters that give an indication of the uniformity and curvature of the grain size curves.
The Cu values of the five series ranges from 2.57 to 3.16 and the Cc values from 0.73 to 0.82. For well graded sand,
the Cu values should be greater than 6 and Cc values should be between 1 and 3. Based on the criteria, the sands
found on the coast are poorly graded.
From the laboratory tests, the grain size distribution of the soil samples were also found as shown in Table 3.
Therefore, spectral unmixing using three endmembers such as medium sand, fine sand, and water content is
performed on Landsat and Ikonos images. Endmembers for gravel and coarse sand are not taken into consideration
since all the samples containing grain size lesser than 2 mm. The results of the spectral unmixing in the form of
 S. Vidhya Lakshmi et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 1452 – 1460 1457

fraction imagesFrom the laboratory tests, the grain size distribution of the soil samples were also found as shown in
Table 3. Therefore, spectral unmixing using three endmembers such as medium sand, fine sand, and water content is
performed on Landsat and Ikonos images. Endmembers for gravel and coarse sand are not taken into consideration
since all the samples containing grain size lesser than 2 mm. The results of the spectral unmixing in the form of
fraction images
120
120
a b
100 100

BC1
AC1 BC2
80

Percentage Finer
80
Percentage Finer

AC2 BC3
AC3 BC4
AC4
60 60 BL1
AL1
BL2
AL2
BL3
AL3
40 40 BL4
AL4
BR1
AR1
BR2
AR2
20 20 BR3
AR3
BR4

0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle Size (mm) Particle Size (mm)

120 120
c d
100 100

CC1 DC1
80 CC2 80 DC2
Percentage Finer

Percentage Finer

CC3 DC3
CC4 DC4
60 CL1 60 DL1
CL2 DL2
CL3 DL3
40 CL4 40 DL4
CR1 DR1
CR2 DR2
20 CR3 20 DR3
CR4 DR4

0 0
0.01 0.1 1 10 0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle Size (mm) Particle Size (mm)

120
e
100

EC1
80 EC2
Percentage Finer

EC3
EC4
60 EL1
EL2
EL3
40 EL4
ER1
ER2
20 ER3
ER4

0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Particle Size (mm)

Figure 3. Grain size distribution of 12 samples in (a) A series; (b) B series; (c) C series (d) D series and (e) E series
1458 S. Vidhya Lakshmi et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 1452 – 1460

a b c d

Figure 4. Grayscale fraction images of (a) Medium sand; (b) Fine sand; (c) moisture content and (d) RMS error image extracted as a result of
spectral unmixing on IKONOS image (with a spatial resolution of 4m)

(medium sand, fine sand, moisture content and RMS error) as derived from Ikonos and Landsat ETM+ are shown in
Figures 4 and 5. Table 2 lists the average moisture content present in each of the samples taken along the five
different series. It is seen that moisture content along the D series appears to be the maximum.

Table 4 lists the R2 values as obtained from the correlation of values of medium sand, fine sand and moisture
content from the fraction images of IKONOS and Landsat ETM+ along each series of samples collected. It could be
observed that both the IKONOS and Landsat ETM+ data performs fairly well and R 2 values as high as 0.998 have
resulted suggesting the use of spectral unmixing.

However, the difficulty in mapping is due to uniform soil moisture content rather than texture as opined by
Barnes and Baker (2000).
Table 3. Average grain size distribution of the
samples
S. No Grain Size distribution
1 Gravel 0.02 %
2 Coarse Sand 0.24 %
3 Medium Sand 47.67 %
4 Fine Sand 51.68 %
5 Silt & Clay 0.39 %
 S. Vidhya Lakshmi et al. / Aquatic Procedia 4 (2015) 1452 – 1460 1459

Table 4. Comparison of R2 values of spectral unmixing between Ikonos and Landsat ETM+ data

Ikonos Landsat
Series Name Moisture Moisture
Fine sand Medium sand Fine sand Medium sand
content content
A 0.855 0.609 0.912 0.974 0.747 0.587
B 0.829 0.799 0.958 0.839 0.737 0.505
C 0.849 0.559 0.909 0.654 0.998 0.808
D 0.920 0.712 0.573 0.854 0.842 0.822
E 0.997 0.886 0.775 0.915 0.655 0.747

7. Conclusions

This study has proposed the use of spectral unmixing for the retrieval of soil properties and thereby, digital
mapping of soil texture and moisture content, using Landsat ETM+ and Ikonos data. The results obtained from the
laboratory test and image processing are used to correlate the moisture content and soil texture from satellite images
and laboratory measured values from samples. This study has shown the potential of optical remote sensing and
digital image processing to generate digital soil maps at subpixel level for Chennai. However, soil properties, in
particular, soil texture, are best when microwave region is used. Hence, further study utilizing microwave regions of
electro-magnetic radiation need to be carried out for more accurate estimation and mapping of soil properties.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge students of B.E. (Civil Engineering) Ms. Padma Priya and Ms. Girija;
Mr. Ahamed Yehya and Mr. Ahamed Bathavi, Tagore Engineering College, for having helped in the field visit for
soil sample collection.

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