Review Article

Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 0, 1--17

Natural products as photoprotection

Nisakorn Saewan, PhD & Ampa Jimtaisong, PhD
School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah Luang University, Muang, Chiangrai, Thailand

Summary The rise in solar ultraviolet radiation on the earth’s surface has led to a depletion of
stratospheric ozone over recent decades, thus accelerating the need to protect human
skin against the harmful effects of UV radiation such as erythema, edema,
hyperpigmentation, photoaging, and skin cancer. There are many different ways to
protect skin against UV radiation’s harmful effects. The most popular way to reduce
the amount of UV radiation penetrating the skin is topical application of sunscreen
products that contain UV absorbing or reflecting active molecules. Based on their
protection mechanism, the active molecules in sunscreens are broadly divided into
inorganic and organic agents. Inorganic sunscreens reflect and scatter UV and visible
radiation, while organic sunscreens absorb UV radiation and then re-emit energy as
heat or light. These synthetic molecules have limited concentration according to
regulation concern. Several natural compounds with UV absorption property have
been used to substitute for or to reduce the quantity of synthetic sunscreen agents. In
addition to UV absorption property, most natural compounds were found to act as
antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory agents, which provide
further protection against the damaging effects of UV radiation exposure. Compounds
derived from natural sources have gained considerable attention for use in sunscreen
products and have bolstered the market trend toward natural cosmetics. This adds to
the importance of there being a wide selection of active molecules in sunscreen
formulations. This paper summarizes a number of natural products derived from
propolis, plants, algae, and lichens that have shown potential photoprotection
properties against UV radiation exposure-induced skin damage.
Keywords: natural product, photoprotection, sunscreens, UV radiation

into the following three categories: short wavelengths

Introduction
The level of ultraviolet (UV) radiation reaching the
earth’s surface has increased dramatically in recent
years.1 This phenomenon, in addition to the skin’s
overexposure to UV radiation, has contributed to a
steady increase in skin-related disorders in humans.2
UV radiation, depending on its wavelength, is divided
Correspondence: Nisakorn Saewan, School of Cosmetic Science, Mae Fah
Luang University, 333 Thasud, Muang, Chiangrai 57100, Thailand. E-mails:
nisakorn@mfu.ac.th; saewan.n@gmail.com
Accepted for publication August 15, 2014
UVC (200–280 nm), medium wavelengths UVB (280–
320 nm), and long wavelengths UVA (320–
400 nm).3,4 UVC radiation is completely absorbed by
the oxygen and ozone molecules in the earth’s atmo-
sphere.3 Although UVB radiation constitutes only 4–5%
of the total UV radiation,3 it is considered to be the
most active solar light component with skin sunburn
potency a thousand times greater than UVA radiation.
Thus, it is known as the “burning rays”. It penetrates
into skin’s epidermis layer and induces direct and indi-
rect adverse biological effects.5–8 UVA radiation typi-
cally represents >90% of the total UV radiation

© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 1

Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong
reaching the earth’s surface.2 It is known to penetrate
deeper into the epidermis and dermis and advance the
generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS).9 Chronic
exposure to UVA can damage underlying structures in
the dermis and cause premature photoaging of the
skin, such as skin sagging and wrinkles.10,11 Hence, it
is known as the “aging rays”.
The first defense against the sun is production of
melanin.2 This pigment absorbs dangerous UV rays
and thus protects skin cells from the detrimental effects
of UV exposure. In certain circumstances, the amount
of melanin produced is not sufficient to protect the
skin, resulting in development of sunburn.2 Therefore,
the protection of skin from UV radiation by some other
method is an urgent concern. Multiple photoprotective
methods can be utilized to provide protection against
harmful effects of UV exposure. Physical barriers such
as clothing and sunglasses can serve as an effective
way to shield UV rays from the skin and eyes, respec-
tively. Topical application with sunscreen products is a
strategy for protecting the skin from UV radiation by
blocking the UV radiation exposed on the epidermis.2,3
Nowadays, there is a worldwide trend to develop high
UV protection sunscreens using low concentrations of
chemical sunscreens. Naturally occurring compounds
have gained considerable attention as protective agents
because of their broad biological activities such as UV
absorption, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory.2,3,5
Several studies demonstrated that phenolic acids and
flavonoids derived from propolis, tea, grape, fern, and
milk thistle provide photoprotection through reduction
oxidative stress, inflammation, and immunosuppres-
sion. Topical application of flavonoids from caper
shows effective inhibition of erythema on the healthy
human. The protection efficacy of mycrosporine-like
amino acids (MAAs) from marine red alga and liche-
nized ascomycete against UV radiation damage is well
established. The following section deals with the
adverse effects of UV radiation on skin and its protec-
tion by natural compounds.
Mechanism of UV-induced biological damage
UV photons are known to mediate skin damage via
two different mechanisms: direct absorption and photo-
sensitization. In the direct absorption mechanism, the
cellular chromophores absorb UV radiation and trans-
form the absorbed energy into a biochemical signal,12
triggering the subsequent biological responses. The cel-
lular chromophores absorbing UVB radiation are
known to be the nucleic acids, amino acids (such as
tryptophan and tyrosine), quinines, flavins, porphyrins,
2 © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
and urocanic acid (UCA), while UCA alone absorbs
UVA radiation.12 The main lesions induced by UVB
radiation are cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs)
and 6-4 pyrimidine pyrimidone (6-4PP). These photo-
products block RNA transcription leading to activation
of p53 gene that induces apoptosis of irradiated kerati-
nocytes.13 Photosensitization mechanism, on the other
hand, endogenous and/or exogenous sensitizers absorb
UV light and then change from a ground state to an
excited state, resulting in further reactions leading to
formation of ROS and reactive nitrogen species (RNS).
The predominant ROS produced upon UV radiation are
hydroxyl radical, superoxide anion, and peroxyl radical
and their active precursors, namely singlet oxygen,
hydrogen peroxide, and ozone. The major RNS
produced by UV radiation are nitric oxide and nitric
dioxide.14,15 ROS is constantly generated in keratino-
cytes and fibroblasts, and it is rapidly removed by non-
enzymatic (ascorbic acid, tocopherol, ubiquinol, and
glutathione [GSH]) and enzymatic antioxidants (cata-
lase [CAT], superoxide dismutase [SOD], thioredoxin
reductase, glutathione peroxidase [GPx], and glutathi-
one reductase) to maintain a balance between prooxi-
dant and antioxidant, resulting in cell structure
stabilization. However, the presence of excess free radi-
cals leads to loss of cellular integrity, due to modifica-
tion of DNA and abnormal expression of cellular genes.
UV-generated ROS affect mitogen-activated protein
kinase (MAPK) pathway, followed by nuclear factor
kappa B (NF-jB) and activator protein 1 (AP-1) fami-
lies of transcription factor,16 which may both contrib-
ute to induction of heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) and
matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in the skin. HO-1
induction may elevate cellular iron levels that may
promote further ROS generation. An increase in MMPs
results in the extracellular matrix protein degradation,
causing wrinkle formation and metastases.16 Further-
more, ROS damages cell membranes by peroxidation of
fatty acids within the phospholipid structure of the
membrane.15
Extensive and chronic exposure to UV radiation asso-
ciated with abundant ROS/RNS generation lead to oxi-
dative damage that may result in inflammation as well
as local and systemic immunosuppression.17,18 Altera-
tions in the morphology and function of antigen-pre-
senting Langerhans cells, release of immunosuppressive
cytokines, and enhanced prostaglandin synthesis have
all been reported in the existing literature.19–21 After
exposure to UV radiation, it may trigger the upregula-
tion of the tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-a), which
represents an important skin inflammatory cascade22
and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin

(IL-1).23–25 This may subsequently trigger the synthe-
sis of other proinflammatory cytokines, IL-6 and IL-
8.23,26–28 This release of proinflammatory cytokines is
believed to be due to DNA lesions characteristic to UV
radiation exposure, CPDs, and 6-4 PP.29–31 UVB radia-
tion, in addition, induces the cytokine IL-10 and IL-12.
However, UVA radiation induces only the IL-10, a key
mediator of UV radiation-induced immunosuppres-
sion.10,32 On the contrary, IL-12 has been shown to
repair UV-induced DNA damage in the skin.33 Depend-
ing on the severity of the skin’s DNA damage following
UV exposure, the keratinocytes in the skin can pro-
gress to either apoptosis or DNA repair pathways.34,35
If DNA damage is irreparable, then the cell cycle is
arrested and keratinocyte is transformed into a sun-
burn cell, which is an early morphologic indicator of
epidermal cell apoptosis.33–35
Sunscreens for photoprotection
Topical application of sunscreen products can protect
the skin from the harmful effects of solar UV radia-
tion by absorbing or reflecting UV radiation at the
skin’s surface. Based on their protective mechanism,
sunscreen agents can be classified into two broad cat-
egories: inorganic and organic.36 Inorganic com-
pounds are inert particles reflecting the photons of
both UVA and UVB radiations away from the skin.36
These inert particles are often visible on the skin’s
surface and were found to have a cosmetically unde-
sirable visual effect. A typical inorganic sunscreen
includes zinc oxide and titanium dioxide. The chemi-
cally inert property of these agents does not cause
allergic sensitization.37 Organic sunscreens are gener-
ally aromatic compounds conjugated with carbonyl
group that allows the molecule to absorb UV rays
and release lower energy rays, thereby preventing the
skin from damaging effects of UV radiation.38 Organic
sunscreens, being invisible on the skin’s surface, have
more cosmetic appeal.38 Examples of commercial
absorbing ingredients are oxybenzone, sulisobenzone,
and octylmethoxycinnamate. However, these mole-
cules have limited use because they may be activated
by UV radiation and produce photosensitizer mole-
cules which may consequently interact with cutane-
ous molecules, causing adverse skin reactions.39
Therefore, these compounds have limited concentra-
tion in sunscreen formula. It is difficult to achieve
high sun protection using only synthetic UV filters
from a regulatory list. Naturally occurring substances
become increasingly important to incorporate in sun-
screen formulation.
© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong
Natural products as photoprotection
Natural products are secondary metabolites produced
by living organisms found in nature. The production
of these metabolites is often a specific response of pro-
ducing organisms to their environment, which has
contributed to their success in growth and continuity
of their species.40 Several natural organisms, especially
those exposed to intense radiation, have evolved a
variety of photoadaptive mechanisms including pro-
duction of antioxidant and UV-absorbing secondary
metabolites.40 The common feature of UV screening
molecule is its p-electron system, which is primarily
found in conjugated bond structures that may be rep-
resented both in linear chained molecules with alter-
nating single and double bonds and in many aromatic
and cyclic compounds containing electron reso-
nance.40 The important secondary metabolites act as
UV blockers including phenolic acids, nonflavonoids,
flavonoids, lichen polyphenols, terpenoids, and my-
cosporine-like amino acids. The structures of these
compounds are shown in Figures 1–4. These com-
pounds can prevent penetration of radiation into the
skin, resulting in the reduction of inflammation, oxida-
tive stress, and DNA damaging effects.41 In addition to
UV radiation absorption ability, some natural com-
pounds were also found to reduce inflammation, oxi-
dative stress and affect multiple signaling pathways to
protect the skin against UV radiation inflicted dam-
age.41 Hence, the naturally occurring substances have
gained considerable attention for their use as effective
photodamage reductants in humans via various mech-
anisms due to their involvement in multiple phototox-
icity pathways. Subsections below present a review of
the protection properties of various natural com-
pounds, derived from the propolis, plants, alga, and
lichen, to UV radiation.
Propolis
Propolis is a natural product derived from plant resins
and collected by honeybees, which is typically used as
a glue and draught extruder for beehives.42 Its chemi-
cal composition, color, aroma, and biological activities
are complex, which depend on plant resin collection
location, time, and plant source.43 It has been used in
traditional medicine as an antioxidant, immune-stimu-
lating, anti-inflammatory, antiseptic, antimycotic, bac-
teriostatic, astringent, spasmolytic, anesthetic, and
anticancer agent.44–46
Due to its UV-absorbing property, the photoprotec-
tion of the propolis has been studied by many
3
Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong
O O
OH
HO HO
OCH3
Vanillic acid
O O
HO
OH
Caf f eic acid phenethyl ester
OH
HO
Resveratrol
Figure 1 Nonflavonoid polyphenols as photoprotection compounds.
researchers. Soares dos Reis et al.47 have demonstrated
photoprotective effect of the green propolis from Vale
do Acßo, Brazil, by in vitro measurement of the sun pro-
tection factor (SPF) of topical formulations, gels, and
oil-in-water emulsion. The formulations containing
40% of the hydroalcoholic propolis extract possessed
SPF value of 10.47 Later, Fonseca et al.48 have investi-
gated the chemical constituents and potential use of
green and brown Brazilian propolis extracts for pre-
venting UV irradiation-induced oxidative stress in the
skin. The results illustrated that the green propolis
extract contained greater amounts of active com-
pounds, such as coumaric acid, drupanin, baccharin,
and artepillin C, resulting in higher antioxidant activ-
ity. Also, topical pretreatment on the animals with
both Brazilian propolis extracts has shown 14% GSH
depletion recovery and promising antioxidant activity
against the oxidative stress in the skin.48 The protec-
tive effects of Sydney propolis against photodamage
were tested on hairless mice.49 Topical application of a
crude ethanolic extract of Sydney propolis was found
to effectively reduce cutaneous inflammation, immuno-
suppression, and lipid peroxidation induced by UV
exposure.49 In other work, reported by Gregoris and
coworker,50 the chemical constituents of the ethanolic
extract from Italian propolis were found to be three
caffeic acids (caffeic acid, caffeic acid phenethyl ester,
and 1,1-dimethylallyl-caffeate) and three flavonoids
(kaempferol, quercetin, and galangin), which are
4 © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
O
OH O
HO
1,1-dimethylallylcaff eate
R R = H; p-Coumaric acid OH
R = OH; Caff eic acid
R = OCH3; Ferulic acid
OH
O OH
HO
OH HO C OH
Chlorogenic acid O
HO OH
R1 R2
OH O OH
Bisdesmethoxycurcumin; R1 = H: R2 = H
Desmethoxycurcumin; R1 = H: R2 = OCH3
Curcumin; R1 = OCH3: R2 = OCH3
known to be effective antioxidants and have a high
rate of UV absorption. Moreover, the Italian propolis
extract inhibited lipid peroxidation of linoleic acid (LA)
in sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) micelles. The photopro-
tection, including SPF, UVA/UVB ratio and critical
wavelength values of the Italian propolis extract, and
isolated compounds were evaluated compared to the
commercial UV filters, tinosorb S, oxybenzone, octinox-
ate, and padimate O. The results revealed that the Ital-
ian propolis extract and its components protected
against UV radiation, better than those of commercial
UV filters.50 Recently, Bolfa et al.51 have investigated
the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, and
antigenotoxic effects of Romanian propolis extract. The
major compounds isolated from Romanian propolis
were coumaric acid, ferulic acid, and quercetin. Topi-
cally administered, the Romanian propolis extract in a
Swiss mouse model significantly attenuated the mal-
ondialdehyde (MDA) formation, restored GPx activity,
decreased IL-6 levels, reduced the epidermal hyperpla-
sia and dermal inflammation, and reduced sunburn
cell formation along with the inhibition of CPDs forma-
tion.51
Red clover
Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) is an important peren-
nial forage legume that is commonly grown through-
out the world.52 It is one of the botanical dietary
 Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong

OH OH
B OH
HO O HO O
A C HO O
OH

OH O O EGCG
OH O
OH OH
Crysin Apigenin O

OH OH
OH
OH OH
OH
HO O
HO O
HO O HO OH
O
O OH
OH OH O
OH O
O
OH O Rutin HO O
OH HO
Quercetin Genistein HO
OH

HO O
HO O HO O

HO
O
OCH3 O O
OH OCH3
Formononetin Daidzein Biochanin A

b CH OH CH2OH
2
H B D H
HO O OCH3 HO O OCH3
a
A C E
OH OH OH OH
H Silibin A H Silibin B
OH O OH O

OH OCH3

OH OH

HO +
HO O+ O
OCH3

O HO
O HO
OH
OH O OH
O OH
Malvidin 3-glucoside
OH
OH
OH
Cyanidin 3-glucoside OH

Figure 2 Flavonoids as photoprotection compounds.

supplements used by women for menopausal hot UV radiation.54,55 Moreover, equol protected immuno-
flashes.53 Red clover contains high amounts of estro- suppression by inactivation of the downstream action
genic isoflavones, daidzein, genistein, formononetin, of cis-UCA, a major UV-induced immunesuppressive
and biochanin A.53 After UV exposure, topically photoproduct produced in the skin.54
applied isoflavonoids derived from red clover and some
metabolically related compounds in hairless mice
Soybean
resulted in the primary isoflavones, daidzein, biochanin
A, and formononetin were inactive, whereas lotions of Soybean (Glycine max L.), due to its high nutritional
genistein and its metabolites, equol, isoequol, and de- value from such vitamins as A, B, C and minerals, is
hydroequol were found to have increased potential in an important crop for human and animal consump-
reducing the inflammatory edema reaction and the tion.56 It consists of more than 36% protein, 30%
photoimmune suppression of contact hypersensitivity carbohydrates, and is an excellent source of dietary
(CHS) induced by moderate doses of solar-simulated fiber. It also consists of 20% oil, which makes it an

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Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong

O O
O

Sargaquinoic acid
Plastoquinones
O O

O
O

Sargachromenol HO
O O

O
C

O
O
HO OH
Fucoxanthin
O
OH

HO Astaxanthin
O
HO
HO
CO2H
CO2H
N
N
MeO OH
MeO
OH
OH
HN
HN
OH OH
HO2C OH OH O
Shinorine HO2C
Porphyra O OH
HO OH
OH
O O
OH HO OH OH
HO OH HO OH
HO OH
OH O
O O

OH
HO OH HO OH
Phlorotannins Dieckol

Figure 3 Polyphenols, mycrosporine-like amino acids, and terpenes as photoprotection compounds from algae.

important crop for producing edible oil. Soybean cake,
a by-product of soybean oil processing, contains a high
amount of isoflavones.57,58 The photoprotection of soy-
bean cake which contains 12 soy isoflavones has been
demonstrated by Chiang et al.59 The extract inhibited
UVB radiation-induced keratinocyte death, release of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and MAPK phosphoryla-
tion.59 Later, the soybean cake extract was further
purified into subfraction by chromatography technique.
A fraction, which contains the aglycone group (daidz-
ein, genistein, and glycitein) and acetylglucoside group
(acetyldaidzin, acetylgenistin, and acetylglycitin), pre-
vented human keratinocyte apoptosis, attenuated the
level of erythema and transepidermal water loss
(TEWL), reduced epidermal thickness, increased CAT
activity, inhibited cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), and pro-
liferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) expression in
response to UVB exposure.60
Caper
The use of caper (Capparis spinosa) dates to the Greek
and the Roman times. It was used for medicinal pur-
poses.61 The whole extracts of the floral buttons of this
plant is reported to possess hydrating properties on the
dry, aged, and undernourished skin.62 The major con-
stituents of lyophilized extract of caper were identified
as kaempferol, caffeic, ferulic, coumaric, and cinnamic
acids.63 Topical application of sunscreen product con-
taining caper extract on the healthy human showed a
59.6% inhibition of erythema, which is more effective
than tocopherol acetate (22%).63

6 © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.


Figure 4 Polyphenols as photoprotection compounds from lichen.
Almond
Almonds (Prunus amygdalus Batsch) are one of the
most popular tree nuts and rank high in tree nut pro-
duction.64 They are typically used as snacks and as
ingredients in a variety of processed foods, especially
in bake goods.64 The seeds are rich in polyphenolic
compounds, especially flavonoids and phenolic
acids.65,66 The UV protection property of almond
extract was estimated in mice skin.67 Topical treat-
ment of extract prior to UV radiation exposures
showed a strong antioxidant activity via significantly
decreased levels of lipid peroxidation and increased
levels of GSH.67
Flame of the forest
Flame of the forest (Spathodea campanulata), also known
as the Fountain Tree, African Tulip Tree, or Nandi
Flame, is an ornamental plant that grows along the
roadsides.68 The flowers of this plant consist of flavo-
noids that absorb UV radiation with maximum absor-
bance at 200–240 nm, while good absorbance at
240–325 nm. The author suggested that the strong to
moderate absorption of this plant makes it a better and
safer alternative to classical organic sunscreens.69
© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong
Milk thistle
Milk thistle (Silybum marianum L.) is an important
medicinal plant that has volatile oils and other second-
ary metabolites, known as silymarin.70 The principal
components of silymarin include the diastereoisomers
silibinin A and silibinin B in a roughly 1:1 ratio, the
diastereoisomers isosilibinin A and isosilibinin B, silicri-
stin, and silidianin.71 The main chemical constituents
of silymarin are silibinin A and silibinin B, and repre-
sent 50–60% of the components of silymarin, which
are the most active components.72,73 Silymarin exhib-
its a high antioxidant capability owing to the polyphe-
nol hydroxyls and the ability to form complexes with
transition and other metal ions in 3,4- or 4,5-posi-
tions.74 Topical application of silymarin protected
mouse skin against UVB-induced suppression of CHS
response to contact sensitizer dinitrofluorobenzene and
infiltration of inflammatory leukocytes, which are
responsible for the generation of oxidative stress.75,76
The treatment also resulted in significant reduction of
UVB-induced immunosuppressive cytokine IL-10 pro-
ducing cells and their production.75,76 Moreover,
silymarin was found to decrease UV radiation-induced
apoptotic cell death of epidermal cells through repair of
damaged DNA.77 Therefore, silymarin inhibited photo-
7
Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong

carcinogenesis via inhibition of UVB-induced oxidative Pomegranate

stress, inflammation, and suppression of immune sys-
Pomegranate (Punica granatum) is a tropical fruit
tem.5,78,79
lauded in ancient times (as part of the Old
Testament of the Bible, Jewish Torah, and Babylo-
Tea nian Talmud) as a sacred fruit conferring powers of
fertility, abundance, and good luck.97 Pomegranate
Tea is among the most consumed beverages around
extract is a source of anthocyanins and hydrolyzable
the world, and it is currently cultivated in at least 30
tannins with potent antioxidant and anti-inflamma-
countries. Freshly harvested tea leaves are processed
tory properties. The protection of skin against the
differently to produce oolong tea (2%), green tea
adverse effects of UVA and UVB radiation of the
(20%), and black tea (78%).80 Green tea is prepared
pomegranate extract has been established.98,99 Treat-
from fresh tea leaves, and is widely consumed in Japan
ment of reconstituted human skin (EpiDerm) with
and China. Western cultures favor black tea, which is
pomegranate extract before UVB irradiation inhibited
prepared through oxidation curing process of macera-
the induction of CPD, 8-dihydro-2-deoxyguanosine
tion and exposure to atmospheric oxygen.81,82 Tea is
(8-OHdG), protein oxidation, cell proliferation, and
popular, not only for its taste, but also for its high lev-
synthesis of MMPs (MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-3, MMP-
els of antioxidants, specifically, catechins. (
) Epigallo-
7, MMP-9, and MMP-12).98 In normal human epi-
catechin-3-gallate (EGCG), the most abundant catechin
dermal keratinocytes, the treatment with pomegran-
in green tea, accounts for approximately 65% of total
ate extract reduced UVA radiation-induced cell
catechin content. These polyphenolic compounds are
damage by inhibition of keratinocyte proliferation
capable of scavenging free radicals such as lipid free
and apoptosis.99
radicals,83,84 superoxide radicals,85 hydroxyl radi-
cals,86 hydrogen peroxide,87,88 and singlet oxygen.89,90
The photoprotection property of green tea polyphenols Red orange
was demonstrated in several studies.91–94 In the ani-
Red oranges (Citrus sinensis varieties: Moro, Tarocco
mal model, topical pretreatment of green tea polyphe-
and Sanguinello), also known as blood oranges typi-
nolic on the skin prior to UV irradiation was found to
cally grown in Italy, are an important dietary source
increase the protection against UVB-induced immune
of anthocyanins, such as cyanidin-3-glucoside and
suppression and photocarcinogenesis.91,92 In the
cyanidin-3-(6-malonyl)-glucoside, which are responsi-
human model, topical pretreatment with green tea
ble for their brilliant red color.100–102 Topical appli-
extract before UV exposure resulted in reduced DNA
cation of the extract immediately after skin exposure
damage and erythema formation. This is due to the
to UV radiation was found to provide an efficient
protection of DNA repair enzymes via the inactivation
protection against photooxidative skin damage,
of ROS and UVB radiation absorption ability of the
including protective effect on the DNA cleavage, free
green tea polyphenolic.93,94
radical scavenging capacity, inhibition of xanthine
oxidase activity, and antilipoperoxidative capacity.103
Grape

Grapes (Vitis vinifera) are among the most commonly Bilberry

consumed fruits around the world. Grape seeds are a
Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.), commonly known as
rich source of polyphenols (60–70%), that is, cate-
blueberry, is a rich source of anthocyanins. It is widely
chin, epicatechin and oligomeric proanthocyanidins.95
reported for their antioxidant activities such scaveng-
The excellent antioxidant, strong anti-inflammatory,
ing superoxide, reducing hydrogen peroxide radicals,
and antiproliferative activity of the grape seeds come
and inhibiting of lipid peroxidation.104,105 Photoprotec-
from the polyphenolic phytoalexin namely resveratrol.
tion of bilberry fruit extract was investigated in HaCaT
Topical application of resveratrol to SKH-1 hairless
keratinocytes. Pre- (1 h) or post-treatment (4 h) of the
mice before exposure to UVB radiation resulted in sig-
extract containing 25% anthocyanins in the cells
nificant inhibitions of UVB-mediated skin edema,
resulted in the reduction of UVA radiation-stimulated
inflammation, cyclooxygenase (COX) and ornithine
ROS formation, attenuation of UVA radiation-caused
decarboxylase (ODC) induction, and generation of
peroxidation of membrane lipids, and depletion of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and lipid peroxidation in
intracellular GSH.106
the skin.96

8 © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.


Bog blueberry
Bog blueberry (Vaccinium uliginosum L.) is rich in an-
thocyanins, that is, cyanidin-3-glucoside, petunidin-3-
glucoside, malvidin-3-glucoside, and delphinidin-3-glu-
coside. Bog blueberry anthocyanins have been effective
against UVB radiation-induced toxicity accompanying
the production of ROS. The extract effectively protected
the skin and reduced the photoaging process by block-
ing collagen destruction through modulation of the
NF-jB responsive and MAPK-dependent pathways.107
Strawberry
Strawberry (Fragaria 9 ananassa) is an important die-
tary source of natural antioxidants. Anthocyanin
extract of strawberry shows strong anti-inflamma-
tory,108 antioxidant,109 antimutagenic,110 and anticar-
cinogenic111 properties. The photoprotective properties
of strawberry have been demonstrated in human der-
mal fibroblasts.112 The extract exhibited ability to block
the collagen destruction and inflammatory responses
via transcriptional mechanisms of the NF-jB and
MAPK signals. Additionally, the extract increased cel-
lular viability and diminished DNA damage on UVA
radiation-induced skin damage.112
Foti
The root of foti (Polygonum multiflorum Thunb) is used
in traditional medicine and is officially listed in the
Chinese Pharmacopoeia.113 It was found to have anti-
bacterial, antifungal, and anti-aging properties, which
are typically associated with cellular antioxidant activ-
ity.114 The main active constituents in the foti’s roots
were characterized as polyphenolic compounds, includ-
ing hydroxyl anthraquinones, stilbenoids, and proanth-
ocyanidins,115,116 which are responsible for radical
scavenging activity.117 The antioxidant effects of foti
extract against skin damage induced by UVB irradia-
tion have been established by Hwang et al.118 in
female SKH-1 hairless mice models. Topical application
of the extract following UV irradiation showed strong
inhibition of oxidative stress, specifically, the destruc-
tion of the SOD enzyme.118
Fernblock
Fernblock (Polypodium leucotomos) is a tropical fern
plant belonging to a Polypodiaceae family. It is com-
monly used as a traditional medicine in South America
to make poultices and treat psoriasis and other skin
© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong
disorders, although with variable success.119 The
hydrophilic extract of the leaves of P. leucotomos con-
sists of coumaric acid, ferulic acid, caffeic acid, vanillic
acid, 3-caffeoylquinic acid, and chlorogenic acid.120
This extract provided antioxidant activities, inhibiting
of ROS generation, scavenging the superoxide anion,
and SOD.121–123 At a cellular level, the extract showed
a significant reduction in UV radiation-mediated cellu-
lar apoptosis and necrosis and a profound inhibition of
extracellular matrix remodeling.119 The important role
in photoprotection of fernblock is inhibiting skin ery-
thema, preventing damage to DNA, inhibiting UV-
induced AP-1 and NF-jB, and protecting endogenous
skin natural antioxidant systems.119
Turmeric
Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) is a rhizomatous herba-
ceous perennial plant of the ginger family, Zingibera-
ceae. It is native to South Asia, but is now widely
cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions of the
world. It is commonly used as a spice and as a medi-
cine, particularly in Asia. It is primarily used for the
treatment of inflammatory-related conditions in ayurv-
edic medicine and in addition also used as a stimulant,
aspirant, carminative, cordeal, emmenagogue, astrin-
gent, detergent, diuretic, and martirnet in traditional
Chinese medicine.124–126 Three curcuminiods, bisde-
methoxycurcumin, demethoxycurcumin, and curcu-
min, have been identified as the active principle of
turmeric rhizomes. Turmeric has been reported to exert
pharmacological activities such as anticancer,127,128
antidiabetes,129 oxidation,130 and treatment of Alzhei-
mer’s disease.131 Curcumins have an anti-inflamma-
tory effect by inhibiting the NF-jB and MAPK
signaling pathways, reducing the expression of induc-
ible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and COX-2.132,133
Jang et al. have evaluated the antiwrinkle effects of the
three turmeric curcuminoids in keratinocytes and
fibroblasts. All curcuminoids inhibited UVB radiation-
induced TNF-a mRNA expression. Specifically, the
demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcunim inhib-
ited UVB radiation-induced NF-jB activation in the
HaCaT keratinocytes and reduced the expression of
MMP-1 in both keratinocytes and fibroblasts.134
Ginseng
Ginseng (Panax ginseng), also known as Korean or
Chinese ginseng, is a widely used traditional herbal
medicine having multifunctional activities, anti-
inflammatory, antioxidant,135 antitumor promoting,136
9
Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong
and anti-aging137 activities. Commercially available
ginseng is classified into white, red, and sun ginseng.
White ginseng is made by peeling the fresh ginseng
roots and drying them without the following steaming
process. Red and sun ginsengs are made by steaming
and drying the fresh ginseng to preserve them for an
extended period of time.138,139 Sun ginseng is steamed
at a higher temperature compared to red ginseng.139
Photoprotection of red and sun ginseng has been dem-
onstrated by Lee and coworker on mice model.139,140
The red ginseng-treated mice showed a significant
decreased wrinkling score, minimal epidermal hyper-
plasia, slightly increased dermal cellularity, and lack of
proliferation of cysts.140 Sun ginseng exerted an
anti-inflammatory activity by reducing the nitric oxide
production and iNOS mRNA synthesis in HaCaT kerati-
nocytes and human dermal fibroblasts. Sun ginseng
inhibited UVB-induced COX-2 expression and TNF-a
transcription in HaCaT cells.139
English ivy
English ivy (Hedera helix) is well known for its ability
to climb onto and strongly adhere to a variety of solid
substrates by secreting an adhesive composed of poly-
saccharide and spherical nanoparticles.141 Based on
four criteria including the ability to absorb and scatter
ultraviolet light, toxicity to mammalian cells, biode-
gradability, and potential for diffusion through the
skin, the potential use of ivy nanoparticles in sun-
screen was evaluated comparison to TiO2 nanoparti-
cles. The results showed that the ivy nanoparticles
were more efficient in blocking UV light, less toxic to
HeLa cells, easily biodegradable through several diges-
tive techniques, and had a limited potential to pene-
trate through human skin in a mathematical model
compared to TiO2 nanoparticles.141,142
Broccoli
Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var italica) is a cruciferous
vegetable, a member of the cabbage family (Crucife-
rae).143 This vegetable is a rich source of sulforaphane
and has anticarcinogenic, antidiabetic, and antimicro-
bial properties.143 Topical application of sulforaphane-
rich extracts of broccoli sprouts upregulated phase 2
enzymes in mice and human skin was found to protect
against UV radiation-induced inflammation and edema
in the mice, and reduced susceptibility to erythema in
humans.144 This effect was attributed to the produc-
tion of protective intracellular enzymes that defended
the cells against UV radiation-induced damage.144
10
Coffee
Coffee is one of the most popular beverages consumed
in the world. Two species of coffee have been commer-
cial importance: Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica) and
Robusta coffee (Coffea canephora).145 Coffee stands out
as a dietary source of potential antioxidants, such as
caffeine, chlorogenic acid, and hydroxycinnamic acids.
In 1988, L’oreal researcher discovered sun filter com-
pound in coffee bean oils that was obtained as a resi-
due from aqueous extraction of the roasted coffees.
This oil promoted natural browning of skin, while at
the same time also protected skin against solar radia-
tion and development of skin burns.146 In other work,
the SPF of lipid fraction of green coffee beans from 10
species was investigated.147 The results showed signifi-
cant variability for SPF ranges from 0.0 to 4.1 and
C. arabica species showed high SPF (1.50), which made
it a choice for applications in cosmetics. Caffeine is a
natural compound in coffee with UV absorption prop-
erty, and it has been reported to inhibit ROS-mediated
lipid peroxidation.148 The radiation protection ability of
caffeine in an animal model has also been reported by
George et al.149 Only a low concentration of caffeine
was required to suppress DNA cross-linking.149 Topical
application of caffeine 0.5 h before a high dose of UVB
radiation decreased UVB-induced thymine dimer for-
mation and sunburn lesions.150
Basil
Basil (Ocimum basilicum, Linn.) belongs to Lamiaceae
plant family and is native to the subtropics, especially,
existing throughout the Mediterranean region and
India. Basil is widely used as traditional medicine for
the treatment of several ailments. The SPF value of
sunscreen cream containing essential oil of basil as an
active ingredient was found to be 1.19, with ultra boot
star rating value of 1.151
Alga
Algae is found wherever there is a light to carry out
photosynthesis in places such as in the sea, rivers,
and lakes, on soil and walls, and in animals and
plants (as symbiotic partners collaborating together).
Based on their pigmentation, Harvey was the first,
who divided the algae into four categories including
red algae (Rhodophyta), brown algae (Hetero-
kontophyta), green algae (Chlorophyta), and diatoma-
ceae.152 In recent years, a wide range of studies have
demonstrated photoprotective effect of several groups
© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

of multicellular algae. Methanol extract of a red alga
(Corallina pilulifera) showed a potent antioxidant acti-
vity, protective effect on UVA radiation-induced oxi-
dative stress, and prominent reduction of the
expression of UV radiation-induced MMP-2 and MMP-
9 in a dose-dependent manner.153 Two MAAs, por-
phyra-334 and shinorine, were isolated from the red
alga Porphyra rosengurttii, which was evaluated in the
mice skin model.154 Topical application of the gel con-
taining the combination of porphyra-334 and shino-
rine demonstrated that it protected against UV
radiation-induced sunburn cell formation, as well as
corneum stratum, malpighian, dermal and hypoder-
mal thickening and other structural and morpho-
logical alterations, contributing to maintain the
antioxidant defense mechanism of the skin as well as
Hsp70 expression, a potential biomarker for acute UV
damage. Three marine algal polyphenol, phloroglucin-
ol, eckol, and dieckol, were isolated from Ecklonia cava,
an edible marine brown alga species. The photopro-
tective effect of these isolated compounds against UVB
radiation-induced photooxidative stress was examined
by 20 ,70 -dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-
DA), 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)2,5-diphenyltetrazoli-
um bromide (MTT), comet assay, and morphological
changes in fibroblast.155 The prominent inhibitory
activity against melanogenesis and effectively reduced
UVB radiation-induced cellular damage were found in
phlorotannins and dieckol. Phlorotannins showed the
highest reduced intracellular ROS due to UVB radia-
tion and increased cell viability. Dieckol showed
strong protective properties against UVB radiation-
induced DNA damage via damaged tail intensity and
morphological changes in fibroblast.155 Plastoquinon-
es, sargaquinoic acid, and sargachromenol are the
major components of a brown alga (Sargassum sagami-
anum). The therapeutic effect in the protection against
UVB of these compounds was investigated in the Ha-
CaT cells and hairless mice.156 These plastoquinones
showed a reduction of UVB radiation-induced apopto-
sis due to the activation of caspases.156 The protective
effect of fucoxanthin, a natural carotenoid isolated
from brown alga Sargassum siliquastrum, was investi-
gated in the human fibroblast via DCFH-DA, MTT,
and comet assays.157 The results suggested that fuco-
xanthin had the ability to protect against oxidative
stress induced due to UVB radiation and had
increased the cell survival rate.157 The ability of an
algal extract that contains a high level of astaxanthin
to protect against UVA-induced DNA damage was
investigated using single cells, human skin fibroblasts
(1BR-3), human melanocytes (HEMAc), and human
© 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong
intestinal Caco-2 cells.158 These algal extracts have
depicted a tremendous alteration in antioxidants, such
as SOD and GSH, and also have shown a protective
effect against UVA radiation-induced DNA damage.158
Lichens
Lichens are symbiotic organisms of fungi and algae,
which are the earliest colonizers of terrestrial habitats
on earth. They are widely distributed around the
world, from the Arctic to tropical regions, and from
the plains to the highest mountains. Over 800 second-
ary metabolites, which are present in the lichens such
as aliphatic, cycloaliphatic, aromatic, and terpenic
compounds, were isolated and showed interesting bio-
logical and pharmacological activities.159,160 Usnic
acid, depsides, and depsidones are prominent secondary
lichen metabolites. Usnic acid is used in pharmaceuti-
cal preparations against infections, bacterial eczema,
mastitis, furunculosis, and polydermy.161,162 Depsides
and depsidones exhibit anti-inflammatory, analgesic,
antipyretic, antibacterial, antifungal, and anticancer
properties.159,163,164 According to the absorption in
UV region and antioxidant power, lichen extracts were
considered as potential sunscreens.165 Rancan et al.
isolated five compounds, usnic acid, 1-chloropannar-
ine, epiphorelic acid I and II, and calicin, from chilean
lichen extract. The photoprotection factors were ana-
lyzed against the references, Nivea sun Spray LSF 5,
octylmethoxycinnamate (OMC), and butyl meth-
oxydibenzoylmethane (BM-DBM). Most of the single
compounds were found to provide UV protection fac-
tors similar to that of the reference compounds, and
usnic acid was found to be the best UVB filter.166 Col-
lemin A, a mycosporine isolated from the lichenized
ascomycete (Collema cristatum), prevented UVB-induced
cell destruction in a dose-dependent manner, partially
prevented CPDs formation in cultured human keratino-
cytes, and completely prevented UVB-induced ery-
thema on human skin.167 Russo et al.165 isolated
sphaerophorin from Sphaerophorus globosus and panna-
rin from different species of the genus Psoroma (Psoro-
ma reticulatum, Psoroma pulchrum, Psoroma palladium)
and evaluated for their protection of DNA damage and
inhibition the growth of melanoma. Both compounds
showed a protective effect on plasmid DNA damage,
exhibited a SOD-like effect, and inhibited the growth of
melanoma cells, inducing an apoptotic cell death,
demonstrated by the fragmentation of genomic DNA
and by a significant increase of caspase-3 activity.165
Recently, Millot et al.168 have performed preliminary
screening UV absorption properties of twelve lichens
11
Natural products as photoprotection . N Saewan & A Jimtaisong
using high-performance thin-layer chromatography.
Among all lichens, the compounds absorbing UVA or
UVB ranges were found in Diploicia canescens. After
phytochemical investigation of this lichen, five depsi-
dones (diploicin, dechlorodiploicin, 4-O-methyldiploicin,
O-ethyldechlorodiploicin, and scensidin), one dipheny-
lether (buellin), and two bisxanthones (secalonic acids
B and D) were isolated and characterized. Then, UV
absorbtion property of the isolated compounds was
compared against three reference UV-absorbing sunsc-
reens, which included OMC, 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-
benzophenone and avobenzone. Bisxanthones were
found to be suitable as a UV screening agent in sun-
screens due to its absorption wavelengths and molecu-
lar extinction coefficients similar to those of
avobenzone, a commercial sunscreen agent.168
Conclusions
Exposure to UV radiation from the sun is a well-known
risk factor for human disease including erythema,
edema, hyperpigmentation, sunburn cells, immunosup-
pression, photoaging, and skin cancer through multiple
pathways. A strategy for protecting the skin from UV
radiation is topical application of sunscreen products
that block the UV radiation exposed on the epider-
mis.2,3 There is a worldwide trend toward natural cos-
metics and to develop high UV protection sunscreens
using low concentrations of chemical sunscreens. The
use of natural compounds in combination with synthe-
tic agents may provide an effective strategy for pre-
venting harmful effects of UV radiation. Due to their
modulation of several signaling pathways in reducing
the deleterious effects of UV radiation on the skin, nat-
ural compounds with broad biological activities are
important in the manufacturing of sunscreen products.
To provide new options and choices for sunscreen for-
mulator, this article showed the benefits of natural
compounds providing effective photoprotection via sev-
eral pathways. These include propolis cinnamic acids,
tea polyphenols, grape seed proanthocyanidins, milk
thistle silymarins, algae MAAs, algae terpenes, and
lichen polyphenols. However, the development of natu-
ral compounds as new commercial sunscreen agents in
sun-care products must be both safe and have a benefi-
cial photoprotective effect. To ensure the protection
efficacy of sun-care products, the quantity of active
constituents in natural extracts, compatibility, concen-
tration, and stability is a concern. Moreover, it is nec-
essary to investigate in what dosage levels the active
compounds will be stable and produce the most benefi-
cial effects.
12
Acknowledgment
The authors are grateful to Mae Fah Luang University,
Chiangrai, Thailand for supporting of this manuscript
preparation.
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