Site Planning

Kevin Lynch

Site Planning
Second Edition

The M.I.T. Press

C am bridge, M assachusetts, and L ondon, England
 First edition copyright © 1962 by
The Massachusetts Institute of Technology

First to sixth printings, September 1963 to April 1969

Second edition copyright © 1971 by

The Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Second printing, August 1972

Third printing, July 1973
Fourth printing, April 1974
Fifth printing, April 1975
Sixth printing, June 1977

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any

form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval
system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

It was set in Linofilm Palatino

by Southern New England Typographic Service, Inc.
printed and bound in the United States of America.

ISBN 0 262 12050 X (hardcover)

Library of Congress catalog card number: 75-158161

Contents

L is t o f I llu s tr a tio n s vi
L ist o f T a b le s vii
P r e f a c e to th e F ir s t E d itio n ix
P r e f a c e to th e S e c o n d E d itio n X
1 . T h e A r t o f S ite P la n n in g 1
2 . A n a ly z in g a L o c a l it y 9
3 . O r g a n iz i n g P la c e a n d A c t i o n 25
4 . T e c h n i q u e : S ite F o r m
a n d S ite E c o lo g y 45
5 . T e c h n i q u e : S o c ia l a n d
P s y c h o lo g ic a l A n a ly s e s 95
6 . M o v e m e n t S y s te m s 118
7. T e c h n i q u e : S tr e e ts a n d W a y s 137
8. T e c h n i q u e : E a r t h w o r k a n d U tilitie s 157
9. S en su o u s F o rm 189
1 0 . P r o b le m s o f C o n tr o l 229
1 1 . D e s ig n a n d M a n a g e m e n t o f th e S ite 244
12. T e c h n i q u e : D e s ig n M e th o d s 270
1 3 . T e c h n i q u e : C o s ts 289
1 4 . H o u s in g 296
1 5 . S p e c ia l T y p e s o f S ite P la n n in g 327
S h o p p in g cen ters a n d
c o m m e r c ia l strip s 327
In d u s tr ia l d istric ts 338
In stitu tion s 343
O pen space 351
R enew al 357
S e le c te d B ib lio g r a p h y 361
In d e x 371
List of Illustrations

Figure Page
1 The Royal Crescent, Bath 2
2 Machu Picchu 3
3 A rural landscape 16
4 An urban landscape 17
5 A preliminary site evaluation 20
6 Paul Revere Mall, Boston 26
7 Street stairs in Lima, Peru 27
8 Composition o f conventional soil classes 52
9 Climate o f the Boston region by months 62-63
10 Sun and shade, Florence 70
11 A typical sundial diagram 73
12 Average minimum temperatures 84
13 The use o f street detail 106
14 Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles 126
15 Chatham Village, Pittsburgh 131
16 The Central Artery, Boston 134
17 The circular curve in horizontal alignment 141
18 The parabolic curve in vertical alignment 153
19 A grading plan 162
20 Cut and fill diagram 164
21 Rainfall regions o f the United States 175
22 Central Park, New York 192
23 The Borgo Allegri, Florence 193
24 Portion o fN o llis map o f Rome 195
25 Tivoli gardens, Copenhagen 196
26 An Italian piazza, Venice 198
27 A French place, Nancy 198
28 An English square, Bath 199
29 Entrance, Piazza Grande, Arezzo 201
30 The garden o f Stourhead 203
31 A walk in Venice 204-205
32 Stone walls and rock, Machu Picchu 210
33 The Miyajima Temple, Japan 211
34 Halprin s fountain, Portland, Oregon 212
35 Street in the Cyclades 213
36 The Potiala, Lhasa 222
37 Taliesin East, Wisconsin 222
38 Children make their own worlds 227
39 The University o f California at Berkeley 234
40 Trinity College, Cambridge 235
41 Diagram o f long-range visual form 236
42 Study for Government Center, Boston 247
43 Sketch for Lincoln Center, New York 248
44 Sketch for the Coonley house 250
45 Apartment towers at Danviksklippan, Stockholm 300
46 Persson's Open Air City, Malmo, Sweden 309
47 Sunnyside, Queens, New York 310
48 M obile-hom e development, Florida 318
49 Roehampton Lane project, London 320
50 Self-help settlement, Lima, Peru 325
51 Stonestown Shopping Center, San Francisco 328
52 Shoppers' approach, Park Forest, Illinois 332
53 The Merceria, Venice 335
54 New England Industrial Center 341
55 Industrial area, Columbia, Maryland 342
56 The Lawn, University o f Virginia 344
57 The University Circle, Cleveland 344
58 Scarborough College, Toronto 349
59 Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland 350

List of Tables
T able P age

1 Engineering Characteristics of Soil 56

2 Capacity o f Walkways 150
3 Alignment Standards in Relation to Design Speed 156
4 Intensity of Rainfall by Regions 175
5 Allowable Absorption Rates o f Soil 181
6 Densities by Residential Type 315
Preface to the First Edition

^ ite planning is the art of arranging buildings and

other structures on the land in harmony with each other.
This book is intended to be an introduction to the art, an
exposition of its principles, and a condensed technical ref-
erence. It will be of interest to students and to professional
city planners, architects, landscape architects, and civil en-
gineers. But those who enjoy the urban landscape or who
are concerned with the social issues which it generates may
also find some pleasure in it.
There is not much that is original in these pages, ex-
cept perhaps for the way they are put together. The ideas
come from many sources and have been so condensed, re-
organized, and interpreted that they can rarely be referred
to a single source. My education in architecture and its
roots in the land began with Frank Lloyd Wright, who
opened my eyes. Since then, I have been able to work or to
teach with skilled men and to learn thereby: Lawrence
Anderson, Robert Woods Kennedy, Ralph Rapson, John
Myer. Gyorgy Kepes and his ideas are present as always.
Several expert site planners have made important com-
ments on early drafts of this text: Hideo Sasaki, Julian
Whittlesey, Ralph Eberlin. Mark Sagal of the Perini Cor-
poration was helpful in checking my cost figures and Robert
Newman in advising me on exterior acoustics. Rodney
Freebairn-Smith took on the demanding task of searching
for photographic illustrations. The text has grown grad-
ually out of notes for a course in site planning, beginning
with an original nucleus by Draveaux Bender on sewer and
water systems. Here and there he will find fragments of his
original work.
My best teachers have been the students of architec-
ture and city planning at M.I.T.
C am bridge, M assachusetts K evin Lynch
M arch 1962
Preface to the Second Edition

1 his book has remained in continuous use as a refer-

ence and a teaching textbook, but it became obsolete in
several ways. Serious gaps in its coverage appeared, and
peculiar errors floated up to the surface. It had been orga-
nized in two distinct parts— one on fundamentals and the
other on detailed techniques— in the hope that while tech-
niques would change, fundamental ideas would persist.
While some new technical procedures developed, the great
majority remained remarkably stable. Contrary to predic-
tion, the important changes occurred in the fundamentals:
the ways of looking at site problems, of analyzing values,
and of connecting values and solutions. So much, then, for
prophecy.
The book has therefore been completely reorganized
and rewritten. The division into parts has been abolished,
and technical chapters have been placed with the general
chapters to which they relate, where they may be either
read or passed over. A discussion of particular kinds of
site planning has been put at the end. Presumably, then, a
consecutive reading of Chapters 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 10, and 11 to-
gether will give the reader a comprehensive view of the
art of site planning.
Many changes have been made in the original mate-
rial and some foolish errors corrected. New illustrative
material has been introduced, and the use of the margins
as a crcss-reference system has been amplified. A great
amount of new material has been added, particularly in re-
gard to ecology, psychosocial analyses, and design method.
Most important, perhaps, the original idea of environmen-
tal design as a continuous process involving many partici-
pants has been much more systematically developed. This
point of view is summarized at the end of Chapter 11.
Many people have helped me to make this revision.
Robert Rau, drawing on his long professional experience
and on the experience of the Rouse Corporation, has been
my major support in questions of site engineering and the
design of shopping centers. He has consulted with me on so
much of the text that he is almost a joint author for sec-
tions of it, without, however, incurring any of the guilt of
that post. Peter Hornbeck has made many useful sugges-
tions to me about site analysis. Stephen Carr reviewed the
section on psychological analyses, and William Porter the
section on design method. Tunney Lee made trial use of the
new text in his site-planning studio at M.I.T. The firm of
Sasaki, Dawson, and DeMay has been most generous with
material on landscape construction and design, as well as
on institutional site planning. Frederick H. Bair, Jr., gave
me some useful material on the site planning of mobile
home parks. It would have been difficult to do without this
help.
I hope this new text may be useful for another decade.

C am bridge, M assachusetts K evin Lynch

April 1971
C hapter

The A rt of Site Planning

1 he handsome places we know seem to have grown

naturally, while recently planned areas are ugly and un-
comfortable. If that is true, why do we make site plans?
Roads, buildings— even gardens— do not grow and
organize themselves. They are placed and shaped by some-
one's decisions, however limited or careless, however ob-
scured by the passage of time. The real issue is not whether
sites should be planned but rather how systematic and ex-
tensive that planning should be. We are driven, in part
willingly, in part anxiously, to organize sites in a compre-
hensive and conscious way. The economic advantages of
large-scale development, the more rapid evolution of technol-
ogy and greater conflict of purpose, the growing complexity of
site facilities, and the tempting possibilities of comprehen-
sively designed environments are some of the motives that
drive us. As more building is done with standardized units
on a large scale and at a rapid rate, a formal design process
becomes imperative. The ultimate consumer becomes more
and more difficult to reach. There is less opportunity for that
gradual adjustment of use and structure that guided older
site organizations. But regardless of scale or deliberation,
any human site is somehow planned, if only by piecemeal
decision.
Site planning may have attained a new importance,
but it is an old art. One thinks of such magnificent places as
 2 the Imperial Palace of Peking, the center of Pergamum, the
Katsura Palace, the crescents of Bath, the Italian squares,
Normal site
the small New England settlement. By contrast, site design
design is
in the United States today is monotonously conventional,
careless and
careless, shallow, and ugly. In part this reflects a lack of
ugly
skill, which this book seeks to remedy. But there are other
problems, as we shall see. In common practice, siting is a
hurried layout, in which details are left to chance, or it is an
abstract subdivision to which buildings are later mechani-
cally attached, or it is a last-minute effort to fit a previously
designed building into some piece of available land. Site
planning is thought to be a minor, independent adjunct to
the more important decisions of developers, engineers, archi-
tects, or builders.
Unfortunately, the site is a crucial aspect of our envi-
ronment. It has a biological, a social, and a psychological im-
pact that goes far beyond its accepted influence on cost and
technical function. It limits what people can do and at the
same time opens new opportunities for them. For some
groups — for children as an example — it may be the domi-
nant feature of the environment. Its influence outlives that
P ek in g : T he Inner
C ity
of the individual structure, since site organization usually
persists for generations.
Figure 1 The Royal Crescent at Bath , with wartime allotments occupying part o f its
great lawn. Common upper-class values permitted the formal order and a relation to
open space at a noble scale.

A c r o f i l m s Ltd.
A llyn Baum

Ficure 2 The Inca settlement o f Machu Picchu, marvelously fitted to its precipitous
site high in the Peruvian A ndes .

It was once thought that the physical environment de- Man and
termined the character of life. When that view collapsed, environment
the natural reaction was to insist that environment had no w o rk together
consequence whatever. But each view rests on the fallacy of
the other. Organism and environment interact; environ-
ment is both social and physical. One cannot predict the na-
ture of a man from the landscape he lives in, but neither can
one foretell what he will do or feel without knowing the land-
scape. Man and habitat work together. As men multiply and R eferen ces 5 , 9,
their technology comes to dominate the earth, the organi- 1 6 , 20

zation of the land becomes more important to the quality of

their lives. Now there is fear that technology may threaten
even the continuance of life. Pollution impairs the living sys-
tern. Careless disturbance of the landscape is harmful to us;
skilled siting enhances us. Well-organized, productive liv-
ing space becomes a critical resource for humanity, like en-
ergy, air, and water.
Site planning is the art of arranging the external A definition o f
physical environment to support human behavior. It lies site planning
along the boundaries of architecture, engineering, land-
scape architecture, and city planning, and it is practiced
by members of all these professions. Site plans locate struc-
4 tures and activities in three-dimensional space and, when
appropriate, in time. The differences that arise from that
spatial and temporal arrangement are the meat of the mat-
ter: they include differences in proportion, density, shape,
duration, grain, rhythm, pattern, succession, or linkage.
Other aspects of site planning follow after these considera-
tions. No important element can be changed without wide-
spread effects. The site is not simply a collection of buildings
and streets but a system of structures, surfaces, spaces, liv-
ing things, climates, and details.
Site planners normally deal with a particular contig-
uous area under the control of one agency. They may be con-
cerned with a small cluster of houses, with a single building
and its grounds, or with something as extensive as a small
town that is to be built in one operation. Site planning is dis-
tinct from city design, which proposes environmental poli-
cies for large areas, undefined time scales, and many
clients. Site planning can also be separated from the design
of objects such as bridges or buildings, from interior design,
from the layout of small and isolated exterior settings such as
gardens, and from the design of things to be used in scat-
tered places. Site plans are prepared whenever substantial
groups of buildings are erected: houses, factories, shopping
centers, institutions, cultural centers. But they can also in-
volve the development of larger landscapes: parks, farms,
forests, highways, and urban settings.
The site- The formal process begins with an understanding of
planning the persons for whom the site is being planned and a defini-
p rocess tion of what their role will be in creating or deciding the fea-
tures of that plan. Next comes an analysis of the situation: a
study of the site itself and also of the whole structure of
power, value, and technology within which the work must
be carried out. The purposes of the plan are stated in concrete
terms leading to a program that details the behavior that the
plan will support, the required physical characteristics,
and expected costs. Finally a design is created— a form
that the site will be given to fulfill the program.
Reciting these stages makes them sound logical and
linear, as though each directly followed the preceding one.
But in fact the process is looping and cyclical. Purpose cannot
be precisely stated until site limitations are known. The site
cannot be thoroughly analyzed until purposes are set forth.
Clients set the purpose, but purpose also helps to determine
the relevant clients. Previous experience and the previous
history of the problem are used to make the first entry into
these circles. From that point on, site design is a learning 5
process, in which a coherent system of form, client, program,
and site gradually emerges. Even after a decision is made
and building begins— even after the site is occupied
— the feedback from experience continues to modify
the plan.
Designers of environment tend to overemphasize the
importance of the physical setting they are currently propos-
ing. They think that their personal addition will have an
overwhelming influence on all those who will later come to
use it. It is more accurate to describe any new site form as
only a further modification of a prolonged interplay between
inhabitants and their surroundings. Sporadic site manipu-
lation becomes continuous site management.
Every site, natural or man-made, is to some degree Site
unique, a web of things and activities. That web must be
understood: it imposes limitations; it contains new possibili-
ties. Any plan, however radical, maintains some continuity S ee C h a p ter 2
with the preexisting locale. Understanding a locality de-
mands time and effort. The site planner properly suffers a
chronic anxiety about this "spirit of place."
The human purposes to be met by any site plan are in Purpose
practice strangely distorted. Stated objectives are usually a
mixture of a few explicit and measurable ends, such as cost
and capacity, numerous important but ill-defined values
that lurk behind "reasonableness" and "good practice," a
disconnected set of detailed standards based on unconsid- S ee p a g es 3 7—43
ered assumptions, and a flourish of noble ends that have no
meaningful application. As a result, many important ends
are not served; others, including trivia, are overemphasized.
Freedom of solution is restricted, and unforeseen conse-
quences may develop. Inarticulate criteria cannot be de-
signed for, tested for, or rationally weighed and compro-
mised.
Objectives, like the site itself, are always specific and
particular. They depend on the situation and the values of
the client. Who sets those objectives? Ideally, it will be the
user of the site, but there are problems of absent, voiceless, or
uninformed clients, of user complexity and conflict, and of
distinctions between users and nominal clients that make a
rational program difficult to achieve. In any case the de-
signer has clear responsibilities to clarify objectives, to raise
them for debate, to reveal new possibilities or hidden costs,
and to speak for the absent or voiceless client. Designers
often assume their own values and disregard those of the fu-
 6 ture inhabitants. Since most designers are members of a
particular social class, the error may be aggravated. Even
where the site planner hopes to modify existing values, he
must at least understand the situation from which he hopes
to depart. Later chapters will examine these puzzles in more
detail.
H ow to state Direct functional goals and limits are easy to state and
criteria test: "to house 100 families," "to allow a flow of 2000 cars
per hour," "not to cost more than $50,000." Objectives that
deal with the quality of a place are harder to assert. The
level of generality is one difficulty. Shall it be "a comfortable
environment" or "all south and west facades to be shaded by
trees"? The first is too general to test; the second dictates the
solution before the design process has begun. "To maintain
indoor summer temperatures within the comfort range"
might be a better statement of the objective, as it is testable
and can be accomplished by various schemes. Generally, it
is preferable to express objectives in as concrete a form as
possible, short of fixing a physical solution. Quite often the
best form is one that specifies the human behavior desired
in the locality, along with its necessary supporting quali‫־‬
ties: "a street that allows a pedestrian to cross at any point
with safety, with no more than an average delay of four sec-
onds."
Objectives should be significant and worthy of our at-
tention in applying them, and they should help us to dis-
criminate between alternative solutions. "All houses must
be oriented to the cardinal directions" may discriminate be-
tween plans but have little real importance, while "all
houses must be accessible on foot" may be important but not
discriminating. The set should be complete: when a plan
meets the stated objectives, all its major purposes should
have been fulfilled.
The use o f past Part of a site designers expertise is his accumulated
experience experience in the achievement of objectives. He constantly
checks his environment and the performance of realized site
plans: Did that device in fact encourage social communica-
tion? How did the microclimate actually change? Has the
plan been adapted easily? Like the old-fashioned craft that
site planning still is, most of its knowledge is personal or
learned from colleagues. We are only now beginning to get
systematic analyses of past work, which should in time be-
come a constantly developing body of data on the relation be-
tween purpose and form. It is still a moot point whether
these data are best organized as an array of form types with
their typical results, or as an array of purposes with effective 7
forms for achieving them, or more loosely as a set of good case
histories, or perhaps as a series of changeable manuals of
form and purpose for typical general situations and func-
tions. Meanwhile, we most often still proceed on the basis of
the way we did it before. Novel forms are tried out on
hunches and then imitated elsewhere without any study of
actual results. The professional uses his own eyes and ears
as best he can. Indeed, even when we have systematic
data, personal observation will still be necessary. Every site
plan should have learning built into it: a way of comparing
observed results with the original program.
As our knowledge grows, the material in this book will Future
lose its relevance, just as parts of the earlier edition have lost obso lescen ce
relevance in ten years' time. Moreover, the techniques and o f this text
principles to be discussed later are based on present tech-
nology and present social organization in this country. As
technology and society change, site planning must change
with them. Values will shift more slowly, but they will af-
feet design more radically.
The designer begins by assuming that he is ignorant of
his site and the group for whom he is designing, that his
previous standards cannot be applied, and that whatever he
does will soon undergo the first of a long series of modifica-
tions. His plan foresees those changes as far as possible, and
beyond that he provides for adaptation. Every site has a long
history, which bears on its present. Every site will have a
long future, over which the designer exerts only slight con-
trol. He peers into that future as far as he can but realizes
that others will adjust his plan to new demands.
Site planning, then, is the organization of the external
physical environment to accommodate a variety of human
behavior. It deals with the location and nature of structures,
land, activities, and living things. It creates a possible pat-
tern of these elements in space and time, which will be sub-
ject to continuous future management and change. The
technical output of site planning— grading plans, utility
layouts, structure locations, activity diagrams, planting
plans, sketches, specifications— are simply conventional
ways of recording this complex organization and of guiding
its realization.
In the text to follow, Chapters 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 10, and 11 O utline o f the
deal with the fundamentals of site planning: the analysis book
of locality, the technique of organizing places and activi-
ties to fit human purpose, the design of the movement sys-
terns and the sensuous form, problems of control, and the
process of site design and site management itself. These six
chapters may be read as a single connected whole, a synop-
sis of the art. Interspersed in this sequence are three pairs of
chapters— 4 and 5, 7 and 8, 12 and 13 — which deal with
technical issues: site and social analysis, streets and utilities,
design methods and costs. They expand on the chapters that
precede them. Finally, Chapters 14 and 15 discuss particu-
lar kinds of site planning— for housing in particular but
also for commercial centers, industrial estates, institutions,
recreational areas, parks, and renewal areas. The book may
therefore be read in several sequences or degrees of com-
pleteness, although the six chapters of the main sequence
are written to be read in that order. Marginal references
and diagrams supplement the text, refer to relevant material
in other chapters, or lead to other sources. The brief con-
eluding list of references is selected and annotated.
C hapter

Analyzing a Locality

T h e existing site and the purpose for which it is

wanted, which are the two sources of the design, are cu-
riously interrelated. Purpose depends on the limitations that
the site will impose, and site analysis depends on purpose.
The same piece of ground will be seen quite differently by a
quarryman, a biologist, a fortifications engineer, a farmer,
and a building contractor, or even by builders using differ-
ent technologies or serving different markets. Each view is
correct but partial.
The site is analyzed for fitness to our purposes but also
in its own right as a living, changing community of plants
and animals. This community has its own interests in the
site. In our anthropocentric way, we want our human inter- The site itself
ests to prevail, yet we must at least consider those of the ex-
isting occupants. Such consideration is vital even in selfish
terms, since if we know the interconnections of this existing
system, we are less likely to set off some inadvertent disas-
ter: severe erosion, an explosive invasion of weeds, or a drop
in the water table. Thus site analysis has two elements
— the one oriented to human purpose and the other to
the site itself as an ongoing system.
Experience allows us to set realistic purposes before a
particular site has been analyzed or to judge a site before de-
tailed purposes are known. There are site factors that are in-
fluential in most building developments, but an unusual
 IO purpose may invalidate them. No site is studied pedanti-
cally by describing all the factors in some standardized list.
The purpose of the reconnaissance and the nature of the site
determine what to look for.
Past sensitivity In the past, sites were often well understood. Earlier
people had less power to change the land, although they
were quite capable of destruction in the course of many gen-
erations— witness the degradation of the Mediterranean
world by poor agricultural management since classical
times. Yet since preindustrial people had little power to
change a place in the short run, they were perforce keenly
aware of the limitations it presented. Magical beliefs also
had an influence on them. If a locality was the home of a
local spirit, people avoided disturbing that home without due
precaution, including a careful study of local configuration
and the anxious introduction of artificial structures. In
consequence, development was closely tied to site. In most
cultures land is sacred, not to be violated by mere human
beings. It is enduring, powerful, extensive, the home of spir-
its and the dead, the productive mother on whom human life
depends. As we discard these religious ideas and increase
our power to impose site changes, we lose these restraining
attitudes. We no longer unconsciously achieve development
in harmony with its setting, nor de we achieve structures
expressive of locality.
Although the completely harmonious and mature site
is unusual (and had best be left alone), the completely cha-
otic and meaningless one is nonexistent. Every site, how-
ever disturbed, has had some time to experience the mu-
Site equilibrium tual adjustment of its elements. The surface flow of water
has created a drainage pattern, plant and animal life has
formed an ecological system, neighboring structures lean
against each other, shops have arranged themselves in rela-
tion to the resident population, and climate has weathered
all alike. Any site is composed of many factors— above,
below, and on the ground surface— but all these factors
are interrelated and have achieved some sort of balance,
whether it is static or moving toward another equilibrium.
Because of the complexity of parts and their intricate
Unique patterning together, we find that each site is in some mea-
character sure unique. The words site and locality should convey the
same sense that the word person does: a complexity so
closely knit as to have a distinct character, worthy of inter-
est, concern, and often of affection. These interrelations and
this essential character must be understood by the site de-
signer. Understanding will indicate the practical limits im- 11
posed upon him, as well as the damage that he may inflict
by careless interference. More important, it will reveal the
hidden potentialities of the place, the points where his de-
sign can clarify its character, build new connections, or de-
velop deeper meanings. Analysis of site is not only a tech-
nique for conservatives; it is also a prelude to successful
revolution.
Site development can have unexpected— often unde- U nintended
sirable— effects that pass along the whole chain of living effects
things. A new road may block drainage, induce erosion,
overturn soil horizons, kill plants and animals, dispossess
human residents, introduce new species, bring in hunters,
litterers, or builders, scar the hillsides, pollute air and
water, or import exotic chemicals. The entire living commu-
nity, men included, must adjust to this new situation. We
now dominate the earth. Earlier men could cut or burn a for-
est, wash away a field, foul a river, exhaust a mine, or extin‫־‬
guish a local species. Today we can pollute great lakes and
even the ocean, dirty the global air, and diffuse chemicals
throughout the living world. Even if we walk softly, we shall
reshape the land, and the quality of that man-formed sur-
face may come to be one of the crucial scarce resources for our
continued existence.
Critics, rightly fearful, deplore all new development
and wish that the land might be as it once was. But how
was it? Chaotic or brutal, often enough, and certainly never
the same for very long. Environment changes steadily, even
without our interference: new species crowd out old ones, cli-
mates shift, geological processes continue. Living organisms
are self-generating, competitive, interacting, evolving. De-
cay, waste, entropy, and change are all part of the natural
order. The past cannot be fully restored, nor can the pres-
ent be fixed.
Man is himself*a part of nature, and his cities are as
natural as his fields. We inevitably upset the ecology of a
site. We cannot preserve a preexisting balance, although oc-
casionally we may intervene to restore in some degree a state
that has since disappeared. More often, we try to create a Creating a new
new balance, as stable as the old one but better suited to our balance
purposes. Our true anxiety is that we may let slip some ir-
reversible change that we cannot later recall or deflect. Our
task is the more difficult because changes occur more rapidly
now, falling upon us before we recognize them.
The ecological system— particularly that fraction
 12 which is the human behavioral system— is the key aspect
of any site. The diverse living species, which capture the
energy of the sun, prey and are preyed upon, exist in fine
balance with their immediate setting of water, air, and earth.
On this system we also depend for survival. Its balance and
its stability are fundamental indexes of the quality of a
place.
Ecology Ecology is the study of the dynamic relations between a
community of organisms and its habitat. When applied to
systems as large as those which we consider here, the study
R efer en c e 26 is imprecise but useful as a point of view. Self-reproducing,
S e e p a g es 45—47 evolving, competing, and cooperating organisms interact
with their changing spatial environment to form a commu-
nity that persists but also gradually changes. Individuals
come and go, while the forest remains but gradually ex-
pands or undergoes a shift in species. If men cut the forest,
the new species colonize the cutlands, but the new commu-
nity is less stable and less diverse than before and tends to-
ward the forest once more. But if the soil has washed away
or if the climate has shifted, then the forest may never re-
turn. In so changing, communities are said to "improve" or
"deteriorate," but the basis for judgment differs between de-
signer and scientist. Ecological communities are not moral,
and to us they may appear ugly or wasteful. For example,
they must contain much dying and decaying material. Opti-
mum net production, for human purposes, is usually achieved
in communities that are below their biological optimum. A
lovely meadow or an orchard, a clean pond or field of wheat
is maintained only by constant human interference.
Nor do ecological processes seem inexorable, at least to
our present state of knowledge. Processes continue within
ranges of tolerance, disturbed ecologies can be restored, al-
though long periods of time may be required to do so, and only
occasionally does some irreversible event occur: a permanent
loss of soil cover, the eutrophication of a lake, the introduction
of a new and aggressive species. Nevertheless, most large-
scale human interventions have been dysfunctional, if not
always disastrous. Stable, man-made regional landscapes
are rare. They exact unremitting human effort and concern.
Eighteenth-century England, Moorish Spain, or Japan come
to mind, but not many other "civilized" landscapes. The
importance of understanding the ecological relationships in a
place is clear enough if we want to avoid irreversibilities,
sudden jumps, or unpredictable side effects, or if we want
our designs to be as nearly self-maintaining as possible.
 While "improvement‫ ״‬for the scientist refers to the 13
maturity and stability of the system, the diversity of its
species, and the level of yield in terms of energy exchange or
biomass, ‫ ״‬improvement‫ ״‬for the site designer refers to over-
lapping but not identical ends: stability and predictability,
human comfort and usefulness, interesting diversity, sen-
suous beauty, self-maintenance. Scientific and design crite-
ria will often partially coincide, but not always. With further
understanding and after a revolution in our values, we may
find a more consistent ethic that embraces all living organ-
isms. Meanwhile, we are at least concerned with preserving
the preconditions for life on earth.
How human beings act toward one another and toward B ehavior
other living things is for us the most critical aspect of all. settings
This can best be described in terms of beh av ior settings , or
small localities bounded in time and space within which
there is some stable pattern of purposeful human behavior. R eferen ce 7 0
Physical setting and behavior are mutually adapted to each
other. A teen-age hangout, a hunt, a church service, a repair
garage in operation are examples of behavior settings. Ecolog-
ical systems and behavior settings are organized complexi-
ties in which many elements work together. They normally
change slowly but can shift in unexpected ways if dis-
turbed. They are in part self-regulating: changing their
surroundings and also adapting to their surroundings. One
unit is linked to the next. Changes will be propagated
through the entire system, sometimes reaching catastrophic
dimensions, but normally damping out. How these two sys-
terns are presently working and how they may be modified to
human advantage are usually our key questions.
Knowledge of the site is essential to design, but infor- G atherin g data
mation is expensive to gather and expensive to use. As site
data are potentially infinite, a thorough survey can paralyze
action. One plans initial data gathering as carefully as
development itself, *estimating the time and resources
needed to acquire and to use each item at the specified level
of detail. Will knowing something affect a decision suffi-
ciently to justify the cost of learning? Can the data be gotten
in time to be useful? It is efficient to confine the initial
survey to bare essentials and gather special data later in the
design process as new questions arise. The data store must
therefore be organized to receive a steady stream of new
information.
Past experience indicates the categories of data most
likely to be useful. For example, foundation conditions and
 14 the water table are the key subsurface conditions. The rock
and earth below ground level have practical importance
Soil and rock primarily for the way in which they can be excavated, their
characteristics of drainage, and the manner in which they
S ee p a g es 51—59 will support structures and plants. The engineering charac-
teristics of soil depend on type and moisture content. Critical
problems must be studied by laboratory methods, but a
surprisingly good picture, if we are concerned with local
roads and low buildings, can be gained from a field recon-
naissance. Other sources of information include small test
pits, agricultural and geological maps, existing cuttings and
foundations, the type of vegetation on the site, and the ex-
perience of previous builders and engineers. Soils may be
divided into basic groups; these classifications and their
significance are described in Chapter 4. Lying over the
subsoil is a relatively thin layer of organic topsoil, the essen-
tial medium for the growth of plants. Centuries are required
to produce it. It is of value not only for any particular develop-
ment but as a part of our general heritage. It must be
conserved.
G rou n dw ater At some greater depth is the water table: the line
below which the interstices between the soil grains are
S ee p a g es 59—60 permanently full of water. Where this groundwater table is
less than 6 or 8 feet below the surface, all development costs
are increased: excavations must be braced with sheeting and
pumped out, and utilities and basements must be water-
proofed. Some soils are untrustworthy foundation material
when wet. In particular, one avoids building over a subsur-
face watercourse or filling in surface drainage without pro-
viding for the resulting underground flow.
D anger signals Therefore certain subsurface conditions are danger sig-
nals calling for more detailed and expert attention: rock
lying close to the surface; a high water table or an under-
ground stream; the appearance of soft clay, loose silt, or fine
water-bearing sand; any evidence of slides or subsidence;
an area that has been a dump or is newly filled; or the
presence of swamps, peat, or muck in more than small
isolated pockets.
T opography The topographic surface, the boundary between earth
and air, is the zone richest in living things. It has particular
S ee p a g es 47—51 implications for site development. The topography itself
sometimes determines a plan. The gradient of paths, the
flow of utilities, the use of areas, the disposition of buildings,
and the visual aspect are all affected by it. The designer
must grasp the characteristic of the landform as a whole and
identify its key points for the purpose he has in mind. He 15
must have a sense of its scale, of the meaning of various
slopes, and of the relation of its plan shape to its perspective
shape. In most cases the existing topography has an under-
^ V*. 4j
lying order brought about by the flow of surface water. Thus
the basic modeling of the ground can usually be analyzed by
locating the ridge and drainage lines. % >//M
Slopes can be classified according to their potential use: S/ope \ %Vti
the flat ground, usable for intensive activity; the easy
grades, suitable for movement and informal activity; and the
steep land, difficult to use or to move over. Topography can be
analyzed piecemeal, outlining the areas suitable for inten-
sive use, the badly drained portions, and so on. Regions
where the surface is difficult and tends to determine the
layout of circulation may be distinguished from gentler re-
gions where the paths can be disposed in many different
patterns. There may be "passes," restricted localities that
offer the only opportunity to cross some rough terrain, or there
may be lines along which an approach would develop a very
special visual sequence. Moreover, there may be points that
have commanding views, areas that are distinct visual
units, or localities that are well oriented to the sun. At times
some of these characteristics may be dominant and practi-
cally inalterable. Thus a design may have to take for
granted the necessity of developing a particular view, avoid-
ing a certain ground, preserving a special tree, saving a
piece of water.
On the ground surface there will be a particular associa- Lan dscape
tion of plants and animals, all dependent on one another and fam ilies
on the way that human beings use the site. Together with the
topography, this living community gives the site its essential
character. There are landscape families that have a common
pattern, a common history, and typical associations of detail:
the bushy pasture of New England, the American ribbon
shopping street, the coastal mangrove swamp, or the intricate
farming pattern of Tuscany. But each site must be studied in-
dividually. Tough, resilient communities must be distin-
guished from delicate ones, which can be easily destroyed.
One looks for signs of change: erosion, muddy water, empty
stores, or dying trees. What further changes will occur as the
site is more intensively developed? Any existing landscape is
an equilibrium of surface and drainage, use, and cover. In
geologic time all surfaces are changing, but within a human
generation these natural shifts are usually slow. Wherever
the ground is disturbed by man, or even where the intensity
 A n sel A d am s fo r W ells Fargo B an k A m erican Trust C o.
F igure 3 A fine rural landscape has an obvious harmony and character .
of use changes, the plant cover and surface form must be mod-
ified to attain a new balance.
C lim ate Each site has a general climate, which it shares with the
surrounding region, and a series of microclimates, which may
See pages 60-78 be peculiar to very small areas. The general climate is ex-
pressed in a set of average data for the region: solar angle,
days of sunlight, ranges of temperature and humidity, precip-
itation, wind direction and force. This information will influ-
ence the orientation of structures, their shielding or exposure
to sun, the equipment for cooling or heating, the fenestration,
the building materials, the cover and planting in general.
Furthermore, the typical light conditions will affect the vi-
sual form.
Human beings are comfortable at certain optimum
ranges of daylight, of air movement and purity, and of temper-
ature and humidity. The site plan modifies the existing cli-
mate to approximate this optimum condition. The means for
this approximation will vary with each climate. It is unfortu-
nately commonplace to import forms suitable for one climate
 into a completely different one: to plant lawns in the desert, to 17
build North American houses in the tropics or to use stuccoed
half-timber in the New England wilderness.
Within the general climate, there are surprising varia- M icroclim ate
tions in the microclimate of a site due to cover and topog-
raphy. Wind speed and temperature vary markedly within a
few feet of elevation or from spot to spot. The site planner pays
close attention to these effects, since they are not recorded in
official data and since he can take excellent advantage of
them. The form of the topography, the surface materials, the R efer en ce 37
plant cover, the location of structures, the presence or absence
of water, all have a striking impact on the microclimate, on the
quality of light, and on the propagation of noise. The designer
learns about this by direct reconnaissance, by talks with local
people, by the way in which older structures have weathered,
or by the type, condition, and budding time of existing plants.
Plants are particularly good indicators: they speak not only of
the climate but of the soil, the water, even the history of the
place.
The designer must observe in detail how the area is ac- Human use
tually used by its human inhabitants, identifying the timing

Figure 4 But the character o f an urban landscape must also be understood.

W alker Evans
 18 and extent of the behavior settings and noting their character‫־‬
istics. Watching truck movements and the walk to work and
spotting the local hangout or the sled run will be more informa-
tive than pages of statistics. Unfailingly, one needs to know
the pattern of activity within the site and on its borders. Then
it is important to discover the access to destinations outside the
site, as well as the relation to the general circulation system:
the highways, footpaths, railroads, transit lines, and airports.
The type and condition of structures and the location, eleva-
tion, and capacity of any technical facilities in or near the site
must also be mapped: roads, power lines or water supply, dis-
posal systems, communications lines. The more developed a
site becomes, the more these man-made features of use, struc-
ture, circulation, and utilities become predominant over the
factors of soil, topography, and cover.
Intangible One is also interested in the sensuous form of a place: the
qualities way a locality looks and smells and sounds, as well as other in-
S ee C h a p ter 9 tangible features that must be reckoned with. There will be
public controls that affect it: zoning or subdivision regula-
tions, building codes, and official maps. There will be rights
that persons hold in the area: ownerships, tenancies, rights-
of-way, easements of various kinds, liens, restrictions due to
private covenants, mineral rights, and so on. There will be
economic and political relations and certain institutions that
underlie its structure. The place will have a history, and
there will be plans for its future. People will have attached
personal meanings to it: memories, expectations, its sacred-
ness, the fact that it is the focus of a larger area.
All of these factors — the conditions below ground, the
surface form activity and life, the structures and facilities,
the visual character, the bath of air that envelops them, the
meanings, rights and regulations— make up the nature of a
L ookin g for a site. This is always a complex and often a confusing picture.
coherent The designer sifts through the mass of data to find the ele-
pattern ments that are decisive for his purpose, and then he tries to fit
these elements into some kind of pattern on which he can base
his design. He separates transitory or disappearing features
from more permanent or emergent ones; he discounts the fine
old decaying trees in favor of new growth or distinguishes the
form of a hill from the scars of recent excavation.
It is only after repeated analysis and the trial of many
plans that a stable site pattern appears— a certain configu-
ration of area line and point, a basic set of landscape forms,
which is the essence of the place for the purpose in mind. Yet
the designer must not be so strongly directed toward his pur-
pose or so intent on finding a coherent pattern that he misses 19
the facts that might begin to change his purpose or that do not
fit his pattern.
Therefore it is advisable to study a site in several differ- Prelim inary
ent ways. One begins by searching rather aimlessly, forget- reconn aissan ce
ting the use to which the area is to be put, looking directly at
the site itself, and watching for interesting features and re-
vealing clues. This unsystematic, almost subconscious, recon-
naissance produces information that would otherwise be
missed. It will at least serve as a general orientation. It is use-
ful now to look briefly at the history of the site, its natural evo-
lution, its former use and association. It is equally useful to in-
quire into its image in the minds of users and decision
makers; how they characterize it, how they feel about it, and
what they expect of it. Much of the flavor and structure of a
place, as well as its present direction of change, is thereby
revealed.
Then more systematic surveys can be undertaken, System atic
guided partly by the purpose to be served, partly by the de- analysis
sire to predict how the site will react to the disturbances of de-
velopment and occupation. For the latter reason, one always
investigates how the site presently maintains itself as an
ongoing ecological system and where the most vulnerable
points in that system are. No information should be sought
unless it appears that it will later influence the design in some
significant way. Some types of information, such as a topo-
graphic map, ecological and climatic data, and a survey of
activity and circulation, are almost always required.
Some data continue to be useful during construction and Base m aps
subsequent operation and so justify substantial expense. One
example is a base map showing the legal lines such as bound-
aries and easements; the location of existing utilities, roads,
paths, buildings, and walls; the local activities and circula-
tions; the presence of swamps, streams, and water bodies; the
general vegetative cover, including its condition and the pre-
cise locations of large trees or unique species; a notation of
rock outcrops and other visible geologic features; contours
and the spot elevations of key points; compass directions;
and the character of the site environs. A planner will take
copies of this map into the field for personal annotation, to
get a "(eel" for the site by analyzing its character, its views,
its approaches, its problems, and its possibilities. He should
visit the locale many times, under varied circumstances of
weather, season, light, and activity.
Before the systematic survey begins, it is useful to pre-
 SLOPES OVER 15 PERCENT ----------- SURFACE WATER § POTENTIAL RESTORATION SITE
DRAINAGE CHANNELS ............ POTENTIAL IMPOUNDMENT * SPECIALIZED DEVELOPMENT
gggg EXCESSIVELY W ET AREAS POTENTIAL MARINA SITE PRINCIPAL VIEWS

400 0 400 800 1200 1800 2000

‫ו‬ 1 1 1
Winter Winds

Strong Tidal Currents

Figure 5 A preliminary site evaluation , prepared by Design-Science International ,

compared with an aerial photograph o f the same locality.
pare a complete schedule of the data to be gathered. A typical 21
checklist of this kind is given in Chapter 4 as an example.
However, any standard schedule of information must be Checklists
viewed with suspicion as there simply is no universal list.
The data gathered and the form into which they are put de- Sec pages 9 1 —94

pend on the purpose of the development, the nature of the

place, and the resources available to make the survey. An ad-
equate reconnaissance may consist of a single freehand sketch
made on the site, or it may require an elaborate technical or-
ganization. In either case it should be as spare and succinct as
possible and flexible enough to receive new information. It
must always include personal observation, obtained perhaps
partly by car or helicopter, but always to some degree on foot.
Once the information is assembled, it must be sifted, or-
ganized, and put into concise and usable form. It will thus be
brought to a final point: a graphic and written statement de-
scribing the essential nature of the site for the purpose at
hand, how it is changing and is likely to change. The princi-
pal constraints and problems of the location are set down, as
well as its basic potentialities and values.
This is the basis on which the design is developed. It
will be found that this concept of the site will be modified as
the design unfolds and that further information always
comes to light or must be sought. Site analysis is not a self-
contained step that is completed before design begins. First
thoughts on design accompany and guide the original recon-
naissance. Since the analysis must be in a form that can ac-
cept new information, recurrent monitoring should be
planned. Analysis continues as long as the design is being
created.
The image of the site guides the design. It does not die- C on cept o f site
tate the design, however, nor is there any unique solution la- as a basis for
tent in the site, waiting to be uncovered. The plan develops design
from the creative effort of the designer himself. But it must
respond to the site, and not disregard it. Often the designer
will be working with the grain of the locality, treating it deli-
cately, emphasizing its strong points and teasing out its po-
tentialities. Sometimes he will dramatically cut across it or
oppose its nature. This, too, can succeed only if the site is thor-
oughly understood.
Analyzing a site will vary considerably depending on
its character: whether it is clear of intensive human use or
heavily occupied; whether it is a mature, stable landscape or
one that is changing rapidly; whether it is dominant or
recessive, intended for conservation or for radical renewal. In
 22 the case of urban renewal, for example, the site planner is
S ee p a g es 3 5 7 -3 6 0 working over ground occupied by many human and physical
assets, all entangled in the great urban spider web. The area
is dotted with structures and activities of continuing utility,
seemingly dispersed at random but actually according to
some social and economic ordering. The impulse of a designer
trained to order and pattern is to sweep all this aside, just as
a bulldozer blade sweeps away a wood. But a more sympa-
thetic analysis of these features would reveal their function
and meaning, like the hidden order of a forest community. If
it has already been decided that the area will be restrue-
tured for some entirely new purpose and for some entirely
new client, then these features may not warrant recording in
any detail. Even then, they may point to some persistent con-
ditions of site or culture which must be reckoned with.
Site Selection It sometimes happens — and it should happen more of-
ten — that the site is not fixed before the designer is brought
in. In this case, having been given the general objectives, he
is involved in the process of site selection, which may be a
narrow weighing of two alternatives or a broad area-wide
search. Site selection uses the same techniques as any site
analysis, but a broad search will most often begin by the re-
duction of possibilities to a manageable handful of alterna-
tives. This is usually done by screening: blocking off on an
area map the regions that, in the light of objectives, are unac-
ceptable for such reasons as excessive grade or cost, poor soil,
small size, previous development, or lack of access.
The remaining lands not blocked off are then reconnoi-
tered to eliminate any other obviously unacceptable locali-
ties, and the surviving plots of adequate size are treated as
alternative sites, each of which is analyzed in some depth for
the most critical factors. Analyses are arranged compara-
tively, and preliminary layouts are made on each site, since
nothing illustrates the character of an area so well as its in-
fluence on the layout itself. From these comparative displays
an informed choice can be made. This method is preferable
by far to the normal process of calling in the planner only
after a site selection has been made.
Use o f a given Occasionally the designer may be called upon to make
site just the opposite analysis: given a site, what is its best use?
This is a vaguer and more difficult question. It requires a
very careful analysis of the place as an ongoing social and
ecological system, since the values internal to a site may in
this case be expected to have greater weight. The site is re-
connoitered thoroughly, clues and hints being sought for in
the ground itself. Chinese garden designers sat quietly for 23
days in a place, meditating on its character before they even
began to consider its possibilities. The regional context of the
locality must also be examined: the surrounding system of
circulation and of neighboring use and settlement. Possible
markets will be explored. A broad social framework of objec-
tives will be established and, within that, a choice of possible
alternate sets of more specific objectives that might govern
the use of that particular piece of land. The possible uses are
then narrowed to those most feasible, and a comparative set of
analyses, including sketch layouts, market analyses, and a
schedule of probable costs and benefits, is made for each set of
purposes. The choice can then be made from these compari‫־‬
sons, by using judgments of ecological stability, market, and
social purpose.
Most site analyses are conducted for some single purpose Continuous site
and lose their utility once site development is carried analysis
through. Planners' files are full of outmoded information.
Even the documents intended for more lasting use, such as
the U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps, city base
maps, or the "land use" records of planning agencies, always
record the landscape at some particular point in time and are
not easily kept up to date. It should be evident that much of
the character of the site depends on factors that change con-
tinuously: ecology, behavior, climate, man-made structures.
What is more, sites have long futures, and site planning
must increasingly be seen as a continuous stream of modifi-
cations applied to a changing landscape, rather than as a
convulsive creation imposed on a static world. Site analysis
should be a continuous process on which a continuing design
process can be based.
There have been attempts to make all-purpose surveys, "Perm anent"
which will have permanent usefulness or which may even data
serve to fix permanently the proper use of an area. These
eternal surveys founder on a series of difficulties: (1) even
"natural" conditions are not unchanging; (2) the purpose for
which information is wanted sets what is looked for and how
it should be classified; (3) use is never determined by exist-
ing conditions alone (unless those conditions are extremely se-
vere) but is based on a combination of situation and purpose.
Thus the Santa Clara campus in California can usefully be
analyzed into areas of associated soil, climate, topography,
and cover, but only because a general future type of develop-
ment is foreseen. Even these "natural areas" will shift as de-
velopment proceeds, however.
 U s e f u l l o n g - t e r m d a t a a r e (a) r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e (g e o lo g y
o r g e n e r a l c li m a t e ) ; (b) o r g a n i z e d in s o m e n e u t r a l w a y t h a t
a llo w s f u t u r e m o d i f i c a t i o n ( e l e v a t i o n s f r o m a n a r b i t r a r y b a se ,
p o p u l a t i o n p e r s q u a r e m ile ) ; a n d (c) k e p t as d i s a g g r e g a t e d
as is e c o n o m i c a l l y p o s s ib le , so t h a t t h e y c a n b e r e c o m b i n e d
la te r a c c o r d i n g to n e e d . T h e d a t a o f m o s t p e r m a n e n t v a l u e in
site a n a l y s i s t u r n o u t to b e c o n t o u r m a p s , soil a n d g e o lo g ic a l
s u r v e y s , a n d c li m a t e r e c o r d s .
N e v e rth e le ss, th e degree of p e rm a n e n c e does n o t con-
n o t e th e d e g r e e o f r e le v a n c e . T h e c r u c ia l t h i n g m a y b e a
s h i f t i n g m a r k e t o r a n e c o l o g y o r a n a r r a y o f b e h a v i o r s e ttin g s .
E m p h a s i s w ill t h e n lie o n a f r a m e w o r k t h a t a c c e p ts a n d c a n
c o r r e l a t e c h a n g i n g d a t a (a s i t u a t i o n m a p , a g r id s y s t e m , a
c o m p u te r) a n d on th e use of su ch q u a s i-c o n tin u o u s sources
as a e ria l p h o t o g r a p h s , so c ia l a n d e c o n o m i c a c c o u n t s , a n d
p e r io d ic c e n s u s e s . It is all to o t e m p t i n g to g a t h e r to o m u c h
i n f o r m a t i o n in o r d e r to b e " c o m p r e h e n s i v e " o r to p u t it in a
s p e c ia liz e d f o r m t h a t w ill n o t a c c e p t n e w d a t a .
W e h a v e h a d little o p p o r t u n i t y to p r a c t i c e c o n t i n u o u s
site a n a l y s i s . T h e g r o u n d s o f la r g e i n s t i t u t i o n s , o r o t h e r a g e n -
cies t h a t c o n t r o l a n a r e a for l o n g p e r i o d s a n d for r e la tiv e ly s ta -
b le p u r p o s e s , c o u ld b e e x c e p t i o n s . H e r e w e w o u l d be ju s tif ie d
in m a i n t a i n i n g a c o n t i n u i n g r e c o r d o f b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s , c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n s , e c o lo g y , m i c r o c l i m a t e , v is u a l f o r m , t h e r e p a i r
e q u ip m e n t a n d c ap acity of stru c tu re s, an d th e co n d itio n and
u s e o f r o a d s a n d u tilitie s . P e r i o d i c d e s i g n s c o u ld be b a s e d o n
th is o n g o i n g b a n k o f i n f o r m a t i o n . C o n t i n u o u s site a n a l y s i s
is a t e c h n i q u e w e s h o u l d b e d e v e l o p i n g n o w to p r e p a r e for
t h e site p l a n n i n g o f t h e f u tu r e . It w o u l d b e a s p a t i a l a n d
local a n a l o g u e to t h e s t a n d a r d e c o n o m i c a n d p o p u l a t i o n
d a t a n o w c o n t i n u o u s l y g a t h e r e d at t h e n a t i o n a l scale.
C hapter 3

Organizing Place and Action

W e m a n i p u l a t e e n v i r o n m e n t to m a k e it e a s ie r for
p e o p le to d o t h e t h i n g s t h e y w a n t to d o o r to g iv e t h e m n e w
o p p o r t u n i t i e s for a c tio n . E n v i r o n m e n t is a n i n t i m a t e p a r t o f
h u m a n b e h av io r. T h e settin g , a lo n g w ith th e in s titu tio n s a n d
th e c o n c e p t s o f t h e a c to r s , o r g a n i z e s t h e s t a n d i n g p a t t e r n s o f
a c tiv ity : p l a y i n g b a s e b a l l , e n j o y i n g a p ic n ic , c a r r y i n g p a c k -
ag e s, w a i t i n g for a b u s , s e llin g fr u it, b u i l d i n g a h o u s e , fe e d -
in g a c h ild . T h e s e t t i n g i n s t r u c t s t h e a c t i o n a n d s u p p o r t s it
w i t h s p a c e a n d e q u i p m e n t ; t h e a c t o r a d a p t s to t h e s e t t i n g o r
c h a n g e s it in o r d e r to c a r r y o u t w h a t h e m e a n s to do. B e h a v i o r
a n d s e t t i n g m a y b e w ell fitte d to e a c h o t h e r o r m a y b e a n t a g -
o n is tic , s t a b l e o r fluid, d e m a n d i n g o r p e r m i s s i v e , r e p e t i t i v e
o r o p e n - e n d e d . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f b e h a v i o r a n d its s e t t i n g in
tim e a n d s p a c e is t h e e s s e n t i a l c o n t r i b u t i o n o f a s ite p l a n .
T h e p l a n b e g i n s w i t h a d i a g r a m o f th e p r o p o s e d l o c a t i o n L an d use
o f a c tiv ity a n d a c ti v i t y s e ttin g . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l l a n g u a g e for diagram s
such a d ia g ra m has been " la n d u se ," a te rm from agricul-
tu r a l e c o n o m ic s , o r i g i n a l l y r e f e r r i n g to a p ie c e o f g r o u n d a n d
th e e c o n o m i c u s e to w h i c h it w a s p u t : c r o p l a n d , p a s t u r e ,
h o u s e site, o r q u a r r y . T h i s w a s e l a b o r a t e d in p l a n n i n g to in -
elu d e t h e b r o a d c la s s e s o f h u m a n a c tiv ity , c u s t o m a r y in o u r
c u ltu r e , w h i c h c o u ld b e l o c a te d in s p a c e , c o u p l e d w i t h t h e
g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l f o r m s u s u a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h o s e a c tiv i-
ties, s u c h as s in g l e - f a m i l y r e s id e n c e , p l a y g r o u n d , r e ta il
s h o p p i n g , o r s c h o o l. In a r c h i t e c t u r e t h i s t y p e o f d i a g r a m h a s
 26 b e e n e x p r e s s e d a s c l u s t e r s o f a c t i v i t y n o r m a l l y o c c u r r i n g in
c e r t a i n t y p e s o f r o o m s : liv in g r o o m , k i t c h e n , l a b o r a t o r y , a n d
office.
T h i s t r a d i t i o n a l p l a n n i n g l a n g u a g e is m i s l e a d i n g . It fo-
c u s e s o n t h e p h y s i c a l e l e m e n t r a t h e r t h a n o n t h e b e h a v i o r to
be s u p p o r t e d . M a n y r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f b e h a v i o r a n d s e t t i n g a re
s i m p l y t a k e n for g r a n t e d ; t h e r ic h d i v e r s i t y o f a c t i o n t h a t oc-
c u r s w i t h i n a n d b e t w e e n t h e c u s t o m a r y s p a c e s is o f t e n ig-
n o r e d . P e o p le s t r u g g l e to c a r r y o u t w h a t t h e y w a n t to d o , a n d
t h e e n v i r o n m e n t is t h o u g h t to b e tim e le s s . W e d o n o t l e a r n
b e t t e r w a y s o f s u p p o r t i n g b e h a v i o r , n o r d o w e d is c o v e r h o w to
o p e n u p n e w p o s s ib ilitie s .
Behavioral It is t r u e t h a t t h e a c t i v i t y d i a g r a m is a n e s s e n t i a l a b -
diagrams s t r a c t i o n . It is n o t n e c e s s a r y to c o n s i d e r d e t a i l e d f o r m in o r d e r
to r e l a t e s t a b l e c l u s t e r s o f a c t i o n a n d s e t t i n g . B u t th e s e c lu s-
te r s m u s t fo c u s o n w h a t p e o p l e r e a l l y d o a n d h o w t h e y u s e
t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e c lu s te r s m u s t b e c o h e r e n t in t h a t
t h e y m u s t r e p r e s e n t t h e r e c u r r e n t b e h a v i o r o f p e o p l e w h o a re
a c c o m p l i s h i n g a d e f in ite p u r p o s e in a d e f in ite locale. A s in g le
s p a c e m a y b e o c c u p i e d b y d i v e r s e a c t i v i t y c l u s t e r s t h a t su e -
c eed o n e a n o t h e r in t i m e o r b y o v e r l a p p i n g se ts a t t h e s a m e

Figure 6 Older m o i enjoying the Paul Revere Mall in Boston , an outstanding ex-
ample o f a successful contemporary public ope} 1 space in the United States.

/ ifH iu / in y f11.)u1tinj,ui,>/‫>><׳‬/ n o i^ o y
 Figure 7 Street stairs in the squatter settlement o f El Agus- 27
tino, Lima, Peru. People o f different ages are using the space
for their diverse purposes.
John F. C. Turner

tim e . D i f f e r e n t p e o p l e w ill b e d o i n g d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s , a n d
t h e r e m a y w e ll b e c o n f lic ts b e t w e e n t h e m . T h e r e is r a r e l y
a n y o n e -to -o n e c o rre s p o n d e n c e b e tw e e n a c tiv ity a n d form ,
a n d ye t t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l " m u l t i p u r p o s e ‫ ״‬s p a c e is s i m p l y a
p e r p e t u a l l y i n a d e q u a t e s e t t i n g fo r a c lo u d o f v a g u e l y i m a g -
in e d u se s. T h e a c t i v i t y d i a g r a m m u s t b e p r e c is e a n d still
s h o w o v e r l a p s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n in t i m e — at t h e v e r y le a st
b y s h o w i n g t h e e x p e c te d a c t i v i t y a t t h e p r i n c i p a l s t a g e s o f
th e d a i l y cycle. T h e u n i t s o f t h e d i a g r a m w ill r e p r e s e n t s o m e
s t a n d i n g p a t t e r n o f 'b e h a v i o r , a c c o m p a n i e d b y a b r o a d sp e c i-
fic a tio n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e t t i n g r a t h e r t h a n its
p a r t i c u l a r fo rm .
O b s e r v i n g w h a t p e o p l e a c t u a l l y d o o n t h e site, o r o n
s im ila r s ite s, a n d d is c o v e r i n g w h a t t h e i r p u r p o s e s a r e g iv e us
t h e b a s is for d e t e r m i n i n g w h a t t h o s e u n i t s s h o u l d be. R o g e r
B a r k e r 's " b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s " a r e a n e x a m p l e o f th is k i n d o f Reference 10
a n a ly s is a p p l i e d to a s m a ll m i d w e s t e r n t o w n . H is list o f be-
h a v i o r s e t t i n g s for th e to w n , w i t h th e m a n - h o u r s t h a t o c c u p y
28 t h e m , g iv e s u s a c o n c r e t e s e n s e o f th e q u a l i t y o f life t h e r e in a
w a y t h a t a t r a d i t i o n a l l a n d - u s e m a p c o u ld n e v e r a c h ie v e . B u t
for p l a n n i n g p u r p o s e s B a r k e r 's b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s m u s t b e ex-
p a n d e d to i n c l u d e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e b e h a v i o r e x p e c te d , th e
p u r p o s e s o f t h e a c t o r s , a n d t h e p r e f e r r e d n a t u r e o f t h e s e ttin g .
Program s If t h e b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s a r e q u a n t i f i e d a n d c o s ts a re
b u d g e t e d to t h e m , t h i s a n a l y s i s b e c o m e s a p r o g r a m , th e first
s t e p in c r e a t i n g a d e s i g n . T h e p r o g r a m d o e s n o t r e ly o n l y o n
e x istin g b e h a v io r b u t m a y e n c o u ra g e n e w p a tte r n s of b e h a v -
ior in n e w s e t t i n g s . S in c e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e s e t t i n g a r e n o w
b e in g d e te rm in e d , desig n has a lre a d y b e g u n w h e n a p ro -
g r a m is m a d e .
T h e t r a d i t i o n a l p r o g r a m is a d u s t y d o c u m e n t s t a t i n g a
m a x i m u m t o t a l c o s t, l i s t i n g t h e n u m b e r o f r o o m s o r s p a c e s o r
s t r u c t u r e s to b e p r o v i d e d fo r t h a t c o st, a n d i n d i c a t i n g th e re-
q u i r e d a c c e ss b e t w e e n t h e f e a tu r e s . T h i s s c h e d u l e is m o s t
o f t e n f u r n i s h e d b y t h e i m m e d i a t e c lie n t a n d c o n s i d e r e d to be
s o m e t h i n g s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e o b je c tiv e s , s o m e t h i n g to be
" f i t t e d i n t o " t h e site, o f w h i c h t h e d e s i g n w ill b e a t h r e e -
d im e n sio n a l e lab o ratio n .
P r o g r a m m i n g h a s a m o r e c e n t r a l ro le to p la y . By d e -
R e fe r e n c e 18 s c r i b i n g t h e u n i t s in t e r m s o f b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s , it d e s c r ib e s
t h e i n t e n d e d o u t c o m e . It is l in k e d to t h e r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d p o -
t e n t i a l i t i e s o f t h e site , th e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e f u t u r e a c to r s ,
t h e g e n e r a l o b je c tiv e s , a n d t h e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f f u t u r e fo rm . It
is b o t h a s t a t e m e n t o f d e t a i l e d c r ite r ia a n d , i n e s c a p a b l y , t h e
e s s e n c e o f t h e d e s ig n . It c a n a ls o b e t h e b a s is for c o l l a b o r a t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c ie n tis t a n d d e s i g n e r b e c a u s e it is
b a s e d o n b e h a v i o r a l k n o w l e d g e a n d e x p o s e s th e h y p o t h e s e s to
b e te s te d . D e s i g n e r , c lie n t, a n d u s e r s s h o u l d all b e p a r t i e s to
p r e p a r i n g t h e p r o g r a m , w h i c h w ill n e c e s s a r i l y b e c h a n g e d
a n d r e f in e d as d e s i g n p r o c e e d s , b e c a u s e d e s i g n is a p r o c e s s o f
l e a r n i n g a b o u t n e e d s a n d l im its a n d p o s s ib ilitie s .
T h e fu lly d e v e l o p e d p r o g r a m w ill in c l u d e a s c h e d u l e o f
t h e q u a n t i t y a n d t i m i n g o f b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s , b a s e d o n th e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t s e t t i n g s w ill o v e r l a p o r b e e x t e n d e d in
s p a c e o r tim e . It w ill s p e c if y t h e d e s ir e d c h a r a c t e r , t h e in-
t e n s i t y o f u se , t h e c o n n e c t i o n s t h a t a r e w a n t e d b e t w e e n
t h e m , a n d t h e e x p e c te d m a n a g e m e n t a n d s e rv ic e s u p p o r t .
E s t i m a t e d c o s ts w ill b e b u d g e t e d to e a c h . T h e c h r o n o l o g i c a l
o r d e r in w h i c h th e s e s e t t i n g s s h o u l d b e c o m p l e t e d , or t h e ir
p r i o r i t y o r d e r , w ill a lso b e g iv e n . T h e p r o g r a m m a y b e b r o k e n
i n to s ta g e s , e a c h o f w h i c h is a r e la tiv e ly se lf - s u f f ic ie n t w o r k -
in g w h o le , so t h a t th e c o m p l e t i o n o f o n e s ta g e c a n b e s e p a -
r a te d f r o m a n o t h e r b y a g a p o f tim e a n d e a c h su c c e s s iv e
s ta g e g r o w s lo g ic a lly o u t o f its p r e d e c e s s o r .
 T h e p r o g r a m w ill n e c e s s a r i l y b e r ic h a n d d e t a i l e d , al- 29
w ays e x p ressin g e n v iro n m e n t, m a n a g e m e n t, a n d b e h a v io r
t o g e t h e r , b u t n e v e r c o n f o u n d i n g o n e w i t h th e o t h e r — n e v e r
u sin g ‫ ״‬k itc h e n " as a d e sc rip tio n of an activ ity or " c o o k in g "
as a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a s e t t i n g . A p r o g r a m e l e m e n t m i g h t b e d e -
s c r ib e d a s " t h e c o o k i n g o f s m a l l m e a l s b y o n e o r t w o p e r s o n s
tw ic e a d a y in a w e l l - l i g h t e d , s e l f - m a i n t a i n e d , a n d h e a v i l y
e q u i p p e d s p a c e o f 1 0 0 s q u a r e feet c o s t i n g $ 3 0 0 0 . " " C o o k i n g
p l a c e " c o u ld b e t h e c o d e w o r d fo r t h e e l e m e n t , as lo n g a s o n e
r e a liz e d t h a t o t h e r u n i t s o f b e h a v i o r m a y s u c c e s s iv e ly o c c u p y
t h e s a m e p h y s i c a l s p a c e , a n d t h a t b u d g e t s m u s t a l l o w for
t h is o v e r la p .
A p ro g ra m m a y be g e n e ra te d b y th e in tu itiv e rec a p itu -
l a t i o n o f e x p e c t e d a c tiv ity , b a s e d o n p a s t p e r s o n a l e x p e r ie n c e ,
b u t it is b e t t e r g r o u n d e d in d e t a i l e d o b s e r v a t i o n m a d e o n t h e
spot or from sy ste m a tic p a st analy ses. T h e re q u ire m e n ts of
s e t t i n g s m a y b e s t a t e d as r e q u i r e d t h r e s h o l d s ( " a t le a s t 6 0
f o o t c a n d l e s o f li g h t o n all w o r k s u r f a c e s " o r " n o s t r e e t s to .b e
crossed at g ra d e b y fo o tp a th s b e tw e e n a n y d w e llin g u n it a n d
its a s s o c i a t e d n u r s e r y s c h o o l " ) , o r as d e s i r e d i n c r e m e n t s o r
q u a litie s ( " t o r e d u c e t h e j o u r n e y to w o r k b y 20 p e r c e n t " o r
" t o c o m m u n i c a t e a s e n s e o f r e l a x a t i o n a n d p r i v a c y " ) . S in c e
d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s o f p e o p le w ill be t a k i n g d i f f e r e n t a c t i o n s for
d i f f e r e n t p u r p o s e s in a n y pla c e , p r o g r a m r e q u i r e m e n t s s p e c -
ify for w h o m t h e s e t t i n g s a re i n t e n d e d a n d h o w p r e d i c t e d
co n flic ts a re to be h a n d l e d ( " r e s i d e n t s in t h e i m m e d i a t e vi-
c in ity o f t h e i r d w e l l i n g s s h o u l d be u n a w a r e o f p a s s i n g m o t o r
v e h ic le s, as l o n g as p o lic e a r e a b le to o v e r l o o k all p u b l i c a r e a s
f r o m t h e i r p a t r o l c a r s " ) . P r o g r a m s o f t h is k i n d n o t o n l y l in k
o b je c tiv e s to s p e c if ic a tio n s b u t a l l o w p r o p o s e d d e s i g n s to be
e v a l u a t e d b y t h e w a y t h e y fulfill e x p lic it r e q u i r e m e n t s . O n c e
b u ilt, t h e e n v i r o n m e n t c a n b e m o n i t o r e d to see if it is p e r -
f o r m i n g as p r e d i c t e d . I n s i m p l e c a s e s p r o g r a m s m a y b e q u i t e
s k e t c h y as to b e h a v i o r ; q u a l i t i e s , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d c o sts, b u t
in all ca se s t h e s e f a c t o r s s h o u l d , at le a s t i n t u i t i v e l y , be c o n -
s id e r e d t o g e t h e r .
T h e t e c h n i q u e m a y b e a p p l i e d to a m e t r o p o l i t a n r e g i o n C l a s s i f i c a t i o n is
o r to t h e l a y o u t o f a b a c k y a r d . T h e u n i t s o f a c t i v i t y w ill b e c o r - treacherous
r e s p o n d i n g l y g e n e r a l o r d e t a i l e d — " r e s i d i n g a n d its a s s o -
c ia te d d a ily a c t i v i t i e s " o r " h a n g i n g o u t c l o t h e s . " C la s s if ic a -
tio n is t r e a c h e r o u s l y s im p le . O n e lo o k s for g r o u p s o f a c tiv itie s
th a t are in te rre la te d th ro u g h th e p u rp o se s of th e ir acto rs, th a t
a re lo c a te d t o g e t h e r in tim e a n d sp a c e , a n d t h a t h a v e c o h e r -
e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s o f s e ttin g . T h e g r o u p i n g s a r e d iv i d e d as
fin ely as c a n be h a n d l e d in th e tim e a v a i l a b l e for o b s e r v a t i o n
a n d d e s ig n . W h a t is o n c e a s s e m b l e d in a s in g le c a t e g o r y is
 30 r a r e l y s e p a r a t e d la te r . H a v i n g c h o s e n " i n d u s t r y " as a class,
o n e w ill r a r e l y r e a liz e t h a t d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f p r o d u c t i o n m a y
h a v e d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s , n o r w ill o n e b e a w a r e
o f t h e r i c h d i v e r s i t y o f b e h a v i o r t h a t a c t u a l l y g o e s o n in m o s t
f a c t o r y a r e a s . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e w ill b e a n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y to
s e p a r a t e " i n d u s t r y " f r o m o t h e r a c tiv itie s , e x c l u d i n g t h e p o s -
s ib i l i t y t h a t r e s i d i n g a n d w o r k i n g m i g h t d e s i r a b l y h a p p e n
in t h e s a m e s t r u c t u r e . T y p e s o f b e h a v i o r s h o u l d n o t b e
c la s s e d t o g e t h e r b e c a u s e t h e y a r e c o n v e n t i o n a l g r o u p s o r a r e
le g a lly w e d d e d in t h e z o n i n g o r d i n a n c e o r h a v e s im ila r
n a m e s . M u c h o f t h e s te r ile f o r m a l i s m o f o u r p l a n s a r is e s f r o m
t h e h a b i t p a t t e r n s o f o u r a c t i v i t y la n g u a g e .
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c l a s s if ic a tio n o f s o m e k i n d m u s t be
u s e d if a p r o b l e m is to b e m a n a g e a b l e . I n a s ite p l a n , it m a y
s i m p l i f y t h e p r o b l e m if " d e l i v e r y a n d r e m o v a l o f b u l k g o o d s
a n d w a s t e s " is a s in g le c la ss, b u t to p u t l a u n d r y d r y i n g in
t h e s a m e g r o u p so t h a t it c a n b e la b e le d " u t i l i t y f u n c t i o n s "
w ill r e s u l t in t h e s e le c t i o n o f a p o o r p l a c e fo r h a n g i n g o u t
c lo th e s . P a s t c l a s s if ic a tio n s c a n b e a g u id e , b u t e a c h n e w
p r o b l e m r e q u i r e s o n e to t h i n k o u t o n c e m o r e t h e s t r a t e g i c c lu s -
te r s o f a c t i v i t y t h a t a r e a p p r o p r i a t e fo r p r o g r a m m i n g t h e n e w
solution.
T h e d iv ersity of th e b e h a v io r settin g s, th e ir stab ility
a n d i n t e r n a l c o h e r e n c e , t h e e ffic ie n t u s e o f s p a c e a n d e n e r g y ,
a n d t h e i r o p e n n e s s to u s e r s a r e p a r t i a l m e a s u r e s o f t h e g o o d -
n e s s o f a site — in r o u g h a n a l o g y w i t h a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e e col-
o g y o f sp e c ie s. B u t t h e b a s ic m e a s u r e o f v a lu e is t h e d e g r e e to
w h i c h t h e b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s a l l o w p e o p l e to feel c o m p e t e n t in
d o i n g w h a t t h e y w a n t to d o a n d t h e d e g r e e to w h i c h t h e y
favor p e rs o n a l d e v e lo p m e n t of c o m p e te n c e a n d p u rp o se .
A ctivity and T h e s e t t i n g s h o u l d b e o f a d e q u a t e size a n d a p p r o p r i a t e
setting s h a p e fo r a g iv e n a c tiv ity , h a v e t h e p r o p e r c li m a t e ( g u a r a n -
te e d b y e n c l o s u r e o r o t h e r m e a n s ) , a d e q u a t e a c c e ss, a n d a
flo o r o f s u i t a b l e s lo p e a n d te x t u r e . T h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h o s e
v a g u e w o r d s a d e q u a t e , p r o p e r , a n d s u i t a b l e m a y s e e m to
r e q u i r e s p e c ia liz e d r e s e a r c h . B u t a c t u a l l y w e o f te n d o r a t h e r
w e ll in s p e c i f y i n g t h e m f r o m e x p e r ie n c e , for a n y g i v e n a c tiv -
ity, o n c e o u r a t t e n t i o n h a s fo c u s e d in t h a t d i r e c t i o n . W e
w a t c h w h a t p e o p l e d o a n d t a l k to t h e m a b o u t t h e i r e x p e c ta -
tio n s .
M aintenance of S u i t a b i l i t y fo r u se i n c l u d e s s u i t a b i l i t y fo r m a i n t e n a n c e
setting o f t h a t u se , g iv e n t h e f o r m a n d th e s y s t e m o f m a i n t e n a n c e .
P a r k l a n d t h a t is s c a t t e r e d in m a n y d i f f e r e n t a r e a s o r iso -
la te d f r o m t h e r o a d s y s t e m w ill b e d iffic u lt to m a i n t a i n
a n d to c o n t r o l . I n t r i c a t e l a n d s c a p i n g m a y r e q u i r e c o n t i n u o u s ,
e x p e n s i v e care. T h e q u a n t i t y o f o p e n s p a c e in a p l a n m a y be 31
b e y o n d t h e p o w e r o f a c o m m u n i t y to p r o t e c t f r o m e n c r o a c h -
m e n t . It is o f te n d e s i r a b l e to a s s i g n o p e n s p a c e to s o m e a c tiv -
ity t h a t w ill its e lf h e l p to p r e s e r v e a n d m a i n t a i n t h a t sp a c e ,
su c h as m a k i n g it a p r o d u c t i v e f o r e s t o r f a r m , a g o lf c o u r s e , o r
a c e m e te r y . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , it m a y b e p r e f e r a b l e to k e e p t h e
s p a c e fa r a w a y f r o m a c c e ss a n d p o t e n t i a l i n v a s i o n . In a n y
case, s u i t a b i l i t y c a n n o t b e p r e d i c t e d u n t i l m a n a g e m e n t a n d
se rv ic e s a re a ls o sp e c ifie d , a n d t h e s e m a y b e m o r e c ritic a l
t h a n fo rm .
A f t e r a c t i v i t y c l a s s if ic a tio n s h a v e b e e n d e t e r m i n e d , t h e L in k ag e
l i n k a g e s b e t w e e n t h e m m u s t b e a n a l y z e d . T h e lin k s m a y b e
m o v e m e n t s o f p e o p le , g o o d s , a n d w a s t e s o r c o m m u n i c a t i o n
o f i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e y m a y b e b a s e d u p o n a m e n i t y , s u c h as th e
v ie w a f f o r d e d b y a p a r k , o r t h e y m a y b e n e g a t i v e r e p u l s i o n s
d u e to n u i s a n c e effects. T h e lin k s c o n n e c t u n i t s t h a t a r e d is-
t r i b u t e d in ti m e as w e ll as sp a c e . A t h e a t e r m a y b e n e x t to a
t r a n s i t s to p , b u t w h a t if th e t r a n s i t c e a s e s to r u n b e f o r e th e
t h e a t e r clo se s?
T h e p r o g r a m a n a l y z e s e x i s t i n g l in k s b u t a ls o d e s i r e d
c o n n e c t i o n s , w h i c h m a y b e q u i t e d if f e r e n t. F or e x a m p le ,
t h e r e m a y a t p r e s e n t b e fe w c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n b l a c k a n d
w h i t e r e s i d e n t s , b e t w e e n f a c u l t y m e m b e r s o f d i f f e r e n t de-
p a rtm e n ts , or b e tw e e n s h o p p in g a n d e n jo y in g a p a rk , b u t th e
p r o g r a m m a y t r y to e s t a b l i s h t h e m . It w ill g iv e q u i t e a d if-
f e r e n t w e i g h t to li n k a g e s t h a t p e r s i s t d e s p i t e s e p a r a t i o n in
sp a c e , s u c h as t h e d e l i v e r y o f a d d r e s s e d m a il, t h a n to t h o s e
w h i c h a r e s e n s i t i v e to s p a t i a l lo c a t i o n , s u c h as s p o n t a n e o u s
c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n p e o p le . A n d t h o u g h t m u s t b e g iv e n
as to h o w t h e s e lin k s m a y c h a n g e in t h e f u tu r e .
It is n o t s i m p l y a q u e s t i o n o f h o w b e s t to l in k a g iv e n set
o f a c tiv itie s . T h e p l a n n e r c o n s i d e r s w h e t h e r a d d i t i o n a l a c tiv -
ities s h o u l d b e i n t r o d u c e d . In h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s , w h e n
w e tr a c e b e h a v i o r c ir c u its a n d l e a r n a b o u t e x p e c t a t i o n s , w e
find t h a t m u c h o f t h e i r q u a l i t y c o n s i s t s in t h e n o n r e s i d e n t i a l
a c tiv itie s a n d fa c ilitie s t h a t a r e a c c e s s ib le to t h e d w e l l i n g s :
s h o p p i n g , l e a r n i n g , r e lig io u s w o r s h i p , o r r e c r e a t i o n . A c c e s s is
m e a s u r e d in t i m e a n d c o s t r a t h e r t h a n in d i s t a n c e . D i r e c t -
n e ss o f l i n k a g e is t h e r e s u l t n o t o n l y o f s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n b u t
also o f c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s a n d t h e m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
In t h e d i a g r a m in t h e m a r g i n , th e b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s o f a Linkage
s m a ll c o m m u n i t y a re c o n n e c t e d b y lin e s w h o s e t h i c k n e s s is diagram s
p r o p o r t i o n a l to th e p r e s u m e d i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e lin k a g e s b e -
tw e e n th e m . T h e r e a re six cla sse s. T h e d w e l l i n g p la c e s o f
t y p e 1 a re to b e e x t r e m e l y a c c e s s ib le to t h e s h o p p i n g a n d
 32 m e e t i n g p la c e s , f a ir ly c o n v e n i e n t to w o r k p l a c e s , a n d d is-
t a n t l y r e l a t e d to t h e l e a r n i n g p la c e . T y p e 2 d w e l l i n g s h a v e
q u i t e d if f e r e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s : g o o d a c c e s s to t h e l e a r n i n g
D2L
5 4 p la c e a n d a d i s t a n t r e l a t i o n to t h e s h o p p i n g , w o r k i n g , a n d
_L m e e t i n g p la c e s . T h e s h o p p i n g a r e a s h o u l d h a v e e x t r e m e l y
L 1
W Z 1 ‫צ כ‬ c lo se a c c e ss t o t h e m e e t i n g p la c e a n d a g o o d c o n n e c t i o n to t h e
M A 1 A Z w o r k i n g l o c a tio n . T h e l e a r n i n g p la c e s h o u l d h a v e a g o o d ac-
Dl D2. ‫ >ל‬L W cess to t h e w o r k p l a c e a n d a m o d e r a t e c o n n e c t i o n to th e m e e t -
in g p la c e . W e a r e i n d i f f e r e n t to t h e l i n k a g e b e t w e e n d w e ll-
in g ty p e s o r b e t w e e n w o r k i n g a n d m e e t i n g a r e a s o r s h o p p i n g
a n d l e a r n i n g p la c e s . T h e s e id e a s c o n c e r n i n g d e s i r e d li n k a g e s
a re b a s e d n o t o n l y o n t h e p r o b a b l e i n t e r a c t i o n s b e t w e e n ac-
tiv itie s, w h i c h a r e t h e m s e l v e s b a s e d o n t h e e s t i m a t e d a c t i o n s
a n d v a l u e s o f u s e r s , b u t o n g e n e r a l id e a s as to c i r c u l a t i o n , v is-
u a l f o r m , a n d s ite c h a r a c t e r as w ell.
T h i s d i a g r a m c a n b e r e a r r a n g e d to m i n i m i z e t h e l e n g t h
a n d inte rse c tio n of m a jo r co n n ectio n s. T h e r e a rra n g e m e n t
g iv e s u s a first c lu e to a p r e f e r r e d a c t i v i t y p a t t e r n . T h e s e a r e
t o p o l o g i c a l d i a g r a m s , t h a t is, t h e y a r e n o t d r a w n to s cale, a n d
t h e y e x p r e s s n o t h i n g b u t t h e c la s s e s o f u s e a n d t h e i r p r e -
ferred c o n n e c tio n s. W h ile th e lin k a g e s s h o w n are sy m m e tri-
cal, t h e y c o u ld a ls o b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a c c o r d i n g to d i r e c t i o n . It
m i g h t b e i m p o r t a n t for l e a r n i n g a c t iv itie s to be n e a r w o r k i n g
a r e a s , b u t n o t v ic e v e r s a .
If t h e a r e a s r e q u i r e d for t h e b e h a v i o r u n i t s a r e d r a w n
r o u g h l y to sca le , t h e d i a g r a m c a n t h e n b e a p p l i e d to a n ac-
t u a l site. E a c h a r e a o f t h e d i a g r a m n o w i n d i c a t e s n o t o n l y a n
a b s t r a c t l o c a t i o n b u t a ls o a p o r t i o n o f s p a c e t h a t is a p p r o p r i a t e
fo r t h e u s e i n t e n d e d o r w ill b e m o d if ie d to b e so. T h e d i a g r a m
i m p lie s b o t h a c t i v i t y a n d t h e g e n e r a l p h y s i c a l p r o v i s i o n for
t h a t a c tiv ity . If w e w e r e d e a l i n g w i t h o v e r l a p p i n g b e h a v i o r
s e t t i n g s , t h e a n a l y s i s w o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t o n a s e rie s o f o v e r -
la y s, w h i c h m i g h t le a d u s to q u i t e n e w c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t
de n sitie s or th e ju x ta p o s itio n of areas. In th e d e sig n of com -
p le x b u i l d i n g s y s t e m s , o p t i m u m l i n k a g e d i a g r a m s a r e n o w
r e g u l a r l y c r e a t e d w i t h t h e a id o f c o m p u t e r s , a l t h o u g h t h e
d i a g r a m s still re f e r to a s i n g l e p o i n t in tim e , a n d n o t to t h e
t e m p o r a l e v o l u t i o n o f a c tiv itie s a n d t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n s . T h e u s e
o f s u c h c o m p u t e r t e c h n i q u e s in s ite p l a n n i n g is i m m i n e n t .
P i c t o r i a l n e a t n e s s is s e d u c tiv e . It is e a s y to o v e r s i m p l i f y
t h e t o ta l p a t t e r n as w e ll as t h e b a s i c c a te g o r ie s . A ll b e h a v i o r
o f o n e ty p e n e e d n o t o c c u r in o n e lo c a t i o n , a n d it c a n b e m ix e d
w i t h o t h e r a c tiv itie s . D i s t i n c t i o n s o r l i n k a g e s b e t w e e n u n i t s
a re m o r e i n d e t e r m i n a t e t h a n w e im a g i n e . M i x t u r e s in s p a c e
o r t i m e m a y b e d e s i r a b l e for r e a s o n s o f c o n t r a s t , fo r t h e c o n t i n -
u o u s u se o f a site, o r to a l l o w fo r l i n k a g e s t h a t c a n n o t b e fo re - / o A° n ? . 33
se e n . It is sa f e r to p u t t h e b u r d e n o f p r o o f o n p r o p o s a l s to s e p - A O 4 o « |o
a r a t e a c tiv itie s t h a n o n p r o p o s a l s to i n t e r t w i n e t h e m . A n
» V * * ° 0‫׳־‬
a r r a n g e m e n t in w h i c h u n i t t y p e s c l u s t e r in a r e l a t i v e l y p u r e ▲ * 0 o
s t a t e a r o u n d focal p o i n t s b u t g r a d e o u t w a r d i n t o m i x t u r e s
w i t h o t h e r t y p e s is o f t e n a n a t u r a l s o l u t i o n .
T h e site p l a n n e r c u l t i v a t e s t h e h a b i t o f l o o k i n g b e y o n d C ontext
t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f h is site to s t u d y t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e s u r r o u n d -
in g c o m m u n i t y . P r e f e r r e d a r r a n g e m e n t o n t h e s ite m a y d e -
p e n d h e a v i l y o n o u t s i d e lin k s , s u c h as t h e m o v e m e n t to w o r k ,
th e c o n v e n i e n c e to s h o p p i n g o r o t h e r fa c ilitie s, a n d s u r r o u n d -
in g n e g a t i v e in f lu e n c e s . A h o s p i t a l m a y d e c id e to p r o v i d e
c o o p e r a t i v e h o u s i n g in t h e c o m m u n i t y a t l a r g e r a t h e r t h a n in
o n -site in stitu tio n a l d o rm ito rie s, or a h o u s in g d e v e lo p m e n t
m a y b e a b le to a d d a s w i m m i n g p o o l to b e s u p p o r t e d b y a
l a r g e r a re a . T h e site p l a n n e r w ill as a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e r e f u s e
to a c c e p t t h e b o u n d a r y lin e s h e is g iv e n , w h e t h e r t h e y a r e
lo t lin e s , p o li t i c a l b o u n d a r i e s , a r e a s o f s t u d y , o r j u s t t h e e d g e s
o f a c o n v e n i e n t m a p . H e is n o t c o m p e l l e d to h a r m o n i z e w i t h
t h o s e s u r r o u n d i n g s if t h e y a r e u n d e s i r a b l e o r o f d o u b t f u l I o n -
g e v ity , b u t h e m u s t t a k e t h e m i n t o a c c o u n t .
S p a c e r e q u i r e m e n t s in v o l v e t h e c o n c e p t o f d e n s i t y , o r D en sity
th e in te n s ity of a c tiv ity o c c u rrin g p er u n it area. D e n s ity h a s
a f a r - r e a c h i n g effect o n t h e site p l a n a n d t h e q u a l i t y o f life
w i t h i n it. I n t h e c a se o f r e s i d e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t it is u s u a l l y
m e a s u r e d in t e r m s o f t h e n u m b e r o f f a m ilie s p e r u n i t o f
g r o u n d a re a , s in c e t h e f a m i l y in o u r c u l t u r e is a r a t h e r s t a b l e
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s m a ll u n i t w i t h m a n y s t a n d a r d i z e d re -
q u i r e m e n t s . E ls e w h e r e , d e n s i t i e s m a y b e e x p r e s s e d in in d i -
v id u a ls , s p e c ie s, m a n - h o u r s , e n e r g y , g o o d s , o r d o l l a r s o f in -
c o m e . P h y s i c a l d e n s i t y , as o p p o s e d to a c ti v i t y d e n s i t y , is o f t e n Types o f
e x p r e s s e d as a flo o r a r e a r a t i o , o r t h e r a t i o o f g r o s s flo o r a r e a o f density
a b u i l d i n g to its g r o u n d a re a . A n o t h e r c o m m o n p h y s i c a l m e a - m easures
s u r e is r o o m s p e r a c r e - A l l d e n s i t y m e a s u r e s in u s e t o d a y a r e
s o m e v a r i a n t o f a n a r e a d e n s i t y . In t h e f u tu r e , as a c t i v i t y in -
c r e a s e s , a n d as t e c h n o l o g y w e a k e n s t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f s t r u c -
tu r e s to g r o u n d o r m a k e s p o s s i b l e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l c ir c u la -
tio n s y s t e m s , w e m a y t u r n to m e a s u r e s o f c u b ic d e n s i t y :
in t e n s i t i e s p e r u n i t o f v o lu m e . S in c e w e a r e a ls o d e a l i n g w i t h
tim e d i s t r i b u t i o n s , t h e d e n s i t y m a y b e a r a t e , a f a m i l i a r id e a
in tra ffic flo w b u t less f a m i l i a r w h e n a p p l i e d to o t h e r t y p e s o f
b e h a v io r . B u t p e r s o n s p e r s q u a r e fo o t p e r h o u r c a n b e a n a p -
p r o p r i a t e u n i t for m e a s u r i n g a c ti v i t y in a s to r e , a c l a s s r o o m , o r
a p u b lic p la z a .
T h e u n i t a r e a u p o n w h i c h a n a r e a d e n s i t y is b a s e d m a y
 34 b e a r o o m , a n i m m e d i a t e a c t i v i t y a r e a o r b u i l d i n g site (giv-
in g a n e t d e n s i t y ) , o r t h e a c ti v i t y a r e a o r b u i l d i n g site p lu s
R e f e r e n c e 46 s u rro u n d in g streets a n d o th e r im m e d ia te ly ad jacen t a n d nee-
e s s a r y l a n d s ( g iv in g a g r o s s d e n s i t y ) . O r it m a y b e th e a r e a
o f a m u c h larg e r reg io n , w h ic h c o n ta in s n o t o n ly th e build-
in g s , a c tiv itie s , a n d t h e i r i m m e d i a t e c i r c u l a t i o n b u t all t h e
n e c e s s a r y se rv ic e s a n d fa c ilitie s a t a c o m m u n i t y scale, in -
e l u d i n g lo c a l s h o p p i n g , s c h o o ls , c h u r c h e s , a n d p la y f ie ld s
( g iv in g a n e i g h b o r h o o d d e n s i t y ) . M a n y t r ic k s c a n b e p l a y e d
w i t h d e n s i t y s t a n d a r d s b y s h i f t i n g f r o m b a s e to b a s e a n d
f r o m d e f i n i t i o n to d e f i n i t i o n . F or h is o w n p r o t e c t i o n , t h e site
p l a n n e r m u s t b e a w a r e o f th e s e d if f e r e n c e s a n d b e f a m i l i a r
w ith the co ncrete resu lts of th e v ario u s a b stra c t n u m b e rs.
W ith lo w e r-d e n sity b u ild in g types, w h ic h h av e la n d or
lots d i r e c t l y a s s i g n a b l e to t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e n e t d e n s i t y is a
f a ir ly p r e c is e m e a s u r e . B u t w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h ta ll a p a r t -
m e n t s set in o p e n s p a c e , o n e f in d s it d iffic u lt to d e c id e w h e r e
t h e ,'i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t ‫ ״‬l a n d s to p s . G r o s s d e n s i t y g iv e s
a f a ir e r p i c t u r e o f l a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s b e c a u s e it i n c lu d e s
s t r e e t s a n d n e a r b y o p e n sp a c e s . B u t it c a n b e q u i t e v a g u e
u n le s s w h a t is to b e i n c l u d e d is c le a r ly sp e c ifie d . N e i g h b o r -
h o o d d e n s i t y is a f a ir ly s t a b l e m e a s u r e (as l o n g as lo c a l facili-
ties c a n b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m n o n l o c a l ) . It re fle c ts t h e d e m a n d
for l a n d w h i c h o c c u r s as a r e s u l t o f h i g h e r n e t d e n s i t i e s . It is
u se fu l for l a r g e - s c a l e s t u d i e s b u t less so fo r s m a ll site p l a n s .
D e s p i t e t h e i r d iffic u ltie s , th e s e q u a n t i t i e s m u s t b e e m -
p lo y e d to giv e sc a le to a p l a n . L ike o t h e r i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s ,
if t h e y a r e n o t u s e d c o n s c i o u s l y , t h e y w ill a p p e a r as t h o u g h t -
less a s s u m p t i o n s . S o m e s e n s e o f t h e m e a n i n g o f r e s i d e n t i a l
d e n s i t i e s in c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e is g iv e n in C h a p t e r 14. T y p e s o f
d e v e lo p m e n t a n d th e ir n o rm a l densities are w o r th m e m o riz -
in g , p r i m a r i l y for u s e as s t a r t i n g p o i n t s r a t h e r t h a n as s t a n d -
ards.
D e n sity ranges T h e r e is n o id e a l d e n s i t y . F or a n y g iv e n a c tiv ity , t h e r e
a n d thresholds is a r a n g e o f d e n s i t i e s o u t s i d e o f w h i c h c o n d i t i o n s a r e lik e ly to
b e s u b s t a n d a r d a n d w i t h i n w h i c h t h e r e a re a n u m b e r o f
t h r e s h o l d s m a r k i n g a s h ift f r o m o n e c h a r a c t e r w i t h its p a r -
t i c u l a r a d v a n t a g e s to a n o t h e r w i t h o t h e r a d v a n t a g e s . T h u s
in n o n f a r m h o u s i n g , a c c e p t a b l e n e t d e n s i t i e s m a y r a n g e f r o m
o n e - h a l f f a m ily p e r a c r e to 1 2 0 fa m ilie s p e r a c re , w i t h lo w e r
d e n s i t i e s b e c o m i n g v e r y c o s tly in t e r m s o f se rv ic e s a n d social
e q u i p m e n t a n d h i g h e r d e n s i t i e s s u b s t a n d a r d in t e r m s of
lig h t, a ir, a n d o p e n s p a c e ( g iv e n p r e s e n t te c h n o l o g y ) .
W i t h i n t h i s t o ta l a l l o w a b l e r a n g e t h e r e a r e t h r e s h o l d s
d e f in in g s m a l l e r r a n g e s in w h i c h a c e r t a i n t y p e o f s t r u c t u r e
is m o s t s u ita b le . T h e s e t h r e s h o l d s a r e a lso lik e ly to in d i c a t e 35
s o m e b a s ic c h a n g e s in v is u a l o r f u n c t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r , s u c h a s
th e d e n s i t y b e l o w w h i c h d w e l l i n g s a p p e a r to b e w i d e l y s e p -
a r a t e d , o r t h o s e a b o v e w h i c h f a m ilie s c a n n o t h a v e d ir e c t ac-
cess to t h e l a n d . S in c e d e n s i t y a ffe c ts c o st, w e c a n s a y t h a t in
m o s t p a r t s o f A m e r i c a t o d a y , g iv e n l a n d o f lo w v a lu e , th e
l e a st e x p e n s i v e h o u s i n g c a n b e p r o v i d e d a t n e t d e n s i t i e s o f
a b o u t 15 to 2 0 f a m ilie s p e r acre. T h i s d e p e n d s , o f c o u r s e , n o t
o n l y o n la n d c o st b u t o n t e c h n o l o g y , s t a n d a r d s , a n d r e g u l a -
tio n s ( th e fire r u le s o f se v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s a g o m a d e 4 0 f a m i-
lies p e r a c re t h e c h e a p e s t d e n s i t y ) .
T h e su ita b ility of a d e n sity varies w ith th e situ a tio n ,
t h e a l l o w a b l e c o st, t h e g r o u p to b e s e r v e d , a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r
o f s u r r o u n d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e site p l a n n e r is n o t c o m m i t -
te d to a p e r f e c t n u m b e r b u t is s u f f ic ie n tly f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f d e n s i t y to s u g g e s t a w is e c h o ic e in a g iv e n sit-
u a t i o n o r to a v o id a b u i l d i n g t y p e o r a n a c t i v i t y i n a p p r o p r i a t e
to a d e n s i t y fixed b y s o m e o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n . D e n s i t y h a s
o t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t b e l o n g to t h e s p h e r e o f c ity p l a n n i n g .
H e r e o n e c o n s i d e r s e c o n o m y , f u n c t i o n , so c ia l o r g a n i z a t i o n ,
a n d a m e n i t y o f t h e c ity as a w h o le . W h i l e b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f
th is b o o k , s u c h c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w ill o f te n set d e n s i t i e s a t p o i n t s
s o m e w h a t in c o n flic t w i t h w h a t m i g h t b e s u g g e s t e d b y t h e
site a lo n e .
T h e r e a r e t w o a p p r o a c h e s to a p p l y i n g t h e s e a c t i v i t y d ia - S ite A rrange-
g r a m s , sc a le d b y d e n s i t y , to th e g iv e n site. T h e first is t h e m e n t b y Local
p l a c e m e n t o f a c ti v i t y a c c o r d i n g to t h e a c c i d e n t s o f site o r ac- P attern
c o r d i n g to d e t a i l e d r e q u i r e m e n t s o f u s e o r f o r m o r c lie n t. S u c h
a p l a n lo c a te s ta ll b u i l d i n g s w h e r e t h e r e is a fine d i s t a n t
v ie w , a h a n g o u t w h e r e it h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y o c c u r r e d , r o w
h o u s e s o n a s u n n y slo p e , p l a y lo ts at n e i g h b o r h o o d focal
p o i n t s , a n d a p a r k o n s o m e p i c t u r e s q u e p ie c e o f te r r a i n . T h e
p l a n h a s a ric h , if d i s o r g a n i z e d , c o n t e n t .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e p a t t e r n m a y b e d e v e l o p e d as a lo g ic a l Site arrange-
t o ta l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e a c tiv itie s a n d t h e i r l i n k a g e s , u s u a l l y m en t b y general
w i t h s o m e g e n e r a l v is u a l f o r m in m i n d . T h i s w ill lo o k cle a r o n pattern
p a p e r a n d be o r d e r l y a n d p e r h a p s efficien t in f u n c t i o n . B u t it
will s m o t h e r th e site a n d d i s r e g a r d m a n y s m a ll a n d s e n s i-
tive c o n n e c t i o n s .
B o th p a t t e r n s a re d e v e lo p e d , a n d t h e n b y a lo n g p r o c e s s
o f tria l a n d c r itic is m t h e y a re r e s h a p e d u n t i l a n e w p a t t e r n
is d is c o v e r e d t h a t h a s th e v a lu e s o f b o th : o n e t h a t r e s p o n d s to
th e d e ta ils o f site a n d a c tiv ity a n d still p r o v i d e s a n e ffic ie n t
l i n k a g e s y s t e m a n d a c o m p r e h e n s i b l e g e n e r a l fo rm . T h i s is
likely to be a d iffic u lt p r o c e s s s in c e n o la w o f n a t u r e r e q u ir e s
 36 t h a t a g e n e r a l f o r m b e i n h e r e n t in a n y g iv e n s i t u a t i o n , a n d
h u m a n i n g e n u i t y is r e q u i r e d to d e v e l o p o n e . O n e m u s t a ls o
ring
b e c e r t a i n t h a t a g e n e r a l f o r m is r e a l l y d e s i r a b l e — fo r r e a -
s o n s o f c o s t o r f u n c t i o n o r l e g ib ility — a n d is n o t s i m p l y v a lu -
a b le for its a p p e a r a n c e o n p a p e r .
peak T h e d e ta ile d a p p ro a c h re q u ire s careful re c o n n a is s a n c e
a n d m e d ita tio n over th e p o te n tia litie s of each activity a n d of
e a c h p ie c e o f g r o u n d . T h e d e s i g n o f a p i c t u r e s q u e , d e m a n d -
in g site o r a t r a d i t i o n a l w a y o f life is e a s ie r to m a k e t h a n o n e
d e a l i n g w i t h flat o r c h a r a c t e r l e s s g r o u n d , w h e r e lim its , p o -
te n tialities, a n d d iffe re n tia tio n s m u s t be dev elo p ed b y th e
d e s i g n e r h im s e lf . T h e te s t is a n i t e m - b y - i t e m c h e c k to see
t h a t all f u n c t i o n s a r e h o u s e d w i t h a d e q u a t e q u a n t i t y a n d
q u a l i t y o f s p a c e a n d t h a t e a c h a d v a n t a g e o f site a n d t i m e h a s
b e e n u tiliz e d w i t h n o w a s t e . ( O f c o u r s e , w h a t is c o m m o n l y
c a lle d " w a s t e s p a c e " o r " w a s t e t i m e " m a y h a v e its o w n
f u n c t i o n , as w ill b e s e e n .)
T h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n a p p r o a c h is m o r e d iffic u lt b e c a u s e
it is m o r e a b s t r a c t . V e r y o f te n , a b a s ic a r r a n g e m e n t is o n l y
unco n scio u sly assum ed. U n co n scio u s assu m p tio n produces
c o n v e n t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . B u t w h e n a g e n e r a l p a t t e r n is ex-
p lic itly d r a w n , it o f t e n is e q u a l l y c o n v e n t i o n a l , a s y m m e t r i -
cal h i e r a r c h y o r t h e b a l a n c e d a x is, for e x a m p l e . T h e s e p a t -
t e r n h a b i t s a re e x t r e m e l y d iffic u lt to b r e a k . C o n v e n t i o n a l
f o r m s m a y i n d e e d be b e s t in a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n , b u t t h i s a s-
s u m p t i o n c a n n o t b e m a d e u n t i l t h e y a r e te s t e d a g a i n s t o t h e r
k in d s of g ro u p in g .
T h e r e f o r e t h e p l a n n e r d e v e l o p s h is c a p a c i t y to i m a g i n e
a l t e r n a t i v e g e n e r a l f o r m s , b e i n g a l e r t to see n e w f o r m s in t h e
w o r l d a b o u t h i m a n d to t h i n k o f t h e m as s e t t i n g s fo r v a r i o u s
b e h a v i o r s . A se t o f a r c h e t y p a l f o r m s a n d a s e n s e o f t h e i r n a -
t u r e is p a r t o f h is p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o c k - i n - t r a d e . S o m e e x a m p l e s
checker
of th ese g en eral form s are th e rin g , th e co n c e n tric p eak, the
r a d i a l s ta r , t h e s y m m e t r i c h i e r a r c h y , t h e a x is, t h e lin e , t h e
Formal c o n ste lla tio n of clusters, th e n e tw o rk , a n d th e c h e c k e rb o ard .
prototypes T h e fo rm of ea c h of th e se p a tte r n s has c e rta in in trin sic func-
t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , s u c h as r i g i d i t y o r f le x ib ility , d i s p e r s e d o r
c o n c e n tra te d c o m m u n ic a tio n , th e relativ e accessib ility be-
tw e e n un its, sp ecializatio n or re p e titio n of p a rts, the sense of
id e n tity a n d stru c tu re c o n v e y e d from v a rio u s v a n ta g e points.
O t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a p p e a r o n l y w h e n a p p l i e d to a p a r t i c u -
lar s i t u a t i o n .
G e n e r a l f o r m s m a y b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d a c c o r d i n g to c h a r -
acteristics of d istrict p a tte rn (th e sh a p e of th e b o u n d a r y be-
t w e e n d e v e l o p m e n t a n d n o n d e v e l o p m e n t o r t h e w a y t h e in -
t e r n a l p a r t s a r e a r r a n g e d in s e c to r s , c h e c k e r s , s t r i p e s , o r
r in g s ) , focal p a t t e r n ( a r r a n g e m e n t s o f t h e i n t e n s i v e focal 37
p o i n t s o f a c ti v i t y o r f o r m ) , a n d n e t w o r k p a t t e r n ( g rid , r a d i o -
c o n c e n tr ic , lin e a r , c a p illa r y , a n d so o n ). W e m a y d is c u s s t h e Spatial and
d e n s i t y o f d e v e l o p m e n t , o r w e m a y c o n s i d e r its " g r a i n " : t h a t tem p o ra l grain
is, t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h a c tiv itie s o r f o r m s a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ,
h o w fin e ly th e s e d i f f e r i n g c la s s e s a re m ix e d , a n d h o w s h a r p
t h e t r a n s i t i o n is b e t w e e n t h e m . F or e x a m p l e , w h e n w e a r e
p u ttin g tw o different k in d s of h o u ses to g e th e r, the g ra in of o© o
t h a t m i x t u r e m a y b e fine o r c o a r s e , a n d t h e t r a n s i t i o n b e - 0 ©‫ם‬
tw een g ro u p s m a y be s h a rp or b lu rre d . T im e d istrib u tio n s
a lso h a v e g r a i n , as w e ll as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r a t e , cycle, a n d
s y n c h r o n y ( th e p a r a l l e l o r s e q u e n t i a l m e s h i n g o f b e h a v -
ior). A s o l e m n r e l i g i o u s c e l e b r a t i o n m a y b e v e r y d i f f e r e n t
f r o m o t h e r e v e n t s a n d e x t e n d o v e r a l o n g in t e r v a l (a s h a r p ,
coarse g ra in ), p roceed at a m ajestic pace, recu r o n ly at long
i n te r v a ls , a n d b e h i g h l y s y n c h r o n i z e d , b o t h i n t e r n a l l y a n d
w i t h r e g a r d to o t h e r a c tiv itie s .
T h e p a t t e r n o f site d e v e l o p m e n t a ffe c ts m a n y v a lu e s , S o m e G eneral
b o th q uantifiable an d n o n q u a n tifia b le . T h e p u rp o se s of a n y O b jectiv es
p l a n a r e n e v e r s t a n d a r d , b u t s e v e r a l g e n e r a l t y p e s t e n d to
r e c u r a n d a r e w o r t h a fe w c o m m e n t s . I n a d d i t i o n to t h e sp e -
cific a i m s o f p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p s , t h e s e a r e t h e m o r e g e n e r a l
ite m s t h a t o n e w o u l d e x p e c t t o find in a n y c o m p r e h e n s i v e
cost-benefit analysis:
B e h a v i o r a l s u p p o r t : T h e b a s i c te s t is t h e w a y in w h i c h
a p l a n s u p p o r t s p u r p o s e f u l b e h a v i o r in d e ta il: Is t h e r e s p a c e
a n d t i m e to d o w h a t p e o p l e w a n t to d o ? Is t h e s ite e q u i p p e d
a n d m a n a g e d for t h a t p u r p o s e ? Is t h e r e a p la c e to p l a y b a s e -
b a ll? R o o m to p ile s n o w ? E n o u g h lig h t? D o e s t h e s e t t i n g r e i n -
force t h e m o o d a n d s t r u c t u r e o f th e a c t i o n ? T h e d e s i g n e r m u s t
k n o w t h e p e o p l e w h o w ill u s e h is site ; h e m u s t u n d e r s t a n d
th e i r w a n t s a n d m a n n e r o f life o r h o w t h e y h o p e to m o d i f y R efe r e n c e 18
t h a t m a n n e r o f life. H e p u t s h i m s e l f in t h e i r p la c e a n d in h is
i m a g i n a t i o n g o e s t h r o u g h t h e a c t i o n s t h a t w ill fill t h e i r lives
th e r e . W h a t w ill it b e lik e to m a il a l e t t e r , t a l k to a n e i g h b o r ,
d isp lay w ealth, dispose of tra sh , seek a d v e n tu re ? O n e needs
to k n o w b o t h w h a t p e o p l e d o a n d a ls o w h a t t h e y e x p e r i e n c e
a n d p la n . T h a t k n o w l e d g e w ill b e i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e w h e n
t h e d e s i g n e r is a c t u a l l y a m e m b e r o f t h e g r o u p for w h o m h e is
w o r k i n g . M o r e o f te n , in v ie w o f t h e v o l u m e o f b u i l d i n g t h a t
m u s t b e d o n e , h is c lie n ts w ill b e d iv e r s e a n d t h e i r life
s t r a n g e to h im . S y m p a t h y is still th e b e g i n n i n g o f u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g , b u t h e m u s t n o w re ly o n th e f i n d i n g s o f f o r m a l so-
cial a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l s tu d ie s , o r h e m u s t find w a y s to b r i n g
th e c lie n ts t h e m s e l v e s i n to t h e d e c is io n p r o c e s s .
C o m m u n i c a t i o n : M o s t p l a n s a r e e ffe c tiv e to t h e d e g r e e
 38 t h a t g o o d s , p e r s o n s , a n d i n f o r m a t i o n c a n c ir c u la te e a s ily
w i t h i n th e m . W e m a y w i s h to e n c o u r a g e a d d i t i o n a l c o m m u -
n i c a t i o n o r m a y o n l y b e c o n c e r n e d to p e r m i t it, w h ile a l l o w i n g
a n i n d i v i d u a l to h a v e full c o n t r o l . O c c a s i o n a l l y , w e m a y w a n t
to d e c r e a s e c o m m u n i c a t i o n for th e s a k e o f p r i v a c y o r to p r e -
v e n t co n flict. A h i g h level o f so c ia l i n t e r a c t i o n o n a local sc a le
R efer en ces 13, m a y m e a n less i n t e r p l a y o n s o m e la r g e r scale. T h e r e c a n be
16 to o m u c h i n t e r a c t i o n o r to o little . G i v e n a h o m o g e n e o u s
g r o u p , t h e d e s ir e to m e e t, a n d o t h e r so c ia l d i m e n s i o n s fa v o r -
S e e p a g e s 131-132 a b le to i n t e r c o u r s e , a site c a n s u p p o r t a n d e n c o u r a g e c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n b y c o m m o n e n t r a n c e s , b y i n c r e a s e d v is u a l c o n -
ta c ts , b y focal p o i n t s s u c h as m a i l b o x e s , p l a y y a r d s , l a u n d r i e s ,
s c h o o ls , a n d c h u r c h e s . S h a r p b o u n d a r i e s , d a n g e r o u s c r o s s -
in g s , la r g e o p e n s p a c e s , a n d t h e la c k o f c o n n e c t i o n s t e n d to d i-
v id e p e o p le . P u t t i n g site m a n a g e m e n t in t o local h a n d s g e n -
e r a t e s in c r e a s e d local c o m m u n i c a t i o n a s its b y - p r o d u c t . A
fin e g r a i n o f r e s i d e n t i a l t y p e m a y e n c o u r a g e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p e o p le , b u t a c o a r s e g r a i n , w i t h
la r g e r a r e a s o f h o m o g e n e i t y , w ill m o s t lik e ly p e r m i t a g r e a t e r
to t a l v o l u m e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s in c e i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n s im -
ila r p e o p l e r e q u i r e s less e ffo rt. If w e w a n t r e s i d e n t s to b e a b le
to c o n t r o l th e r a t e o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e n e a c h d w e l l i n g c a n
f r o n t o n a n i n t e n s e l y u s e d c o m m o n ac c e ss a n d b a c k o n t o a
s e c lu d e d a re a . T h e f e a tu r e s o f t h e m o v e m e n t s y s t e m a re c riti-
cal to all t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a n d w ill b e d e v e l o p e d in C h a p t e r 6.
H e a l t h a n d s t r e s s : It w o u l d s e e m o b v i o u s t h a t a n y e n v i-
r o n m e n t s h o u l d c o n t r i b u t e to t h e h e a l t h o f its i n h a b i t a n t s a n d
r e d u c e t h e s tr e s s e s u p o n t h e m ; n o is e , c lim a te , p o l l u t i o n ,
g la r e , d u s t , a c c id e n ts , a n d d is e a s e . W e k n o w s o m e t h i n g
a b o u t t h e e ffect o f e n v i r o n m e n t o n p h y s i c a l h e a l t h a n d a re
l e a r n i n g m o r e . D u r i n g t h e la s t c e n t u r y w e m a d e g r e a t g a i n s
in e l e m e n t a r y s a n i t a t i o n . B u t n o m i n a l c lie n ts m a y n o t b e
co n cern ed w ith a n y th in g m o re th a n m in im u m s ta n d a rd s of
s a n i t a t i o n o r s t r u c t u r a l s a fe ty . T h e d a n g e r s o f a m a j o r a c c i d e n t
o r c r i m i n a l a t t a c k a r e d r a m a t i c , b u t t h e y m a y b e ig n o r e d
u n t i l t h e y o c c u r a n d t h e n b r i n g o n a n o v e r r e a c t i o n . S ite f o r m
is n o t a l w a y s as r e l e v e n t to t h e s e v is ib le evils as it m a y a p -
p e a r . S e c u r i t y f r o m a t t a c k , for e x a m p le , is le ss a m a t t e r o f
lo c k s a n d w a lls t h a n it is o f d e a l i n g w i t h r o o t so cial c a u s e s o r
i n c r e a s i n g e ffe c tiv e so c ia l c o n tr o ls . S ite f o r m e n t e r s in p r i m a -
rily as it s u p p o r t s c o n t r o l , in c r e a s e s th e sc o p e o f v is u a l s u r -
v e illa n c e , o r h e lp s to d e fin e t e r r i t o r i e s o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
T h e d i s c o m f o r t s o f m i n o r a c c id e n ts , a p o o r m ic r o c l i m a t e ,
n o is e , a n d p o l l u t i o n a re m o r e o f te n d i s r e g a r d e d ; y e t t h e y a re
m o r e clo s e ly tie d to th e site p la n . P e o p le w ill s u ffe r th e s e c o n -
d i t i o n s in silen ce, a d a p t i n g to t h e m as t h e y c a n , s o m e t i m e s 39
e v e n u n a w a r e o f t h e m . I n d e e d , o u r k n o w l e d g e is m o s t defi-
c ie n t in a s s e s s i n g th e l o n g - t e r m h i d d e n c o s ts o f e n v i r o n m e n -
tal s tr e s s o f th e k i n d t h a t m e n a r e a b le , at le a st o n t h e s u r - R efer en ce 11
face, to a d a p t to so ea sily . T h e i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
e n v i r o n m e n t to m e n t a l h e a l t h is as y e t l a r g e l y o b s c u r e . T h u s
th e site d e s i g n e r o f te n fin d s h i m s e l f r e s p o n s i b l e n o t s i m p l y
for r e c o m m e n d i n g p a t t e r n s to r e d u c e s tr e s s b u t a ls o for p l e a d -
in g t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f th e s e o b je c tiv e s to h is c lie n t.
A d a p t a b i l i t y : A c t i v i t y at a site w ill a l w a y s c h a n g e in
t h e f u tu r e , a n d so w ill th e n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g th e r e .
E stim ates of th a t future are u n c e rta in . F u rth e rm o re , m o st
p e o p le n e e d s o m e " g i v e " o r p l a s t i c i t y in t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t ;
t h e y w i s h to m o l d it t h e m s e l v e s . A t t h e s a m e tim e , t h e y w ill
b e d i s t u r b e d b y s u d d e n a n d s w e e p i n g c h a n g e s . C l i e n t s a re
n a t u r a l l y o b s e s s e d w i t h p r e s e n t n e e d s , b u t t h e d e s i g n e r is
r e s p o n s i b l e for t e s t i n g h is p l a n to see h o w w e ll it w ill a c c o m -
m o d a t e to f u t u r e c h a n g e w i t h o u t s h a r p e c o lo g ic a l, t e c h n ic a l,
o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l b r e a k s , as w ell as for e s t i m a t i n g th e s c o p e it
g iv e s for i n c r e m e n t a l i n d i v i d u a l a d a p t a t i o n s . A d a p t a b i l i t y R efer en ce 3
s e e m s to b e f a c ilita te d b y s u c h g e n e r a l d e v ic e s a s lo w d e n -
s ity o r o t h e r k i n d s of e x c e ss c a p a c ity , b y a g o o d c o m m u n i c a -
t io n s s y s t e m , b y s e p a r a t i n g th e c u s t o m a r y d e c is io n u n i t s
from each o th e r, a n d b y s o rtin g o ut th e m o re p e rm a n e n t uses
o r t h o s e m o r e r e s i s t a n t to c h a n g e f r o m t h e m o r e t e m p o r a r y o r
e a s i e r - t o - c h a n g e a c tiv itie s. It is e n h a n c e d b y c o n s e r v i n g f u n -
d a m e n ta l e n v iro n m e n ta l reso u rces a n d b y e sta b lish in g a
s e l f - m a i n t a i n i n g , r e s ilie n t, a n d h e a l t h y b io lo g ic a l c o m m u -
n ity . It c a n a ls o b e a c c o m p l i s h e d b y " g r o w t h f o r m s " : p a t -
t e r n s t h a t le a v e r o o m for a c t i v i t y s e t t i n g s to e x p a n d w i t h o u t
d i s t u r b i n g o t h e r a re a s . P l a s t i c i t y is e n c o u r a g e d b y t h e p r e s -
e n c e o f s m a ll t e r r i t o r i e s t h a t c a n b e c la im e d b y g r o u p s o r in -
d iv id u a ls . T h e " w a s t e a r e a s " t h a t c o m e f r o m a c e r t a i n lo o se -
n e s s in p l a n a re t h e p la c e s in w h i c h p e o p le c a n o p e r a t e
d i r e c tly o n t h e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s a n d in w h i c h sp e c ia l e c o lo g i-
cal c o m m u n i t i e s m a y s u r v iv e . H e r e c h i l d r e n m a k e t h e i r o w n
w o r ld s o u t of i m a g i n a t i o n a n d d i s c a r d e d m a t e r i a l ; a d u l t s
ta k e th e c a r a p a r t , e re c t a s h e d , o r p l a n t a g a r d e n . A d a p t - Figure 38, pugc 22~
a b ility is as m u c h a re s u lt of site m a n a g e m e n t as it is o f
s p a tia l form .
C o s t : D e v e l o p m e n t s h o u l d be a c h ie v e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d
at th e lo w e s t c o st in l a b o r , m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s , so c ia l o r e c o lo g i-
cal d i s r u p t i o n , a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l effo rt, g iv e n t h e f u n c t i o n s
to be se r v e d a n d t h e s t a n d a r d s to b e m e t. T h e a n a l y s i s m u s t
i d e n tif y w h o will be p a y i n g th e v a r io u s c o sts, sin c e c o s ts a re
40 w i d e l y a n d u n e q u a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d . It is s u r p r i s i n g t h a t w h ile
c o s ts a r e u s u a l l y u p p e r m o s t in t h e m i n d s o f t h o s e w h o m a k e
d e v e l o p m e n t d e c is io n s , th e s e c o s ts a r e o f a r e s t r i c t e d k i n d ,
a n d m a n y d e c is io n s a b o u t t h e m a r e h e a v i l y l a r d e d w i t h i r r a -
t i o n a l i t y . L a s t - m i n u t e b u d g e t s a v i n g s a re m a d e b y c u t t i n g
o u t " l u x u r i e s , " f u t u r e m a i n t e n a n c e c o s ts a r e n e g le c te d , a n d
i s o la te d e c o n o m i e s in t h e s p e e d o f d e c i s i o n o r in r e g a r d to
q u a n t i f i a b l e f a c to r s c a u s e h e a v y b u r d e n s e ls e w h e r e . It is r a r e
to see a c ritic a l e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o n t i n u i n g g e n e r a l c o sts
a n d b e n e f its o f b a s ic a l t e r n a t i v e s .
S ite c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s ts a r e t y p i c a l l y m i n i m i z e d b y a r e g -
u l a r i t y o f f o r m , b y c o m p a c t a r r a n g e m e n t s , b y r e d u c i n g ex-
p e n s i v e f e a t u r e s s u c h as r o a d s , b y u s i n g t h e h i g h e s t d e n s i t y
d e s i r a b l e for t h e g iv e n u s e a n d s t r u c t u r a l ty p e , or, o f c o u r s e ,
b y l o w e r i n g s t a n d a r d s . B u t l o w e r s t a n d a r d s m a y m e a n in -
c r e a s e d m a i n t e n a n c e c o s ts . I n site p l a n n i n g , d i s c o u n t e d
m a i n t e n a n c e c o s ts a r e ty p i c a l l y g r e a t e r t h a n i n itia l c o n -
s t r u c t i o n c o sts, t h o u g h r a r e l y c a lc u l a t e d . L ik e w is e , site
m a i n t e n a n c e c o s ts a r e m i n i m i z e d b y s i m p l i c i t y o f f o r m b u t
a ls o b y a s e l f - m a i n t a i n i n g e c o lo g ic a l s y s t e m , d u r a b l e m a t e -
r ia ls, a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t s t h a t r e d u c e v a n d a l i s m .
A l l o w a b l e m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t, as w e ll a s first c o s t, s h o u l d al-
w a y s b e p a r t o f a p r o g r a m . T h e co s t d i f f e r e n t i a l b e t w e e n g o o d
a n d bad m a y so m etim es sim p ly be th e a d d itio n a l d esign
tim e r e q u i r e d to d is c o v e r a b e t t e r s o l u t i o n . D e s i g n c o s ts a r e
s m a ll in p r o p o r t i o n to t o t a l c o st a n d p r o j e c t life, b u t th e s e
i m m e d i a t e o u t l a y s a n d d e l a y s lo o m l a r g e to t h e h a r d - p r e s s e d
c lie n t.
Financial E c o n o m ic is s u e s a r e in f r o n t w h i l e m a k i n g s ite d e v e l o p -
feasibility m e n t d e c is io n s . C o s t d a t a a r e g i v e n in C h a p t e r 13 a l o n g w i t h
a d e s c r i p t i o n o f h o w t h o s e c o s ts a re lik e ly to v a r y a n d s o m e
m e t h o d s fo r m a k i n g c r u d e c o s t e s ti m a t e s . B u t s i m p l e c o s t
d a ta are o n ly p a rt of th e e c o n o m ic c a lcu latio n , w h ic h m u st
d e a l w i t h i n c o m e , t i m i n g , a n d t h e i n c i d e n c e o f c o s t as w ell.
I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m o s t site d e v e l o p m e n t is n o w d o n e
b y t w o k i n d s o f r e l a t i v e l y la r g e - s c a l e p r i v a t e d e v e l o p e r s :
t h o s e w h o a r e b u i l d i n g fo r sa le to o t h e r s , w h e t h e r t h o s e o t h e r s
a re h o m e o w n e r s o r re a l e s t a t e i n v e s t m e n t f ir m s , a n d t h o s e
w h o w ill r e t a i n o w n e r s h i p a n d m a n a g e m e n t , e i t h e r as le s s o r s
o r as a c t u a l o c c u p ie r s . I n b o t h c a se s t h e k e y e c o n o m i c c a lc u la -
tio n s fo c u s o n t h e c o s ts a n d b e n e f its fo r t h e d e v e lo p e r , s u b je c t
to t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f m a r k e t d e m a n d a n d p u b l i c r e g u l a t i o n .
C o sts in c u rre d b y o th e rs are p e rip h e ra l c o n sid e ra tio n s. T h e
p r i n c i p a l d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o k i n d s o f d e v e l o p e r s lies
in w h e t h e r o r n o t f u t u r e m a n a g e m e n t c o s ts a r e c o n s i d e r e d
im p o rtan t.
 In its s i m p l e s t f o r m th e c a l c u l a t i o n first r e q u i r e s a n es-
t i m a t e o f t h e to ta l c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e c o s ts (in c lu -
sive o f s o m e m a r g i n for u n c e r t a i n t y ) o f a g iv e n d e v e l o p m e n t
o v e r t h e p e r io d o f tim e t h o u g h t to be n e c e s s a r y to a c h i e v e a n
a c c e p t a b l e r e t u r n . N e x t , s u c h a d d i t i o n a l t i m e - c o n t i n g e n t c o s ts
as in t e r e s t c h a r g e s , ta x e s , a n d d e p r e c i a t i o n a re a d d e d . T h e n
th e s e c o s ts a re c o m p a r e d w i t h c a s h r e t u r n s ( r e n t s a n d sales)
o v e r th e s a m e p e r io d . T h e n e t s u r p l u s o f r e t u r n s o v e r c o st is
d iv id e d b y th e e q u i t y c a p ita l i n v e s t e d b y t h e d e v e l o p e r to
g iv e t h e p e r c e n t r e t u r n . If t h is r a t e is e q u a l to o r m o r e t h a n
w h a t t h a t e q u i t y c a p ita l c a n e a r n e l s e w h e r e , t h e d e v e l o p -
m e n t is ju d g e d w o r t h d o i n g . If n o t , a d j u s t m e n t s a r e m a d e
u n til t h e r e t u r n is a d e q u a t e , o r t h e p r o je c t is a b a n d o n e d . A d -
ju s tm e n ts m a y be m a d e b y c h a n g in g the q u a lity of th e de-
v e l o p m e n t in w a y s t h a t w ill n o t d e c r e a s e sa le s o r r e n t a l s o r
b y c h a n g i n g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t a l p r o g r a m , t h a t is, t h e d e n s i t y
o r th e m ix o f u se s o r c lie n ts , o r b y c h a n g i n g t h e t i m i n g o f t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e s e s t u d i e s o f f in a n c ia l f e a s ib ility c o m e v e r y
e a r ly in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s a n d a re u s u a l l y t h e p r i n c i -
pal d e t e r m i n a n t in i n i t i a t i n g d e t a i l e d p l a n n i n g a n d for se t-
t in g t h e g e n e r a l p r o g r a m .
S u c h a c a l c u l a t i o n is s e n s itiv e to m a n y d i f f e r e n t f a c to r s :
th e m a r k e t d e m a n d for v a r i o u s k i n d s o f fa c ilitie s, f l u c t u a t i o n s
in c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e c o s ts , p r e v a i l i n g in t e r e s t
r a te s a n d p r o f it o p p o r t u n i t i e s , la n d p r ic e s , p u b lic r e g u l a t i o n s
a f fe c tin g d e v e l o p m e n t — fire la w s , b u i l d i n g c o d e s, s u b d i v i -
s io n r e g u l a t i o n s , o r t h e s t a n d a r d s a n d p r o c e d u r e s for g a i n i n g
sp ecial p u b lic s u b s id ie s . I n c o m e ta x r u le s a n d t h e s u p p l y o f
a v a ila b le i n v e s t m e n t c a p ita l h a v e s t r o n g effects. F o r e x a m -
pie, la r g e i n v e s t o r s m a y be w illin g to s u p p l y m o n e y at
m o d e r a t e r a te s in o r d e r to g a in t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f a r a p i d
d e p r e c i a t i o n for ta x p u r p o s e s . T i m i n g is e s s e n tia l: a s e e m -
in g ly f a v o r a b l e l o n g - t e r m i n v e s t m e n t m a y s u p p l y r e t u r n s so
m u c h la te r t h a n it i n c u r s c o sts t h a t la r g e a m o u n t s o f c a p ita l
are tied u p a n d i n t e r e s t c h a r g e s w ip e o u t t h e a p p a r e n t p r o f -
its. D e v e l o p m e n t s a r e th e r e f o r e e v a l u a t e d b y a n e c o n o m i c
m o d e l t h a t ite m iz e s th e o u t l a y s a n d i n c o m e s b y y e a r, fro m
th e i n i t i a t i o n o f p l a n n i n g to th e p o i n t o f d is p o s a l o r s o m e c o n -
v e n tio n a l p o i n t o f to ta l d e p r e c i a t i o n . F ro m t h e s e f ig u re s th e
m o d e l c a lc u la te s th e c u m u l a t i v e c a p ita l r e q u i r e m e n t s , i n t e r -
est c h a r g e s , a n d p ro fit r e t u r n s . In s u c h s i t u a t i o n s t h e r e is
p r e s s u r e for r a p id d e c is io n s , r a p id d e s ig n , i m m e d i a t e o c c u -
p a tio n , a n d q u ic k r e t u r n , w i t h c o n s e q u e n t effects o n q u a lity .
W h ile th e c a l c u l a t i o n is c o m p le x a n d s u b je c t to m a n y
e x te r io r f lu c tu a tio n s , it is a lso s ta b iliz e d a n d s im p lif ie d b y
c u r r e n t c o n v e n t i o n a l i t i e s or u n i f o r m i t i e s , t h a t is, p r e v a i l i n g
 42 la n d p r ic e s o r c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s ts o r i n t e r e s t r a te s , fixed p u b lic
r e g u l a t i o n s a n d ta x ru le s , a c c e p te d t y p e s o f u s e s a n d s t r u c -
tu r e s ( s i n g l e - f a m i l y h o u s e s o n q u a r t e r - a c r e lo ts, o r r e g io n a l
s h o p p i n g c e n t e r s b a s e d o n t w o d e p a r t m e n t s to r e s , for e x a m -
pie ), a n d a c c e p te d ru le s for t h e d e g r e e o f u n c e r t a i n t y o r th e
ti m e p e r i o d o f c a l c u l a t i o n . T h e s e u n i f o r m i t i e s r e s u l t in s u c h
ru le s o f t h u m b as t h e r a n g e s o f la n d c o s t p e r s q u a r e foot
w h i c h a re a l l o w a b l e for d if f e r e n t k i n d s o f d e v e l o p m e n t , r a t i o s
o f la n d c o s t to d e v e l o p m e n t c o s t, a p p r o p r i a t e o v e r h e a d c o sts,
a n d p r e v a i l i n g c o s ts p e r s q u a r e fo o t for d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f fa-
cilities ( w h i c h , o f c o u r s e , d e p e n d u l t i m a t e l y o n w h a t is
t h o u g h t to be " a d e q u a t e " ) . U s i n g s u c h u n i f o r m i t i e s , w e c a n
c a lc u la te r a p i d l y t h e p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f a l t e r n a t i v e m ix e s o f u s e
a n d d e n s i t y a t g iv e n lo c a tio n s . S u c h c a l c u l a t i o n s , n o w b e i n g
c o m p u t e r i z e d , a r e t h e k e y s to i n v e s t m e n t d e c is io n . B ut t h e y
a re r a t i o n a l o n l y to t h e e x t e n t t h a t th e i r u n d e r l y i n g a s s u m p -
t io n s a r e so.
S ite d e s i g n e r s m u s t b e f a m i l i a r w i t h th e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s .
T h e y w ill p r e p a r e t h e m if t h e i r t a s k in c l u d e s f e a s ib ility
s t u d i e s as w ell as d e s ig n . A t t h e v e r y le a st, t h e y m u s t be
a b le to re a d a n d e v a l u a t e t h e m s in c e f in a n c ia l g a in is in a
r u l i n g p o s i t i o n . C o n s i d e r a t i o n s q u i t e r e m o t e f r o m t h e a c tu a l
p e r f o r m a n c e o f a p l a n — i n c o m e ta x r u le s a r e o n e e x a m p l e
— m a y o f te n d i c t a t e t h e fo rm . A n a n a l y s i s o f c o s ts a n d b e n e -
fits m u s t i n d e e d lie a t t h e b a s e o f a n y r a t i o n a l s ite d e c is io n ,
a n d m o s t site d e s i g n e r s d o n o t k n o w h o w to m a k e t h a t
a n a l y s i s . H o w e v e r , a n a d e q u a t e a n a l y s i s w e i g h s c o s ts a n d
b e n e f its o f all k i n d s , n o n m o n e t a r y — e v e n n o n q u a n t i f i a b l e
— as w ell as m o n e t a r y , a n d c o n s i d e r s w h o p a y s a n d w h o
rec e iv e s. By b r i n g i n g i n c o m m e n s u r a t e ite m s as w ell as d i-
v e r s e p a r t i e s in t o th e t r a n s a c t i o n , w e a r e f o rc e d a g a i n , d e -
s p ite all th e r e f i n e m e n t s o f d e c is io n t h e o r y , to m a k e d e lic a te
s u b je c tiv e o r p o litic a l j u d g m e n t s , a l t h o u g h it is p o s s i b l e to
m a k e t h o s e j u d g m e n t s m o r e e x p lic itly t h a n w e a r e a c c u s -
t o m e d to do.
Failures o f the T h e n a r r o w e r c a l c u l a t i o n s o f p r o f it r e t u r n to a s in g le de-
m arket system v e lo p e r , w h i l e a lso e x p lic it, re a listic , a n d c o n d u c i v e to eco-
n o m i c e ffic ie n cy o f a r e s t r i c t e d k i n d , h a v e c e r t a i n ty p ic a l a n t i -
social effects. L a n d p ric e s , for e x a m p le , m a y s e e m to fo rc e a
u se o f r e s i d e n t i a l d e n s i t i e s t h a t a re to o h i g h in t e r m s o f c u r-
ren t p referen ce a n d need, even w h e n ad d itio n a l lan d m ay
a c t u a l l y b e a v a i l a b l e e ls e w h e r e . H i g h f u t u r e m a i n t e n a n c e
c o s ts m a y b e i n c u r r e d in o r d e r to a c h ie v e lo w first co sts. N o n -
m o n e t a r y c o s ts a n d b e n e f its will b e ig n o r e d . N e e d w ill n o t be
s e r v e d , e i t h e r b e c a u s e th e d e m a n d c a n n o t m u s t e r t h e re-
q u i r e d p r ic e o r s i m p l y b e c a u s e t h e m a r k e t is n o t o r g a n i z e d o r
vocal. O ffic e s, b a n k s , l u x u r y h o u s i n g , a n d s h o p p i n g c e n te r s , 43
o n th e o t h e r h a n d , w ill a p p e a r in a b u n d a n c e . B e c a u s e o f ex-
te r n a l f lu c tu a tio n s , d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e e d s in je r k y fits t h a t d o
n o t c o r r e s p o n d to th e g r o w t h o f d e m a n d a n d a r e w a s te f u l o f
c o n s t r u c t i o n r e s o u r c e s . S p e e d o f d e s i g n a n d d e c is io n is
a c h ie v e d b u t to th e d e t r i m e n t o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l q u a lity . In -
v e s t m e n t is i r r a t i o n a l l y d ir e c te d b y s u c h m o t i v e s as ta x s h e l-
ter, p r e s tig e , o r s u r p l u s fu n d s . O w i n g to th e d e la y s o f p u b lic
r e g u l a t i o n a n d th e d r iv e for s e c u r i t y o f i n v e s t m e n t , s ite d e -
v e lo p m e n t so lu tio n s becom e h ig h ly sta n d a rd iz e d . M a r k e t
sales a re k e p t u p b y a n a n n u a l a d d i t i o n o f " i n n o v a t i v e " fea-
tu r e s , w h i c h m a y h a v e little r e l a t i o n to l o n g - t e r m q u a l i t y .
A n d so on . C o s t s n o t i n c u r r e d b y t h e d e v e l o p e r a r e n a t u r a l l y
g lo s s e d o v e r u n le s s h e is fo rc e d to a t t e n d to t h e m b y c o n t r o l s
o r b y d e v i c e s — s u c h as u s e r fees o r sp e c ia l a s s e s s -
m e n t s — w h i c h a d d t h o s e c o s ts to h is o w n b u d g e t . L o n g - t e r m
effects o n t h e e c o lo g y o f a site a n d its e n v i r o n s a r e a fre-
q u e n t l y n e g le c te d e x t e r n a l c o st of t h i s k i n d , as a r e t h e o v e r -
lo a d s p u t o n t h e a d j a c e n t p u b l i c se rv ic e s y s t e m s : s tr e e ts ,
s c h o o ls , t r a n s i t lin e s , a n d u tilitie s .
T h e im p e rfe c tio n s of th e m a rk e t e c o n o m y are a fam iliar
t h e m e a n d a r e n o t c o r r e c t a b l e b y s ite d e s i g n e r s , a l t h o u g h
th e s e im p e r f e c t i o n s m a y a ffect t h e i r c h o ic e o f c lie n ts . S o m e
o f t h e s e f a u lts a r e r e m e d i a b l e b y a d j u s t m e n t s in p u b l i c ac-
tio n s a n d c o n tr o ls , w h i c h set t h e f r a m e w o r k for m a r k e t d e c i-
sio n s. S o m e a r e a m e l i o r a t e d b y a r e lia n c e o n d e v e l o p e r s w h o
have a lo n g -te rm interest. M o s t of th e m aw a it m o re fu n d a -
m e n t a l c h a n g e s in t h e r u le s o f t h e g a m e . W e c a n e x p e c t
m o r e r a t i o n a l a c t i o n s o n l y w h e n w e u s e m o r e i n c lu s iv e
c o s t- b e n e f it a n a l y s e s , w i t h i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s m o t i -
v a te d to ta k e t h o s e m o r e i n c lu s iv e f a c to r s i n t o a c c o u n t .
M e a n w h i l e , a k n o w l e d g e o f c u r r e n t m e t h o d s fo r a n a l y z i n g
fin a n c ia l fe a s ib ility is e s s e n tia l for a d e s i g n e r 's s u r v iv a l o r
for a n y a t t e m p t s a t c o u n t e r a c t i o n .
G e n e r a l g o a ls o f t h e k i n d ju s t liste d m u s t b e r e i n t e r -
p r e te d for e a c h specific case, b u t t h e y a p p e a r a g a i n a n d
a g a in . T h e i r v e r y o b v i o u s n e s s o f te n a llo w s t h e m to be o v e r -
r id d e n in th e s i t e - p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s . W h e n w e h a v e u n i t s
a n d s t a n d a r d s for b e h a v i o r a l s u p p o r t o r a c c e ss o r s t r e s s o r
a d a p t a b i l i t y as w e h a v e u n i t s ( b u t v e r y p a r t i a l o n e s ! ) for
cost, t h e n w e a r e lik e ly to a c h ie v e th e s e q u a litie s to a h i g h e r
d e g re e .
T h i n k i n g o f th e s e c r ite r ia m a k e s it a p p a r e n t w h y t h e Management
m a n a g e m e n t a n d s u p p o r t o f a s e t t i n g m u s t b e sp e c ifie d
a lo n g w i t h its fo rm . D e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f d e c is io n , a c c u r a t e
in f o r m a t i o n , a n d r a p id m a n a g e m e n t r e s p o n s e e n h a n c e
 a d a p t a b i l i t y . P a r t i c i p a t i o n in e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e c is io n in-
c r e a s e s social c o m m u n i c a t i o n . T h e t i m i n g o f e v e n t s c a u s e s
o v e r l o a d s a n d u n d e r l o a d s o n p h y s i c a l facilities. E v e n ts h a v e
t h e i r p r o p e r t i m e as w e ll as t h e i r p r o p e r sp a c e . G r o u p te r r i-
to r ie s c a n b e a c h i e v e d b y p a r t i t i o n i n g th e tim e p a t t e r n , as
w ell as b y m a r k i n g o u t p h y s i c a l b o u n d a r i e s .
A graphic If t h e a c ti v i t y d i a g r a m , b a s e d o n t h e b e h a v i o r a l p r o ‫־‬
language for g r a m a n d b u d g e t , is to b e o n e o f t h e p r i n c i p a l to o ls for d e -
activity s ig n , it m u s t b e c o m e a fle x ib le a n d e x p r e s s i v e g r a p h i c Ian-
g u a g e th a t can c o n v e y b e h a v io r a n d form q u ality , e x h ib it
li n k a g e s , a n d a p p e a r e i t h e r as a r a p i d to p o l o g i c a l s k e t c h o r
a n e l a b o r a t e s c a le d d i a g r a m . C y c lic a l tim e p a t t e r n s s h o u l d
b e a p p a r e n t , a s w e ll as t h e l o n g - r a n g e s t r a t e g y o f d e v e l o p -
m e n t : t h e w a y o n e s t a g e s u c c e e d s a n o t h e r , h o w a r e a s a r e to
b e h e ld in t r a n s i t i o n a l u s e p e n d i n g m o r e p e r m a n e n t c o m -
m i t m e n t , h o w t h e s t r a t e g y its e lf w ill s h if t a c c o r d i n g to o u t -
s id e e v e n ts . T h i s m i g h t b e d o n e m o s t a p t l y in s o m e i m p r o b -
a b le m e d i u m , lik e a m a n y - b r a n c h e d , a n i m a t e d film , b u t
a lso b y s i m p l e g r a p h i c s k e t c h e s , d r a w n in s u c c e s s iv e s ta g e s
o r u s i n g ti m e s y m b o l s . T h e t e c h n i q u e m u s t b e c o m e a s fa-
m i l i a r a n d r e lia b le as a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l d r a w i n g if w e m e a n
to m a n a g e t h e r e a l e s s e n c e o f a site p l a n . It s h o u l d b e as p o s -
s ib le to d e n o t e a n d c r e a t e n e w f o r m s o f a c t i v i t y s e t t i n g s a s it
is to d o so w i t h n e w f o r m s o f b u i l d i n g s .
L ike a n y d e s i g n , t h e s y n t h e s i s o f th is p a t t e r n is n o t a
log ic a l, s i n g l e - t r a c k p r o c e s s , p r o c e e d i n g i n e x o r a b l y f r o m a
k n o w l e d g e o f l i n k a g e s to a final a r r a n g e m e n t . J u d g m e n t
a n d c r e a tiv e d e c is io n m u s t b e e m p l o y e d , a n d m a n y a l t e r n a -
tiv es m u s t b e d e v e lo p e d . C h a p t e r 11 w ill g iv e a b e t t e r s e n s e
o f t h e to t a l s i t e - p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s . T h e a c t i v i t y p l a n is n o t a
A ctivity s e p a r a t e e n t i t y to b e d e t e r m i n e d b y itself. It is t h e S i a m e s e
diagram s and t w i n o f th e c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n , w h i c h w ill b e d i s c u s s e d in
three- C h a p t e r 6. Its i m p l i c a t i o n s fo r t h e p h y s i c a l v is u a l f o r m m u s t
dim en sion al a l w a y s b e h e ld in m i n d , h o w e v e r t e m p t i n g it m a y b e to
form le a v e th is q u e s t i o n to a final p e r i o d o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l a d o r n -
m e n t . W ill t h e site o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l o w a c le a r e x p r e s s i o n o f
t h e p r i n c i p a l f u n c t i o n s ? W ill t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f a c tiv itie s
b r i n g a b o u t a d e s i r a b l e v i s u a l effect? T h e m o s t s e r i o u s d a n -
g e r o f t h e m e t h o d lies in t h e t e n d e n c y to t h i n k in t e r m s o f
a r e a l d e s i g n a t i o n s o n p a p e r a n d to f o r g e t t h a t w h a t is b e i n g
c o n c e iv e d is a f o r m in t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s . R o u g h s k e t c h e s
sh o w in g the con crete im p lic a tio n s of activity pro p o sa ls, con-
c u r r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e g e n e r a l v is u a l f o r m , a n d m a n i p -
u la tio n of the activity p a tte r n on a m odel ra th e r th a n on a
m a p m a y all h e l p to o v e r c o m e t h is d a n g e r .
C hapter

Technique:
Site Form and Site Ecology

A n e c o lo g ic a l s y s t e m is a c o m m u n i t y o f p l a n t s a n d
a n i m a l s c o o p e r a t i n g a n d c o m p e t i n g w i t h e a c h o t h e r in t h e
s a m e h a b i t a t , r e c y c lin g n u t r i e n t s , a n d e x p l o i t i n g th e e n - R efer en c e 2 6
e r g y o f t h e s u n . S in c e m a n is a p a r t o f n a t u r e , u r b a n a r e a s
a re a lso e c o lo g ic a l s y s t e m s . N o r m a l l y , a n d in t h e a b s e n c e o f
external changes, these sy ste m s m o v e to w a rd a m a tu re E cology
s t e a d y s t a t e in w h i c h t h e d i v e r s i t y o f s p e c ie s a n d t h e s t a n d -
in g c ro p , o r b io m a s s , a r e at a m a x i m u m , th e s t r u c t u r e o f in -
t e r r e l a t i o n s is c o m p le x , a n d t h e n e t p r o d u c t i o n of o r g a n i c
m a t t e r , o r s u r p l u s fo o d , d r o p s to ze ro . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a s s o c ia -
tio n s a r e f o r m e d — r a i n f o r e s t, g r a s s l a n d , s a lt m a r s h , t u n -
d r a — w h o s e f o r m d e p e n d s la r g e l y o n t h e le v e ls o f lig h t,
t e m p e r a t u r e , a n d m o i s t u r e . T h e d i v e r s i t y o f s p e c ie s s e e m s to
be c o n n e c t e d to t h e s t á b i l i t y o f t h e s y s t e m , a n d a d r o p in
t h a t d i v e r s i t y is a n e a r l y w a r n i n g o f a d i s t u r b a n c e . S t a b l e
c o m m u n i t i e s r e g u l a t e t h e i r h a b i t a t , a s w e ll as v ice v e r s a : for
e x a m p le , soil a n d c l i m a t e a r e in f lu e n c e d b y p l a n t s . V i o l e n t
o s c illa tio n s o c c u r w h e n s o m e e x o tic f a c to r a ffe c ts t h e s y s -
t e r n — a n e w spe c ie s, a s h if t in c lim a te , a fire, a n e r u p t i o n ,
a n e w d is e a s e , a n e w c h e m ic a l, o r h u m a n a c tio n . O t h e r -
w ise, t h e h i g h l y i n t e r l i n k e d s y s t e m r e g u l a t e s itself. P o p u -
l a tio n s a r e k e p t at s ta b l e n u m b e r s a n d in specific l o c a t i o n s
b y c o m p e t i t i o n , p r e d a t i o n , n a t u r a l lim its, a n d s e l f - r e g u l a t -
in g p r o c e s s e s s u c h as t e r r i t o r i a l i t y . B u t c h a n g e s o c c u r r i n g
in o n e s p e c ie s will h a v e f a r - r e a c h i n g a n d u n e x p e c t e d ef-
 46 fects all a l o n g t h e fo o d c h a in . T h u s a c h a n g e in o n e sp e c ie s
m a y o f te n be b r o u g h t a b o u t b y c h a n g i n g t h e g e n e r a l c o n d i -
t io n s o r b y o p e r a t i n g o n s o m e o t h e r sp e c ie s, as w e ll as b y
w o r k i n g d i r e c t l y o n t h e sp e c ie s itself.
W h ile th e m a x im u m gross p ro d u c tio n of o rg a n ic m a tte r
o c c u r s in s u c h m a t u r e a n d i n t r i c a t e c o m m u n i t i e s as c o r a l
Human r eefs o r m a r i n e e s t u a r i e s , w h e r e n e t p r o d u c t i o n is c lo se to
preferences for z e ro , t h e m a x i m u m n e t p r o d u c t i o n fo r h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n
habitat o c c u r s in c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y u p s e t so as to
k e e p t h e m " y o u n g " a n d b i o l o g i c a l l y r e l a t i v e l y p o o r : th e
c le a r e d fo re st, t h e p l o w e d g r a s s l a n d , t h e p e r i o d i c a l l y
d r a i n e d p o n d . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is a p r e v a l e n t h u m a n h a b i t a t
p r e f e r e n c e for a m ix o f f o r e s t a n d g r a s s l a n d — t h e s a v a n n a ,
o r f o r e s t ed g e. T r e e s a re p l a n t e d o n t h e p l a i n s a n d c le a r i n g s
m a d e in th e w o o d s . O u r p r e f e r e n c e s for fo o d a n d h a b i t a t , as
w ell as t h e d e n s i t y o f h u m a n o c c u p a t i o n , fo rc e u s t o w a r d a
c o n s t a n t m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . O u r m e a n s for
m a n a g e m e n t a r e n o w so p o w e r f u l t h a t m i s t a k e s c a n be
f a r - r e a c h i n g . H a b i t a t s c a n be so c h a n g e d t h a t t h e y n e v e r
r e t u r n to t h e i r p r e v i o u s s t a t e , o r o n l y a f te r a lo n g p e r i o d — a
t h o u s a n d y e a r s p e r h a p s . N e w sp e c ie s a r e i n t r o d u c e d t h a t
r e a c t v i o l e n t l y w i t h t h e e c o s y s te m . W a s t e s a r e g e n e r a t e d
t h a t o v e r l o a d th e n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s o f d e c o m p o s i t i o n or,
w o r s e , a re o f s u c h a n e w k i n d t h a t t h e r e is n o n a t u r a l
p r o c e s s a d a p t e d to d e c o m p o s i n g th e m .
T h u s t h e r e is a ty p ic a l c o n flic t b e t w e e n h u m a n ac-
tio n s , d ir e c te d t o w a r d h u m a n p u r p o s e s , a n d t h e t e n d e n c y
for u n d i s t u r b e d h a b i t a t s to r e a c h s t a b l e m a t u r e s ta te s . N e v -
e r t h e l e s s , e v e n m a n - f r e e e c o s y s t e m s a r e n o t c o m p l e t e l y s ta -
b le — c e r t a i n l y n o t w h ile u n d e r g o i n g s u c c e s s io n b u t a ls o n o t
e v e n a t t h e i r c lim a x . E v o l u t i o n o c c u rs , v a r i o u s e x t e r n a l
c a t a s t r o p h e s i m p i n g e , a n d t h e r e a r e s o m e e v id e n c e s o f p r o -
cesse s o f c o m m u n i t y " a g i n g . " W i t h g o o d m a n a g e m e n t , m e n
c a n m a i n t a i n s t a b l e i n t e r m e d i a t e s ta te s t h a t a r e a p p r o p r i -
a te to t h e i r p u r p o s e s . S p e c ie s d i v e r s i t y a n d a m ix o f h a b i -
ta ts , as w e ll as s u c h b a s ic r e s o u r c e s as soil, air, a n d w a t e r ,
c a n be p r e s e r v e d . T h e r e c y c lin g o f s c a r c e n u t r i e n t s a n d th e
effic ie n c y o f e n e r g y u t i l i z a t i o n m a y e v e n b e i m p r o v e d . A ll
th is c a n b e d o n e w h i l e e n s u r i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t fit
h u m a n b io lo g ic a l a n d c u l t u r a l p r e f e r e n c e s . B u t it w ill re-
q u ir e far m o r e c a re fu l m a n a g e m e n t b o t h o f e n v i r o n m e n t a n d
o f t h e h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n t h a n w e h a v e so far e x h i b i t e d .
E c o lo g y d e s c r ib e s th e lim its a n d c o n d i t i o n s o f h u m a n
i n t e r v e n t i o n w i t h o u t te llin g u s w h a t w e s h o u l d d o, e x c e p t
i n s o f a r as it p o i n t s to th e v a lu e o f d iv e r s ity , p a r t i a l s ta b ility ,
a n d t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f t h e w h o l e s y s t e m o f liv in g t h i n g s . 47
C o n s e r v a t i o n o f a s ite as a n o n g o i n g s y s t e m d o e s n o t m e a n
le a v in g it u n c h a n g e d , b u t it w ill n e v e r t h e l e s s o f te n c o n flic t
w i t h s o m e o f t h e h u m a n p u r p o s e s to be a p p l i e d to t h e site.
W e h a v e little to g u i d e u s in r e s o l v i n g s u c h c o n flic ts a n d
m u st u sually end by favoring th e h u m a n p u rp o se —
r e m e m b e r i n g t h a t h u m a n p u r p o s e a ls o e x c lu d e s m a k i n g
th e w o r l d u n i n h a b i t a b l e . E c o lo g y te a c h e s u s to b e a w a r e o f
th e co n flict, to a l l o w t h e e x i s t i n g site s y s t e m a n d t h e p r o -
p o s e d h u m a n s y s t e m to c o e x ist w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e , a n d to be
w a r y o f t h e u n e x p e c t e d a n d o f te n d i s a g r e e a b l e sid e e ffe c ts
o f h u m a n i n t e r v e n t i o n . W e a ls o l e a r n t h a t w e m u s t r e - c r e a t e
a s y s t e m t h a t is in its e lf r e a s o n a b l y d i v e r s e a n d s ta b le .
F r o m e c o lo g ic a l s t u d i e s w e h a v e d e r iv e d t e c h n i q u e s b o t h for
c h a n g i n g a n d fo r s t a b i l i z i n g — for e x a m p le , h o w to i m p o r t
p a r a s i t e s to r e d u c e a p e s t o r h o w to se e d l a n d , r e d u c e g r a z -
in g , a n d i m p o u n d w a t e r to p r e v e n t e r o s io n . F in a lly , a k n o w l -
e d g e o f e c o lo g y is h e lp f u l in m a n y w a y s in th e a n a l y s i s o f
e x is tin g s i t e s — for e x a m p l e , h o w p l a n t s a r e c l i m a t e o r soil
in d i c a t o r s o r h o w to s p o t t h e e a r l y s ig n s o f m a s s i v e e r o s io n .
M u c h o f th e f o l l o w in g d i s c u s s i o n o f specific site f a c to r s w ill
e m p h a s i z e t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s as a n e c o lo g ic a l s y s te m .
T h e f o r m o f t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e is o f o b v i o u s i n t e r e s t to Representing
t h e site p l a n n e r . It is m o s t o f te n r e p r e s e n t e d o n d r a w i n g s b y Ground Form
c o n t o u r s , o r se ts o f i m a g i n a r y lin e s t h a t c o n n e c t all p o i n t s o f
s o m e a r b i t r a r y e q u a l e l e v a t i o n o n t h e g r o u n d . T h e se ts o f
g r o u n d p o i n t s to b e c o n n e c t e d b y t h e s e lin e s a r e s e p a r a t e d
v e r tic a lly b y s o m e r e g u l a r i n te r v a l: 1, 2, 5, o r 1 0 feet t y p i-
c ally, if n o t in t h e m e t r i c s y s te m . C o n t o u r lin e s a re a l w a y s
c o n t i n u o u s w i t h i n th e s p a c e o f a n y o n e m a p a n d d o n o t
m e r g e o r c ro s s e x c e p t at v e r tic a l o r o v e r h a n g i n g su r f a c e s .
T h e c lo s e r t h e y a r e t o g e t h e r , t h e s t e e p e r th e g r o u n d . T h e
m o r e n e a r l y p a r a lle l t h e y are, th e s m o o t h e r a n d m o r e r e g u -
lar t h e g r o u n d su rfa c e . Jn r o llin g la n d t h e y t a k e o n f lo w in g
c u rv e s ; in b r o k e n la n d t h e y w ig g le ; o v e r p l a n e s u r f a c e s
th e y r u n in s t r a i g h t lines. In a n y r e g io n , if a s m a ll p o r t i o n o f
c o n t o u r lin e s is lo o k e d at " d o w n h i l l ‫ ( ״‬t h a t is, w i t h t h e lo w e r
c o n t o u r s a w a y f r o m th e o b s e r v e r ) , th e s h a p e o f th e lin e is a
( u s u a lly e x a g g e r a t e d ) r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f th e f o r m o f t h a t
sm a ll p ie c e o f l a n d as s e e n in s e c tio n .
O n e q u ic k ly l e a r n s th e c o n t o u r p a t t e r n s o f ty p ic a l to p o -
g r a p h i c f e a tu re s : s t r e a m v a lle y , rid g e , b o w l, m e s a , d e p r e s -
)‫” » *ס‬
s io n , flat g r a d e , e s c a r p m e n t , b a r r o w , p a s s , p e a k . B ut o n e
m u s t k e e p c le a r w h i c h c o n t o u r lin e s a re lo w e r a n d w h i c h ^1101/f/IlfftnTTrr£
are h ig h e r , or th e t e r r a i n will be re a d in re v e rse . T h e c o n -
48 t o u r in t e r v a l m u s t a ls o b e r e l a t e d to t h e sc a le o f t h e m a p in
o r d e r to g r a s p t h e r e l a t i v e s t e e p n e s s o f t h e d if f e r e n t s p a c -
in g s. O n e c a n b o t h r e a d t h e e x a c t e l e v a t i o n s o f p a r t i c u l a r
p la c e s a n d a ls o g e t a s y n o p t i c v ie w o f e x t e n s i v e t e r r a i n . C o n -
t o u r s a r e e a s ily s k e t c h e d o r a d j u s t e d to d e s c r i b e s o m e n e w
g r o u n d f o r m . T h e s w i r l i n g p a t t e r n s , so i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e at
first, a r e s o o n e l o q u e n t . A n e a s y f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h th e s e p a t -
t e r n s a n d t h e a b i l i t y to r e l a t e t h e m to w h a t is s e e n in t h e
field a r e e s s e n t i a l fo r a site p l a n n e r . C o n t o u r m a p s o f a l m o s t
all t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s at a sc a le o f 1 i n c h e q u a ls 2 0 0 0 feet
a n d a c o n t o u r i n t e r v a l o f 1 0 o r 2 0 feet a r e a v a i l a b l e f r o m t h e
U .S . G e o l o g i c a l S u r v e y . B u t m o r e d e t a i l e d c o n t o u r m a p s
m u s t u s u a l l y b e p r e p a r e d fo r a n y t h i n g e x c e p t p r e l i m i n a r y
reco nnaissance.
W h ile c o n to u r m a p s are th e s ta n d a rd w a y of re p re se n t-
in g g r o u n d f o r m , t h e r e a r e o t h e r m e t h o d s . O n e is to r e c o r d
t h e s p o t e l e v a t i o n s o f k e y p o i n t s o n t h e g r o u n d : t h e c r e s ts ,
v a lle y b o t t o m s , b r e a k s in g r a d e , flo o r le v e ls o f s t r u c t u r e s .
T h is record m a y be sy ste m a tiz e d b y g iv in g th e ele v a tio n of
e v e r y i n t e r s e c t i o n p o i n t o f s o m e i m a g i n a r y g r id , a m e t h o d
o f t e n u s e d fo r p r e c i s e c a l c u l a t i o n s in s m a ll a r e a s . T h e o ld
m e t h o d o f h a c h u r e s is still s o m e t i m e s s e e n , in w h i c h s h o r t
lin e s, p e r p e n d i c u l a r r a t h e r t h a n p a r a l l e l to t h e s lo p e , a r e
d r a w n s id e b y s id e in c u r v i n g r o w s . T h e i r d i r e c t i o n p o i n t s
directly u p - or d o w n h ill, th e ir le n g th indicates th e le n g th of
t h e s lo p e , a n d t h e i r c lo s e n e s s t o g e t h e r s h o w s t h e s t e e p n e s s .
T h e y d e m a n d s k illf u l d r a f t i n g b u t c a n n o t e x p r e s s e x a c t ele-
v a t i o n o r p r e c i s e f o r m . If w e ll d o n e , h o w e v e r , t h e y g iv e a
v iv id p i c t u r e o f t h e g e n e r a l t e r r a i n .
F or r e a d i n g t h e g e n e r a l f o r m o f t h e t e r r a i n , t h o u g h
M odels n o t for p r e c is io n , t h e b e s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is t h e th r e e -
d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l. S i m p l e c a r d b o a r d c o n t o u r m o d e l s a r e t h e
b e s t to o l fo r p l a n n i n g , a s t h e y a r e r e l a t i v e l y e a s y to m a k e ,
c a n b e c u t a n d p a t c h e d , a n d r e l a t e d i r e c t l y to t h e c o n t o u r
d r a w i n g . D a m p s a n d o r P l a s t i c i n e m o d e l s a r e a ls o u s e d , b e -
c a u s e t h e y c a n b e m o l d e d e a s ily a n d , if n o m a t e r i a l is a d d e d
o r t a k e n a w a y , w ill r e s u l t in t h e fa c s im ile o f a n e w g r o u n d
form th a t can be achieved w ith a ro u g h b ala n c e of cut an d
fill. M u c h m o r e e l a b o r a t e m o d e l s c a n b e m a d e , o f c o u r s e , for
e x h i b i t i o n o r fo r ,,s e l l i n g " a p r o p o s a l .
I n d e e d , th e c h ie f d a n g e r o f m o d e l s lies in t h e i r d i m i n -
u tiv e c h a r m , w h i c h m a k e s a l m o s t a n y c o n d i t i o n o r p l a n
s e e m a t t r a c t i v e . R o u g h m o d e l s a r e p r e f e r a b l e fo r t h is r e a s o n ,
as w e ll as fo r t h e i r m a n i p u l a b i l i t y a n d s p e e d o f c o n s t r u c t i o n .
N o t o n ly are o b se rv e rs sed u ced b y m in ia tu riz a tio n , b u t m o st
o f t h e m ( a n d m a n y e x p e r i e n c e d d e s i g n e r s as w e ll) fail to 49
r e a d t h e m o d e l scale. D i s t a n c e s a r e u n d e r s t o o d to b e s m a l l e r
t h a n th e y a c t u a l l y w o u l d be, a n d s lo p e s s e e m less s te e p d e -
s p ite th e a p p a r e n t r e a l i t y o f t h e s i m u l a t i o n . It is a c o m m o n
e r r o r to lo o k e n d e a r i n g l y a t s o m e m o d e l , as u p o n a to y w o r l d ,
w i t h o u t a c t u a l l y p r o j e c t i n g o n e s e l f i n t o it as a t i n y b e i n g at
its s a m e scale. D e s p i t e t h e s e d a n g e r s it is u s u a l l y a d v i s a b l e
to s t u d y a n y p l a n fo r t e r r a i n in t h e m o d e l f o r m , as w e ll as o n
a c o n to u r d raw in g .
T h e f o r m o f a site is c r itic a l to h o w it m a y b e u s e d . Topography
G r o u n d s lo p e is o n e o f t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t a s p e c ts o f t h e to -
p o g r a p h y , sin c e u s e a n d m a i n t e n a n c e a r e d e p e n d e n t o n it.
T h is r e l a t i o n s h i p w ill v a r y a c c o r d i n g to t h e p a t t e r n o f a c tiv -
ity, b u t t h e r e is a g e n e r a l c la s s if ic a tio n w o r t h r e m e m b e r i n g .
S lo p e s u n d e r 4 p e r c e n t ( r is in g 4 feet in 1 0 0 feet o f h o r i z o n t a l
d is ta n c e ) s e e m flat a n d a r e u s a b l e fo r all k i n d s o f i n t e n s e
a c tiv ity . S lo p e s b e t w e e n 4 a n d 10 p e r c e n t a p p e a r a s e a s y
g r a d e s , s u i t a b l e fo r i n f o r m a l m o v e m e n t a n d a c tiv ity . S lo p e s
o v e r 10 p e r c e n t s e e m s te e p a n d c a n b e a c tiv e ly u s e d o n l y for
hill s p o r t s o r free p la y . G r a d i e n t s o v e r 1 0 p e r c e n t r e q u i r e n o -
tic e a b le e ffo rt to c lim b o r to d e s c e n d . F u r t h e r m o r e , it is m o r e
e x p e n s iv e to e re c t b u i l d i n g s o n t h e m , as a m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d
f o r m a n d f o u n d a t i o n a n d m o r e d iffic u lt u t i l i t y c o n n e c t i o n s
are r e q u ir e d . In a d d i t i o n , s lo p e h a s a b e a r i n g o n d r a i n a g e ,
e r o s io n , a n d m a i n t e n a n c e . S lo p e s u n d e r 1 p e r c e n t d o n o t
d r a i n w ell u n l e s s t h e y a r e p a v e d a n d c a r e f u lly f in is h e d .
S lo p e s o v e r 5 0 o r 6 0 p e r c e n t c a n n o t b e p r o t e c t e d f r o m e r o s i o n
in a h u m i d c li m a t e e x c e p t b y t e r r a c i n g o r c r i b b i n g ( r e in -
fo rcem en t by e m b e d d e d w o o d e n or co n c re te b ea m s). T h e
slo p e o f a m o w e d l a w n m u s t b e k e p t u n d e r 25 p e r c e n t . T h e
s te e p e r t h e l a n d a n d t h e m o r e i m p e r v i o u s its soil, t h e m o r e
th e r a i n w ill r u n o ff its s u r f a c e i n s t e a d o f s e e p i n g i n t o th e
g r o u n d . T h i s m e a n s a l i a b ility to e r o s i o n a n d t h e f lo o d in g o f
s u rfa c e c h a n n e l s . S in c e t h e s lo p e o f g r o u n d is so c ritic a l, it is
v e ry c o m m o n to a n a l y z e a site b y m a r k i n g o ff t h e a r e a s o f
d if f e r e n t slo p e : s te e p , m o d e r a t e , flat, w e ll o r ill d r a i n e d ,
s u b je c t to e r o s i o n , s u i t a b l e for b u i l d i n g o r fo r o u t d o o r p la y ,
a n d so on .
A n o t h e r c r itic a l a s p e c t o f g r o u n d f o r m is t h e w a y in G rou n d form
w h i c h it lim its c i r c u l a t i o n b y m e a n s o f r o a d s a n d g r a v i t y - a n d circulation
p o w e r e d u tilitie s , s u c h as s e w e r s . H e r e w e a r e c o n c e r n e d
n o t o n l y w i t h local s lo p e s b u t w i t h t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e t o t a l
s y s te m o f slo p e s a l l o w s c o n t i n u o u s lin e s o f s u i t a b l e g r a d e to
be c o n n e c te d . G r a d e s u n d e r 1 p e r c e n t a r e d iffic u lt to d r a i n ,
a n d la rg e s e w e r s m a y t e n d to " r i d e u p " o u t o f th e g r o u n d .
 50 O n s te e p g r o u n d s e w e r p ip e s w ill h a v e to be s p e c ia lly d e-
s ig n e d to p r e v e n t r a p i d , s c o u r i n g flow s. R o a d s a r e p r e f e r a -
b ly k e p t at a less t h a n a 10 p e r c e n t g r a d e ; a 15 p e r c e n t
s lo p e a p p r o a c h e s t h e lim it t h a t a n o r d i n a r y l o a d e d v e h ic le
c a n c lim b for a s u s t a i n e d p e r io d . T h e g r a d e s o f c i r c u l a t i o n
lin e s c a n be m o d if ie d b y t h e d e g r e e to w h i c h t h e y a r e
d r a w n p a r a lle l o r p e r p e n d i c u l a r to g r o u n d s lo p e s ; t h u s th e
e x p e r i e n c e d d e s i g n e r lo o k s at g r o u n d w i t h a n ey e to h o w it
m a y be c o n n e c t e d i n to a s y s t e m o f a c c e p t a b l e c h a r a c t e r .
T h e r e m a y b e ,,p a s s e s / ' o r r e s t r i c t e d lo c a litie s t h a t o ffe r th e
o n l y o p p o r t u n i t y to c ro s s s o m e r o u g h t e r r a i n , id e a l lin e s o f a p -
p r o a c h , k e y e x t e r n a l p o i n t s to w h i c h c o n n e c t i o n m u s t be
m a d e . T h e d e s i g n e r h a s to d e c id e w h e t h e r to f o llo w r id g e
lin e s a n d s t r e a m lin e s o r w h e t h e r to c r o s s t h e m — w h e t h e r
to w o r k w i t h t h e la n d o r to o p p o s e it — a n d w h a t th e p r i n c i -
p a l a l t e r n a t i v e s for m a i n e n t r a n c e s o r c o n n e c t i o n s m a y be.
T h u s it is u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e to a n a l y z e a site for its c ir c u l a t i o n
c a p a b i l i t y , e v e n at a n e a r l y sta g e .
V isibility A n o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n is t h e v is u a l f o r m o f t h e g r o u n d ,
w h i c h in its m e c h a n i c a l s e n s e re f e r s s i m p l y to v is ib ility :
w h a t t e r r a i n c a n be s e e n f r o m w h e r e . A c o n t o u r m a p is o f te n
a n a l y z e d i n t o v is ib ility d i a g r a m s , w h i c h a r e s h a d e d in
e v e r y p o r t i o n t h a t is n o t v is ib le f r o m s o m e g iv e n p o i n t ( a n d
t h e r e f o r e f r o m w h i c h t h a t p o i n t a ls o c a n n o t be s e e n ). S u c h
d i a g r a m s w ill b e p r o d u c e d for se v e r a l k e y l o c a t i o n s in t h e
t e r r a i n . T h e v is u a l a n a l y s i s o f t o p o g r a p h y in t h is s e n s e is
s im ila r to a m i l i t a r y r e c o n n a i s s a n c e for fields o f fire, w h i c h
a r e like lin e s o f s ig h t. C o n c e p t s like t h e defile, a n a r e a
s h a d e d fr o m v ie w o r fire f r o m th e o u ts id e , o r t h e m i l i t a r y
c re s t a re u se fu l. T h e m i l i t a r y c r e s t, o r t h e b r o w o f a h ill, is
th e p o i n t b e lo w t h e t r u e c r e s t w h e r e th e g r a d e s te e p e n s , a n d
f r o m w h i c h th e e n t i r e d o w n w a r d s lo p e is o p e n to v iew . It is
u s u a l l y a m o r e s t r a t e g i c — a n d h a r m o n i o u s — l o c a t i o n at
w h i c h to p la c e a s t r u c t u r e t h a n a t t h e v e r y to p . C o n v e r s e l y ,
t h e t r u e c r e s t m a y b e t h e b e s t p la c e fo r l o c a t i n g l o w s tr u c -
tu r e s t h a t a r e m e a n t to b e v is u a l l y is o la te d f r o m t h e b o t t o m of
t h e n e a r b y v a lle y , a l t h o u g h a n y t h i n g o n t h e s k y l i n e is al-
w a y s v e r y p r o m i n e n t f r o m a d is t a n c e .
W h i l e v is ib ility is a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n a l y s i s o f te r -
r a in , v is u a l f o r m a lso r e fe rs to m a n y o f t h e m o r e s u b tle q u a li-
ties t h a t d e p e n d o n t h e to ta l c o n t e x t o f la n d , c o v e r , a t m o s -
p h e r e , a n d a c tiv ity . T h i s is w h a t w e m e a n w h e n w e u s e th e
w o r d l a n d s c a p e . T h e s e c o n c e p t s will be d is c u s s e d in s o m e
See pages 206—210 d e ta il in C h a p t e r 9.
F in a lly , th e f o r m o f t h e g r o u n d a ffe c ts th e m ic r o c li-
m a te , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e w a y in w h i c h s lo p e s face a w a y 51
fro m o r t o w a r d t h e s u n o r a s t h e y i m p e d e o r c h a n n e l t h e
w in d s . T h i s a s p e c t w ill b e c o v e r e d at g r e a t e r l e n g t h l a te r in See pages 68 and
74-75
th is c h a p t e r .
T h u s t o p o g r a p h y m a y b e a n a l y z e d b y th e site p l a n n e r
in a m e t h o d i c a l w a y as a m o s a i c o f s lo p e a r e a s , a p o t e n t i a l
n e t w o r k o f c i r c u l a t i o n , a se t o f fields o f v ie w , o r a c o lle c tio n o f
p r o b a b l e m ic r o c l i m a t e s . It m u s t a lso b e j u d g e d as a to ta l s y s -
tern, a u n i q u e l a n d s c a p e , a p la c e o f p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r .
T h e a b i l i t y to m a k e s u c h j u d g m e n t s c o m e s w i t h e x p e r i e n c e
a n d d e p e n d s o n t h e a n a l y s i s o f m a n y o t h e r s ite f a c to r s , as
w ell as a k n o w l e d g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t p u r p o s e s a n d p o s s i b i l i -
ties.
T o p o g r a p h y is t h e r e s u l t o f g e o lo g ic a l a n d o r g a n i c p r o - G eom orphology
cesses, a n d it is u se fu l to u n d e r s t a n d h o w g l a c i a t i o n o r a n -
c ie n t se a s h a v e h a d t h e r e s u l t s t h a t w e see o n t h e su r f a c e .
S u c h a k n o w l e d g e e x p l a i n s n o t o n l y t h e g e n e s is o f t e r r a i n Reference 23
b u t th e p r e s e n t c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n s u r f a c e a n d s u b s t r a t e .
W e c a n t h e r e b y b e g i n to p r e d i c t c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r g r o u n d
from the a p p e a ra n c e above. T h is s u b j e c t — g e o m o rp h o l-
o g y — is u n f o r t u n a t e l y to o c o m p l e x to b e c o v e r e d h e re ,
h o w e v e r u se fu l it is for s i t e - p l a n n i n g p u r p o s e s , a n d r e a d e r s
a re r e f e r r e d to s t a n d a r d te x ts. If w e l i n k g e o m o r p h o l o g y
to e c o lo g y , w e c a n t h e n see t h e l a n d s c a p e as a c o m p l e t e
s y s te m , e v o lv in g o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s o f tim e .
A s w e lo o k b e n e a t h th e s u r f a c e , o u r first c o n s i d e r a t i o n S o il
is th e soil, th e p u l v e r iz e d m a n t l e o f t h e e a r t h , f o r m e d f r o m
ro c k a n d p l a n t r e m a i n s b y t h e a c t i o n o f b o t h w e a t h e r a n d
o r g a n i s m s . O n t h e s a m e p a r e n t ro c k , g r a s s l a n d a n d f o r e s t
p r o d u c e v e r y d i f f e r e n t soils. T h e soil is n o t s t a t i c b u t is c o n -
t i n u a l l y d e v e l o p i n g a n d w a s t i n g . B e n e a t h th e o r g a n i c lit t e r
of d e c o m p o s i n g m a t e r i a l , it is c o n v e n t i o n a l l y d i v id e d in to :
th e A level, o r 'T o p s o i l , " a m i x t u r e o f m i n e r a l a n d o r g a n i c
m a te r ia l, u s u a l l y r a t h e r ‫״‬d a r k in co lo r, w i t h d ir e c t o r g a n i c
f u n c tio n s , a n d w i t h s o m e o f its m i n e r a l s le a c h e d o u t to
lo w e r lev els; t h e B level, l a r g e ly m i n e r a l in c o m p o s i t i o n
a n d b e l o w m o s t p l a n t r o o ts , b u t w i t h s o m e o r g a n i c f u n c -
tio n , th e level t h a t h a s r e c e iv e d t h e m i n e r a l s w a s h e d d o w n
fro m th e A level a b o v e ; a n d t h e C level, t h e f r a c t u r e d a n d
w e a t h e r e d p a r e n t m a t e r i a l o f t h e soil a b o v e , b u t w i t h little
o r n o b io lo g ic a l a c tiv ity , a n d ly in g d i r e c t l y o v e r th e so lid
b e d ro c k .
T h e p a r tic le s o f soil a re c lassified a s b e i n g o r g a n i c o r
in o r g a n ic a n d b y t h e ir g r a i n size:
G ravel: p a r tic le s o v e r 2 m m in d i a m e t e r
 52 Sand: 0 .0 5 to 2 m m , g r i t t y , t h e fin e st g r a i n s ju s t
v is ib le to t h e eye
Silt: 0 . 0 0 2 to 0 .0 5 m m , t h e g r a i n s in v is ib le b u t
c a n be felt; s m o o t h , n o t g r i t t y
Clay: u n d e r 0 .0 0 2 m m , s m o o t h a n d f lo u r y o r in
stiff l u m p s w h e n d r y , p l a s t i c a n d s tic k y
w h en w et
S o ils a r e e x t r e m e l y v a r i a b l e m i x t u r e s o f t h e s e p a r tic le s , a n d
t h e s e v a r i a b l e m i x t u r e s h a v e e q u a l l y d iv e r s e i m p l i c a t i o n s
for site d e v e l o p m e n t . Soil m i x t u r e s a r e c la ssifie d in t w o dif-
f e r e n t w a y s : b y soil s c ie n tis ts w h o b e g a n w i t h a n i n t e r e s t
in t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n so ils a n d a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d b y e n g i-
n e e r s w h o w e r e i n t e r e s t e d in t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f so ils fo r r o a d s
and found atio n s.
A gricultu ral I n t h e first c la s s if ic a tio n t h e w h o l e m a n t l e o f soil in o n e
classification o f p la c e to d e p t h s o f 6 feet o r m o r e is c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a u n i t ,
soil a n d t h e r e a r e g e n e r i c t y p e s t h a t re f e r to t h e b a s ic c lim a te ,
g e o lo g y , a n d p l a n t c o v e r u n d e r w h o s e in f lu e n c e t h e soil w a s
f o r m e d . T h e s e g r e a t soil o r d e r s a r e f u r t h e r b r o k e n d o w n in t o
s u b o r d e r s , g r e a t g r o u p s , s u b g r o u p s , fa m ilie s , a n d fin a lly
in t o series. E a c h s e rie s h a s a n i d e n t i f y i n g p la c e n a m e a n d is
f u r t h e r d iv id e d a c c o r d i n g to th e t e x t u r e o f t h e s u r f a c e soil,
for e x a m p le , " M e r r i m a c s a n d y l o a m . " T h e t e x t u r a l n a m e s
r e fe r to t h e r e la tiv e p e r c e n t a g e s o f s a n d , silt, a n d c la y in th e
s u r f a c e la y e r s a c c o r d i n g to t h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l g r a p h
s h o w n in F ig u re 8 b e lo w :

Figure 8 A
th rcc-coordin ate
graph showing
the percentages
o f sand, silt, and
clay in the con-
ventional soil
textural classes,
from the S o i l
Survey M anual
o f the U.5. De-
partment o f Ag-
ri culture.

T h e series n a m e g r o u p s soils o f s i m i l a r h i s t o r y , c o n s t i t -
u e n ts , d e p t h , a n d s t r u c t u r e . T h e r e f o r e t h e y h a v e r o u g h l y 53
s im ila r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as to b e a r i n g c a p a c ity , d r a i n a g e , a n d
a g r i c u l t u r a l v a lu e .
A l m o s t h a l f o f th e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s b e e n m a p p e d ac-
c o r d i n g to th e s e soil c la sse s, d o w n to a r e a s as s m a ll as a few
acres. O v e r 7 0 ,0 0 0 soil c la s s e s h a v e b e e n id e n tif ie d . S o m e o f
th is w o r k is r e c e n t, w h ile s o m e w a s d o n e a q u a r t e r c e n t u r y
ago. O r i g i n a l l y m a d e for a g r i c u l t u r a l p l a n n i n g , th e s e m a p s
h a v e v a lu e for site p l a n n i n g as w ell. By l o c a t i n g t h e soil
ty p e s o n a soil m a p a n d t h e n r e f e r r i n g to t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f
th o s e ty p e s , w e c a n l e a r n a b o u t p o t e n t i a l w a t e r , s a n d , a n d
g ra v e l s u p p l y , a b o u t p r o b a b l e d r a i n a g e , r u n o f f , a n d e r o s i o n ,
a n d a b o u t s u i t a b i l i t y for e a r t h m o v i n g a n d f o u n d a t i o n s , as
well as for a g r i c u l t u r e a n d f o r e s tr y . W h e r e v e r s u c h soil s u r -
v e y s h a v e b e e n d o n e , t h e y a r e o f g r e a t s e rv ic e in e a r ly re-
c o n n aissan ce a n d general p la n n in g .
T h e e n g i n e e r i n g c la s s if ic a tio n r e fe rs to t h e e x a c t c o m p o - E ngineering
s itio n o f a p a r t i c u l a r soil b o d y , w h e r e v e r it o c c u r s , a n d is d e - classification o f
te r m i n e d b y l a b o r a t o r y te s ts o n field s p e c i m e n s . It le a d s to soil
a c c u r a te p r e d i c t i o n s o f b e a r i n g c a p a c i t y , for e x a m p l e , o r th e
o p t i m u m m i x t u r e o f t h a t soil w i t h s o m e a d d itiv e , to m a k e it a
b e tte r e n g i n e e r i n g m a t e r i a l . L a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s is d o n e b y
sp e c ia lis ts a n d r e s u l t s in a q u a n t i t a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n .
It is p o s s ib le , h o w e v e r , to m a k e a r o u g h id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f
soil in th e field a n d f r o m t h a t to e s t i m a t e its e n g i n e e r i n g im -
p lic a tio n s . T h i s r o u g h e s t i m a t e is o f g r e a t u t i l i t y in site re-
c o n n a i s s a n c e a n d m a y b e all t h a t is n e e d e d for t h e s i t i n g o f
lig h t s t r u c t u r e s . F or th is p u r p o s e soils a re d iv id e d i n t o te n
classes, w h i c h c a n b e id e n tif ie d in t h e field a n d h a v e sig-
n if ic a n tly d i f f e r e n t i m p l i c a t i o n s for s itin g :
1. T h e c l e a n g r a v e l s ( s t a n d a r d s y m b o l s G W / G P ) : in
w h ic h th e d o m i n a n t c o n s t i t u e n t is g r a v e l, a n d less t h a n
a b o u t 5 to 10 p e r c e n t is silt o r clay. ( T h e s e g r a v e ls m a y be
f u r th e r s u b d i v i d e d as • b e in g " w e l l g r a d e d " [ G W ] o r
" p o o r l y g r a d e d " [ G P ] , a c c o r d i n g to w h e t h e r th e p a r t i c l e
sizes fill t h e w h o l e r a n g e f r o m fine to c o a r s e o r d o n o t.)
2. S i l t y a n d c l a y e y g r a v e l s ( G M / G C ) : m o s t l y g r a v e l,
b u t w i t h m o r e t h a n 10 to 12 p e r c e n t silt ( G M ) o r c la y (G C ) .
3. C l e a n s a n d s (S W /S P ) : m o s t l y s a n d , le ss t h a n 5 to
10 p e r c e n t silt o r clay. (A ls o s u b d i v i d e d as w ell g r a d e d
[S W | or poorly g raded [S P |) .
4. S i l t y a n d c l a y e y s a n d s ( S M /S C ) : m o s t l y s a n d , b u t
w ith m o r e t h a n 10 to 12 p e r c e n t silt ( S M ) o r c la y (S C ).
5. N o n p l a s t i c s i l t s (M L ): i n o r g a n i c silts o r v e r y fine
s a n d s , w h o s e liq u id lim it is less t h a n 50 ( t h a t is, w h ic h
 54 b e g i n to flo w lik e a l iq u id w h e n c o n t a i n i n g less t h a n 5 0 p e r -
c e n t o f w a te r ) .
6. P l a s t i c s i l t s ( M H ) : i n o r g a n i c silts w i t h a liq u id
lim it o v e r 50.
7. O r g a n i c s i l t s (O L ) : silts w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l o r g a n i c
m a t t e r a n d a liq u id lim it u n d e r 50.
8. N o n p l a s t i c c l a y s (C L ): i n o r g a n i c c la y s w i t h a liq-
u id lim it u n d e r 50.
9. P l a s t i c a n d o r g a n i c c l a y s ( C H / O H ) : h a v i n g a liq-
u id lim it o v e r 50, a n d b e i n g e i t h e r p r e d o m i n a n t l y i n o r g a n i c
c la y ( C H ) o r a silt o r a c la y w i t h s u b s t a n t i a l o r g a n i c m a t t e r
(O H ).
10. P e a t a n d m u c k (P t): p r e d o m i n a n t l y o r g a n i c m a t e -
ria l, w h e t h e r p l a n t r e m a i n s a r e v is ib le ( p e a t) o r i n v is ib le
(m uck).
Field T h e s e te n c la s s e s m a y b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d b y t h e f o llo w -
identification of in g field p r o c e d u r e s :
soil T a k e a h a n d f u l o f soil a s a s a m p l e , d r y it, a n d s p r e a d it
o u t o n c le a n p a p e r . If m o r e t h a n h a l f t h e p a r t i c l e s a r e v is ib le
to t h e n a k e d eye, it is a s a n d o r a g r a v e l. If th is is d iffic u lt to
d e t e r m i n e e v e n w h e n th e v is ib le p a r t i c l e s h a v e b e e n h a n d
s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e fine d u s t , t h e n d o t h e f o llo w in g : p u l v e r -
ize a d r y s a m p le , w e i g h it, c o v e r it w i t h 5 i n c h e s o f w a t e r
in a t r a n s p a r e n t c o n t a i n e r , s h a k e it t h o r o u g h l y , let it s e ttle
for 3 0 s e c o n d s , a n d t h e n p o u r o ff t h e w a t e r . C o n t i n u e to d o
th is u n t i l t h e w a t e r p o u r e d o ff is c le a n . T h e r e m a i n i n g re si-
d u e is th e s a n d a n d g r a v e l, a n d its d r y w e i g h t c a n b e c o m -
p a r e d w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l d r y w e i g h t o f t h e s a m p le .
In d i s t i n g u i s h i n g a s a n d f r o m a g r a v e l, if m o r e t h a n
h a l f th e c o a r s e (v isib le ) p a r t i c l e s a re o v e r V4 i n c h , it is a
g r a v e l; if n o t, it is a s a n d . If le ss t h a n 10 p e r c e n t o f t h e to ta l
soil s a m p l e is fine p a r t i c l e s (in v is ib le to th e e y e o r p o u r e d
o ff in t h e s e d i m e n t a t i o n te s t), t h e n it is a c l e a n s a n d o r a
c le a n g r a v e l. If n o t , it is a s ilty o r c la y e y s a n d o r g r a v e l. (T o
d i s t i n g u i s h a w e l l - g r a d e d c le a n s a n d o r g r a v e l f r o m a p o o r l y
g r a d e d o n e , s i m p l y lo o k a t t h e r a n g e o f p a r t i c l e sizes to see if
all sizes a re r e p r e s e n t e d , as o p p o s e d to t h e r e b e i n g sig n ifi-
c a n t g a p s o r to th e p a r t i c l e s b e i n g m o s t l y u n i f o r m in size.)
W e h a v e n o w id e n tif ie d t h e soil if it b e l o n g e d to o n e o f
t h e first f o u r c la sse s. B u t if, a t th e b e g i n n i n g , it p r o v e d n o t to
b e a s a n d o r a g r a v e l, t h e n t w o f u r t h e r m u t u a l l y s u p p o r t i n g
te sts a r e r e q u ir e d . B o th b e g i n b y p i c k i n g o u t a n d d i s c a r d i n g
all th e soil p a r t i c l e s o v e r a b o u t 1/64 i n c h in size, t h a t is, th e
c o a r s e r o n e s t h a t w o u l d in t e r f e r e w i t h m o l d i n g a n d w o r k i n g
th e soil, a n d b y t a k i n g a s a m p l e t h a t w ill m a k e a p a t o f soil
a b o u t 1 V2 b y 1 V2 in c h e s , a n d V2 in c h th ic k .
 D r y - s t r e n g t h test: W e t t h e soil, a n d m o l d it i n t o a p a t.
D r y it t h o r o u g h l y , t a k e it b e t w e e n t h e t h u m b s a n d fo re-
fin g e rs o f b o t h h a n d s , a n d t r y to b r e a k it b y p r e s s u r e o f t h e
t h u m b s . If it c a n n o t b e b r o k e n o r if it is b r o k e n o n l y w i t h
g r e a t e ffo rt, s n a p s lik e a c r is p c o o k ie a n d c a n n o t b e p o w -
d e r e d , t h e n t h e soil is a p l a s t i c c la y ( C H ) . If it c a n b e b r o -
k e n a n d p o w d e r e d w i t h s o m e e ffo rt, it is a n o r g a n i c c la y
( O H ) o r a n o n p l a s t i c c la y (C L ). If it is b r o k e n a n d p o w d e r e d
e a s ily o r c r u m b l e s e v e n as it is p ic k e d u p , it is a p l a s t i c silt
( M H ) , a n o r g a n i c silt (O L ) , o r a n o n p l a s t i c silt (M L ).
T h r e a d t e s t : A d d ju s t e n o u g h w a t e r to a p a t o f soil so
t h a t it c a n b e m o l d e d w i t h o u t s t i c k i n g to t h e h a n d s . O n a
n o n a b s o r p t i v e s u r f a c e ( s u c h as a p ie c e o f g la s s ) , r o ll it o u t
i n to a t h r e a d a b o u t 1/8 i n c h in d i a m e t e r , t h e n r e m o l d it i n t o a
b a ll. If it c a n b e so r e m o l d e d a n d t h e b a ll d e f o r m e d a g a i n
w i t h o u t c r a c k i n g , it is a p l a s t i c c la y ( C H ) . If it c a n b e re -
m o l d e d b u t t h e b a ll c r a c k s w h e n d e f o r m e d a g a i n , it is a
n o n p l a s t i c c la y (CL). If it c a n n o t b e r e m o l d e d i n t o a b a ll, it
is a p la s tic silt ( M H ) , o r a p la s tic , o r g a n i c silt o r c la y ( O H ) ,
o r a n o r g a n i c silt (O L ). If it c a n n o t e v e n b e r o lle d i n t o a
t h r e a d , it is a n o n p l a s t i c silt (M L ). I n t h e c o u r s e o f t h i s te s t,
t h e o r g a n i c soils ( O H / O L ) w ill feel s p o n g y to t h e f in g e r s .
T h e s e t w o te s ts in p a r t c o n f i r m e a c h o t h e r a n d in p a r t
se rv e to s e p a r a t e t h e b o r d e r l i n e c a se s o f th e o t h e r — to d is -
t i n g u i s h a n o n p l a s t i c f r o m a n o r g a n i c cla y , a p l a s t i c silt f r o m
a n o r g a n i c o n e , o r a p la s tic f r o m a n o n p l a s t i c silt. T h e o r g a n i c
silts a n d c la y s ( O H / O L ) n o t o n l y feel s p o n g y b u t t e n d to b e
d a r k e r in c o lo r a n d , in p a r t i c u l a r , to h a v e a m u s t y o d o r if
h e a t e d w h e n w e t. If it is d e s ir e d to d i s t i n g u i s h a c la y e y
s a n d o r g r a v e l f r o m a s ilty o n e ( G M / S M ) , t h e s a m e t h r e a d
test p e r f o r m e d o n t h e p a r t i c l e s u n d e r 1/64 i n c h w ill s e p -
a r a t e a c la y fr o m a silt. P e a t o r m u c k (P t) is e a s ily i d e n t i -
fiable o n s ig h t b y its b l a c k o r d a r k b r o w n co lo r, its v is ib le
p l a n t r e m a i n s , its v e r y s p o n g y feel, a n d b y its i m m e d i a t e
o r g a n i c o d o r.
T h e s e f o u r t e s t s — th e c o m p o s i t i o n o f v is ib le p a r t i c l e s
b y size, th e d r y s t r e n g t h , t h e b e h a v i o r o f a p la s tic t h r e a d ,
a n d th e s m e ll w h e n h e a t e d — s e r v e to d i s t i n g u i s h t h e te n
soil cla sse s. In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e a r e s o m e o t h e r field in d i c a -
tio n s , s u c h as t h e s p o n g y feel o f o r g a n i c soils a n d t h e s o a p y
feel of p la s tic clay, w h i c h d o e s n o t w a s h o ff e a s ily a n d t e n d s
to sta in . B e tw e e n t h e te e t h , s a n d y soils a r e h a r d a n d g r i t t y .
S ilty o n e s a re n o t g r i t t y b u t th e g r a i n s c a n still be felt. P u l-
verized c la y feels s m o o t h a n d flo u ry ; a d r y l u m p o f it s tic k s
w h e n l ig h tly t o u c h e d b y th e to n g u e . T h e o r g a n i c soils a re
d a r k , d r a b g r a y s , b r o w n s , a n d b la c k s.
 S o m e o f th e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e so ils for s ite p l a n n i n g 57
a re s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 1. In g e n e r a l , g r a v e l is a w e l l ‫־‬
d r a i n e d , s t a b l e m a t e r i a l a n d b e a r s h e a v y lo a d s if it is w ell Engineering
g r a d e d . S a n d is a ls o w e ll d r a i n e d a n d m a k e s a g o o d f o u n d a - characteristics
tio n if w ell g r a d e d , b u t it m u s t b e c o n f i n e d at t h e sid e s. o f soil
L oose s a n d s a n d g r a v e l s m a y s e t t l e in i t i a l l y u n d e r a lo a d . If
t h e y h a v e a p p r e c i a b l e fine m a t e r i a l , t h e y lose m u c h o f t h e i r
g o o d i n t e r n a l d r a i n a g e . F in e s a n d s o r s a n d ‫ ־‬silt m i x t u r e s
m a y b e c o m e " q u i c k " w h e n s a t u r a t e d a n d flo w lik e a liq u id .
S ilt is s t a b l e w h e n d r y o r d a m p , a l t h o u g h it w ill c o m -
p r e s s u n d e r a lo a d . It is t r e a c h e r o u s a n d u n s t a b l e w h e n w e t.
B e c a u se it s w e lls u p a n d it h e a v e s b a d l y w h e n f r o z e n , th e
f o u n d a t i o n s o f r o a d s a n d b u i l d i n g s m u s t g o d e e p e n o u g h to
p r e v e n t th is f r o m h a p p e n i n g , o r be s t r o n g o r e la s tic e n o u g h
to c o p e w i t h it. T h e e r o s i o n o f silt is lik e ly to b e se v e re . L oess,
o r w i n d - l a i d silt, is s t r o n g w h e n d r y a n d c a n m a i n t a i n its e lf
in a v e r tic a l face w i t h o u t s l u m p i n g to a f la tte r a n g le .
C l a y is p la s tic w h e n w e t, stiff a n d c o h e s iv e w h e n d r y .
Its r e a c t i o n to fr o s t is le ss e x t r e m e t h a n t h a t o f silt. It t e n d s
to b e im p e r v i o u s a n d to slip , sw e ll, o r s o f te n w h e n w e t. B u t it
will o f te n b e a s t r o n g b e a r i n g soil w h e n k e p t d r y . D u l l
g r a y - b l u e c la y s o r m o t t l e d y e l l o w o r g r a y o n e s h a v e v e r y p o o r
i n t e r n a l d r a i n a g e . T h i c k la y e r s o f p e r m e a b l e soil, l y in g o v e r
a n im p e r v i o u s c la y la y e r o n s lo p e s o v e r 10 p e r c e n t a r e lia b le
to s lip p a g e .
P e a t — a n d to a s o m e w h a t le s s e r e x t e n t t h e o t h e r o r -
g a n ic s o i l s — is a v e r y p o o r e n g i n e e r i n g m a t e r i a l . It is e la s -
tic, w e a k , a n d h a s little c o h e s io n . N o r m a l l y it m u s t s i m p l y
be r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s ite u n l e s s l a n d is to b e left in a n u n d e -
v e lo p e d s ta te .
For f o u n d a t i o n s o f l i g h t r o a d s a n d b u i l d i n g s in u n d i s -
tu rb ed g ro u n d , th e v ario u s sa n d s a n d gravels are m o st
likely to b e s u ita b le . S o m e o f t h e n o n p l a s t i c s ilts a n d c la y s
( M L /C L ) a r e lik e ly to b e u s a b l e ; t h e p la s t i c a n d o r g a n i c soils
( M H / C H / O L / O H ) m u s t b e s u s p e c t e d . C l a y s w ill s w e ll,
silts w ill h e a v e w i t h f ro st, a n d o r g a n i c so ils w ill c o m p r e s s
u n d e r lo a d s. P e a t is u n u s a b l e . F o u n d a t i o n s o n fill a r e to b e
a v o id e d , b u t if t h e y a r e w e ll c o m p a c t e d , t h e s a n d s a n d
g r a v e ls a re a c c e p ta b le , t h e o t h e r s m u c h le ss so.
C l e a n s a n d s a n d g r a v e l s a r e v e r y w ell d r a i n e d a n d
t h u s p r o b a b l y u s a b l e for s e w a g e d r a i n fields. A ll o t h e r soil
ty p e s m u s t b e c h e c k e d for th e i r a b s o r p t i v e c a p a c i t y , b u t it
is lik e ly t h a t o t h e r s a n d s a n d g r a v e ls , as w e ll as t h e in o r -
g a n ic silts ( M L / M H ) , w ill b e u s a b le . T h e c la y s a n d th e o r -
 58 g a n i c so ils a r e n o t lik e ly to b e so. D r a i n fields in fill s h o u l d
b e a v o id e d , b u t c l e a n s a n d s a n d g r a v e ls m a y s e r v e t h e p u r -
p o se .
T h e s a n d s a n d g r a v e ls p e r f o r m in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s a s a
b a s e c o u r s e fo r p e r m a n e n t r o a d s u n d e r a c o n c r e t e o r a s p h a l t
w e a r i n g s u rfa c e . N o o t h e r n a t u r a l soil w ill do . T h e s a n d s
a n d g r a v e l s s h o w m a r k e d h a r d e n i n g if s t a b i l i z e d b y a n a d -
d itiv e in o r d e r to m a k e a l i g h t r o a d s u rfa c e . N o n p l a s t i c silts
(M L ) c a n a ls o b e s ta b iliz e d , w h e r e a s p la s t i c s ilts a n d n o n -
p la s tic c la y s ( M H / C L ) p e r f o r m less w ell. C e m e n t is t h e
b e s t a d d i t i v e for t h e silts a n d fo r m o s t g r a v e ls a n d s a n d s
( M L / M H / G W / G P / G M / S W / S P / S M ) , w h ile lim e is t h e b e s t
for t h e c la y s (CL) a n d for t h e c la y e y s a n d s a n d g r a v e ls
( G C /S C ) .
Soil as a plant T h e o r g a n i c t o p s o il is c ritic a l for t h e l iv in g c o m m u n i t y .
medium Its m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s a r e its d r a i n a g e , its c o n t e n t o f
h u m u s , its r e l a t i v e a c i d i t y ( p H ) , a n d t h e p r e s e n c e o f a v a il-
a b le n u t r i e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e m a j o r e l e m e n t s p o t a s s i u m ,
p h o s p h o ru s , a n d n itro g e n (K P N ). A n y one of th e latter m a y
b e d e f ic ie n t o w i n g to l e a c h i n g d o w n to t h e B level b e y o n d t h e
p l a n t r o o ts . P h o s p h o r u s m a y b e in a n i n s o l u b l e f o r m a n d t h u s
be u n av ailab le, or w a te rlo g g in g m a y hav e d isc o u ra g e d th e
n itrify in g b acteria th a t o rd in a rily re p le n ish th e n itro g e n
s u p p ly . I m p e r v i o u s s u b s u r f a c e la y e r s m a y i m p e d e d r a i n -
age. T h e p H v a lu e w ill d e t e r m i n e w h i c h sp e c ie s w ill g r o w
m o s t easily . E xcess a c id i t y ( h i g h p H ) is p a r t i c u l a r l y diffi-
c u lt fo r m o s t p l a n t s to c o p e w i t h , s in c e t h e a v a i l a b l e io n s o f
p o t a s s i u m , c a lc iu m , a n d so o n , h a v e l a r g e l y b e e n r e p la c e d
w i t h h y d r o g e n . A n a b u n d a n t s u p p l y o f e a r t h w o r m s is a re-
lia b le in d e x o f f e rtile soil o f lo w a c id ity .
T o l e a r n w h a t p l a n t s a r e b e s t s u ite d to a lo c a le , as w e ll
as to l e a r n w h a t m e a s u r e s s h o u l d be t a k e n to i m p r o v e t h e
soil, it is n o r m a l to m a k e s i m p l e te s ts for a c i d i t y a n d for th e
p resence of available p o ta ssiu m , p h o s p h o ru s , a n d n itro g en .
C h e m i c a l d e fic ie n c ie s c a n o f t e n be r e m e d i e d , a c i d i t y c a n be
m o d if ie d to s o m e d e g r e e a n d t e m p o r a r i l y , a n d d r a i n a g e c a n
o f te n be i m p r o v e d . A c o m p a c t e d s u b s o il c a n b e b r o k e n u p b y
p l o w i n g b e f o r e r e s p r e a d i n g t h e to p s o il. S a n d y soil is e a s ily
im proved by ad d in g peat or com post and ad ju stin g the pH
w i t h lim e. I n f e r tile soil c a n be f e rtiliz e d , a n d c h a l k y soil c a n
be i m p r o v e d w i t h a c id f e rtiliz e rs. A h e a v y c la y is m o r e dif-
ficult to im p r o v e , b u t s h a r p s a n d c a n b e a d d e d to it, o r p e r -
h a p s it is e a s ie r s i m p l y to c o v e r it w i t h i m p o r t e d to p s o il.
E v e n s la g h e a p s a n d s im ila r d e r e lic t w a s t e s c a n be b r o u g h t
b a c k b y p u l v e r i z i n g a n d f e r tiliz in g t h e m a n d b y p l a n t i n g
s p e c ia l p io n e e r p l a n t sp e c ie s. T h e l im its to t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s 59
are m o r e e c o n o m ic t h a n te c h n ic a l.
For e n g i n e e r i n g p u r p o s e s , h o w e v e r , t h e t o p s o il is d is r e -
g a r d e d , sin c e it w ill b e s t r i p p e d o ff d u r i n g c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d
t h e n r e s p r e a d . Soil s a m p l e s a r e t a k e n f r o m s m a ll p i t s o r b y
e a r t h a u g e r s o r b o r i n g tu b e s . B u t soils a r e i r r e g u l a r l y d e p o s - Soil structure
ite d a n d h a v e a n i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e . T h e y m a y c h a n g e
w i t h i n a s h o r t h o r i z o n t a l o r v e r tic a l d i s t a n c e a n d m u s t b e
checked at m a n y p o in ts, p a rtic u la rly at th e p o in t of con-
s t r u c t i o n . W h e r e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s a r e i n t i m a t e l y m ix e d , it is
safe to a s s u m e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e w o r s t. S oil s t r u c -
tu re , w h i c h r e fe rs to t h e l a y e r i n g o r c l u s t e r i n g o f soil p a r t i c l e s
a n d t h e p r e s e n c e o f s l i p p a g e p l a n e s o r h o le s , w ill a lso affect
b ea rin g s tre n g th a n d d rain ag e.
T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b o u l d e r s a n d t h e d e p t h to b e d r o c k is
a n i m p o r t a n t f e a tu r e . It is u s e f u l to d r iv e a p o i n t e d ro d , 5
feet lo n g a n d 5 /1 6 i n c h in d i a m e t e r , i n t o t h e g r o u n d to te s t
soil d e n s i t y a n d d e p t h a n d to c h e c k fo r b o u l d e r s a n d le d g e s.
If b e d r o c k a n d le d g e s a r e e n c o u n t e r e d , th e c ritic a l d i s t i n e -
tio n is w h e t h e r t h e y a r e h a r d a n d m u s t b e b l a s t e d o u t o r s u f-
fic ie n tly so ft a n d lo o s e fo r e x c a v a t i o n b y p o w e r e q u i p m e n t .
S o m e s h a le s , w e a k c o n g l o m e r a t e s , a n d h i g h l y w e a t h e r e d
r o c k s a r e o f t h e l a t t e r k i n d . N u m e r o u s la r g e b o u l d e r s w ill
also a d d a p p r e c i a b l y to site c o sts.
If m a j o r s t r u c t u r e s a r e c o n t e m p l a t e d , o r if t h e g r o u n d is
q u e s t i o n a b l e , it w ill b e n e c e s s a r y to t a k e r e g u l a r b o r i n g s
a n d to h a v e soil a n d r o c k s a m p l e s te s te d . B o r in g s a re u s u a l l y
t a k e n a t 5 0 - f o o t i n t e r v a l s to d e p t h s a t le a s t 20 feet b e l o w t h e
b o tto m of the e v en tu al fo u n d a tio n s. S ub su rface c h a racteris-
tics m a y a lso b e g le a n e d f r o m e x a m i n i n g p r e v i o u s s t r u c -
tu r e s a n d e x c a v a t i o n s , f r o m lo o k i n g a t t h e s id e s o f c u ts, o r
fr o m s t u d y i n g o ld r e c o r d s , a e r ia l p h o t o g r a p h s , a n d g e o lo g ic a l
r e p o r ts .
P e r h a p s t h e m o s t i r f ip o r ta n t s u b s u r f a c e v a r i a n t o f all is Subsurface
th e p r e s e n c e o r a b s e n c e o f w a t e r : t h e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f t h e water
soil, its i n t e r n a l a n d s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e , a n d t h e p o s i t i o n o f th e
w a t e r ta b le .
T h e w a t e r ta b l e is t h e u n d e r g r o u n d s u r f a c e b e lo w
w h i c h all i n te r s tic e s b e t w e e n soil g r a i n s a r e filled w i t h
w a te r. N o r m a l l y t h i s is a s lo p in g , f lo w in g su r f a c e , w h i c h
r o u g h l y fo llo w s t h e g r o u n d levels a b o v e a n d s lo p e s d o w n to
p o n d s , la k e s, s t r e a m s , s e e p s, o r s p r i n g s , w h e r e it in t e r s e c t s
th e g r o u n d s u rfa c e . Its d e p t h b e l o w g r o u n d c a n v a r y
m a r k e d l y , h o w e v e r , a n d c a n f lu c tu a te s e a s o n a l l y o r o v e r
lo n g e r p e r io d s . I m p e r v i o u s s u b su rfc 1
60 a ls o m o d i f y t h e w a t e r ta b le , t r a p p i n g w a t e r a b o v e o r b e l o w
th e m s e l v e s o r g u i d i n g it t h r o u g h se a m s .
T h e w a t e r t a b l e is i m p o r t a n t for w a t e r s u p p l y a n d for
v e g e t a t i o n . A h i g h ta b l e c a u s e s d iffic u ltie s in e x c a v a t i o n
w o r k , as w e ll a s flo o d e d b a s e m e n t s , f lo o d e d u tilitie s , a n d
u n s t a b l e f o u n d a t i o n s . A h i g h t a b l e is i n d i c a t e d b y th e
w a t e r le v e ls in e x i s t i n g w e lls a n d d i g g in g s , b y s e e p s a n d
s p r i n g s , b y a m o t t l e d soil, a n d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f s u c h w a t e r -
lo v in g p l a n t s as w illo w s , p o p l a r s , a n d re e d s. A 6 ‫־‬fo o t te s t
p i t in t h e w e t s e a s o n w ill r e v e a l t h e p r e s e n c e o f a ta b l e h i g h
e n o u g h to c a u s e t r o u b l e in o r d i n a r y r e s i d e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t .
I n a flo o d p l a i n t h e soil is lik e ly to b e r a t h e r d e e p a n d u n i-
f o r m , p e r h a p s w i t h a l t e r n a t i n g t h i n la y e r s o f c o a r s e a n d fine
m a t e r i a l . B a n k s , s t o n e s , a n d t r e e t r u n k s o f t e n s h o w th e
m a r k s o f p r e v i o u s flo o d c r e s ts . T h e p r e s e n c e o f u n d e r g r o u n d
w a t e r c o u r s e s is p a r t i c u l a r l y c r itic a l, a n d s t r u c t u r e s s h o u l d
n o t b e site d o v e r t h e m . It is a ls o i m p o r t a n t to a v o id fillin g
o v e r a n d b l o c k i n g e x i s t i n g s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e c o u r s e s : cu l-
v e r t s m u s t b e p u t in to a l l o w c o n t i n u e d flow.
Subsurface I n g e n e r a l , t h e m o s t c r itic a l s u b s u r f a c e p r o b l e m s , t h e
problem s d a n g e r flags c a llin g for c lo s e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n , m a y b e s u m m a -
riz e d a s fo llo w s : a h i g h w a t e r t a b le ; th e p r e s e n c e o f p e a t
a n d o t h e r o r g a n i c s o ils o r o f so ft p l a s t i c clay, lo o s e silt, o r fine
w a t e r - b e a r i n g s a n d ; r o c k ly i n g clo se to t h e s u r f a c e ; l a n d s
p r e v i o u s l y u s e d as d u m p s o r c o n t a i n i n g n e w a n d u n c o n s o l i -
d a t e d fill; o r a n y e v id e n c e o f slid e s, flo o d s, o r s u b s id e n c e .
T o t a l site i m p r o v e m e n t c o s ts m a y in c r e a s e 25 p e r c e n t in
r o c k y l a n d a n d 8 5 p e r c e n t in p e a t o r m u c k . T h e l a t t e r m a y
a lso s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e f o u n d a t i o n co sts. I n a r e a s o f p e r -
m a fro st th e erection of h e a te d b u ild in g s on th e frozen g ro u n d
m a y b r i n g o n all t h e p r o b l e m s o f a s a t u r a t e d soil.
C lim a te W e live in a n o c e a n o f air, c o n s t a n t l y s u b je c t to its
v a r i a t i o n s o f t e m p e r a t u r e , h u m i d i t y , a n d p u r i t y a n d to th e
l i g h t a n d s o u n d t r a n s m i t t e d t h r o u g h it. W i t h i n th is o c e a n
w e h a v e s t r o n g p r e f e r e n c e s for c e r t a i n r a n g e s o r r h y t h m s o f
lig h t a n d n o is e i n t e n s i t y , a ir p u r i t y , a n d e ffe c tiv e t e m p e r a -
tu r e . N a t u r a l c l im a te s c a n b e e r r a t i c a n d v i o l e n t ; t h e r e a re
m a n -m a d e in tru sio n s of noise a n d a irb o rn e im purities. M e n
defend th em selv es by p h ysiological a d a p ta tio n s an d by
c l o t h i n g a n d s h e lte r . B u t it is a lso p o s s ib le to m a n i p u l a t e cli-
m a t e b y t h e a r r a n g e m e n t a n d c h o ic e o f site.
T h e g e n e r a l c li m a t e o f a r e g i o n se ts t h e sta g e . It is ex-
p r e s s e d in d a t a o n t e m p e r a t u r e , h u m i d i t y , p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
c lo u d in e s s , w i n d s p e e d a n d d i r e c t i o n , a n d s u n p a t h . T h e s e
a re th e o u t s i d e c o n s t r a i n t s w i t h i n w h i c h t h e site p l a n n e r
o p e r a te s , a n d h e m u s t h a v e t h e m b e f o r e h i m in s o m e c o n c is e 61
fo rm . A l t h o u g h s im p lif ie d d a t a a r e d e s ir a b le , a v e r a g e c o n d i -
tio n s w ill n o t suffice. It is t h e e x t r e m e s t h a t a re u n c o m f o r t a -
ble. R a n g e s a n d a v e r a g e m a x i m u m s a n d m i n i m u m s a re
lik e ly to b e m o s t u se fu l. S u c h d a t a a r e c o m m o n l y a v a i l a b l e
b u t m u s t b e e v a l u a t e d fo r s i t e - p l a n n i n g p u r p o s e s : W h a t is
the d u ra tio n a n d in te n sity of th e p re c ip ita tio n th a t m u st be
w a r d e d o ff a n d d r a i n e d a w a y ? W h a t a r e t h e f a v o r a b l e a n d
th e u n f a v o r a b l e w i n d s ? A t w h a t t i m e o f d a y o r d u r i n g w h a t
season sh o u ld su n ra d ia tio n be avoided or in v ited a n d from
w h a t d i r e c tio n ? W h e n d o e s t h e e ffe c tiv e t e m p e r a t u r e m o v e
o u ts id e t h e c o m f o r t z o n e ?
T h e e ffe c tiv e t e m p e r a t u r e is a s e n s a t i o n p r o d u c e d b y
t h e c o m b i n e d e ffect o f r a d i a t i o n a n d a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e ,
r e la tiv e h u m i d i t y , a n d a ir m o v e m e n t . O u t d o o r co ld c a n b e
m i t i g a t e d b y c l o t h i n g , s h e lte r , a n d h e a t i n g d e v ic e s. O u t d o o r
h e a t is m o r e tr y i n g . T h e a v e r a g e a d u l t m u s t d i s s i p a t e 4 0 0
B tu p e r h o u r w h i l e at r e s t, a n d 2 0 0 0 a t w o r k . If h is b o d y
t e m p e r a t u r e v a r i e s e v e n s lig h tly , h e w ill b e u n c o m f o r t a b l e .
If it rise s 10 d e g r e e s , h e w ill d ie o r su f f e r s e r i o u s d a m a g e .
T h u s o n e lim it o f h u m a n t o l e r a n c e is t h e m a x i m u m t e m p e r -
a t u r e at w h i c h he c a n d o e x t e n d e d w o r k w i t h o u t r a i s i n g h is
b o d y t e m p e r a t u r e s i g n if ic a n tly : a b o u t 1 5 0 ° F in c o m p l e t e l y
d r y a ir a n d n e a r 9 0 °F in c o m p l e t e l y h u m i d air.
C o m f o r t , h o w e v e r , is a m o r e f r e q u e n t is s u e t h a n e x - Climatic
tr e m e t o le r a n c e . T h e c o m f o r t z o n e m a y b e r o u g h l y d e f in e d as com fort
fo llo w s: m o s t p e o p l e in t h e t e m p e r a t e z o n e , s i t t i n g i n d o o r s in
th e s h a d e in l i g h t c l o t h i n g , w ill feel t o l e r a b l y c o m f o r t a b l e at
t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s b e t w e e n 7 0 ° a n d 8 0 °F, as l o n g as th e
r e la tiv e h u m i d i t y lies b e t w e e n 20 p e r c e n t a n d 50 p e r c e n t .
A s h u m i d i t y i n c r e a s e s , th e s e s a m e p e o p l e w ill b e g i n to b e
u n co m fo rtab le at low er an d lo w er te m p e ra tu res , u n til th e
re la tiv e h u m i d i t y r e a c h e s a b o u t 75 p e r c e n t , w h e n g e n e r a l
d is c o m f o r t a t a n y t e m p e r a t u r e se ts in. B u t if t h e y a re s i t t i n g
in a d r a f t, t h e r a n g e o f t o l e r a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e s h if ts u p w a r d ,
so t h a t t e m p e r a t u r e s o f 8 5 ° m a y b e q u i t e c o m f o r t a b l e in t h e
20 to 50 p e r c e n t h u m i d i t y r a n g e if lo c a l a ir is m o v i n g a t 2 0 0
feet p e r m i n u t e . I n d o o r a ir m o v i n g m o r e s lo w l y t h a n 5 0 feet
p e r m i n u t e is g e n e r a l l y u n n o t i c e d , w h ile flo w s o f 5 0 to 1 0 0
feet p e r m i n u t e a r e p l e a s a n t a n d h a r d l y n o tic e d . B re e z e s
fro m 1 0 0 to 2 0 0 feet p e r m i n u t e a re p l e a s a n t , b u t o n e is c o n -
s t a n t l y a w a r e o f t h e m ; t h o s e f r o m 2 0 0 to 3 0 0 feet p e r m i n u t e
are first s lig h t l y a n d t h e n a n n o y i n g l y d r a f ty . S e n s a t i o n s o f
c o m f o r t a re a ffe c te d b y p r e v i o u s e x p e r ie n c e , b y c u l t u r a l
b a c k g r o u n d , a n d b y th e d e g r e e o f a c tiv ity . In t h e U n i t e d
 62 Jan. Feb. March April May June

100° F

80°

Distribution
of air
temperatures 60

40°

20°

0°

- 20°

Day s o f sun,
cloud, rain,
and s no w

W i n d direction
and speed, 6 p. m.
to m i dn i g h t ¥ ¥ 0 0

mi nut e s hours

M axim um
rate of
rainfall
 July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 63

number
of days

s s
^ 0 0

<3
sx
Exterior arrow : winds over 32 miles per hour more than 1/2 of 1% of the time. D ark ban d:
winds 16 to 32 miles per hour. Light ban d: winds 4 to 16 miles per hour. C entral circle:
winds under 4 miles per hour. The length along the compass bearing, or the diameter of the
central circle, is proportionate to the percent of time that the wind is tit that direction and
speed.

Figure 9 The climate o f the Boston region by mont hs: tern-

perature, hu mi d it y , precipitation, sun, and w i n d (Sour c e s : H o u s e
B e a u t i f u l C l i m a t e C o n t r o l G u i d e , Hearst Corporation, and C l i -
m a t e s o f t h e S t a t e s , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , U.S. We at he r Bureau).
 64 S t a t e s 7 2 ° F is c o n s i d e r e d a n " i d e a l " i n d o o r t e m p e r a t u r e ;
in G r e a t B r ita in 6 5 ° F is p r e f e r r e d . A c t i v e p e r s o n s w ill be
c o m f o r t a b l e at c o o le r t e m p e r a t u r e s t h a n t h o s e s i t t i n g still.
T h e d e s i g n e r w ill d o w h a t h e c a n to see t h a t i n d o o r a n d
e v e n o u t d o o r e ffe c tiv e t e m p e r a t u r e s lie w i t h i n th is c o m f o r t
z o n e . A c c o r d i n g to t h e g e n e r a l c lim a te , h e w ill i n d u c e o r
c h e c k t h e flo w o f air, let in o r b l o c k t h e s u n , h u m i d i f y o r d r y
t h e air, r a is e o r l o w e r t h e t e m p e r a t u r e . O u t d o o r s t h e site
p l a n n e r is s o m e w h a t m o r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h s u m m e r cli-
m a t e s , s in c e in t h e w i n t e r t i m e c l o t h i n g c a n be u s e d for p r o -
t e c t i o n a n d less tim e is s p e n t o u t d o o r s . Y et in t h e cold se a -
s o n s a g r e a t d e a l c a n b e d o n e to m o d e r a t e th e s e v e r ity o f
c l im a te o r to p r o l o n g t h e s e a s o n o f o u t d o o r a c ti v i t y b y th e
u se o f w i n d s h ie ld s , r a d i a t i o n t r a p s , o r e v e n o u t d o o r h e a t i n g .
A n y c li m a t e is c o m p le x a n d u s u a l l y v a r ia b le . T h e d is-
t r i b u t i o n s o f a ir t e m p e r a t u r e , o f r e la tiv e h u m i d i t y , a n d o f
w i n d d i r e c t i o n a n d force, b r o k e n d o w n b y m o n t h a n d s e a s o n ,
a re th e f u n d a m e n t a l d a t a fo r d e t e r m i n i n g effe c tiv e t e m p e r -
a t u r e a n d its r e l a t i o n to t h e c o m f o r t z o n e . In a d d i t i o n , th e
h o u rs of p re c ip ita tio n a n d the m a x im u m in ten sities of rain
i n d ic a te t h e n e e d for o v e r h e a d s h e l t e r a n d t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
for a d e q u a t e d r a i n a g e . F in a lly , th e h o u r s o f s u n 5 h i n e (as a
p e r c e n t a g e o f to ta l p o s s ib le h o u r s ) a n d t h e s u n d i r e c t i o n a n d
e l e v a t i o n w ill d i c t a t e t h e m e a s u r e s t h a t m u s t b e t a k e n to in -
v ite o r w a r d o ff s o la r r a d i a t i o n .
Local climate O t h e r t h a n s u n d i r e c t i o n a n d e le v a t i o n , t h e c lim a tic
data f a c to r s v a r y i r r e g u l a r l y f r o m p la c e to p la c e . T h e y a r e g iv e n
in F ig u re 9 for th e B o s to n r e g io n to i l l u s t r a t e w h a t is lik e ly
to b e m o s t s ig n if ic a n t. T h e c h a r t s h o w s t h a t o u t d o o r t e m p e r -
a t u r e s a re f r e q u e n t l y a b o v e th e c o m f o r t z o n e in J u ly a n d A u -
g u s t , w h e n th e m o s t u s e fu l c o o lin g w i n d s a r e f r o m th e s o u t h -
w e s t. T e m p e r a t u r e s a r e a l m o s t a l w a y s b e l o w t h e c o m f o r t
z o n e f r o m O c t o b e r t h r o u g h M a y , b u t in t h o s e t w o t r a n s i t i o n
m o n t h s th e effe c tiv e t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e o f t e n h i g h e n o u g h to
b e m o d if ie d s u c c e s s f u lly b y u s i n g m o d e r a t e l y w a r m c lo th -
in g a n d b y c h a n g i n g th e m ic r o c lim a te . I n th e e i g h t cold
m o n t h s th e p r e v a i l i n g w i n d s a re s t r o n g e r a n d c o m e e sp e -
d a l l y f r o m th e w e s t a n d n o r t h w e s t . S u n l e s s s lo p e s , co ld air
floods, a n d e x p o s u r e to w i n t e r w i n d s a r e t h u s all to be
a v o id e d . In t h e h u m i d B o s t o n a r e a p r e c i p i t a t i o n o c c u r s
t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r b u t is h e a v ie s t f r o m D e c e m b e r t h r o u g h
M a r c h . C l o u d i n e s s is r a t h e r e v e n ly d i s t r i b u t e d , b u t s u n n y
d a y s a re s o m e w h a t m o r e f r e q u e n t f r o m A u g u s t to O c t o b e r .
S t r a n g e l y e n o u g h , th is is a lso t h e p e r io d o f h i g h e s t h u m i d -
ity, o f te n v e r y u n c o m f o r t a b l e . C l o u d y d a y s , fog, r a in , s n o w ,
a n d d a m p n e s s m u s t all be r e c k o n e d w ith .
 S u c h a g e n e r a l a n a l y s i s f u r n i s h e s t h e first clues for th e 65
c h o ic e a n d a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e site. W h e n t h e d e s i g n e r
w o r k s in a r e g io n n e w to h im , a s t u d y o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
b u i l d i n g o f th e lo c a lity a n d of its c lim a tic a d v a n t a g e s a n d
d e fe c ts w ill b e o f sp e c ia l v a lu e . B u t h e is p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r -
e s te d in s t u d y i n g th e m i c r o c l i m a t e , t h e local m o d i f i c a t i o n of M icroclim ate
th e g e n e r a l c lim a te t h a t is i m p o s e d b y th e sp e c ia l s h a p e o f a
s m a ll a r e a : its t o p o g r a p h y , c o v e r, g r o u n d s u rfa c e , a n d
m a n - m a d e fo r m s . T h e m i c r o c l i m a t i c effects giv e h i m clu e s
for c h a n g i n g th e g e n e r a l c l i m a t e in a f a v o r a b l e w a y .
T h e s e effects a r e ty p i c a l l y v e r y local o n e s , sin c e t h e Ref e r e n c e 37
m i c r o c l i m a t e o f te n c h a n g e s w i t h i n d i s t a n c e s o f a fe w feet o r
less. A s a s i g n i f i c a n t p h e n o m e n o n , it is c o n f i n e d to a s h a l -
lo w z o n e clo se to t h e s k in o f th e e a r t h , n o m o r e t h a n a fe w s to -
ries h ig h . It is a p r o d u c t o f t h e m o v e m e n t a n d i n t e r c h a n g e o f
h e a t, w a t e r v a p o r , a ir i m p u r i t i e s , a n d lig h t a n d s o u n d e n -
e rg y , as th is i n t e r c h a n g e is i n f lu e n c e d b y t h e d i f f e r e n t s u r -
faces a n d m e d i a it e n c o u n t e r s . T h e f u n d a m e n t a l p h e n o m e -
n o n is th e h e a t b a l a n c e : th e c o n s t a n t i n t e r c h a n g e b e t w e e n
s u n , e a r t h , a n d a t m o s p h e r e , p r o d u c i n g s m a ll c l i m a t e s t h a t
f lu c tu a te m a r k e d l y o n a d a i l y o r s e a s o n a l cycle, p a r t i c u l a r l y
at t h e in te r f a c e b e t w e e n e a r t h a n d air.
H e a t is e x c h a n g e d b y r a d i a t i o n , c o n d u c t i o n , a n d c o n -
v e c tio n . T h e r e a r e t h r e e c o r r e s p o n d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
m e d ia to be c o n s i d e r e d : a lb e d o , c o n d u c t i v i t y , a n d t h e n a t u r e
o f a ir m o v e m e n t . A l b e d o is a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f su r f a c e s , b e i n g A lb ed o
th e f r a c tio n o f t h e to ta l r a d i a n t e n e r g y o f a g iv e n w a v e l e n g t h
in c i d e n t o n a s u r f a c e w h i c h is re fle c ted b a c k b y t h a t s u r -
face i n s t e a d o f b e i n g a b s o r b e d . A s u r f a c e w i t h a n a lb e d o of
1.0 is a p e r f e c t m i r r o r , r e f le c tin g b a c k e v e r y t h i n g t h a t
s h in e s o n it, w i t h o u t d a r k e n i n g t h e re fle c te d i m a g e o r re -
c e iv in g a n y h e a t itself. A s u r f a c e w h o s e a l b e d o is z e r o is a
p e rfe c t b la c k m a t t e s u r f a c e , r e f le c tin g n o t h i n g a n d s o a k i n g
u p all th e h e a t r a d i a t e d p p o n it. T h e s e s a m e p r o p e r t i e s a lso
a p p e a r w h e n t h e flow o f r a d i a t i o n re v e r s e s : a h o t s u r f a c e o f
lo w a lb e d o r a d i a t e s q u ic k ly , as w ell as r e c e iv in g q u ic k ly .
A l b e d o m a y th e r e f o r e b e i m a g i n e d as th e r e l a t i v e p e r m e a -
b ility o f a su r f a c e to r a d i a n t e n e r g y flo w in g in e i t h e r d ir e c -
tio n : h i g h a lb e d o s u r f a c e s a r e r e s i s t a n t to th is flow , a n d lo w
a lb e d o s u r f a c e s a r e p e r m is s iv e . In t h e s a m e w a y s u r f a c e s
m a y a lso b e r e la tiv e ly a b s o r b e n t or r e la tiv e ly re fle c tiv e to
th e s o u n d w a v e s fa llin g o n t h e m , a l t h o u g h th e a lb e d o o f a
s u rfa c e w i t h r e s p e c t to r a d i a n t e n e r g y b e a r s n o r e l a t i o n to its
" a l b e d o " w i t h r e s p e c t to s o u n d .
A l b e d o s o f n a t u r a l s u r f a c e s v a r y m a r k e d l y for r a d i a t i o n
w i t h i n th e v is ib le s p e c t r u m :
66 Fresh s n o w 0.80-0.85
C lo u d surfaces 0.60-0.90
O ld s n o w 0.42-0.70
F ie ld s, m e a d o w , tilla g e 0.15-0.30
San d and h eath 0.10-0.25
Forest 0.05-0.18
S u rfa c e o f th e sea 0.08-0.10

F or t h e v is ib le s p e c t r u m , t h e a l b e d o s o f w e t o r d a r k - c o l o r e d
s u r f a c e s t e n d to b e l o w e r t h a n t h o s e o f d r y o r l i g h t - c o l o r e d
surfaces. B ut th e a lb e d o of a surface m a y be qu ite d ifferent
for d i f f e r e n t w a v e l e n g t h s : for i n f r a r e d r a d i a t i o n t h e a lb e d o
o f m o s t n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s is r a t h e r low .
Conductivity C o n d u c t i v i t y re f e r s to t h e s p e e d w i t h w h i c h h e a t o r
s o u n d p a s s e s t h r o u g h a g iv e n m a t e r i a l , o n c e h a v i n g p e n e -
t r a t e d its s u rfa c e . H e a t flo w s r a p i d l y t h r o u g h s u b s t a n c e s o f
h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y , a n d s l o w l y t h r o u g h t h o s e o f lo w c o n d u c -
tiv ity . V a r i a t i o n in c o n d u c t i v i t y is t h e b a s is o f i n s u l a t i o n
a n d a lso c o n t r o l s t h e r a t e w i t h w h i c h r e s e r v o i r s o f h e a t in t h e
e a r t h o r t h e sea c a n b e b u i l t u p o r r e le a s e d . C o m m e r c i a l in -
s u l a t i o n , for e x a m p l e , is a m a t e r i a l o f v e r y l o w c o n d u c t i v i t y ,
t h e r m a l o r a c o u s tic . A p ie c e o f w a r m m e t a l feels m u c h h o t t e r
t h a n w o o d o f t h e s a m e t e m p e r a t u r e s i m p l y b e c a u s e th e
m e t a l , w i t h its h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y , r e le a s e s its h e a t m o r e
r a p i d l y . In g e n e r a l , t h e c o n d u c t i v i t y o f n a t u r a l m a t e r i a l s
d e c r e a s e s as t h e s e m a t e r i a l s a r e d r ie r , less d e n s e , a n d m o r e
p o r o u s . For e x a m p l e , th e t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y o f s o m e n a t -
u r a l m a t e r i a l s d e c r e a s e s in t h e f o llo w in g o r d e r : so lid g r a n -
ite, ice, w e t s a n d , h u m u s , w e t m a r s h y soil, still w a t e r , old
s n o w , d r y s a n d , f r e s h s n o w , p e a t, still air.
Convection H e a t a n d s o u n d a r e a lso d i s t r i b u t e d b y fluid m o v e -
m e n t , o r c o n v e c t i o n . T h e s i g n if ic a n t f a c to r s h e r e a r e s p e e d
a n d t u r b u l e n c e , o r t h e d e g r e e to w h i c h m o v e m e n t o c c u r s as
r a n d o m e d d ie s r a t h e r t h a n as a s t e a d y d ir e c t e d flow . T u r b u -
len c e d i s p e r s e s h e a t o r s o u n d w a v e s o r i m p u r i t i e s , w h ile
s t e a d y flo w m a y c o n t a i n t h e m a n d t h u s p r e s e r v e c o n t r a s t s .
A ir t u r b u l e n c e m a y i n c r e a s e w i t h h e i g h t , at t h e m ic r o c li-
m a t i c scale, a n d t h e n d e c r e a s e a g a i n in t h e u p p e r levels o f
‫־‬v & t h e air. W i n d d i r e c t i o n c a n b e s t r i k i n g l y d i f f e r e n t at d iffe r-
e n t levels, w h i l e w i n d s p e e d t e n d s to i n c r e a s e w i t h h e i g h t
b e c a u s e o f th e s u r f a c e f r ic tio n o f t h e g r o u n d : t h e w i n d sp e e d
3 in c h e s o ff t h e g r o u n d m a y b e o n l y 30 p e r c e n t o f t h e s p e e d
6 feet a b o v e th e g r o u n d . T h e s p e e d 6 in c h e s u p m a y be 50
p e r c e n t o f t h a t fig u re, a n d t h a t 3 feet u p 8 0 p e r c e n t. W i n d
s p e e d , b y its r a te o f t r a n s p o r t o f h e a t , h a s a m a r k e d effect o n
c o o lin g . A 3 0 - m i l e - p e r - h o u r w i n d w i t h a ir a t 3 0 °F h a s six
tim e s t h e c o o lin g effect o f still a ir a t 1 0 ° F . A n y f r o s t b i t t e n
n o s e w ill te s tif y to th is. A s a n o t h e r e x a m p l e , w h e n a 67
1 2 - m i l e - p e r - h o u r w i n d at 3 2 ° F is r e d u c e d in s p e e d to 3
m ile s p e r h o u r b e f o r e it s tr ik e s a h o u s e , fuel c o n s u m p t i o n in
t h a t h o u s e m a y b e h a lv e d .
F in a lly , w e m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e a b i l i t y o f a n o b je c t to Specific heat
s to r e t h e h e a t it re c e iv e s, a n a b i l i t y t h a t r e s u l t s f r o m its to ta l
m a s s a n d its specific h e a t , o r t h e a m o u n t o f h e a t e n e r g y a b -
s o r b e d b y a u n i t m a s s for e a c h u n i t rise in t e m p e r a t u r e . A
cool o b je c t o f h i g h specific h e a t a n d la r g e m a s s w h o s e i n t e r i o r
is a c c e s s ib le to h e a t flo w via c o n d u c t i o n o r c o n v e c t i o n w ill a b -
s o r b la r g e a m o u n t s o f h e a t o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s . W h e n e x t e r i o r
t e m p e r a t u r e s d r o p , it c a n a ls o r e t u r n t h a t e n e r g y o v e r a lo n g
in te r v a l. A h o u s e w i t h th i c k m a s o n r y w a lls w ill b e c o o le r in
t h e h e a t o f d a y a n d w a r m e r at n i g h t t h a n a flim sie r s t r u c -
tu re . L a r g e w a t e r b o d ie s , w i t h t h e i r i n t e r n a l c o n v e c t i o n s
a n d lo w s u r f a c e a lb e d o , ac t lik e c l im a tic f ly w h e e ls to e v e n
out the daily or seasonal sw ings of te m p e ra tu re.
O f first i m p o r t a n c e is th e n a t u r e o f s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s . The role o f
If t h e g r o u n d h a s a lo w a lb e d o a n d a h i g h c o n d u c t i v i t y , t h e n surface
t h e r e s u l t i n g m i c r o c l i m a t e is m ild a n d s ta b le , s in c e e x c e ss material
h e a t is q u i c k l y a b s o r b e d a n d s t o r e d a n d a s q u i c k l y r e le a s e d
w h e n te m p e ra tu re s drop. Surface m ate ria ls of hig h albedo
a n d lo w c o n d u c t i v i t y , o n th e o t h e r h a n d , m a k e for a m ic r o c li-
m a t e o f e x t r e m e s , sin c e t h e y d o n o t h e lp to b a l a n c e t h e
s w i n g s o f th e w e a t h e r . T h u s th e sea o r g r a s s o r w e t g r o u n d
t e n d s to e v e n o u t t h e c lim a te , w h i l e th e w e a t h e r o v e r s a n d o r
s n o w o r p a v e m e n t is m o r e v i o le n t: h o t in t h e s u n a n d co ld at
n i g h t . T h e m o n t h l y r a n g e of t e m p e r a t u r e in J u n e in o n e Io-
c a lity w h e n t h e a ir t e m p e r a t u r e v a r ie d b y o n l y 4 5 ° F w a s
1 0 6 ° o n a b i t u m i n o u s p a v e m e n t a n d 5 2 ° in t h e g r a s s . O n a
d a y w h e n t h e s t a n d a r d t e m p e r a t u r e w a s 7 7 ° , th e s u r f a c e o f
a c o n c r e te w a l k w a s a t 9 5 ° a n d t h a t o f a d a r k sla te r o o f at
110 ° .
D r a i n a g e o f w e t la n d in c r e a s e s t h e a l b e d o a n d de-
c re a s e s c o n d u c t i v i t y a n d so m a k e s th e local c lim a te m o r e
u n s t a b l e . A t th e s a m e tim e h u m i d i t y w ill fall, a n d th e co o l-
in g effect o f e v a p o r a t i o n fr o m d a m p g r o u n d will b e lost. A
w a t e r s u r f a c e u s u a l l y h a s a lo w a lb e d o , b u t n o t for lig h t
s t r i k i n g it at a lo w a n g l e o f in c id e n c e . H e r e th e a lb e d o in-
c re a s e s r a p i d l y , a n d th e w a t e r a c ts as a m i r r o r . H e a t a n d
lig h t a r e d ir e c te d a t w a t e r s i d e o b je c ts b o t h f r o m t h e a ir a n d
fro m th e w a t e r su rfa c e . T h is effect m a y b e u n p l e a s a n t in a
s u m m e r h o u s e f a c in g th e la te a f t e r n o o n s u n a c r o s s a lak e,
b u t it m a y b e d e s i r a b l e for t h e g r o w t h of c r o p s o n s te e p s lo p e s
o v e r l o o k i n g .w a te r to th e e a s t o r w e st.
A h ig h d e n s i t y o f m a n - m a d e s t r u c t u r e s o r a s u b s t a n -
68 tial area o f p a v i n g i n c r e a s e s t h e a l b e d o s i g n i f i c a n t l y a n d
t h u s r e s u lts in h i g h e r s u m m e r tem peratures. M o reover,
s i n c e t h e la n d d r a in s m o r e q u i c k l y a n d is m o r e i m p e r v i o u s
to w a t e r v a p o r , t h e g e n e r a l h u m i d i t y t e n d s to fall. A d e e p
fall o f fr e sh s n o w w i l l r a is e d a y t i m e t e m p e r a t u r e s b y reflec-
tio n , w h i l e i n s u l a t i n g t h e s u r f a c e s it c o v e r s .
Slope arid T h e s l o p e o f g r o u n d s u r f a c e s h a s a n e ffe c t as i m p o r t a n t
orientation as th a t o f s u r f a c e m a te r ia l . T h e w o r d climate is in fact d e -
riv ed f r o m t h e G r e e k for " s l o p e ." T h e p r in c ip a l f a c t o r s in -
v o l v e d are t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f g r o u n d w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e s u n
a n d t h e g e n e r a l f o r m o f t o p o g r a p h y as it a f fe c t s air m o v e -
m e n t.
O r i e n t a t i o n is m o s t c ritic a l in t h e m id d l e l a titu d e s ,
sin c e in t h e far n o r t h m u c h o f t h e r a d i a t i o n is d iffu se , c o m -
in g f r o m a c l o u d y s k y a n d i l l u m i n a t i n g n o r t h s lo p e s a s m u c h
as s o u t h slo p e s. In th e tr o p ic s t h e h i g h a n g le o f t h e s u n t e n d s
to m i n i m i z e t h e d if f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n th e o r i e n t a t i o n o f slope.
M a x i m u m d ir e c t r a d i a t i o n is re c e iv e d b y t h e s u r f a c e t h a t is
p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e d i r e c t i o n o f th e s u n , a n d t h i s d e p e n d s
o n l a titu d e , s e a s o n , a n d h o u r o f th e d a y . T h u s a s o u t h slo p e
w ill re c e iv e m o r e s u n t h a n flat la n d , a n d in m i d s u m m e r a
n o r t h w e s t w a ll m a y e v e n b e w a r m e r t h a n a s o u t h w all. A
10 p e r c e n t s lo p e to t h e s o u t h will re c e iv e as m u c h d ir e c t ra -
d i a t i o n ( a n d to t h a t e x t e n t h a v e t h e s a m e c lim a te ) as flat
la n d 6 d e g r e e s c lo s e r to t h e e q u a t o r , o r t h e d if f e r e n c e in lati-
tu d e b e t w e e n P o r t l a n d , M a i n e , a n d R i c h m o n d , V ir g in ia .
O n a c lo u d le s s d a y at 4 0 d e g r e e s n o r t h l a titu d e , t h e t o ta l di-
rect a n d d iffu s e r a d i a t i o n o n a 1 0 - d e g r e e (17V2 p e r c e n t)
s lo p e a t t a i n s t h e f o ll o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t e p e r c e n t a g e s o f th e
p o s s ib le m a x i m u m , d e p e n d i n g o n s e a s o n a n d t h e o r i e n t a t i o n
of t h e slope:

Slope Direction Midsu mmer Equinox M idwinte ;

N orth 95% 55% 15%
East or west 100 60 25
South 100 70 35

T h e s a m e d a ta for a p e r p e n d i c u l a r w a l l ( w h e r e t h e p o s s i b l e
m a x i m u m is a b o u t o n e - h a l f o f t h e m a x i m u m a b o v e ) are:

Wall Faces Midsummer Equinox Midwinter

N orth 40% 15% 5%
East or west 90 70 25
South 50 95 100
S t r u c tu r e s w i l l r e c e iv e s u b s t a n t i a l l y d iff e r e n t a m o u n t s
o f r a d ia t io n d e p e n d i n g o n th e ir o r i e n t a t i o n . In t h e h i g h e r
l a titu d e s m o s t o f th e r o o m s o f a d w e l l i n g s h o u l d get s o m e 69
s u n o n a w i n t e r d a y , a n d all o f t h e m s h o u l d r e c e iv e a d e -
q u a t e d a y l i g h t . R o o m s w i t h la r g e g la s s a r e a s s h o u l d n o t
face t o w a r d th e lo w w e s t e r n s u n o f s u m m e r , w h i c h is diffi-
cu lt to s h ie ld off. E x cep t for s u c h s im p le ru le s, h o w e v e r , it is
u se le ss to set d o w n a n y g e n e r a l p r e c e p t s for b u i l d i n g o r ie n -
ta tio n . T h e r e a re m a n y t e c h n i q u e s o f s u n s h i e l d i n g , b u t
m u c h r a d i a t i o n is d iffu s e a n d d i r e c t i o n l e s s , a n d a v a r i e t y o f
o u t l o o k is also d e s ir a b le . W i n d o w s to th e n o r t h w ill lo o k u p o n
a la n d s c a p e flo o d e d w i t h s u n . P a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n d e a l i n g
w i t h tall s t r u c t u r e s , w e m a y be ju st as c o n c e r n e d w i t h h o w
th e ir o r i e n t a t i o n a n d p l a c e m e n t a ffect t h e r a d i a t i o n f a llin g
o n th e g r o u n d a b o u t t h e i r b a se . A r tif ic ia l w a r m i n g a n d co o l-
in g is far m o r e d iffic u lt to a c h ie v e o u t d o o r s t h a n in. I n s t e a d
o f r e ly in g o n s t a n d a r d o r i e n t a t i o n s , a w h o le s y s te m o f m e a -
su r e s m u s t be t a k e n to p r o d u c e a n o p t i m u m local c lim a te .
S t r u c t u r e s a n d tr e e s m o d i f y th e c li m a t e in th e i r s h a d o w Shading
b y b l o c k i n g d ir e c t s u n r a d i a t i o n . In m a n y cases th e d e -
s ig n e r w a n t s to a r r a n g e th e s e s h a d o w s to a v o id r a d i a t i o n
w h e n it is h o t a n d to r e c e iv e it w h e n it is cold. D e c i d u o u s
tre e s a re id eal for th is p u r p o s e sin c e t h e y c u t off t h e s u m m e r
s u n a n d let th e w i n t e r s u n s h i n e t h r o u g h . In o t h e r c a s e s th e
site p l a n n e r w is h e s to p r o v i d e a v a r i e t y o f s u n a n d s h a d e at
a n y m o m e n t so t h a t th e i n h a b i t a n t s m a y c h o o s e t h e ir o w n
p r e f e r r e d c lim a te . T o s t u d y th e w h o l e s y s t e m of m o v i n g
s h a d o w s , th e p l a n n e r m u s t u n d e r s t a n d t h e g e o m e t r y o f t h e
s u n p a t h in th e h e a v e n s a n d h o w it v a r ie s w i t h h o u r , d a te ,
a n d la titu d e .
A t t h e v e r n a l a n d a u t u m n a l e q u i n o x , th e s u n a p p e a r s Sun angle
to rise d u e e a s t at 6 A.M., r i s i n g a n d f a llin g in a n a rc t h a t at
local n o o n is at its h i g h e s t p o i n t . A t th is tim e , in t h e n o r t h -
e r n h e m i s p h e r e , th e s u n a p p e a r s d u e s o u t h o f th e o b s e r v e r ,
a n d its a n g u l a r h e i g h t a b o v e t h e s o u t h e r n h o r i z o n e q u a l s 90
d e g r e e s less t h e l a t i t u d e o f th e p lace. In m i d w i n t e r th e d a y
is s h o r t e r ; th e s u n rises a n d se ts w ell to th e s o u t h o f th e
e q u in o c t i a l p o i n t s , a n d its n o o n p o s i t i o n is 23 V2 d e g r e e s
b e l o w e q u i n o c t i a l n o o n . In m i d s u m m e r t h e d a y is lo n g e r , ris-
in g a n d s e t t i n g a r e w ell to n o r t h o f e a s t o r w e s t, a n d t h e s u n
at n o o n is 23 V2 d e g r e e s a b o v e e q u i n o c t i a l n o o n . In 4 0 - d e g r e e
l a titu d e s , for e x a m p le , th e m i d w i n t e r r is in g is a b o u t 3 0 d e -
g re e s s o u t h o f e a s t a n d a n h o u r a n d a h a l f la te r, a n d th e se t-
tin g 30 d e g r e e s s o u t h o f w e s t a n d a n h o u r a n d a h a l f e a r lie r ,
t h a n t h e y a re at t h e e q u i n o x , w h e r e a s at m i d s u m m e r ju st
th e o p p o s i t e o c c u rs.
T h i s r o u g h d e s c r i p t i o n w ill giv e s o m e s e n s e o f th e
 70

Figure 10 Mi-
croclimatc: the
shade defines the
crowd on a hot
summer day (Via
Calzaiuoli, Flor-
ence).
s h a d o w p a t t e r n s a r i s i n g f r o m a g iv e n p la n . B u t t h e d e s i g n e r
u s u a l l y w a n t s m o r e e x a c t s tu d ie s , a n d for th is p u r p o s e t h e r e
a re ta b le s a v a i l a b l e g iv i n g s u n d i r e c t i o n a n d a l t i t u d e for
d i f f e r e n t h o u r s a n d s e a s o n s a t v a r i o u s l a titu d e s . O r he m a y
c o n s t r u c t s u c h a t a b l e for h i m s e l f ( th e m e t h o d is d e s c r i b e d
b e lo w ) . U s i n g th e s e s t a tis tic s , h e m a y d r a w s h a d o w c o n -
t o u r s t h a t s h o w all t h e g r o u n d s h a d e d d u r i n g o n e g iv e n d a y
o r e v e n d u r i n g a n e n t i r e y e a r. O r , u s i n g s u n d i r e c t i o n a n d al-
t i t u d e a t t u r n i n g p o i n t s in t h e y e a r , h e m a y m a k e a n a n a l y -
sis in s e c tio n o f t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a s ig n i f i c a n t b u i l d i n g
o r o u t d o o r a r e a a n d t h e o b je c ts t h a t w ill s h a d e it: tr e e s , ea v e s ,
sc r e e n s , a n d s t r u c t u r e s .
O n e o f t h e m o s t c o m p r e h e n s i v e a n d g r a p h i c m e t h o d s is H o w to m a k e a
to p la c e a m o d e l o f all t h e p o t e n t i a l s h a d o w - c a s t i n g o b je c ts o n sundial
a d e v ic e t h a t w ill s i m u l a t e t h e s u n d i r e c t i o n for v a r i o u s
tim e s a n d s e a s o n s a t t h a t l a titu d e . A s i m p l e w a y o f d o i n g
th is is to c o n s t r u c t a c a r d b o a r d d ia l w i t h a c e n t r a l p o i n t e r ,
m a r k i n g it w i t h t h e s u n 's s h a d o w p a t h a t d i f f e r e n t s e a s o n s
for th e l a t i t u d e , in o t h e r w o r d s , a c r u d e s u n d i a l fo r t h e g iv e n
p lace. A t t a c h t h i s s u n d i a l to a t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l o f
t h e p r o p o s e d site p l a n , w i t h t h e m e r i d i a n o f t h e d ia l o r i e n t e d
to m o d e l n o r t h , a n d t h e n , o u t in t h e s u n l i g h t , tip a n d tilt th e
b a s e o f t h e m o d e l u n t i l t h e p o i n t e r o n t h e little s u n d i a l i n d i-
c a te s t h e r i g h t h o u r a n d s e a s o n . T h e s u n l i g h t is n o w f a llin g
o n t h e m o d e l in t h e s a m e w a y it w o u l d fall o n t h e r e a l o b je c t
at t h a t ti m e a n d pla c e . B r ig h t a rtific ia l li g h t m a y a ls o b e
u s e d if t h e s o u r c e is o v e r 10 feet a w a y . S h a d o w p a t t e r n s a re
g iv e n d ir e c tly , a n d e v e n t h e i n t e r i o r l i g h t i n g o f r o o m s m a y
b e s t u d i e d if w i n d o w o p e n i n g s a r e to scale.
T h e s e a s o n a l v a r i a t i o n o f s u n a n g l e d e p e n d s s o le ly o n
t h e l a t i t u d e o f a site. G i v e n t h e l a t i t u d e a n d th e s e a s o n o f
y e a r , t h e d i r e c t i o n a n d a l t i t u d e o f t h e s u n m a y b e c a lc u l a t e d
for a n y h o u r (local s u n tim e ) b y th e s e t w o f o r m u la s :

sin A l = cos D 0 0 ¾ L cos H + sin D s in L,

sin A z = cos D sin H

cos A l .
w here
A l = a l t i t u d e o f th e s u n a b o v e t h e h o r iz o n .
A z = a z im u th of the sun, m e a su re d east or w est from s o u th
(or f r o m th e n o r t h if th e site is s o u t h o f t h e e q u a t o r ) .
L = l a t i t u d e o f th e p lace.
D = d e c l i n a t i o n o f th e s u n for th e g iv e n s e a s o n a b o v e o r b e -
lo w t h e c e le stia l e q u a t o r ( w h i c h is a ls o th e a p p a r e n t
 p a t h tr a v e le d b y t h e s u n o n t h a t m o m e n t in s p r i n g a n d
fall w h e n d a y a n d n i g h t a r e o f e q u a l le n g t h ) , a n o r t h -
e r ly d e c l i n a t i o n b e i n g p o s itiv e a n d a s o u t h e r l y b e i n g
n e g a t i v e ( w h i c h is r e v e r s e d in t h e s o u t h e r n h e m i-
sphere).
H = local h o u r a n g le o f th e s u n , e a s t o r w e s t o f t h e n o o n
m e r i d i a n . E a c h h o u r e q u a ls 1 5 ° , a n d t h u s H = 0 at
n o o n , H = 15° a t 11 A.M. o r 1 P.M., H = 30 ° at 10
A.M. o r 2 P.M., a n d so o n . T h i s is lo cal s u n tim e , a n d
n o t s t a n d a r d t i m e o r d a y l i g h t s a v i n g s tim e .

S in c e t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e s u n is s y m m e t r i c a l , it is n e c e s -
s a r y to m a k e th e s e c a l c u l a t i o n s fo r o n l y h a l f t h e d a y , t h e al-
t i t u d e b e i n g t h e s a m e fo r t h e s a m e h o u r a n g l e s in t h e m o r n -
in g o r a f t e r n o o n , a n d t h e a z i m u t h a ls o h a v i n g th e s a m e
v a lu e s , e x c e p t t h a t it is e a s t o f s o u t h in t h e m o r n i n g a n d
w e s t o f s o u t h in t h e a f t e r n o o n .
S in c e t h e s e a s o n a l c h a n g e is i n d i c a t e d b y t h e c h a n g e
in s u n d e c l i n a t i o n , D , a n d t h i s c h a n g e s w i t h r o u g h r e g u l a r -
ity, it is u s u a l l y n e c e s s a r y to c a lc u la te s u n a n g l e s o n l y for
m id w in te r, m id su m m e r, a n d th e tw o equin o x es, sp rin g a n d
fall. T h e s e i n d i c a t e t h e r a n g e a n d m i d p o i n t o f s u n p o s i t i o n s ,
a n d t h e o t h e r ti m e s o f y e a r c a n b e e s t i m a t e d b e t w e e n t h e m .
A t t h e e q u i n o x , D = 0 . A t t h e w i n t e r s o lstic e , D =
— 2 3 ° 2 2 V 2 ' ; a t t h e s u m m e r so lstic e , D = 2 3 ° 2 2 V 2 ' . H o w -
e v e r, if t h e e x a c t d e c l i n a t i o n o f t h e s u n is n e e d e d fo r a n y
p a r t i c u l a r d a y o f th e y e a r , it m a y b e r e a d f r o m a s o la r
e p h e m e r i s . I n u s i n g n e g a t i v e a n g l e s in t h e f o r m u l a , k e e p in
m i n d t h a t , for a n y a n g l e a , sin ( a ) = — s in a b u t cos ( — a )
= cos a .
T h e s e f o r m u l a s m a y be u s e d fo r a n y p la c e , a n y fra c -
tio n a l tim e , a n d a n y p a r t i c u l a r d a te . It is n o t d iffic u lt to c o n -
s t r u c t a ta b l e for a p a r t i c u l a r p la c e , s h o w i n g t h e a l t i t u d e
a n d a z i m u t h o f t h e s u n to t h e n e a r e s t d e g r e e for e a c h h o u r of
t h e d a y a t t h e s o ls tic e s a n d t h e e q u i n o x e s . T h i s is w e ll
w o r t h th e tim e for i m p o r t a n t w o r k a n d fo r la t e r re f e r e n c e in
d e s i g n s l o c a te d in t h e s a m e a re a . S u c h a t a b l e m a y b e u se d
to p lo t th e s h a d o w s in p l a n o r s e c tio n fo r a n y c ritic a l t i m e or
d a t e o r to m a k e a s im p le s u n d i a l to b e u s e d in o r i e n t i n g t h e
s h a d o w - c a s t i n g m o d e l d e s c r i b e d e a rlie r. O n c e a z i m u t h a n d
a l t i t u d e a r e k n o w n for a g iv e n l a t i t u d e , s u c h a s u n d i a l is
c o n s t r u c t e d as fo llo w s:
O n a c a r d , lo c a te a p o i n t O , a n d d r a w a lin e N O S ,
w h i c h w ill r e p r e s e n t t h e n o r t h - s o u t h lin e , w h i l e a t O w ill
be e r e c te d a v e r tic a l p i n o f a n y c o n v e n i e n t h e i g h t , P . For
a n y g iv e n h o u r a n d s e a s o n , t h e s h a d o w o f t h e t o p o f t h e p i n is 73
lo c a te d b y d r a w i n g a lin e f r o m O w h o s e a n g l e f r o m n o r t h
e q u a ls t h e a z i m u t h o f t h e s u n f r o m s o u t h ( s in c e t h e d i r e c t i o n
o f th e s h a d o w o p p o s e s t h a t o f t h e l i g h t s o u r c e ) a n d w h i c h lies N
w e s t o f n o r t h in t h e m o r n i n g a n d e a s t o f it in t h e a f t e r n o o n . aim/■
L a y o ff a d i s t a n c e X a l o n g t h i s lin e o u t f r o m O w h e r e J /
/X
X - - T _______
A tan Al 0 «‫׳‬i

P b e i n g t h e p i n 's h e i g h t a n d A l t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e s u n . T h e
p o i n t so o b t a i n e d is t h e s h a d o w tip a t t h a t h o u r a n d s e a s o n . ‫ר‬

Figure 11 Atyp-
ical s u n d i a l d i a -
gram resulting
fr o m the pro ce-
d u r e d e s c r i b e d in
the text. It can be
u s e d to o r i e n t a
m o d e l to a l ig h t
source and thus
to sim u la te the
angle of sunlight
a t a certain hour,
s e a s o n , a n d l ati -
tude.

T h i s c o n s t r u c t i o n m a y b e r e p e a t e d , to g iv e a d i a g r a m o f
t h e f o r m s h o w n in F ig u r e 11. T h e s e a s o n a l lin e s ( t h e p a t h o f
t h e s h a d o w tip a t t h a t s e a s o n t h r o u g h o u t t h e d a y ) a n d t h e
h o u r lin e s ( th e lo c a t i o n o f th e s h a d o w tip a t t h a t h o u r
th ro u g h o u t th e seasons) h ave been d ra w n by c o n n e c tin g the
s e p a r a t e p o i n t s for p a r t i c u l a r h o u r s a n d s e a s o n s . S in c e th e
h o u r lin e s a re a l w a y s s t r a i g h t a n d c o n v e r g e o n a c o m m o n
p o i n t o n N S b e l o w O , s in c e t h e s e a s o n a l lin e a t t h e e q u i-
n o x e s is a lso s t r a i g h t a n d is a t r i g h t a n g l e s to N S , a n d s in c e
t h e so ls tic e lin e s a r e s m o o t h p a r a b o l a s , it is p o s s i b l e to s k e t c h
t h is d i a g r a m w i t h o u t a c t u a l l y c o m p u t i n g all 21 h o u r a n d
s e a s o n p o in ts .
H a v i n g m a d e t h e d i a g r a m , p u t a v e r tic a l p i n o f t h e
c o r r e c t h e i g h t P a t O . P la c e th e d ia l flat o n a m o d e l, w i t h th e
lin e N O p a r a lle l to th e n o r t h d i r e c t i o n o n t h e m o d e l. If th e
m o d e l is n o w p u t in th e s u n a n d tilte d so t h a t t h e s h a d o w o f
t h e p i n 's tip falls a t th e c o r r e c t i n t e r s e c t i o n o f h o u r a n d se a -
s o n lin e s, t h e n t h e s u n l i g h t is f a llin g o n t h e m o d e l a s it
w o u l d d o in r e a l i t y a t t h a t h o u r , s e a s o n , a n d l a titu d e .
 74 T h e t o p o g r a p h y a ffe c ts a ir m o v e m e n t as w ell as o r i e n -
A ir m o v e m e n t t a t i o n to th e s u n . W i n d s p e e d s o n th e c r e s t o f a r id g e m a y be
20 p e r c e n t g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e o n flat g r o u n d , a n d w in d is
g e n e r a l l y q u i e t e r o n th e lee sid e t h a n o n t h e w e a t h e r side o f
a hill. B ut th e l a t t e r c o n d i t i o n m a y b e r e v e r s e d if th e lee
s lo p e is g e n t l e a n d th e w e a t h e r sid e is ste e p .
C o ld a ir flo o d s a re a n o c t u r n a l p h e n o m e n o n o n o p e n
slo p e s. A la y e r o f a ir n e a r th e g r o u n d is c o o le d b y t h e g r o u n d
b e n e a t h it, w h i c h loses its h e a t b y r a d i a t i o n o u t w a r d to th e
n i g h t sk y . T h i s film o f c old air flow s d o w n h i l l as a s h a l l o w
s h e e t, g a t h e r i n g i n t o a s t r e a m in o p e n v a lle y s o r a still p o o l
w h e r e it is b l o c k e d b y s o m e " d a m " o f t o p o g r a p h y o r cover.
P o s i t i o n s at t h e foot o f l o n g o p e n s lo p e s a r e n o t o r i o u s l y cold
a n d d a m p , a n d h o l l o w s b e c o m e fro s t p o c k e t s . S u c h f lo o d s c a n
b e d i v e r t e d b y b a r r i e r s u p h i l l o r p r e v e n t e d fr o m p o o l i n g b y
b re a c h in g th e d o w n h ill dam .
C o ld air p o c k e t s m a y p e r s i s t d u r i n g t h e n e x t d a y if
t h e y a re la r g e e n o u g h a n d e s p e c ia lly if fog o r h a z e h a s
f o r m e d to p r e v e n t t h e s u n f r o m w a r m i n g th e g r o u n d su rfa c e .
In t h i s ca se th e a ir is c o ld e s t clo se to t h e g r o u n d a n d w a r m e r
h i g h e r u p , a s i t u a t i o n c a lle d a n " i n v e r s i o n " b e c a u s e it is th e
re v e r s e o f th e n o r m a l d a y t i m e c o n d i t i o n . T h e f o r m a t i o n is
s ta b l e b e c a u s e co ld a ir is h e a v i e r t h a n w a r m , a n d t h e r e is
n o n e o f th e c u s t o m a r y u p w a r d m o v e m e n t o f w a r m , lig h t su r -
face air. If th e d a y s h o u l d a ls o be w i n d l e s s , t h e n fog a n d
s m o k e w ill n o t b e d i s s i p a t e d , a n d t h u s s m o g w ill co llect o v e r
u rb a n areas.
O t h e r local a ir m o v e m e n t s , s u c h as th e s h o r e b re e z e ,
m a y b e set u p b y t o p o g r a p h y . A t t h e s h o r e o f se a s o r v e r y
la rg e la k e s o n a n o t h e r w i s e w i n d l e s s d a y t h e r e w ill ty p i-
cally be a n a f t e r n o o n b r e e z e b l o w i n g f r o m th e sea a n d a
n i g h t b re e z e o ff t h e la n d . T h i s is d u e to t h e w a r m a ir r is in g
s o m e t i m e s f r o m t h e la n d a n d s o m e t i m e s f r o m th e w a t e r , de-
p e n d i n g o n t h e re la tiv e w a r m t h o f e a c h . T h e r e s u l t i n g in -
flow o f s u r f a c e a ir at th e b o t t o m o f t h e r is in g c o l u m n c re a te s
th e s u r f a c e bre e z e .
In b rief, in t h e t e m p e r a t e z o n e t h e b e s t local c l im a te s
t e n d to be o n s o u t h o r s o u t h e a s t s lo p e s , n e a r w a t e r , a n d o n
u p p e r o r m i d d l e s lo p e s r a t h e r t h a n a t t h e i r foot o r cre st.
Climatic effect A ll th e s e effects a r e in th e i r t u r n m o d if ie d b y th e p l a n t
o f plants c o v e r o r th e s t r u c t u r e s t h a t o c c u r o n th e la n d . P l a n t s a lte r
th e f o r m o f t h e s u rfa c e , in c r e a s i n g t h e a r e a for r a d i a t i o n a n d
t r a n s p i r a t i o n , s h a d i n g th e g r o u n d , b r a k i n g a ir m o v e m e n t ,
a n d t r a p p i n g a ir w i t h i n th e s t a n d . T h e n e t r e s u l t is a c o o le r,
m o r e h u m i d , m o r e s ta b l e m i c r o c lim a te . P l a n t s w ill a ls o t r a p
a c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f s m o k e a n d d u s t, b u t th is is m o r e lik e ly to
 in irt/

affect t h e i r o w n h e a l t h t h a n it is to p u r i f y th e a ir in a n y 75
s u b s t a n t i a l w a y . T h i c k b e lts o f s h r u b s o r tre e s a r e e ffe c tiv e
w i n d b r e a k s . T h e y r e d u c e w i n d v e lo c itie s b y m o r e t h a n 50
p e r c e n t for a d i s t a n c e d o w n w i n d o f te n tim e s t h e i r h e i g h t
a n d b y 35 p e r c e n t e v e n for tw ic e t h a t d i s t a n c e . If o n e is
p l a n t i n g tre e s o r s h r u b s for th is p u r p o s e , t h e b e lt s h o u l d be
d e e p (50 to 150 feet), s h o u l d rise g r a d u a l l y in h e i g h t o n th e
w i n d w a r d sid e , a n d s h o u l d be s o m e w h a t o p e n , to r e d u c e a ir
t u r b u l e n c e in its lee.
S t r u c t u r e s , as w e ll as p l a n t s , a ffect a ir m o v e m e n t . Buildings and
T h e y b lo c k a n d d iv e r t w i n d s o r c h a n n e l t h e m t h r o u g h n a r - airflow
r o w o p e n i n g s . T h i s m a y be d e s i r a b l e a l o n g a s t r e e t in s u m -
m e r o r m a y be q u i t e d i s a g r e e a b l e u n d e r n e a t h a l a r g e s la b
b u i l d i n g o n s tilts in a w i n t e r s t o r m . S u m m e r b r e e z e s c a n be
in v ite d a n d w i n t e r w i n d s d iv e r t e d if th e p r e v a i l i n g w i n d
d i r e c t i o n s h if ts w i t h t h e s e a s o n s , as it o f t e n d o e s . H o w e v e r ,
w e n e e d n o t m a k e th e m i s t a k e o f V i t r u v i u s : w i n d s d o n o t al-
w a y s b l o w fr o m s t a n d a r d d i r e c t i o n s !
T h e c o u r s e o f w i n d s a ffe c ts t h e r a t e o f c o o lin g , t h e re-
m oval of im p u ritie s, the tra n s m is s io n of so u n d , a n d even
s u c h d e ta ils as t h e p l a y o f f o u n t a i n s . T u r b u l e n t a ir d i s p e r s e s
s o u n d w a v e s , a n d s t e a d y w i n d s a ffect t h e i r a u d i b l e r e a c h .
A ir f lo w s t h a t a r e m o r e t h a n 6 feet off t h e s u r f a c e o n w h i c h
p e o p le s t a n d a r e o f little a v a il in l o w e r i n g t h e e ffe c tiv e te rn -
p e r a t u r e . L ocal c o v e r a n d s t r u c t u r e h a s m o s t effect w h e n
g e n e r a l w i n d s a r e li g h t a n d s te a d y . W i t h s t r o n g w i n d a n d
m u c h t u r b u l e n c e , t h e i r in f lu e n c e is m o r e e r r a tic . U n d e r
s u c h c o n d i t i o n s , for e x a m p l e , s m o k e c o n t a m i n a t i o n w ill d is -
perse rap id ly , even d o w n w in d from th e source a n d re g a rd -
less o f local co v er.
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , w e still h a v e a g r e a t d e a l to l e a r n a b o u t
w i n d m o v e m e n t s w i t h i n g r o u p s o f b u i l d i n g s . In g e n e r a l , t h e
ta lle r a n d t h e l o n g e r a b u i l d i n g o r o t h e r b a r r i e r to t h e w i n d
is, th e m o r e e x te n s iv e is t h e e d d y o n th e d o w n w i n d sid e , a
z o n e o f lo w p r e s s u r e w h e r e a ir is r e la tiv e ly q u i e t a n d is m o v -
in g e r r a t i c a l l y o r e v e n in a c o n t r a r y d i r e c t i o n to p r e v a i l i n g
flow. B u t t h e th i c k e r s u c h a b u i l d i n g is in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
a irflo w , th e s m a lle r th e a r e a o f w i n d e d d y , a t le a s t u p to a
p o in t. T h u s a t h i n , tall, lo n g w a ll is t h e m o s t e ffe c tiv e w i n d -
b r e a k . S u r p r i s i n g l y e n o u g h , it m a y b e m o r e e ffe c tiv e if it is
n o t c o m p l e t e l y i m p e n e t r a b l e to t h e w i n d , so t h a t p r e s s u r e is
n o t l o w e r e d so fa r t h a t it c a u s e s s t r o n g a ir tu r b u l e n c e .
A ir m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n g r o u p s o f b u i l d i n g s is so c o m -
plex t h a t it m a y be d e s ir a b le , for e x a m p le , to b r i n g a lo w
b u i l d i n g close u p b e h i n d a tall b u i l d i n g to i m p r o v e th e
v e n t i l a t i o n o f th e lo w e r s t r u c t u r e ! T h e r e f o r e it is u se fu l to
 76 s t u d y a ir m o v e m e n t s t h r o u g h th e site o n a sc a le m o d e l. S u c h
s tu d ie s a r e b e s t m a d e w i t h te c h n i c a l a p p a r a t u s , b y tr a i n e d
p e r s o n n e l , in a l o w - s p e e d w i n d t u n n e l ; th is is th e o n l y w a y
to o b t a i n q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a o n p r o b a b l e w i n d s p e e d a n d
p r e s s u r e . W i t h o u t s u c h a p p a r a t u s , h o w e v e r , it is still p o s s i-
ble to p r e d i c t th e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f w i n d m o v e m e n t , in c lu d -
in g w in d d i r e c t i o n , th e r o u g h r e la tiv e in t e n s i t i e s o f flow , a n d
th e r e g i o n s o f c a lm o r o f g u s t i n e s s , b y a s im p le d e v ic e in
w h i c h th e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f w i n d m o v e m e n t a r o u n d a
b u i l d i n g g r o u p is d e d u c e d f r o m a n a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d e l.
A crude wind M a k e a r e c t a n g u l a r b o x , o p e n at b o t h e n d s a n d la rg e
tunnel e n o u g h to c o n t a i n th e m o d e l. T h e la r g e r th e m o d e l scale, th e
b e tte r . O v e r o n e o p e n e n d o f t h e b o x p la c e a fine s c r e e n , a n d
a t t a c h a f u n n e l - s h a p e d i n t a k e , b o t h o f w h i c h w ill h e lp to
s m o o t h th e flow o f i n c o m i n g air. T o th e o t h e r e n d a t t a c h a
la rg e fa n t h a t w ill d r a w a ir t h r o u g h t h e tu n n e l . L u c k ily , t h e
re la tio n sh ip of v ario u s ph y sical c o n s ta n ts o p e ra tin g at the
scale o f real b u i l d i n g s a n d at t h a t o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l m o d e l s is
s u c h t h a t t h e a ir s p e e d t h r o u g h t h e t u n n e l n e e d n o t m o v e at
th e c o r r e c t m o d e l sc a le as lo n g as o n l y t h e g e n e r a l w i n d p a t -
t e r n is u n d e r o b s e r v a t i o n .
T h e t u n n e l m a y b e m a d e o f g la s s o r t r a n s p a r e n t p la s -
tic, o r it m a y be p r o v i d e d w i t h v i e w i n g p o r ts . If b a c k g r o u n d
s u r f a c e s a r e m a d e m a t t e b la c k a n d a s t r o n g c r o s s l i g h t is di-
r e c te d i n t o th e t u n n e l , t h e effects a r e m o r e v isib le . T h e
m o d e l m a y n o w be in s e r t e d , t h e fa n t u r n e d o n , a n d s m o k e
i n t r o d u c e d at t h e i n t a k e e n d . S m o k e c a n be g e n e r a t e d b y a
c ig a r, a p ie c e o f p u n k , a b e e k e e p e r 's s m o k e r , o r s i m i l a r de-
vices. T h e s t r e a m l i n e s o f s m o k e w ill m a k e t h e g e n e r a l w i n d
p a t t e r n s c le a r ly v isib le , a n d t h e y m a y b e p h o t o g r a p h e d .
T h e m o d e l m a y b e t u r n e d a b o u t in o r d e r to s t u d y v a r i o u s
w i n d d ir e c tio n s .
T h e a ir f lo w s m a y b e s t u d i e d in g r e a t e r d e ta il b y
m e a n s o f a s h o r t p ie c e o f fine w h i t e t h r e a d tie d to th e e n d o f a
lo n g t h i n rod. A s th is t i n y " p e n n a n t " is m o v e d a b o u t in t h e
m o d e l sp a c e , it w ill m a k e t h e local a ir f lo w v is ib le b y th e
w a y it s t r e a m s o u t, d r o o p s , f lu tte r s , flies a t a n a n g le , o r e v e n
tu rns backw ard.
N o c o n c l u s i o n s as to w i n d s p e e d o r force c a n be m a d e b y
th is m e t h o d , b u t th e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n is a p p r o x i m a t e d .
S t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , it is n e c e s s a r y to in c l u d e in t h e m o d e l th e
e n v i r o n m e n t s o m e d i s t a n c e u p w i n d , as w e ll as t h e g r o u n d
d e ta il t h a t a c ts as a b r a k e o n a irflo w . T h e effect o f g r o u n d
d e ta il m a y be a p p r o x i m a t e d b y a lo w p ic k e t fence, 5 o r 6
feet h i g h to th e m o d e l scale, p la c e d a t th e i n t a k e e n d . T o th e
e x t e n t t h a t th e s e tw o p r e c a u t i o n s a re n e g le c te d , t h e d e v ic e 77
w ill falsify a ir m o v e m e n t s a t t h e u p w i n d sid e o f t h e m o d e l o r
i m m e d i a t e l y a l o n g th e g r o u n d s u rfa c e .
M a n h a s m o d ifie d th e m i c r o c l i m a t e o v e r m u c h o f th e
e a r t h . H e h a s sim p lifie d it b y r e d u c i n g c o n t r a s t s b y h is
d r a i n a g e , fo rest c le a r a n c e , p l o w i n g , a n d p l a n t i n g o f s t a n d -
a r d c ro p s. H e h a s a lso i n v e n t e d a n e w m ic r o c l i m a t e , t h a t o f The city
th e city, w h i c h is th e r e s u l t o f t h e e x t e n s i v e p a v i n g , t h e clim ate
d e n s e s t r u c t u r e s , a n d t h e e m i s s i o n o f h e a t , n o is e , a n d im -
p u r itie s . H e a t is e m i t t e d at s u c h a r a t e t h a t it is e s t i m a t e d R e f e r e n c e 41
t h a t b y th e y e a r 2 0 0 0 th e a v e r a g e m a n - e n g e n d e r e d h e a t
o u tp u t per u n it area from th e B o s to n -W a s h in g to n u rb a n
s t r i p w ill b e 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n c o m i n g s o l a r r a d i a t i o n in
w in t e r t i m e . T h u s a " h e a t i s l a n d " is f o r m e d o v e r t h e city,
a n d th e u p w a r d c o n v e c t i o n w i t h i n t h is " i s l a n d " g e n e r a t e s
c lo u d s o v e r h e a d a n d d r a w s l a n d b r e e z e s in f r o m th e s u r -
r o u n d i n g c o u n t r y s i d e . R a in f a ll in c r e a s e s ; c lo u d s a n d h a z e
cu t d o w n s o la r r a d i a t i o n . T h i s pa ll w ill b l a n k e t a far la r g e r
r e g io n t h a n ju s t t h e b u i l t - u p a re a . H a p p i l y , th is effect is re-
v e rsib le . F or e x a m p le , in L o n d o n , w h e r e o p e n h e a t i n g fires
h a v e b e e n b a n n e d , w i n t e r s u n s h i n e h a s i n c r e a s e d 70 p e r -
c e n t in th e la st d e c a d e , a n d g r o u n d v i s ib ility h a s i m p r o v e d
t h r e e tim e s.
T h e e x te n s i v e p a v e d s u r f a c e s c a u s e r a p i d r u n o f f , w i t h
a loss o f local h u m i d i t y a n d c o o lin g , a n d m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d
m o r e d i s a s t r o u s flo o d s d o w n s t r e a m . T h e m u l t i t u d e o f s t r u c -
tu r e s c h e c k th e w i n d , so t h a t s t r e e t level w i n d s m a y b e d e -
c r e a s e d b y 25 p e r c e n t , r e la tiv e to r u r a l a re a s . T h u s u r b a n
a r e a s a re w a r m e r , d u s t i e r , d r ie r , a n d y e t h a v e m o r e r a in ,
clo u d , a n d fog t h a n t h e i r r u r a l c o u n t e r p a r t s . T h e n o is e level
is h ig h e r , t h e r e a re h i g h levels o f a ir p o l l u t i o n , a n d t h e r e is
m o r e g la r e b u t less s u n l i g h t . W i n d v e lo c itie s a re lo w e r ,
w h ile flo o d s a re m o r e f r e q u e n t a n d m o r e s h a r p l y p e a k e d .
A ll o f th e s e f a c to r s m a k e t h e " c i t y c l i m a t e , " w h i c h is
o n e o f t h e c h ie f p o p u l a r , c r i t i c i s m s o f city life. C o n t r a r y to b e -
lief, th e s e d e fe c ts a r e d u e n o t to t h e c r o w d i n g o f p e o p le b u t to
th e n a t u r e o f c ity s t r u c t u r e s a n d to m e c h a n i c a l e m i s s i o n s .
H e a l t h y b o d ie s giv e o ff n o p o i s o n s to th e air. T h e a t m o s p h e r i c
ill effects o f c o lle c tin g p e o p le in c o n f in e d s p a c e s a r e m o s t l y
d u e to t h e r e s u l t a n t h e a t a n d h u m i d i t y a n d to t h e p s y c h o l o g -
ical effect o f o d o r s . O n l y w h e n a s p a c e is a i r t i g h t m u s t w e
w o r r y a b o u t t h e o x y g e n level.
O n c e w e u n d e r s t a n d t h e n a t u r e o f m i c r o c l i m a t i c ef-
fects, it s h o u l d be p o s s ib le to m a k e t h e u r b a n c l im a te m o r e
c o m f o r t a b l e t h a n th e r u r a l o n e , r a t h e r t h a n th e r e v e rs e . M a -
 78 n i p u l a t i o n o f s u r f a c e s a n d s t r u c t u r e s a n d t h e u s e o f d ir e c t
a rtific ia l d e v ic e s ( r e f r i g e r a t e d o r h e a t e d p a n e l s , f a n s , w a t e r
s p r a y s ) m a y p r o d u c e c l im a te s m o r e d e s i r a b l e t h a n a n y " n a -
tu r a l" alternative. By the end of the n in e te e n th c en tu ry ,
e q u i p m e n t for i n d o o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t r o l a m o u n t e d to
10 p e r c e n t of to t a l b u i l d i n g co st. N o w it is 4 0 p e r c e n t . S h a ll
w e see a s im ila r t r e n d in t h e o u t - o f - d o o r s ?
Reading the W h e n t h e site p l a n n e r b e c o m e s a w a r e o f th e v a r i a t i o n s
microclimate in m i c r o c l i m a t e , h e w ill u s e m a n y s o u r c e s b e s i d e h is o w n
and changing it j u d g m e n t to e v a l u a t e a lo c a lity : t h e w e a t h e r i n g o f o l d e r c o n -
s t r u c t i o n , th e k n o w l e d g e o f o ld r e s i d e n t s , a n d t h e e v id e n c e
fu rn ish ed by existing p lan ts. T h e types of p la n ts a n d partic -
u l a r l y t h e i r h e a l t h , r a t e o f d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d b u d d i n g tim e
a re s e n s itiv e in d e x e s o f fin e v a r i a t i o n s in c lim a te . T h e d e-
s i g n e r t e n d s to a v o id c e r t a i n s i t u a t i o n s o r to m a k e s p e c ia l
p r o v i s i o n fo r t h e m : s te e p n o r t h s lo p e s , w e s t s lo p e s f a c in g
w a t e r , h il l t o p s , fro s t p o c k e t s , o r p o s i t i o n s at t h e fo o t o f l o n g
o p e n s lo p e s, b a r e d r y g r o u n d , n e a r b y s o u r c e s o f n o i s e o r air
p o l l u t i o n . T h e r e w ill b e o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s t h a t w ill a t t r a c t h im ,
s u c h as m i d d l e s lo p e s f a c in g s o u t h e a s t to s o u t h w e s t , lo c a -
tio n s n e a r w a t e r , w e l l - p l a n t e d a r e a s , a n d so o n . E v e n m o r e
i m p o r t a n t , h o w e v e r , h e w ill u s e h is k n o w l e d g e o f c li m a t e to
c h a n g e t h e lo cal w e a t h e r . H a v i n g e v a l u a t e d h is site in r e la -
t i o n to t h e g e n e r a l c lim a te , h e w ill o r i e n t h is s t r u c t u r e s to
ta k e m a x i m u m a d v a n t a g e o f s u n , s h a d e , a n d p r e v a i l i n g
w i n d s . H e w ill p r o d u c e s h a d e a t t h e r i g h t s p o ts b y m e a n s o f
tre e s o r a rtific ia l s t r u c t u r e s a n d c h a n n e l o r d i v e r t t h e w i n d
o r co ld a ir flo o d s w i t h b u i l d i n g s a n d p l a n t i n g . H e w ill select
s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l s for t h e i r a lb e d o . N e g l e c t o f t h e s e f a c t o r s is
b o u n d to p r o d u c e a w o r s e n i n g o f c l i m a t e in t h e a c t o f b u ild -
ing. A t t e n t i o n to t h e m , e v e n w i t h o u r p r e s e n t i n c o m p l e t e
k n o w l e d g e , c a n i m p r o v e it s u b s t a n t i a l l y .
It r e m a i n s tr u e , h o w e v e r , t h a t w e h a v e m u c h to l e a r n
a b o u t c lim a te , p a r t i c u l a r l y a b o u t its a p p l i c a t i o n to t h e a r t o f
site p l a n n i n g . T h e o r i g i n a l s t u d i e s o f t h e m i c r o c l i m a t e w e r e
c o n c e r n e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o b l e m s . T h e o u t d o o r effe c ts o f
m a n - m a d e s t r u c t u r e s a n d m a t e r i a l s a r e n o t y e t w ell u n d e r -
s to o d , a n d t h e r e is n o t m u c h q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a t h a t a de-
s i g n e r c a n u se in a p r e c is e w a y . N o r is t h e r e a n y l a r g e - s c a le
s y s t e m a t i c r e c o r d i n g o f t h e m i c r o c l i m a t e in u r b a n a n d s u b -
u r b a n a re a s . B e c a u s e o f its i m p o r t a n c e for c o m f o r t a n d
h e a l t h , s h o u l d n o t a p l a n n e r h a v e m i c r o c l i m a t i c d a t a , j u s t as
h e h a s t o p o g r a p h i c , s u b s o il, a n d u t i l i t y i n f o r m a t i o n as a m a t -
te r o f r o u t i n e ?
 T h e c o n t r o l o f n o is e o u t d o o r s is a s p e c ia l s u b je c t in itself. 79
Little work has been done on it since attention has been con- Noise
c e n t r a t e d o n i n t e r i o r a c o u s tic s . A l t h o u g h a n e n v i r o n m e n t
w i t h to o little n o i s e is c o n c e iv a b le , t h e u s u a l p r o b l e m is to re -
d u c e e i t h e r t h e n o is e level o r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t e n t o f t h e
n o i s e . S o u n d s o u r c e s are i n c r e a s i n g l y p o w e r f u l a n d u b i q u i -
to u s.
N o i s e levels a re m e a s u r e d in d e c ib e ls , a l o g a r i t h m i c
scale t h a t is 1 a t t h e t h r e s h o l d o f h e a r i n g a n d 1 4 0 at t h e
t h r e s h o l d o f p a in . E a c h i n t e r v a l o f 10 d e c ib e ls i n d i c a t e s a
level o f s o u n d e n e r g y t e n t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n b e f o r e , a n in -
crease th a t th e h u m a n ear m a y d is tin g u is h as b e in g
r o u g h l y tw ic e as lo u d . A n o i s e 2 0 d e c ib e ls h i g h e r t h a n a n -
o t h e r h a s o n e h u n d r e d t im e s t h e e n e r g y o f t h e l a t t e r , a n d so
o n . F or e x a m p l e , v a r i o u s s o u r c e s s c a le r o u g h l y as fo llo w s :

Decibels Typical Source

10 Q u i e t r u s t le o f l e a v e s
20-30 S oft w h isp e r
40 H u m o f a s m a l l e l e c t r ic c l o c k
50 A m b ie n t n o ise, h o u se k itch en
60 N o rm a l co n versa tio n
70-80 B u s y s tr e e t
90-100 S u b w a y c l o s e at h a n d (or a p i a n o ! )
110-120 A u t o h o r n or p n e u m a t i c h a m m e r
160 Jet a i r p l a n e

In m o s t a r e a s w e lik e to k e e p n o i s e l e v e l s d o w n to 5 0 or
60 d e c i b e l s , a n d d o w n to 3 0 d e c i b e l s ju st o u t s i d e r o o m s d e -
v o t e d to s t u d y or s l e e p , if t h e y are to b e a l l o w e d t h e l u x u r y o f
o p e n w i n d o w s . B u t n o i s e s a re a n n o y i n g or n o t i c e a b l e as
m u c h b e c a u s e o f t h e ir f r e q u e n c y , t h a t is, t h e ir p i t c h , as b e -
c a u s e o f th e ir l e v e l o f l o u d n e s s . H i g h - p i t c h e d n o i s e s , or o n e s
th a t i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f h u m a n s p e e c h , w i l l b e
p a r t ic u la r ly ob n o x io u s. Sounds w hose p itc h contrasts
s h a r p l y w i t h t h e b a c k g r o u n d n o i s e w i l l b e p i c k e d u p e v e n if
t h e y are r e l a t i v e l y s o f t. T h e f r e q u e n c y o f n o i s e s a u d i b l e to
t h e h u m a n ea r u s u a l l y r a n g e s b e t w e e n 2 0 a n d 2 0 , 0 0 0 c y c l e s
per s e c o n d or 50 a n d 1 0 ,0 0 0 c y c l e s at l o w n o i s e le v e ls . O r d i -
n a r y s tr e e t n o i s e s r a n g e in f r e q u e n c y f r o m a b o u t 4 0 to 8 0 0 0
c y c l e s p er s e c o n d , w h i l e m o s t h u m a n s p e e c h is t r a n s m i t t e d
in t h e 1 0 0 to 3 0 0 0 c y c l e r a n g e .
O u t d o o r s o u n d s are a t t e n u a t e d in m a n y w a y s b e f o r e Sound
r e a c h i n g u s. T h e m o s t u s e f u l m e a n s a v a i l a b l e to a s i t e p l a n - transmission
n er is s i m p l y t h e " t h i n n i n g o u t " o f s o u n d as it t r a v e ls f r o m
80 th e so u rc e . E ach d o u b l i n g o f t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n s o u r c e
a n d r e c e iv e r c a u s e s s o u n d levels to d r o p b y 6 d e c ib e ls . T h a t
is, n o is e d e c r e a s e s as th e s q u a r e o f t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m a p o i n t
s o u rc e . B u t f r o m a l i n e a r s o u r c e s u c h as a h i g h w a y , it d e -
c r e a s e s o n l y d ir e c tly as t h e d i s t a n c e , a n d t h u s s o u n d levels
m a y d r o p o n l y a b o u t 3 d e c ib e ls fo r e a c h d o u b l i n g o f d is t a n c e .
T o p r e v e n t th e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f s p e e c h , w i n d o w s t h a t c a n be
o p en ed a n d th a t c o m m u n ic a te w ith se p a ra te ro o m s sho u ld
n o t b e c lo s e r t h a n 3 0 to 4 0 feet a p a r t if face to face a n d n o
c lo s e r t h a n 6 to 10 feet if o n t h e s a m e w a ll p la n e .
S o u n d is d i s p e r s e d b y t u r b u l e n c e a n d g u s t y w in d s .
B a r r ie r s o f p l a n t i n g o r s t r u c t u r e w ill a ls o r e d u c e s o u n d
t r a n s m i s s i o n . B elts o f tr e e s a r e o n l y p a r t l y u s e f u l, b e i n g
m o s t e ffic ie n t a g a i n s t th e n o i s e s o f h i g h f r e q u e n c y , w h o s e
w a v e l e n g t h s a r e n o t m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n t h e a v e r a g e size o f
leav es a n d o t h e r o b s ta c le s t h e y m e e t, t h a t is, n o is e s o f o v e r
1 0 ,0 0 0 cy cles p e r s e c o n d . T e s t s h a v e i n d i c a t e d t h a t 1 0 0 0
feet o f w o o d s , t h i c k e n o u g h to lim it v is ib i l i t y to 70 feet, w ill
d e c r e a s e n o is e in t h e 2 0 0 —1 0 0 0 c y c le s p e r s e c o n d r a n g e b y
o n l y a b o u t 20 d e c ib e ls m o r e t h a n w o u l d t h e o p e n d i s t a n c e
a lo n e .
S o lid b a r r i e r s — e a r t h , w a lls , a n d b u i l d i n g s — a re
m o r e e ffe c tiv e in c u t t i n g d o w n n o is e . If t h e b a r r i e r is r e la -
tiv e ly i m p e n e t r a b l e to s o u n d , t h e n o i s e r e a c h i n g th e re c e iv e r
is w h a t h a s p a s s e d a r o u n d t h e b a r r i e r . T h e e f f e c tiv e n e s s o f
t h e b a r r i e r , r e la tiv e to n o n e a t all, i n c r e a s e s as b a r r i e r
h e i g h t i n c r e a s e s , as it is m o v e d c lo s e r to e i t h e r s o u r c e o r re-
ceiv e r a n d as t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e e m i t t e d s o u n d in c r e a s e s .
T h u s a h i g h w a ll c lo se to t h e s o u r c e w ill r e d u c e h i g h -
f r e q u e n c y n o is e m a r k e d l y , w h e r e a s a l o w w a ll, h a l f w a y b e -
t w e e n s o u r c e a n d re c e iv e r, h a s little effect o n l o w - f r e q u e n c y
sound.
M o r e p r e c is e ly , a s o lid b a r r i e r r e d u c e s n o i s e lev els (in
a d d i t i o n to r e d u c t i o n b y d i s t a n c e ) b y t h e n u m b e r o f d e c ib e ls

3 0 h 2 (a + b)
X ab
In t h is f o r m u la , h is t h e h e i g h t o f t h e b a r r i e r in feet a b o v e
th e lin e b e t w e e n s o u r c e a n d r e c e iv e r, a is t h e d i s t a n c e in
feet f r o m s o u r c e to b a r r i e r , b is t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m r e c e iv e r to
b a r r i e r , a n d X is t h e w a v e l e n g t h o f t h e s o u n d in feet (X
e q u a ls 1 1 3 0 d iv id e d b y t h e f r e q u e n c y o f t h e s o u n d in c y cles
p e r s e c o n d ) . T h i s c a l c u l a t i o n is v a lid w h e r e t h e s o u r c e a n d
re c e iv e r a r e o n t h e g r o u n d a n d a p p r o x i m a t e l y level.
F in a lly , o u t d o o r n o is e is a b s o r b e d to s o m e e x t e n t b y
g r o u n d a n d w a ll s u r f a c e s ; t h u s t h e u s e o f n o n r e f l e c t i v e te x - 81
tu res w ill h a v e an e ffe c t in r e d u c i n g s o u n d le v e ls . B u t it is
d iffic u lt to m a k e a r tific ia l s u r f a c e s t h a t are b o t h w e a t h e r -
p r o o f a n d a ls o s u f f i c i e n t l y fin e t e x t u r e d to b e e f f ic i e n t s o u n d
a b s o r b e r s . S n o w a n d f i n e - g r a i n e d n a tu r a l v e g e t a t i v e c o v e r s
are s o m e w h a t e f f e c t iv e . If n o i s e l e v e l s c a n n o t b e b r o u g h t
d o w n to a n a c c e p t a b l e p o i n t , it is o f t e n p o s s i b l e to m a s k t h e
u n w a n t e d s o u n d b y a d d i n g d e s i r a b l e or r a n d o m s o u n d : t h e
p l a y o f w a te r , m u s i c , t h e r u s t le o f l e a v e s , e v e n " s t a t ic " or
" w h ite n o ise."
T h u s t h e s i t e p l a n n e r p u t s h is first r e l i a n c e o n t h e
s u p p r e s s i o n o f n o i s e s o u r c e s or o n s e p a r a t i n g a c t i v i t i e s fro m
t h e m b y s u b s t a n t i a l d i s t a n c e s . H i s n e x t d e f e n s e is to u s e
b u i l d i n g s or o t h e r s o li d o b j e c t s as p a rtia l b a r r ie r s to s o u n d
t r a n s m i s s i o n o r to i n c r e a s e t h e b a c k g r o u n d n o i s e t o m a s k a n -
n o y i n g i n t r u s i o n s or to r e d u c e th e ir i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t e n t . A s
h is la st s t a n d , h e c o m p l e t e l y s e a l s h is b u i l d i n g s a n d a b a n -
d on s the ou td oors.
T h e p l a n t c o v e r is a m o s t s e n s i t i v e i n d e x o f s o il a n d P l a n t s as S ite
w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s . T o t a k e o n l y a f e w c o m m o n tr e e s as e x - I n d ic a t o r s
a m p le s : red m a p l e , a ld er , t u p e l o , h e m l o c k , a n d w i l l o w m a r k
w e t g r o u n d th a t is p o o r l y d r a in e d . T h e o a k a n d h i c k o r y a s s o -
c i a t i o n g r o w s o n w a r m , d r y la n d , s p r u c e a n d fir in c o l d ,
m o i s t p la c e s . P it c h p i n e a n d s c r u b o a k are s i g n s o f v e r y d r y
la n d a n d o f p e r f e c t d r a i n a g e . R e d c e d a r s i n d i c a t e p o o r s o il .
T h e list c a n e a s i l y b e e x t e n d e d in a n y l o c a l i t y . It is a list
w o r t h l e a r n i n g a n d u s i n g as a p r e d ic t o r o f s it e c o n s t r a i n t s .
T h e w e l l - a d a p t e d lo c a l flora w i l l b e b e s t for n e w p l a n t i n g s ,
or at le a s t it is a g o o d g u i d e to s e l e c t i n g n e w s p e c i e s o f s i m i -
lar h a b it . T h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f p l a n t s for a n y p o s i t i o n d e p e n d s
v e r y m u c h o n d r a i n a g e , a c i d i t y , a n d h u m u s , as w e ll as o n
t e m p e r a t u r e , s u n l i g h t , m o i s t u r e , a n d w i n d s . W a t c h i n g for
t h e o rd er in w h i c h s i m i l a r p l a n t s b u d o u t in t h e s p r i n g is a
d e l i c a t e i n d e x o f s m a l l v a r i a t i o n s in m i c r o c l i m a t e . S o m e
s it e s are p a r t ic u la r ly d iff ic u lt for p la n t s . T h e in n e r c i t y is
e s p e c i a l l y h ard b e c a u s e o f t h e la c k o f w a t e r , l ig h t , a n d
h u m u s , a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e air p o l l u t i o n , t h e h e a t r e fle c te d
from the p a v e m e n ts, and the p o is o n o u s ch e m ic a ls used. But
th e r e are a ls o s p e c ia l d if f ic u lt ie s to b e m e t in f lo o d p l a i n s a n d
w e t l a n d s , at s e a s h o r e s w h e r e p l a n t s are e x p o s e d to s a l t y
w in d s, o n dry barren g ro u n d , and so on. A n y n e w p la n tin g
m u s t r e s p e c t t h e s e s p e c ia l l i m i t a t i o n s .
T h e p la n t c o v e r is v e r y l i k e l y u n d e r g o i n g s u c c e s s i o n P lant
a n d s o w ill n o t e n d u r e in its p r e s e n t fo rm . C e r t a i n l y it w ill succession
c h a n g e a s h u m a n u s e p u t s n e w p r e s s u r e s o n it. T h e p a s s a g e
 82 o f feet a n d w h e e ls • w i l l d e s t r o y t h e n a t i v e g r o u n d c o v e r a n d
c o m p a c t t h e e a r t h a b o v e t h e f e e d i n g r o o t s o f tr e e s , if n o t h i n g
els e . T h e w a t e r t a b l e is l i k e l y to fall; p o l l u t i o n w i l l a p p e a r;
t h e c l i m a t e w i l l c h a n g e . T h u s it is r a r e ly p o s s i b l e to r e t a in
t h e n a t i v e flora in ta c t. It m u s t , at le a s t in p a rt, b e r e p l a c e d
or m o d i f i e d .
E v e n if t h e p l a n t a s s o c i a t i o n w i l l b e s t a b l e , t h e i n d i -
v id u a l s p e c i m e n s w i l l g r o w a n d d ie. It is a m i s t a k e to p r e -
s e r v e la r g e b u t a n c i e n t or d e c a y e d t r e e s , w h i l e c u t t i n g o u t
th e y o u n g p la n ts that w o u ld n o r m a lly h a v e replaced th em .
N e w p l a n t a t i o n s s e e m s k i m p y at first b u t are o f t e n later
d esp era tely o v ercro w d ed . T h e y m ust then be ru th lessly
t h i n n e d o u t. T h e a d v a n t a g e lie s w i t h p l a n t i n g s o f m i x e d
a g e , w h i c h are c o n s t a n t l y g r o w i n g t h e ir o w n r e p l a c e m e n t s .
Q u ick -g ro w in g t re es can be p la n ted for t h e im m e d ia te
effect — b e e c h or w h i t e o a k m a y b e p u t in for t h e fu tu r e.
N e w p l a n t s a n d c h a n g e s in e x i s t i n g p l a n t a s s o c i a t i o n s are
t h e r e f o r e s e t t l e d o n w i t h t w o cr iter ia in m i n d : (1 ) t h e ir e c o -
lo g i c a l h a r m o n y w i t h t h e s it e a n d its i n t e n d e d u s e a n d (2)
th e ir f i t n e s s for a p l a n n e d p r o g r a m o f c o n t i n u o u s m a n a g e -
m e n t . P l a n t s t h a t h a v e s i m i l a r r e q u i r e m e n t s o f w a t e r , s o il,
a n d c l i m a t e are g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r . T h o s e t h a t r e q u ir e s p e c ia l
ca re are u s u a l l y a v o i d e d .
In a n y u n d i s t u r b e d w o o d t h e p l a n t s o c c u p y a w h o l e
r a n g e o f le v e l s , f r o m t h e d o m i n a n t tr e e s o f t h e c a n o p y d o w n
t h r o u g h t h e s m a l l e r tr e e s o f t h e u n d e r s t o r y , t h e s h r u b s , t h e
la r g e h e r b s , a n d t h e p r o s t r a t e g r o u n d c o v e r s . T r u e to th e ir
p r e f e r e n c e for t h e s a v a n n a , m e n t e n d to s i m p l i f y t h is s y s -
tern to its e x t r e m e s : t h e c a n o p y a n d t h e g r o u n d c o v e r — t h e
ta ll fo r e s t tree a n d t h e g r a s s . S o t h e s it e p l a n n e r is m o s t
often con cern ed w ith the grou n d covers and th e o rn am en tal
t re es a n d t e n d s to p r o d u c e h is s p a ti a l e f f e c t s w i t h t h e m .
T h i s is a m i s t a k e n s i m p l i f i c a t i o n . In m a n y l o c a l i t i e s , a c l o s e r
p a r a lle l to t h e n a tu r a l a s s o c i a t i o n is a m o r e ap t c h o i c e . N e v -
e r t h e l e s s , s i n c e t h e s e are t h e t w o p l a n t t y p e s s o o f t e n c a l le d
for in p r a c t ic e , t h e y a re w o r t h s o m e fu r th e r c o m m e n t .
G rou n d covers M o w e d g r a s s is n o t t h e o n l y a v a i l a b l e m a n a g e d g r o u n d
c o v e r. T h e r e are a n u m b e r o f o t h e r s , e a c h s u i t a b l e for a p a r-
tic u la r s i t u a t i o n : b e a r b e r r y , b u g l e w e e d , c l o v e r , E n g l i s h iv y ,
g r o u n d i v y , p r o s t r a t e j u n ip e r , c r e e p i n g lily tu r f , p a c h y s a n -
d ra, p e r i w i n k l e , w i c h u r a r o s e , g o l d m o s s s t o n e c r o p . G r a s s is
t o o o f t e n u s e d w h e r e it is d e e p l y s h a d e d or o n t o o s t e e p a
s lo p e . B u t it r e m a i n s a g o o d c h o i c e w h e r e t h e g r o u n d is to b e
a w a l k i n g s u rfa ce . E x h a u s t i v e p la n t lis ts m a y b e f o u n d in
o t h e r s o u r c e s , a n d d e s i g n e r s w i l l d o w e l l to c o n s u l t t h e lo c a l
p l a n t s m e n . E ven w i t h r e g a r d to g r a s s , t h e r e a re d o z e n s o f 83
u se fu l v a r ie tie s , a n d se e d m ix e s a r e c h o s e n d e p e n d i n g o n
w h e t h e r a fine o r r o u g h t u r f is w a n t e d a n d w h e t h e r t h e
la w n is to b e c u t h i g h o r lo w , to h a v e h e a v y o r l i g h t traffic, to
be in t h e s u n o r in t h e s h a d e , o n soil t h a t is w e t o r d r y , ac id
o r a lk a lin e , p o l l u t e d o r c le a n . G r a s s is u s u a l l y d i r e c t l y
se e d e d o n a p r e p a r e d a n d f e rtiliz e d 6 ‫ ־‬i n c h to p s o i l l a y e r b u t
is o c c a s i o n a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d d i r e c t l y b y t r a n s p l a n t i n g tu rf. It
c a n a lso be se e d e d h y d r a u l i c a l l y , a l o n g w i t h a liq u id fe rti-
lizer o n d iffic u lt g r o u n d o r w h e n t h e r a p i d c o v e r o f a n e x t e n -
sive a r e a is r e q u ir e d .
T r e e s a re c h o s e n for t h e i r e c o lo g ic a l p r e f e r e n c e s a n d Trees
t h e ir m a i n t e n a n c e , as w e ll as for t h e i r te x t u r e , fo r m , a n d
c olor. It is p r e f e r a b l e to u s e n a t i v e tr e e s a n d lo cal s o u r c e s , al- References 31, 32
t h o u g h n u r s e r y - g r o w n tr e e s a r e less lik e ly to fail t h a n t h o s e
c o lle c te d in t h e w o o d s . T r e e s t h a t h a v e g r o w n in a w o o d m u s t
be p r e s e r v e d in a c l u m p sin c e t h e y h a v e s h a l l o w r o o ts , w h i l e
tre e s t h a t w e r e o r i g i n a l l y is o la te d o r in o p e n fe n c e lin e s
s h o u l d b e k e p t so. E v e n if left in p la c e , m a t u r e tr e e s w ill n o t
s u r v iv e a v i o l e n t c h a n g e o f h a b i t a t . T h e y c a n lose s o m e o f
t h e ir r o o t s (e v e n u p to o n e - h a l f o f t h e m if t h e y h a v e b e e n
c a r e f u lly m a n a g e d a n d p r u n e d ) , b u t t h e r e m u s t b e n o lo w -
e r i n g o f th e g r o u n d level w i t h i n t h e i r r o o t sp a c e . T h e g r o u n d
c a n b e r a is e d s o m e w h a t , b u t o n l y if a l a r g e w e ll is b u ilt
a r o u n d th e t r u n k a n d t h e g r o u n d o v e r th e f e e d in g r o o t s is
b r o u g h t u p to t h e n e w level w i t h c o a r s e s t o n e fill. A c h a n g e
in g r o u n d w a t e r or in t h e m i c r o c l i m a t e is lik e ly to b e fata l.
T r e e s m u s t b e p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t d a m a g e to t h e i r b a r k d u r -
in g c o n s t r u c t i o n . Y o u n g tr e e s c a n b e t r a n s p l a n t e d r a t h e r
e a sily , a n d so c a n la r g e m a t u r e s p e c i m e n s — e v e n 3 0 feet
h i g h — a l t h o u g h th is is e x p e n s i v e a n d r e q u i r e s s p e c ia l
e q u ip m en t.
A l t h o u g h local p l a n t lists a n d k n o w l e d g e m u s t a l w a y s
b e c o n s u l t e d , it is n e v e r t h e l e s s u s e f u l to list a n d d e s c r i b e
h e r e t h o s e m o s t c o m m o n tr e e s w h i c h a re so o f t e n u s e d in site
d e v e l o p m e n t in th e U n i f e d S ta te s . I n o t h e r a r e a s , o f c o u r s e ,
e n t i r e l y d if f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s w ill b e u s e d . E ven if p l a n t s a r e
s u ita b le , t h e y m a y s i m p l y n o t b e o b t a i n a b l e in m a n y p a r t s
o f th e w o r l d w h e r e c o m m e r c i a l n u r s e r i e s a r e n o t d e v e lo p e d .
T h e list to fo llo w is a n e x t r e m e l y r e s t r i c t e d o n e . It in -
e lu d e s o n l y t h o s e p a r t i c u l a r l y h a n d s o m e o r u s e f u l c u l t i v a t e d
tre e s, o v e r 4 0 feet h i g h in m a t u r i t y , w h i c h c a n b e g r o w n in
m o s t p a r t s o f th e U n i t e d S t a t e s — t h a t is, w h i c h c a n w i t h -
s t a n d w i n t e r t e m p e r a t u r e s o f a t le a st — 2 0 ° F . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
th e s e tre e s a re n o t to be s h o r t - l i v e d o r d i s e a s e - p r o n e o r to re-
q u ir e a n y s p e c ia l m a in ten a n ce. T hey m u s t a ls o su rvive
u r b a n or s u b u r b a n g r o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s . If a lis t e d t re e s h o u l d
b e d o u b t f u l o n a n y o n e o f t h e s e g r o u n d s , it is m a r k e d w i t h a n
a s t e r is k (* ). T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s are stric t e n o u g h to s h o r t e n
t h e list o f tr e e s to a b o u t t h i r t y s p e c i e s , a n d m a n y f a m il ia r
tre es a re t h e r e b y e x c l u d e d . It is n o t p r o p o s e d t h a t all tree
p l a n t i n g s s h o u l d b e li m i t e d to t h is list. S m a l l e r tre es a n d
tre es n a t i v e to a l o c a l i t y or a d a p t a b l e to s o m e s p e c i a l c o n d i ‫־‬
t io n or f a v o r e d for s o m e s p e c i a l q u a l i t y w i l l o f t e n b e p re-
ferred .
T h e list g i v e s t h e h e i g h t a n d s p r e a d o f t h e m a t u r e
tree, its ra te o f g r o w t h , its c l i m a t i c a n d s o i l r e q u i r e m e n t s , its
te x t u r e , c o lo r , a n d fo r m , w h e t h e r it is a n e v e r g r e e n , c a n b e
t r a n s p l a n t e d e a s i l y , is d i s e a s e - f r e e , or r e q u ir e s s o m e s p e c ia l
m a i n t e n a n c e . If it is p a r t i c u l a r l y s u it e d to s o m e s p e c ia l h a b -
itat ( in n e r c ity , s e a s h o r e , d r y g r o u n d ) , t h is fact is a l s o n o t e d .
A s i m p l e lin e s i l h o u e t t e is d r a w n in t h e m a r g i n for e a c h s p e -
c ie s , to a c o m m o n s c a le . T h e a c c o m p a n y i n g m a p o f t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s (F ig u r e 1 2 ) s h o w s t h e a v e r a g e a n n u a l m i n i -
m um tem peratures to be exp ected in v a r i o u s lo c a l i t i e s ,
w h ic h can be com p ared w ith the in d icated h a rd in ess o f
t h e s e or o t h e r s p e c ie s .
Key: 85
e A n e v e r g r e e n tre e
125 X 3 0 H e i g h t a n d s p r e a d o f m a t u r e s p e c i m e n s in
f a v o r a b le c o n d i t i o n s
r ,m ,s R a te o f g r o w t h r r a p i d ( o v e r 2 ft/y r ); m e d i u m
(1—2 ft/y r); or s l o w ( le s s t h a n 1 ft/y r).
—30° H a r d y w h e r e th e a v e r a g e m i n i m u m tern-
p e r a t u r e is a b o v e th is level
c H a r d y in s e v e r e i n n e r c ity c o n d i t i o n s
p P a r t i c u l a r l y free o f p e s ts , d is e a s e s , a n d
o th er m a in te n a n c e p ro b lem s
s T o l e r a n t o f p o o r soil
t L a rg e s p e c i m e n s t r a n s p l a n t e a s ily
* N o t s t r i c t l y w i t h i n t h e c r ite r ia o f th e list for
s o m e s p e c ia l r e a s o n e x p l a i n e d

Abies concolor ( W h i t e Fir), e 120 X 60 m —20°.

P y r a m i d a l , a l m o s t c o l u m n a r , d e n s e . F o l i a g e to g r o u n d p er-
s i s t s to m a t u r i t y . B l u i s h g r e e n n e e d l e s in t h i c k p l a n e s o n
h o r i z o n t a l or d o w n - s l o p i n g b r a n c h e s . H e a v y , s h a d o w e d
te x t u r e . N e e d s m o i s t s o il, t o le r a t e s s h a d e . W i t h s t a n d s h e a t.

Acer platanoides ( N o r w a y M a p l e ) , 50 X 40 m —40 ° ct.

B r o a d , r o u n d h e a d e d , r e g u la r o u t l i n e . L a r g e b r o a d l e a v e s ,
m e d iu m g reen , sm o o th . C o a r se textu re o f lig h t and sh ade;
d e e p s h a d e u n d e r tree; d iff ic u lt to g r o w a n y t h i n g u n d e r
it. C le a r y e l l o w in a u t u m n , l e a v e s p e r s i s t e n t . Y e l l o w f l o w -
ers in A p r il. G o o d s t r e e t tree. W i l l t o l e r a t e s e a s h o r e c o n d i -
Jl
t io n s .

Acer rubrum ( S w a m p , R e d , o r W a t e r M a p l e ) 60 X 40 r
- 4 0 ° t.
R o u n d or o v a l , d e n s e , a s c e n d i n g b r a n c h e s . A m u l t i t u d e o f
t i n y red f l o w e r s in e a r l y s p r in g ; b r ill ia n t s c a r le t, o r a n g e , ‫״ו‬ . ‫ז‬
u
y e l l o w l e a v e s in e a r ly fall. S m o o t h l i g h t g r a y b a r k o n >
^‫׳‬-‫י‬ ‫ י ׳ ^ י‬0 > ‫י״ד‬

y o u n g w o o d . P r e fe r s w e t g r o u n d b u t a d a p t s . S u n or s h a d e . j r
T olerates seash ore.

Acer saccharum ( S u g a r or H a r d M a p l e ) , 75 X 40 m — 3 0 ° t.
S hort trunk and u p righ t b ra n ch es form d en se, c o m p a ct,
o v a l c r o w n . L arg e d e e p - c u t le a v e s , s m o o t h d a rk g r e e n ,
w h i t i s h b e n e a t h , b r ill ia n t y e l l o w , o r a n g e , a n d s c a r le t in
a u t u m n . L a c y y e l l o w f l o w e r s in s p r in g . S w e e t sa p . N e e d s
m o i s t , w e l l - d r a i n e d s o il, p u r e air, full s u n . F in e s t o f t h e
m a p le s .
86 Aesculus hippocastanum ( H o r s e C h e s t n u t ) , 60 X 3 0 m —35°
ct.
R o u n d h e a d e d , p y r a m i d a l , v is ib le s t o u t s t e m a n d b r a n c h
s t r u c t u r e , b o l d s i l h o u e t t e . L a r g e l e a t h e r y le a v e s in h o r i-
z o n t a l c lu s te r s , m e d i u m g r e e n . O p e n , c o a r s e , f e a t h e r y
te x tu r e . L a rg e c r e a m y u p r i g h t flo w e r s p ik e s a t t w i g e n d s
in la te s p r i n g , like c a n d le s . M a k e s li t t e r o f le a v e s a n d
n u t s . L a r g e v a r n i s h e d b u d s in w i n t e r , le a v e s o p e n s u d -
d e n l y in s p r i n g . N e e d s r ic h m o i s t soil, s u n . B r ittle ; s u b -
ject to le a f s c o r c h in la te s u m m e r . T o l e r a t e s s e a s h o r e c o n -
d i tio n s .
*Ailanthus altissima (T r e e o f H e a v e n ) , 5 0 X 3 0 r — 2 0 ° cps.
O p e n form , co arsely b ra n c h e d , sp re a d in g , sta rk w in te r
s i l h o u e t t e . L a r g e c o m p o u n d b r i g h t g r e e n le a v e s , m a l o d o -
r o u s w h e n c r u s h e d . S t a m i n a t e f lo w e r s a lso m a l o d o r o u s ,
b u t s o o n g o n e ; p i s t i l l a t e f lo w e r s t u r n to c o p p e r y r e d fru it.
S e lf - s e e d in g , v e r y v i g o r o u s , g r o w s a n y w h e r e . C o a r s e
w ,‫ ׳‬t r o p i c a l ‫ ״‬t e x t u r e , s t r i p e d a n d d o t t e d s h a d e . S m o k e - ,
d u s t ‫־‬, d i s e a s e - r e s i s t a n t , r o o t s p e n e t r a t i n g . T o l e r a t e s s a lt
s p r a y , w e t o r d r y o r p o o r soils. B rittle . S h o r t - l i v e d : o n l y
2 5 —3 0 y e a r s .
Catalpa speciosa ( N o r t h e r n C a t a l p a ) , 60 X 40 s, — 2 0° cs.
G e n e r a l l y p y r a m i d a l , b u t a n ir r e g u la r o u t l i n e . T h e t h ic k ,
7/5 ir r e g u la r , b u t g e n e r a l l y h o r i z o n t a l b r a n c h e s are c l e a r l y
*‫ >עד‬. v i s i b l e . L a rg e l o n g - s t a l k e d l i g h t g r e e n l e a v e s in b u r s t s o n
ridged b ra n ch lets. H e a v y , p la stic texture, m a n y h o les.
S h o w y s p o t t e d w h i t e f l o w e r s in J u n e a n d Ju ly. L o n g , s l e n -
der c u r v i n g p o d s , p e r s i s t e n t in w i n t e r , r a t t l i n g in w i n d .
W ith sta n d s heat and drought.
Cercidiphyllum japonicum ( K a ts u r a T r e e ), 6 0 X 3 0 r — 25 0 p.
S p r e a d i n g or a s c e n d a n t ; l o o s e , w i l l o w y o u t l i n e ; b r a n c h e s
c l o s e to g r o u n d ; l e a v e s c l o s e to b r a n c h e s . F in e t e x tu r e .
C a n b e m a d e c o l u m n a r in h a b it . F o lia g e r o s y in s p r in g ,
b l u e - g r e e n in s u m m e r , y e l l o w a n d s c a r le t in a u t u m n .
R i c h m o i s t s o il a n d fu ll s u n .
Fagus sylvatica ( E u r o p e a n B e e c h ) , 1 0 0 X 7 0 s — 2 0 °t.
A g r e a t so lid , s p r e a d i n g , ov a l tree. N e e d s g r o w i n g r o o m .
B ranches sw eep g ro u n d , fo rm in g h o llo w w ith in . D ense,
d a r k g r e e n , sm a ll, t h i n , s h i n i n g le a v e s: b r o n z e a n d p e r -
s i s t e n t in a u t u m n . G r a y s m o o t h b a r k lik e m u s c l e d s k in ,
h e a v y t r u n k a n d b r a n c h e s . D a r k full te x t u r e , a m a s s iv e
s c u l p t u r a l tree. R ic h , m o i s t , w e l l - d r a i n e d soil, s u n .
L o n g - liv e d . C a n b e t r i m m e d for h e d g e s . T h e r e a r e fas-
tig ia te , w e e p in g , a n d c o p p e r - o r p u r p l e - l e a v e d v a r ie tie s .
L o n g - liv e d : o v e r 3 0 0 y e a r s . C a n n o t t o l e r a t e fill o r c o m p a c -
t i o n a r o u n d r o o ts .
Fraxinus americana ( W h i t e A s h ) , 8 0 X 50 m — 3 5 ° cs. 87
T a ll s te m , c o m p a c t , l o n g o v a l h e a d w i t h r e g u l a r o u tlin e , f ‫*׳‬H .
s t o u t a s c e n d i n g b r a n c h e s , f a ir ly h i g h o f f g r o u n d . L a r g e
p i n n a t e le a v e s, a d e n s e r ic h t e x t u r e s t r i p e d w i t h li g h t
r * ‫ ־‬i
p X */ %
a n d s h a d e . G r a s s g r o w s w ell b e n e a t h it. A s t a t e l y tree.
1‫ ׳‬H
D e e p p u r p l e o r y e llo w in a u t u m n . S e e d s se lf v ig o r o u s ly .
M u s t b e s p r a y e d for o y s t e r scale. 1r 15

C in gko biloba ( G i n g k o ) , 80 X 4 0 s — 2 5 ° cpt.

T all, s p ik y , u n g a i n l y o u t l i n e b e c o m i n g o p e n a n d s p r e a d -
in g ; sid e b r a n c h e s d i a g o n a l l y e re c t. F a n - s h a p e d le a v e s
o n s h o r t tw ig s , l e a t h e r y l i g h t g r e e n , p a le y e llo w in a u -
t u m n . F ru it o n p is t i l l a t e tr e e m a l o d o r o u s , b u t p i t is e d ib le .
A n a n c i e n t a n d p i c t u r e s q u e tre e , p e r h a p s t h e o ld e s t s u r -
v iv in g tre e species.
Gleditsia triacanthos inermis moraine ( M o r a i n e L o c u s t)
70 X 3 0 m - 2 5 ° cpst.
R o u n d h e a d e d , lo o se b r a n c h i n g , la c y c o m p o u n d fo lia g e ,
f e a t h e r y o u tlin e , o p e n u n d e r n e a t h , l i g h t s h a d e . N o t h o r n s
o r p o d s o n t h i s v a r ie ty . L e a v e s a p p e a r la te in s p r i n g a n d
d r o p o ff e a r l y in fall. L o n g - liv e d .
Juniperus virginiana ( E a s t e r n R ed C e d a r ) , e 60 X 20 s — 50°
ps.
N a r r o w , u p r i g h t c o m p a c t . C a n v a r y f r o m a tall tr e e to a
b u s h , d e p e n d i n g o n soil a n d c lim a te . T i n y , s c a le lik e or
p o i n t e d , d a r k g r e e n lea v e s, a r o m a t i c , p e r s i s t e n t fo r se v -
e ra l y e a r s , g r a d u a l l y t u r n i n g b r o w n , g i v i n g a r u s t y o v e r -
to n e . A d a r k , fine, b u t r a t h e r o p e n t e x tu r e . B a r k t h i n ,
r e d , s t r i n g y . D a r k b lu e b e r r i e s a t t r a c t b ir d s . T o l e r a t e s
s e a s h o r e a n d a n y soil b u t a s w a m p .

Liriodendron tulipifera ( T u lip T r e e ) , 1 5 0 X 7 0 r — 2 0 ° p.

T a ll, s t r a i g h t s te m , s h o r t b r a n c h e s h i g h f r o m g r o u n d .
O b l o n g b u t i r r e g u l a r o u tl i n e . B r o a d s h i n i n g le a v e s, p a le
b e n e a t h , t u r n i n g c le a r y e llo w in a u t u m n . A n o p e n , s p o t t e d ,
t r e m b l i n g t e x tu r e . T u l i p l i k e f lo w e r s in J u n e , g r e e n i s h
y e llo w w i t h o r a n g e m a r k i n g s . R ic h m o i s t soil. L o n g - liv e d .

Nyssa sylvatica ( T u p e lo , S o u r o r B la c k G u m , P e p p e r i d g e ,
B e e tle b u n g ) , 8 0 X 4 0 m — 2 0 ° p.
E rect, c y lin d r ic a l o r p y r a m i d a l , r o u n d e d c r o w n , b u t v a r i-
a ble. S h o r t , r ig id , c r o o k e d , h o r i z o n t a l , t w i g g y b r a n c h e s ;
b o ld w i n t e r o u tl i n e . R o u g h , d a r k b a r k . L e a v e s le a t h e r y ,
d a r k g r e e n , d e n s e , s h i n i n g , t u r n i n g f l a m i n g re d in a u -
t u m n . F r u it a t t r a c t s b ir d s . S h a l l o w r o o t s ; w i n d m a y
u p r o o t tre e if e x p o s e d . N e e d s ric h , acid , w e t soil. T o l e r a t e s
s e a s h o r e . D iffic u lt to t r a n s p l a n t e x c e p t w h e n sm a ll.
 88 P h e l l o d e n d r o n a m u r e n s e (A m u r C o rk Tree), 4 0 X 4 0 r
- 3 5 ° cst.
L o w r o u n d e d o u t l i n e , o p e n in t e r i o r . L o w t r u n k ; s p r e a d i n g ,
p ic t u r e s q u e , c o r k y , c l i m b a b l e b r a n c h e s , h i g h l y v isib le .
S ' C o m p o u n d le a v e s, m e d i u m g r e e n , a r o m a t i c , at e n d s o f
b r a n c h e s , a p p e a r i n g late. P l a n e s o f l i g h t a n d d a r k .
A b u n d a n t , p e r s i s t e n t b l a c k f r u it o n f e m a le tre e s. L ig h t
shade.
P i n u s n i g r a ( A u s t r i a n P in e ) , e 80 X 4 0 m — 3 0 ° s.
P y r a m i d a l w h e n y o u n g , l a te r f l a t - t o p p e d w i t h s p r e a d i n g
b r a n c h e s . H o r i z o n t a l b r a n c h e s in w h o r l s , f r o m clo se to
g r o u n d ; r e g u l a r o u t l i n e , d e n s e f o lia g e o n e x te r io r , o p e n
w i t h i n ; y e l l o w - b r o w n s c a ly b a r k . L o n g , stiff, t h i c k n e e -
dies, d u ll d a r k g r e e n . A h e a v y , d a r k , s o m b e r , r u g g e d
tree. G o o d w i n d s c r e e n ; t o l e r a t e s s e a s h o r e , s a n d , a c id or
lim e soil. N e e d s full s u n . T r a n s p l a n t w i t h care .
P i n u s r e s i n o s a (R ed o r N o r w a y P in e ) , e 75 X 4 0 m — 5 0 ° ps.
T a ll s t r a i g h t p y r a m i d a l tre e , b r a n c h e d to g r o u n d , b e c o m -
in g w i d e - s p r e a d i n g w h e n o ld e r . S tiff d r o o p i n g b r a n c h e s ,
r e d d i s h sc a ly b a r k . R a t h e r o p e n o u t l i n e a n d in t e r i o r .
•‫ז*־־‬ R• L o n g , so ft, c o a r s e n e e d le s , s h i n i n g d a r k g r e e n . A n o p e n ,
n e e d ly , g n a r l e d t e x tu r e . L o n g - liv e d , fa ir ly d is e a s e -
r e s i s t a n t , h a r d y , w ill t o l e r a t e r o c k y s a n d y soil. N e e d s full
su n .
* P i n u s s t r o b u s ( W h i t e P in e ) , e 1 0 0 X 4 0 m — 3 5 ° t.
F irst a s y m m e t r i c a l p y r a m i d ; t h e n ta ll a n d r a t h e r cy-
lin d r ic a l; fin a lly o f p i c t u r e s q u e w i d e - s p r e a d i n g o u t l i n e in
old age. H o r i z o n t a l , o p e n b r a n c h e s in r e g u l a r w h o r l s f r o m
‫ ן‬ta ll d a r k g r a y s te m . L o n g f r a g r a n t so ft g r e e n n e e d le s in
m a s s iv e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e s o f a s o f tly s h a d e d , s c u l p t u r a l
t e x tu r e . G r o u n d b e n e a t h c a r p e t e d w i t h b r o w n n e e d le s ,
i n t e r s e c t e d w i t h t w i s t i n g r o o ts . A n y m o i s t b u t w e ll-
d r a i n e d soil, n e e d s su n . L o n g - liv e d , m a y g r o w v e r y tall,
b u t c a n b e p r u n e d . S u b je c t to w e e v il a n d to w h i t e p i n e
b lis te r r u s t. B u t a m a je s tic tree.
‫ ׳ ־‬,S ('‫«»_•־‬ P i n u s s y l v e s t r i s ( S c o tc h P in e ) , e 75 X 4 0 m — 5 0 ° .
O p e n , p y ra m id a l, w h e n y o u n g ; ro u n d to p p e d , irregular,
/•*‫י‬
a n d p i c t u r e s q u e w h e n o ld. S tif f b l u i s h g r e e n n e e d le s , re d
‘< S & b a r k in o ld e r w o o d . U n i q u e f o r m a n d c o lo r. S e a s h o r e

J! hardy.
P i n u s t h u n b e r g i ( J a p a n e s e B la c k P in e ) e 60 X 3 0 s — 5 ° t.
D e n se an d sp read in g , w ith crooked tru n k an d a sy m m e t-
: :•-> p/ ric h e a d . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r m a c h ie v e d e a rly , in o ld ag e
r u g g e d a n d p i c t u r e s q u e . R e t a i n s lo w e r b r a n c h e s i n to
.‫•־‬.'a ^ “‫ר!׳׳‬
m id d l e a g e ; g o o d for s c r e e n i n g a n d m a s s p l a n t i n g . V e r y
I to le ra n t of seashore.
* Platanus acerifolia ( S y c a m o r e , B u t t o n w o o d , P l a n e T re e ),
90 X 60 r - 1 5 ° ct.
R o u n d h e a d e d , u p r i g h t s te m , s p r e a d i n g b r a n c h e s , d e e p
shade ben eath . M o ttle d g ray an d c ream y tru n k . D e n se
foliage, la r g e m a p l e l i k e le a v e s, l i g h t g r e e n , e a s ily
c lip p e d , a c h e e r f u l s p o t t e d p l a y o f li g h t a n d s h a d e . B e st
in r ic h m o i s t soil b u t a d ju s ts . T o l e r a n t o f s e a s h o r e . S u b je c t
to a n t h r a c n o s e a n d c a n k e r .
Pseudotsuga taxifolia ( D o u g l a s Fir), e 2 0 0 X 2 0 r — 2 0 ° .
A r e g u l a r p y r a m i d w i t h b r a n c h e s to g r o u n d w h e n y o u n g ;
in a g e a t o w e r i n g s t e m w i t h r e l a t i v e l y s m a ll b r a n c h e s a t
to p , a n d c le a r o f t h e m for o n e - t h i r d o f h e i g h t to g r o u n d .
V e r y lo n g - liv e d : 4 0 0 —7 5 0 y e a r s . S o ft b l u e - g r e e n n e e d l e s
o n p e n d a n t b r a n c h l e t s ; a d e n s e fine t e x t u r e . C o n e s in
c lu s te r s . C a n b e p r u n e d . P r e f e r s a lig h t, m o i s t , r a t h e r
a cid soil, full s u n . R a p i d g r o w t h w h e n y o u n g . O n l y t h e
m o u n t a i n v a r i e t y h a r d y to — 20 ° . S u b je c t to w i n d d a m a g e .
Quercus alba ( W h i t e O a k ) , 80 X 60 s — 30°.
A r o u n d e d , r a g g e d o u t l i n e ; la r g e , c r o o k e d , w i d e - s p r e a d -
ing b ra n c h e s. T r u n k a n d b r a n c h stru c tu re visu ally d o m i-
n a n t. B ro ad en s w ith age, req u ires g ro w in g ro o m . L ong-
lived. R o u g h , l i g h t g r a y b a r k ; d e e p l y c u t, d a r k g r e e n
le a v e s, t u r n i n g r u s s e t , w i n e - r e d in a u t u m n . L e a v e s in
c lu s te r s o n t h e b r a n c h e s , p e r s i s t e n t in w i n t e r . B e st in
d r y , g r a v e lly , s a n d y soil, b u t a d a p t a b l e . T o l e r a t e s se a -
s h o r e . D iffic u lt to t r a n s p l a n t e x c e p t w h e n y o u n g .
Quercus borealis ( N o r t h e r n R e d O a k ) , 70 X 4 0 r — 2 0 ° c.
s
A n i r r e g u l a r , r o u n d h e a d e d tre e . S h o r t m a s s i v e r i d g e d
t r u n k d iv id e s i n t o s e v e r a l s t o u t b r a n c h e s , f a ir ly h i g h o ff
g r o u n d . F in e ly c u t le a v e s , m e d i u m g r e e n , t u r n i n g d a r k f
\\
r e d in a u t u m n . A c o a r s e , b r a n c h y t e x tu r e .
Quercus palustris ( P in O a k ) , 75 X 4 0 m — 2 0 ° t.
S t a te ly , e re c t, c y lin d r ic a l. N u m e r o u s s l e n d e r h o r i z o n t a l
bran ch es d o w n sw eep in g n ear gro u n d . Low er b ran ch es
d r o p o ff w i t h age. D e n s e , d e e p - c u t , s h i n i n g g r e e n le a v e s,
re d in a u t u m n . B est in m o is t, n o t a lk a lin e , soil.
* Salix babylonica ( W e e p i n g W i l l o w ) 4 0 X 4 0 r — 2 0 ° t.
R o u n d t o p p e d a n d full, w i t h lo n g p e n d u l o u s b r a n c h e s ,
g r a c e f u l, b i l l o w y a n d p ic t u r e s q u e . T h e fo lia g e is fine a n d
n a r r o w , set o n fine b r a n c h e s , a n d m o v e s in a n y b re e z e .
L e a v e s a p p e a r e a r ly in s p r i n g a n d fall in a d r o u g h t .
W e a k - w o o d e d , c r a c k s e a s ily , s u b je c t to s t o r m d a m a g e . .% % < # •
‫ י‬,‫•׳‬M '‫׳‬
R e q u i r e s m o i s t g r o u n d ; r o o t s p e n e t r a t e a n d c lo g s e w e r s
a n d d r a i n s w i t h i n 5 0 feet. S u b je c t to d is e a s e s a n d p e s ts ;
r e q u i r e s m u c h m a i n t e n a n c e . U s e o n l y in sp e c ia l s i t u a -
tio n s , for t h e g r a c e f u l a n d s y m b o l i c h a b i t .
90 S o p h o r a j a p o n i c a (P ag o d a or S c h o la r T ree), 7 0 X 5 0 r —3 0 °
cst.
A c o m p a c t , low , r o u n d h e a d o f g r a c e f u l, la c y o u t l i n e , be-
c o m i n g like F r a x i n u s in h a b i t w i t h age. D e c o r a t i v e ,
b r i g h t g r e e n p i n n a t e leaves. T r e m b l i n g d e lic a te te x t u r e ,
t a k e s p r u n i n g w ell. L a r g e c l u s t e r s f r a g r a n t y e l l o w i s h
w h i t e flo w e rs in A u g u s t . Y e llo w p o d s t h r o u g h w in te r .
P o o r , d r y soil. T o l e r a n t o f h e a t.
* T i l i a c o r d a t a (L ittle L e a f L in d e n ) , 7 0 X 4 0 s — 3 0 ° ct.
T a ll, r o u n d e d , b r o a d - b a s e d , d e n s e a n d r e g u la r . B r a n c h e s
o f te n s w e e p i n g to g r o u n d , f o r m i n g a " c a v e " b e n e a t h .
D a r k s h a d e . T a k e s p r u n i n g w ell. S m a l l i s h b r i g h t g r e e n
lea v e s, f o r m i n g a d e n s e , fine te x tu r e . A b u n d a n t f r a g r a n t
y e llo w flo w e rs in e a r l y s u m m e r , a t t r a c t i n g be e s. N e e d s
m o i s t soil. A so lid , h a n d s o m e s h a d e tree. N e e d s s p r a y i n g
for a p h i d s a n d le a f - e a t i n g in s e c ts .
T s u g a c a n a d e n s i s ( C a n a d i a n o r E a s te r n H e m l o c k ) , e 9 0 X 3 0
m -4 0 °.
P y ra m id a l b u t ra th e r open, feath e ry o u tlin e; scattered
h o r i z o n t a l b r a n c h e s o n tall s te m , p e r s i s t e n t to g r o u n d ,
m a n y s m a ll d r o o p i n g b r a n c h l e t s . F in e s h o r t n e e d le s ,
s h i n y d a r k g r e e n a b o v e , li g h t g r e e n b e lo w . A fine f e a t h -
A‫ו‬tr
e r y t e x t u r e , o p e n a t t h e e d g e , d a r k a t t h e s te m . R id g e d
r e d - b r o w n b a r k . D a r k s h a d e b e n e a t h . L o n g - liv e d , s h a d e
t o l e r a n t ; d e e p m o i s t soil, cool n o r t h s lo p e s. T a k e s p r u n i n g
a n d t h e n g r o w s d e n s e ; m u c h u s e d for h e d g e s a n d m a s s
p l a n t i n g s . I n t o l e r a n t o f c ity air.
U l m u s a m e r i c a n a ( A m e r i c a n Elm ) 1 0 0 X 80.
S t a t e l y , v a s e - s h a p e d , h i g h - b r a n c h i n g , s y m b o l i c o f old
N e w E n g la n d t o w n s . It h a s n o e q u a l as a n u r b a n tree.
N o w d i s a p p e a r i n g , o w i n g to t w o fa ta l d is e a s e s . In t h e
h o p e t h a t t h e y m a y b e c o n q u e r e d , s p e c i m e n s o f t h e e lm
s h o u l d r e g u l a r l y be r e p l a n t e d , lest it b e c o m e e x t i n c t s im -
p ly t h r o u g h d is u s e .
V e r tic a l a e ria l p h o t o g r a p h s a re a n e x c e lle n t s o u r c e o f
A erial d e ta ile d , r e n e w a b l e site d a t a . M o s t d e s i g n e r s see o n l y
P ho to g rap h s w o o d s , w a te r , b u i l d i n g s , o r r o a d s in t h e s e p h o t o g r a p h s . T h e y
a re p u t o ff b y th e a m b i g u o u s s h a d i n g s , th e d o u b t f u l scale,
th e w a y th e p h o t o g r a p h s c o m e in little p ie c e s , n o o n e o f
w h i c h e v e r c o v e rs th e a r e a o f in t e r e s t . T h u s t h e c le a r, s ta b le
m a p is p r e f e r r e d . T h e m a p h a s e x a c t b o u n d a r i e s , a fixed
scale, a n d w e ll- s e le c te d d e ta il. B ut t h e d e s i g n e r m is s e s a
g r e a t d eal a n d m a y e v e n b e g in to t h i n k t h a t th e w o r ld is
like a m a p . H e is i g n o r a n t o f t h e n u m e r o u s c o m p r o m i s e s
a n d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s t h a t m a p m a k i n g e n ta ils .
W i t h a little p r a c tic e , a e r ia l p h o t o g r a p h s c a n be re a d
for soil ty p e , p l a n t c o v e r, b u i l d i n g ty p e a n d r e p a ir , m i n o r 91
p a t h s , tr a c e s o f o c c a s io n a l a c tiv ity , n u m b e r s o f p e r s o n s o r
c a rs p r e s e n t , d r a i n a g e , e r o s io n , o r flo o d in g , e v e n for s o m e
u n d e r g r o u n d o r u n d e r w a t e r f e a tu r e s , o r for t h e o t h e r w i s e in -
v isib le tra c e s o f a n c i e n t o c c u p a t i o n . T h e s e s e e m i n g l y h i d d e n
t h i n g s a r e e v id e n c e d b y s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s in soil co lo r, g r o u n d
level, o r t h e v ig o r o f p l a n t s , w h i c h c a n b e r e a d as a p a t t e r n
w h e n s e e n f r o m t h e air. P a ir s o f p h o t o g r a p h s c a n b e r e a d for
g e n e r a l o r d e ta ile d t o p o g r a p h y o r for lin e s o f s i g h t o r t h e
e x a c t e l e v a t i o n o f g iv e n p o i n t s . M o r e o v e r , s u c c e s s iv e p h o t o -
g r a p h s in d i c a t e t h e c h a n g e s in t h e la n d s c a p e , w h e t h e r
c a u s e d b y h u m a n o r e x t r a h u m a n a g e n c y . B e c a u s e o f th is
w e a l t h o f a v a ila b le d a t a , a n y site p l a n n e r s h o u l d k n o w h o w
to i n t e r p r e t a e r ia l p h o t o g r a p h s . I n a d d i t i o n , s e ts o f a e r ia l
p h o t o g r a p h s c a n b e c o n v e r t e d b y s p e c ia lis ts i n t o c o n t o u r e d
m a p s o f g r e a t a c c u r a c y a n d d e ta il. S u p p l e m e n t e d b y
g ro u n d su rv ey controls, th e y have b eco m e th e p referred
m e a n s for m a p p i n g e x t e n s i v e a re a s .
P h o t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n c l u d e s t h e a b i l i t y to r e c o g n i z e all
k i n d s o f f e a tu r e s , h o w to o r i e n t a n d m a t c h t h e s e p a r a t e
p r i n t s , h o w to d e t e r m i n e s c a le a n d to c o r r e c t for d i s t o r t i o n ,
a n d h o w to u s e s t e r e o p a i r s for r e a d i n g th e l a n d s c a p e in t h r e e
d i m e n s i o n s . P a i r s o f p r i n t s c a n be r e a d w i t h a v e r y s im p le
p o c k e t i n s t r u m e n t o r e v e n w i t h t h e n a k e d e y e a f te r a little
p r a c tic e . T h e r e s u l t is a v is io n o f w h a t s e e m s to b e a m a r v e l -
o u s l y d e ta i l e d m i n i a t u r e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l o f t h e
g r o u n d . P h o t o i n t e r p r e t a t i o n is c o v e r e d in v a r i o u s m a n u a l s , R efer en ces 33, 43
to o l e n g t h y to s u m m a r i z e h e re . It is a n e a s ily a c q u i r e d skill,
based m o re on p ractice th a n o n th e th eo retical stu d y , a n d
o n e w ell w o r t h a c q u i r i n g .
F in a lly , it is u s e f u l to set f o r t h a c h e c k lis t o f site d a t a o f A C h eck list of
t h e k i n d t h a t w o u l d b e a c q u i r e d in s o m e r a t h e r n o r m a l ex- S ite D a t a
a m p l e o f site p l a n n i n g . S u c h a list w o u l d b e d r a w n u p a f te r
a n in itia l a n a l y s i s o f t h e p r o b l e m to g u i d e t h e first s w e e p for
i n f o r m a t i o n . I n f o r m a t i o n w o u l d b e g a t h e r e d c o n t i n u o u s l y as
t h e p r o b l e m d e v e lo p e d , h o w e v e r . Its n a t u r e w o u l d c h a n g e as
th e p r o b l e m s h if te d . T o o m u c h d a t a s h o u l d n o t b e g a t h e r e d
in t h e first s ta g e s , n o t o n l y to s a v e e n e r g y for la t e r i n v e s t i g a -
tio n s b u t also to p r e v e n t b e i n g d r o w n e d in p a r t l y i r r e l e v a n t
m a t e r i a l . M a n y o f t h e to p ic s lis te d h e r e w o u l d a t first b e
h a n d l e d q u i t e s k e tc h ily . T h e f o l l o w i n g list is a p p e n d e d s im -
p ly as a n e x a m p l e o f its k i n d . T h e r e a s o n s for d i s d a i n i n g
m o d e l lists h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n c o v e r e d in C h a p t e r 2. See p a g e 21
1. I n itia l p e r s o n a l r e c o n n a i s s a n c e — n o te s , s k e tc h e s , p h o -
t o s — a p p a r e n t c h a r a c t e r , p r o b l e m s , a n d p o s s ib ilitie s
2. C o l l a t i o n o f e x is tin g d a t a : b a s e a n d c o n t o u r m a p s , a e r ia l
 p h o t o s , g e o lo g ic a l soil a n d w a t e r s u r v e y s , c lim a te r e c o r d s ,
e c o lo g ic a l s tu d ie s , e n g i n e e r i n g r e p o r t s , b o r i n g s , c e n s u s
m a t e r i a l , h is to r ie s , so c ia l s tu d i e s , m a r k e t r e p o r t s , traffic
s tu d ie s , legal a n d p u b lic c o n t r o l d o c u m e n t s , official p r o -
p o s a ls , r e c o r d s o f c u r r e n t c o n t r o v e r s i e s
3. S u m m a r y d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e o ff-s ite c o n t e x t a n d its
c h a n g e s : g e o g r a p h i c l o c a tio n , s u r r o u n d i n g p o p u l a t i o n s ,
social a n d p o litic a l s t r u c t u r e , g e n e r a l e c o n o m y , e c o lo g ic a l
a n d h y d r o g r a p h i c s y s t e m , l a n d - u s e p a t t e r n s , ac c e ss sy s-
tern, p r i n c i p a l o ff-s ite d e s t i n a t i o n s a n d facilities
4. D a t a o n th e site a n d its i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t :
A. Physical data
(1) G e o l o g y a n d soil:
a. U n d e r l y i n g g e o lo g y , r o c k c h a r a c t e r a n d
d e p th
b. S oil t y p e a n d d e p t h , v a l u e as a n e n g i n e e r -
ing m a terial a n d as a p la n t m e d iu m
c. Fill, le d g e , slid e s, s u b s i d e n c e
(2) W a t e r :
a. E x is tin g w a t e r b o d i e s — v a r i a t i o n a n d
p u rity
b. N a t u r a l a n d m a n - m a d e d r a i n a g e c h a n -
n e l s — flow , c a p a c ity , p u r i t y
c. S u r f a c e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n , a m o u n t , b lo c k -
a g e s, u n d r a i n e d d e p r e s s i o n s
d. W a t e r t a b l e — e le v a t i o n a n d f lu c t u a t i o n ,
springs
e. W a t e r s u p p l y — q u a n t i t y and q u ality
(3) T o p o g r a p h y :
a. P a t t e r n o f l a n d f o r m s
b. C o n t o u r s
c. S lo p e a n a l y s i s
d. V i s i b ility a n a l y s i s
e. C irc u la tio n analysis
f. U n iq u e featu res
(4 ) C lim a te :
a. R e g io n a l d a t a o n v a r i a t i o n o f t e m p e r a t u r e ,
p r e c i p i t a t i o n , h u m i d i t y , s o la r a n g le , c lo u d -
in e ss, w i n d d i r e c t i o n a n d fo rc e
b. Local m ic r o c l i m a t e s : w a r m a n d cool slo p e s,
air d r a i n a g e , w i n d d e f le c tio n a n d local
b re e z e , s h a d e , h e a t r e f le c tio n a n d s to r a g e ,
p l a n t in d i c a t o r s
c. S o u n d levels, sm e ll, a t m o s p h e r i c q u a l i t y
(5) E c o lo g y :
 a. D o m i n a n t p l a n t / a n i m a l c o m m u n i t i e s —
l o c a tio n a n d r e la tiv e s t a b i l i t y
b. T h e i r d e p e n d e n c e o n e x i s t i n g f a c to r s , self-
r e g u l a t i o n , a n d s e n s i t i v i t y to c h a n g e
c. M a p p i n g o f g e n e r a l p l a n t c o v e r, in c lu d -
in g w o o d e d a r e a s
d. S p e c i m e n tr e e s to b e r e t a i n e d : t h e i r loca-
tio n , s p r e a d , s p e c ie s, a n d e le v a t i o n at b a s e
(6) M a n - m a d e s t r u c t u r e s :
a. E x is tin g b u i l d i n g s : o u tlin e , l o c a tio n , floor
e l e v a tio n s , ty p e , c o n d i t i o n , use
b. C i r c u l a t i o n f a c ilitie s ( r o a d s , p a t h s , ra ils,
t r a n s i t , e tc.): l o c a tio n , c a p a c ity , a n d c o n d i -
tio n
c. U tilitie s ( s t o r m a n d s a n i t a r y s e w e r s ,
w a t e r , g a s, e le c tr ic ity , t e l e p h o n e , s te a m ,
e tc.): l o c a tio n , e le v a tio n , c a p a c i t y
(7) S e n s u o u s q u a litie s :
a. C h a r a c t e r a n d r e l a t i o n o f v is u a l s p a c e s
b. V i e w p o i n t s , v is ta s , v is u a l focal p o i n t s
c. C h a r a c t e r a n d r h y t h m o f v is u a l se-
quences
d. Q u a l i t y a n d v a r i a t i o n o f lig h t, s o u n d ,
sm e ll, feel
B. Cultural data
(1) R e s i d e n t a n d u s i n g p o p u l a t i o n :
a. N u m b e r a n d c o m p o s i t i o n
b. S o c ia l s t r u c t u r e a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s
c. E c o n o m ic s t r u c t u r e
d. P o litic a l s t r u c t u r e
e. C u r r e n t c h a n g e s a n d p r o b l e m s
(2) O n - s i t e a n d a d j a c e n t b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s : n a -
tu r e , lo c a tio n , r h y t h m , s t a b i l i t y , p a r t i c i p a n t s ,
c o n flic ts
(3) S ite v a lu e s , r i g h t s , a n d r e s t r a i n t s :
a. O w n e r s h i p s , e a s e m e n t s , a n d o t h e r r i g h t s
b. L egal c o n t r o l s : z o n i n g a n d o t h e r r e g u l a -
tio n s
c. E c o n o m ic v a lu e s
d. A c c e p t e d " t e r r i t o r i e s "
e. P o litic a l j u r i s d i c t i o n s
(4) P a s t a n d f u tu r e :
a. S ite h i s t o r y a n d its tr a c e s
b. P u b lic a n d p r i v a t e i n t e n t i o n s for f u tu r e
use o f site, c o n flic ts
 (5) Im ages:
a. G r o u p a n d in d i v i d u a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e site
b. M e a n i n g s a t t a c h e d to site, s y m b o l i c ex-
p ressio n
c. H o p e s , fe a rs, w i s h e s , p r e f e r e n c e s .
C. D a ta correlation
(1) C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f site b y a r e a s o f s i m i l a r
stru ctu re, qu ality , a n d p ro b le m s
(2) I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f k e y p o i n t s , lin e s, a n d a r e a s
(3) A n a l y s i s of current and lik e ly future
c h a n g e s — t h e d y n a m i c a s p e c t o f t h e site
(4) I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s ig n i f i c a n t p r o b l e m s a n d
p o s s ib ilitie s
Chapter 5

Technique:
Social and Psychological
Analyses

U n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w p eo p le use a n d value th e spatial

e n v i r o n m e n t is t h e k e y to p l a n n i n g s ite s t h a t fit h u m a n
p u r p o s e s . E n v i r o n m e n t a l b e h a v i o r h a s o n l y r e c e n t l y re-
c eived a n y s y s t e m a t i c a t t e n t i o n , a n d t h e l i t e r a t u r e is still
c o m p o s e d l a r g e ly o f p r o p o s a l s for r e s e a r c h . T h e r e a re p o c k e t s
o f d a t a , w h i c h m o s t o f t e n r e la te to o b v i o u s a n d w e l l - f i n a n c e d
p r a c tic a l is s u e s o r to th e r e s e a r c h i n t e r e s t s a n d t e c h n i q u e s
o f e s t a b l i s h e d fields. F or e x a m p le , t h e r e a r e d a t a o n tra ffic
b e h a v i o r as a ffe c te d b y r o a d n e t w o r k s , o n s h o p p i n g b e h a v i o r
a n d th e la y o u t o f s to r e s , a n d o n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f m e n a n d
m a c h i n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e g a r d to t h e r e a d i n g o f i n s t r u -
m e n t p a n e ls . T h e r e is i n f o r m a t i o n o n t h e r e l a t i o n o f t e m p e r a -
t u r e a n d lig h t to w o r k e ffic ie n cy , o n h u m a n p e r c e p t i o n
u n d e r l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s , o n th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f r a t s in
m a z e s , c o lo n ie s , a n d w h i l e p r e s s i n g le v e rs, a n d o n t h e fit b e -
tw e e n v a lu e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t in p r i m i t i v e s o c ie tie s. B u t
site d e s i g n e r s h a v e m o s t o f te n h a d to fall b a c k o n t h e i r o w n
p e r s o n a l fe e lin g s, m o d if ie d b y r a n d o m o b s e r v a t i o n .
T h e r e a re t h i n g s t h a t w e a re u n l i k e l y to le a r n f r o m
s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y , s u c h a s h o w to e v o k e t h e v e r y p e r s o n a l ,
in n e r e s s e n c e o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l e x p e r i e n c e o r h o w to d e t e r -
m in e n e w p o s s ib ilitie s f r o m a s t u d y o f e x i s t i n g im a g e s a n d
a c tio n s . T h e r e a re t h i n g s t h a t w e s h o u l d n o t like to k n o w ,
s u c h as h o w to force p e o p le to a c t in s o m e p r e d e t e r m i n e d w a y
b y m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e i r s p a t i a l e n c lo s u r e s . B ut t h e r e is
 96 k n o w l e d g e t h a t w o u l d b e u se fu l, s u c h as h o w e n v i r o n m e n t
b lo c k s o r f a c ilita te s p u r p o s e f u l b e h a v i o r o r h o w it o p e n s u p
p o s s ib ilitie s for c h a n g i n g b e h a v i o r o r h o w it f a c ilita te s o r e n -
r ic h e s p e r s o n a l im a g e s . A n d s o m e o f t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n m a y be
a m e n a b l e to s y s t e m a t i c s tu d y .
T h i s c h a p t e r w ill n o t b e a s u m m a r y o f p r e s e n t k n o w l -
ed g e. It w ill fo c u s i n s t e a d o n t h e m e t h o d s o f a n a l y s i s t h a t
m a y b e u se d in site p l a n n i n g , sin c e , a t le a s t for t h e tim e
b e in g , m o s t u s e f u l d a t a w ill h a v e to b e g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g
e a c h p a r t i c u l a r d e s i g n ta s k . E v e n in t h e l o n g r u n , t h e fin d -
in g s in o n e p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n a r e less lik e ly to a p p l y to a n -
o t h e r s i t u a t i o n t h a n a r e t h e s t u d y m e t h o d s th e m s e l v e s . I
s h a ll d is c u s s t h o s e m e t h o d s t h a t a r e n o w u s e f u l in a p p lie d
w o r k , r a t h e r t h a n th e m a n y t e c h n i q u e s t h a t m a y la t e r b e -
c o m e u s e fu l o r t h a t m a y b e i m p o r t a n t in b a s ic r e s e a r c h .
S in c e I a m c o n s t r u c t i n g a list o f p o s s ib ilitie s , I d o n o t m e a n to
i m p ly t h a t a n y site a n a l y s i s s h o u l d u s e a n y , o r e v e n m o s t, o f
th e s e te c h n i q u e s . T h e s i t u a t i o n w ill i n d i c a t e w h i c h w ill be
m o s t u s e fu l w i t h i n t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f r e s o u r c e s . R a p i d l y c o n -
s t r u c t e d s m a ll- s c a le d e s i g n s m a y u s e o n l y t h e c r u d e s t te c h -
n iq u e s , w h i l e la r g e - s c a l e p r o t o t y p e s c a n ju s t i f y e x t e n d e d a n d
s o p h i s t i c a t e d s tu d ie s . B u t s o m e a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
o f t h o s e w h o w ill e x p e r i e n c e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t is e s s e n t i a l
e v e n in th e s i m p l e s t ta s k .
T y p e s o f social A n a l y s e s m a y b e d o n e in t h e l a b o r a t o r y o r in t h e u n -
analyses c o n t r o l l a b l e a n d c o m p l i c a t e d r e a l w o r ld . D e s p i t e its t e c h n i-
cal d i s a d v a n t a g e s I p r e f e r t h e l a tte r . S t u d i e s m a y i n v e s t i g a t e
th e a c t u a l u s e r o f a p la c e or, w h e n n e c e s s a r y , s o m e s u r r o -
g a t e for h i m , s u c h as a p e r s o n o f s i m i l a r c la s s o r age. I n v e s -
t i g a t i o n s m a y t a k e th e p a s s i v e s t a n c e o f s i m p l e o b s e r v a t i o n
or a m o r e a c tiv e o n e o f e x p e r i m e n t a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n in o r d e r
to l e a r n t h e effects o f c o n t r o l l e d c h a n g e . T h e l a t t e r is m o r e
effe c tiv e b u t t e c h n i c a l l y m o r e difficu lt. S o m e t i m e s it is e th i-
c a lly q u e s t i o n a b l e , s in c e t h e a n a l y s t is i n t e r f e r i n g in t h e
c o n d u c t o f h u m a n life. H e m a y j u s tif y th is a p p r o a c h o n t h e
g r o u n d s t h a t a n e w site p l a n w ill c h a n g e liv in g p a t t e r n s in
a n y e v e n t. O r h e m a y w a i t for s o m e o n e else to d o t h e i n t e r -
fe rin g , as b y a n a l y z i n g th e r e s u lt o f b u i l d i n g a n e w h i g h -
w a y o r o f a n a t u r a l d is a s te r . B u t th e e th ic a l is s u e m u s t b e
faced. A n a l y s i s is n o t n e u t r a l sc ie n c e : a n y o b s e r v a t i o n
c h a n g e s s o m e t h i n g . E th ic s a n d te c h n i c s a r e b o u n d u p to -
g e th e r .
A n a l y s i s m a y be d o n e b y a n o b s e r v e r w h o is o u t s i d e
th e s y s t e m o b s e r v e d a n d h a s little effect o n it. T h i s s i t u a t i o n
n e v e r o c c u r s in a b s o l u t e f o r m in r e a lity , a l t h o u g h it m a y b e
 a p p r o x i m a t e d b y s o m e o n e c o u n t i n g tra ffic o n a b u s y s tr e e t. 97
B u t e v e n t h e n , h is f i n d i n g s m a y e v e n t u a l l y a ffe c t t h a t traffic.
T h e n e u t r a l i t y a n d o b je c t i v i t y o f t h i s k i n d o f o b s e r v a t i o n is
b a l a n c e d b y t h e d if f ic u lty o f g e t t i n g ,,i n s i d e '' t h e e n v i r o n -
m e n ta l experience of th o se b ein g observ ed , a n d of so rtin g o u t
i r r e l e v a n t f r o m r e l e v a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s . M o s t s t u d i e s to d a t e
h a v e b e e n o f t h i s k in d .
O n e m a y u s e t h e m e t h o d s o f a n t h r o p o l o g y , in w h i c h
t h e o b s e r v e r t e m p o r a r i l y b e c o m e s a p a r t i c i p a n t in t h e s y s -
tern b e i n g s t u d i e d : a c e l e b r a t i o n o r a c u l t u r e o r a s c h o o l for
t h e b lin d . T h e s e t e c h n i q u e s h a v e p r o d u c e d w h a t is p e r h a p s
o u r m o s t v a l u a b l e m a t e r i a l . B u t t h e y a r e d iffic u lt; t h e y re -
q u ir e y e a r s o f p r e p a r a t i o n ; a n d t h e y r a is e t o u c h y e th ic a l
p r o b l e m s as w ell.
F in a lly , o n e m i g h t e m p l o y s e l f - s t u d y m e t h o d s , w h e r e
th e u s e r o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t c o n s c i o u s l y s t u d i e s h i s o w n
a c t i o n s a n d fe e lin g s t o w a r d it. T h i s is a l i t t l e - d e v e l o p e d t e c h -
n iq u e , t e c h n i c a l l y p r o m i s i n g a n d e t h i c a l l y r a t h e r s t r a i g h t -
fo rw ard , w h ic h has the q u a lity (b o th d isru p tiv e a n d h ope-
ful) t h a t th e s u b je c t o f a n a l y s i s is lik e ly to c h a n g e h i m s e l f
in t h e c o u r s e o f s tu d y .
D a t a a r e m o s t o f te n s o u g h t fo r m a k i n g p r e d i c t i o n s :
" W h a t w ill r e s i d e n t s d o , a n d h o w w ill t h e y feel, if e a c h o n e
g e ts a p r i v a t e g a r d e n ? " M o r e p r o p e r l y , in m o s t s i t u a t i o n s ,
re se a rc h w o u ld be d irected to w a rd le a rn in g w h a t p eo p le are
t r y i n g to d o a n d h o w t h o s e p u r p o s e s m a y b e f a c ilita te d : " D o
r e s i d e n t s w a n t to p l a n t flo w e rs , a n d h o w c a n t h e site h e l p
t h e m to s a t i s f y t h a t d e s i r e ? " B u t a n a l y s i s m a y a ls o b e u s e d
to u n c o v e r p r o b l e m s o r p o s s ib ilitie s o f w h i c h t h e u s e r s a re
q u ite u n a w a r e . O r — a n d t h i s is a r a r e e v e n t — a n a l y s i s
m a y be u s e d to h e l p p e o p l e to u n d e r s t a n d t h e m s e l v e s o r
e v e n to t r a n s f o r m th e m s e l v e s : " N o w t h a t I h a v e t r ie d g a r -
d e n i n g , I see t h e w o r l d d i f f e r e n t l y . "
A ll th e s e m e t h o d s fo c u s o n t h e p e r s o n s a n d g r o u p s o f The nature of
p e r s o n s w h o w ill live in a n d u s e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t . T h u s t h e the client
first s te p is to d e t e r m i n ê w h o t h e s e p e o p l e a r e a n d h o w to o b -
s e rv e t h e m o r c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h th e m . T h i s m a y b e o b v i o u s
e n o u g h in a p la c e a l r e a d y in use. B u t if a s ite is y e t to be d e -
v e lo p e d , a c o m p l i c a t e d p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e f u t u r e r e s i d e n t s
m a y b e r e q u ir e d . W a y s o f c a t e g o r i z i n g p e o p le , a s b y c la ss,
e t h n i c i t y , p e r s o n a l i t y , o r ro le , t h e n u n f o r t u n a t e l y b e c o m e
i m p o r t a n t . U s e f u l as th e s e a b s t r a c t i o n s a re , t h e y m u s t n o t
b l in d us to t h e fact t h a t w e a re d e a l i n g w i t h w h o l e p e r s o n s .
O n e o f t h e s tr a te g ic w a y s o f c la s s if y in g s i t e - p l a n n i n g
s i t u a t i o n s is o n t h e b a s is o f w h a t w e k n o w a b o u t t h e c lie n t o r
use r. In t h e m o s t s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d s i t u a t i o n , t h e c lie n t is th e
u se r, a n d h e is p r e s e n t , v o c a l, a n d h o m o g e n e o u s : if t h e r e a re
p l u r a l u s e r s , t h e y h a v e c o m m o n v a lu e s a n d c o m m o n e n v i-
r o n m e n t a l p u r p o s e s . S in c e t h e c lie n t is p r e s e n t a n d v o c a l,
th e s e v a lu e s a n d p u r p o s e s a r e r e l a t i v e l y e a s y to d is c o v e r.
T h i s m i g h t be t r u e in t h e d e s i g n o f a p r i v a t e g a r d e n to be
a t t a c h e d to a n e x i s t i n g h o u s e . S ite d e s i g n e r s c a n p e r f o r m
r a t h e r w e ll in s u c h a case.
T h e p r o b l e m b e c o m e s m o r e d iffic u lt if t h e c lie n ts or
u s e r s a r e n o l o n g e r h o m o g e n e o u s b u t c o m p le x , h o l d i n g d iffe r-
e n t v a lu e s a n d p u r p o s e s . T h i s is a l m o s t i n e v i t a b l e in la r g e
site p l a n s o r t h o s e for p u b lic a re a s . N o w e a c h t y p e o f c lie n t
m u s t be id e n tif ie d , a n d w a y s m u s t b e f o u n d o f s a t i s f y i n g
t h e i r d iv e r s e r e q u i r e m e n t s w i t h o u t m u t u a l i n te r f e r e n c e ,
o f te n b y a r r a n g i n g for s e p a r a t e s p a t i a l o r t e m p o r a l t e r r i t o -
ries. T o t h e e x t e n t t h a t th is c a n n o t b e d o n e , th e d iv e r s e re -
q u i r e m e n t s m u s t b e c o m p r o m i s e d , i n e v i t a b l y a p o litic a l p r o -
cess. T h e d e s i g n e r m a y n o w p l a y a ro le o f m e d i a t o r o r
catalyst, b u t n o t of a u th o rity .
V e r y o f te n , in a d d i t i o n to t h e u s e r s b e i n g c o m p le x , s o m e
o f t h e m h a v e n o d ir e c t v o ic e in t h e p r o c e e d i n g s . S t u d e n t s d o
n o t g e n e r a l l y h e l p to d e s i g n s c h o o ls , n o r c h i l d r e n h o m e s , n o r
p a t i e n t s h o s p i t a l s , n o r p r i s o n e r s jails, n o r e m p l o y e e s offices.
In s o m e ca se s w h i l e th e u s e r h a s n o d i r e c t v o ice, h e m a y
e x e r t c o n s i d e r a b l e in d i r e c t in f lu e n c e , a s s h o p p e r s a ffect
s to r e l a y o u t b y t h e i r p r o p e n s i t y to b u y . B u t w h e r e v e r a n ef-
fective m a r k e t m e c h a n i s m is n o t p r e s e n t , t h e d e s i g n e r faces
a p a r t i c u l a r a n d f a m i l i a r d iffic u lty : t h e r e m a y b e i m p o r t a n t
c lie n ts o f w h o m h e is u n a w a r e o r w i t h w h o m h e c a n n o t e a s -
ily c o m m u n i c a t e b e c a u s e it is n o t c u s t o m a r y for t h e m to
e n t e r i n t o t h e d e c is io n . E v e n if h e c a n c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h
t h e m , h e m a y n o t b e a b le to in f lu e n c e t h e d e s i g n in th e i r
fa v o r, e x c e p t s e c r e tly o r in a r e a s o f l o w p r i o r i t y . A p o litic a l
c h a n g e is t h u s r e q u i r e d .
If th e c lie n ts a r e n o t p r e s e n t o n t h e site, t h e n t h e p r o b -
lem is m o r e d iffic u lt still, sin c e t h e y w ill n o t h a v e t h a t c o n -
c r e te e x p e r ie n c e w i t h t h e p la c e t h a t is a f irm b a s is for de-
s ig n , n o r w ill t h e y be a b le to m o d i f y t h e f o r m o f t h e site a s it
ta k e s s h a p e . T h e y m a y a l r e a d y b e a s s e m b l e d , h o w e v e r , o r
o t h e r w i s e b e so w e ll id e n tif ie d t h a t it is e a s y to c o m m u n i c a t e
w i t h th e m . T h u s t h e y m a y b e m e m b e r s o f a h o u s i n g c o o p e r -
a tiv e o r th e tr u c k d r iv e r s for a w a r e h o u s e t h a t w ill m o v e
o n t o th e site.
A still m o r e d iffic u lt ca se o c c u r s w h e n c lie n ts a re n e i-
t h e r a s s e m b l e d n o r r e a c h a b l e , e v e n t h o u g h th e t y p e o f c lie n t
m a y be w e ll k n o w n . T h e y w ill a s s e m b l e a f te r t h e site is o r- 99
ganized: they m ay be s u b u rb a n h o u se b u y e rs or s h o p p e rs or
la b o r e r s in a n e w i n d u s t r y . E ven t h o u g h n o t a s s e m b l e d ,
th e s e c lie n ts m a y h a v e a w a y o f a s s e r t i n g th e m s e l v e s
t h r o u g h th e m a r k e t , b u t v e r y o f t e n t h e y a r e s ile n t a n d p o w -
e rle ss. A n a l y s i s n o w falls b a c k o n s u r r o g a t e c lie n ts , s i m i l a r
to t h e e x p e c te d u s e r s in cla ss, o r o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s o r o n fin d -
in g s m a d e in p r e v i o u s d e v e l o p m e n t s . T h i s is th e c a se u n l e s s
s o m e w a y c a n b e f o u n d to c o n v e r t a b s e n t c lie n ts i n t o p r e s e n t
o n e s , u n a s s e m b l e d to a s s e m b l e d . T h i s m a y be d o n e b y o r -
g a n i z i n g f u t u r e b u y e r s b e f o r e p l a n n i n g b e g i n s o r b y le a v i n g
s o m e s i t e - p l a n n i n g d e c i s i o n s o p e n , to b e m a d e a f te r c lie n ts
h a v e a r r i v e d o n t h e site.
W o r s t o f all, t h e c lie n t m a y b e n o t o n l y u n r e a c h a b l e b u t
u n k n o w n , e i t h e r b e c a u s e h e is u n p r e d i c t a b l e o r n o t y e t
alive. A n y site p l a n s e ts l i m i t a t i o n s fo r u s e r s y e t to b e b o r n ,
a n d e v e n t h e n e a r - f u t u r e u s e o f s o m e a r e a s is v e r y d o u b t f u l .
T h e d e s i g n e r t h e n g u e s s e s a t f u t u r e r e q u i r e m e n t s as b e s t
h e c a n , u s i n g all t h e d e v ic e s o f a d a p t a b i l i t y a n d r e s o u r c e
c o n s e r v a t i o n . T h e d e s i g n e r 's r e s p o n s i b i l i t y is h e a v i e s t in
p r o v i d i n g for t h e v o ic e le s s o r t h e f u t u r e c lie n t.
T h e s e c o n d i t i o n s c a n be s u m m a r i z e d in a d i a g r a m :

T h e c lie n t o r u s e r is:
p resent \ /h o m o g e-X / vocal
a b se n t b u t reach ab le > a n d is( n e o u s o r )( or
n o t re ach ab le b u t k n o w n ) \c o m p le x ,/ \sile n t,
o r h e is:
unknown

T h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f site p l a n s a c t u a l l y fall i n t o t h r e e Types of

o r f o u r m a i n c a te g o r ie s , e a c h o f w h i c h h a s a t y p ic a l c lie n t site-plann in g
c o n d i t i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r e s a p a r t i c u l a r set o f a n a l y s e s . problem s
In t h e m o s t c o m m o n ca se a n e w o r c le a r e d site is b e i n g o r -
g a n i z e d , a n d t h e c lie n t is s o m e w h e r e else. S o m e t i m e s
c lie n ts a r e o r g a n i z e d a n d v o c a l, b u t m o r e o f t e n t h e y a r e n o t
y e t a s s e m b l e d o r a r e r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y b y t h e i r i n d i r e c t ef-
fects o n t h e n o m i n a l c lie n t w h o is m a k i n g t h e d e c i s i o n s — a
h o u s e b u i l d e r o r a c o lle g e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o r a n i n d u s t r i a l
firm . If th e c lie n ts a r e a s s e m b l e d b u t v o i c e l e s s — t h e s t u -
d e n t s o f a c o lle g e a b o u t to r e l o c a t e o r t h e e m p l o y e e s o f a n in -
d u s t r i a l f i r m — t h e d e s i g n e r w ill c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h t h e m
if h e c a n . If t h e y a re n o t a s s e m b l e d , h e w ill t u r n to i n d i r e c t
a n a l y s e s , u n le s s h e c a n fin d s o m e o t h e r w a y to b r i n g t h e m
t o g e t h e r , as b y h e l p i n g to o r g a n i z e a c o o p e r a t i v e o r a u s e r 's
a s s o c ia tio n . S in c e m o r e a n d m o r e site p l a n n i n g is d o n e in
 100 t h is r e m o t e f a s h i o n , w e s h a ll c o n t i n u e to g e t i n h u m a n e e n v i-
r o n m e n t s u n le s s w e n o t o n l y i m p r o v e o u r b a s ic k n o w l e d g e o f
e n v i r o n m e n t a l b e h a v i o r b u t a ls o fin d b e t t e r m e a n s o f a s s e m -
b l i n g f u t u r e c lie n ts .
W h e r e site p l a n n i n g is b e i n g d o n e for a n a l r e a d y o c c u -
p ie d site, t h e n u s u a l l y all o r m o s t o f t h e c lie n ts a re a l r e a d y
p r e s e n t a n d o n i n t i m a t e , f a m i l i a r t e r m s w i t h it. W h i l e t h e
site m o d i f i c a t i o n s m a y n o w b e t e c h n i c a l l y m o r e d iffic u lt, re -
la t i o n s w i t h t h e c lie n t a r e m u c h e a s ie r to so lv e , a t le a s t in
t h e o r y . M o s t o f t h e t y p e s o f d ir e c t a n a l y s e s c a n b e u s e d , a n d
all s e g m e n t s o f t h e c lie n t g r o u p a re t h e r e to b e h e a r d . If w e
so o f t e n fail to let t h e m b e h e a r d , it is c e r t a i n l y a p o litic a l
f a ilu r e b u t a lso a t e c h n i c a l o n e . It is h e r e t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t
o b s e r v a t i o n , e s p e c ia lly s e lf - a n a ly s is , is so lo g ic a l a t a c k to
ta k e .
F in a lly , s o m e site p l a n s a r e n o t fo r c o m p le te , p a r t i c u l a r
p la c e s b u t h a v e to d o w i t h s y s t e m s o f t h i n g s — s y s t e m s
t h a t m a y b e r e p e a t e d in v a r i o u s lo c a litie s , u s u a l l y w h e r e
t h e to t a l s p a t i a l e n v i r o n m e n t w ill n o t b e c o n t r o l l e d b y t h a t
o n e s y s t e m d e s ig n . T h i s t y p e o f p l a n m a y b e for a p r o t o t y p i -
cal tr a i l e r p a r k , a m a j o r r o a d s y s t e m , o r a s t a n d a r d b u s s t o p
a n d its f u r n i t u r e . S ite p l a n n e r s a r e less a c c u s t o m e d to w o r k
in t h i s w a y , b u t it is a n e ffic ie n t w a y o f u s i n g s c a rc e d e s i g n
t a l e n t a n d is fitte d to t h e w a y in w h i c h m a n y c o m p o n e n t s o f
o u r l a n d s c a p e a r e p r o d u c e d a n d i n s ta lle d . C l e a r l y , t h e
c lie n t is c o m p le x a n d n o t d i r e c t l y r e a c h a b l e in t h i s case. H e
m a y a ls o b e p a r t l y u n k n o w n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h e is
u s u a l l y e n g a g e d in s o m e r a t h e r specific role, w h i c h s im p li-
fies t h e a n a l y s i s . M o r e o v e r , t h e la r g e n u m b e r o f s e t t i n g s t h a t
w ill b e c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e d e s i g n m a k e it e c o n o m i c a l to u s e so-
p h i s t i c a t e d a n a l y s e s a n d to l e a r n f r o m c a r e f u lly m o n i t o r e d
e x p e r i m e n t s . It is a ls o o f t e n p o s s i b l e to le a v e r o o m for p a r -
ti c u l a r c lie n t a d a p t a t i o n s a n d for w a y s o f m o d i f y i n g t h e s y s -
tern as e x p e r i e n c e is g a in e d .
A glossary o f W h a t f o llo w s is s i m p l y a r o u g h g l o s s a r y o f so c ia l a n d
psychosocial p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n a l y s e s , r e l e v a n t to e n v i r o n m e n t a l b e h a v i o r
analyses a n d c u r r e n t l y u s e f u l to t h e s ite p l a n n e r . T h i s m e a n s t h a t I
a m e x c l u d i n g m a n y t e c h n i q u e s o f i n t e r e s t p r i m a r i l y to re -
s e a r c h , as w e ll as t h o s e w h i c h m a y b e o f g r e a t p r a c t i c a l im -
p o rta n c e b u t w h ic h do n o t b ear directly o n m a n -
e n v i r o n m e n t i n t e r a c t i o n . I n t h e l a t t e r class t h e r e a r e m a n y
required analyses, w h ic h m u st precede th e p r e p a ra tio n of a
p r o g r a m . T h e i r r e le v a n c e is o b v io u s , a n d t h e i r m e t h o d s a re
w ell e s t a b l i s h e d . I re fe r to d e m o g r a p h i c s tu d ie s o f t h e size
a n d c o m p o s i t i o n o f th e p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e p o p u l a t i o n : age,
sex, e t h n i c i t y , class, in c o m e , e d u c a t i o n , e m p l o y m e n t , m o b i l - 101
ity, a n d so o n . I a lso i n c l u d e a n a l y s e s o f t h e e c o n o m ic , so c ia l,
a n d p o litic a l s t r u c t u r e a n d in d e x e s o f f u n c t i o n , s u c h as
h e a l t h , w e lfa re , c rim e , a n d t h e like. T h e y w ill b e t h e n e c e s -
sary b a c k g ro u n d u p o n w h ic h th e m a n - e n v ir o n m e n t in te r-
a c t i o n c a n be u n d e r s t o o d . P a s s i n g o v e r t h e m h e r e is n o t a
n e g a t i v e c o m m e n t o n t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s b u t a r e s u l t o f t h e re l-
a tiv e ly h i g h d e g r e e to w h i c h t h e i r m e t h o d s a n d t h e i r re le -
v a n c e a r e cle a r. T h e y a re w ell c o v e r e d in m a n y o t h e r te x t
so u rc e s .
I h a v e c la ssifie d t h e f o l l o w i n g t e c h n i q u e s b y t h e m e a n s
u s e d for e v o k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , w h i l e at t h e e n d I list s o m e
o f t h e m e t h o d s t h a t a r e n o t y e t i m m e d i a t e l y u s e f u l to t h e
p l a n n e r b u t s h o w p r o m i s e in r e s e a r c h . T h e first g r o u p a r e In d ire c t
th e m o s t in d i r e c t , o r ‫ ״‬p a s s i v e , " w h e r e r e l i a n c e is p la c e d o n A n aly sis
i n d ir e c t e v id e n c e o f p a s t s p a t i a l b e h a v i o r . W h i l e t h e s e t e c h -
n i q u e s p r o v i d e r ic h fa r e a n d m a y b e d o n e w i t h t h e le a s t in -
te r f e r e n c e to t h e e x i s t i n g p o p u l a t i o n , th e d e s i g n i m p lic a -
tio n s a n d c a u s a t i v e lin k s o f t h e d a t a a r e o f t e n d iffic u lt to
e x tr a c t.
P a s t s p a t i a l b e h a v i o r : O n e c a n a n a l y z e w h a t lo c a le s
h a v e b e e n u s e d for w h a t p a r t i c u l a r b e h a v i o r w h e n s o m e
c h o ic e w a s a v a ila b le : W h e r e d o p e o p le m o v e ? W h a t h o u s i n g
d o t h e y b u y ? W h e r e d o t h e y g o fo r r e c r e a t i o n ? T h e i n f o r m a -
t io n is o b je c tiv e a n d r e a s o n a b l y r e lia b le in t h e s e n s e t h a t it
r e v e a ls w h a t p e o p l e a c t u a l l y d o r a t h e r t h a n w h a t t h e y s a y
t h e y w ill do, w h i c h is o f t e n q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t t h i n g . W h e r -
e v e r p a s t b e h a v i o r a l c h o ic e s c a n be r e l a t e d to s i t e - p l a n n i n g
c h o ic e s, t h i s is a l m o s t a l w a y s u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d m a n y
p l a n s a re w h o l l y b a s e d o n it. T h e m e t h o d h a s t h r e e d iffic u l-
ties: F irst, it is u s u a l l y h a r d to tell w h e t h e r p a s t b e h a v i o r
d e p e n d e d o n t h e site p l a n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in w h i c h w e a r e
i n t e r e s t e d o r o n o t h e r f a c to r s , s u c h as so c ia l o r e c o n o m i c
p r e s s u r e s . S e c o n d , e v e n w h e n t h e s e f a c to r s c a n be d i s t i n -
g u i s h e d , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s for f u t u r e b e h a v i o r a r e o n l y e m p i r -
ical. W i t h o u t a t h e o r y o‫״‬f m a n a n d e n v i r o n m e n t , w e a r e al-
w a y s u n s u r e a b o u t h o w p e o p le w ill a c t n e x t tim e . A n d
t h i r d , t h e t e c h n i q u e d e a ls o n l y w i t h e x i s t i n g c h o ic e s . A l-
t h o u g h e v e r y o n e m a y b e le a v in g c e n t e r c ity for t h e s u b u r b s ,
it d o e s n o t fo llo w t h a t t h e m o v e m e n t c a n n o t b e r e v e r s e d ,
g iv e n a n e w c e n t e r city. O n l y to t h e e x t e n t t h a t w e c a n
p e n e t r a t e i n t o w h y t h e e x o d u s o c c u r s c a n w e h o p e to see
w h e t h e r a re v e r s a l m i g h t w o r k .
E x i s t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t : O n e can an a ly z e the form of
s ta b le a n d a c c e p te d e x i s t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s , o r o f t h e e n v i -
102 ro n m e n t of origin of a g ro u p , w ith th e th o u g h t th a t such en-
v i r o n m e n t s m u s t h a v e s o m e fit w i t h e x i s t i n g v a l u e s a n d ac-
tiv ity a n d t h a t n e w e n v i r o n m e n t s lik e t h e m w ill a p p e a r
" r i g h t " to d i s p la c e d p e o p le . T h i s is a s l i p p e r y a r e a o f in v e s -
t i g a t i o n . T h e e n v i r o n m e n t o f o r i g i n s h o u l d a l w a y s b e in v e s -
t i g a t e d , if fo r n o o t h e r r e a s o n t h a n to l e a r n t h e p o i n t o f d e p a r -
t u r e a n d to b e a b le to s e n s e w h a t w ill b e n o v e l a n d w h a t w ill
b e f a m ilia r . It is a ls o c le a r t h a t s o m e c o n t i n u i t y o f f o r m is d e -
s ir a b le , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t r a u m a t i c m o v e s . W h e r e s u c h c o n ti-
n u i t y is n o t p r o v i d e d , r e s i d e n t s t h e m s e l v e s w ill o f t e n p r o -
d u c e it. B u t it c a n r a r e l y b e to ld f r o m s im p le o b s e r v a t i o n
w h a t e le m e n ts of th e e x istin g e n v iro n m e n t are w o rk in g
w ell, a n d n o o n e c a n b e s u r e h o w t h e y w ill o p e r a t e in a n e w
c o n te x t.
D a t a o n d y s f u n c t i o n : O n e c a n g o to e v id e n c e s o f d y s -
f u n c t i o n w h i c h a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to lo c a lity : r a t e s o f d is -
e a se , a c c i d e n t , c r im e , so c ia l d i s o r g a n i z a t i o n , e n v i r o n m e n t a l
d e s t r u c t i o n , a b a n d o n m e n t , a n d so o n . T h e s e d a t a a r e o b je c -
tiv e a n d s u r e l y r e l a t e d to t h e p u r p o s e s o f a site p la n . B u t o n e
c a n n o t e a s ily d e t e r m i n e if t u b e r c u l o s i s is c a u s e d b y b a d
h o u s i n g , p o o r d ie t, d e s p a i r , r a n d o m in f e c t i o n , o r s o m e c o m b i -
n a t i o n o f t h e s e f a c to r s . M a n y a r g u m e n t s fo r e n v i r o n m e n t a l
re fo rm are b ased o n th e se s h iftin g san d s.
C o n t e n t a n a l y s i s : O n e can search vario u s m edia —
n e w s p a p e r s , r a d io , t e le v is io n , g u i d e b o o k s , n o v e ls , p a i n t -
in g s, p o litic a l s p e e c h e s , a n d so o n — for r e f e r e n c e s to t h e e n -
v i r o n m e n t t h a t w ill e s t a b l i s h t h e w i d e l y h e ld o p i n i o n s a n d
im a g e s a b o u t t h e s u b je c t. O n e c a n a n a l y z e ty p i c a l v ie w s o f
w h a t u r b a n a r e a s a n d t h e i r p r o b l e m s a re o r t h e c o m m o n
s t e r e o t y p e s for v a r i o u s t y p e s o f a r e a s , o r o n e c a n u n c o v e r t h e
a r c h e t y p a l id e a l e n v i r o n m e n t s ( s u c h as o u r s i n g l e - f a m i l y
h o u s e in th e o p e n , r u r a l c o u n t r y s i d e ) . M o r e c o n c r e t e l y , o n e
c a n s t u d y p a s t c o n flic ts o v e r e n v i r o n m e n t — b a t t l e s o v e r
h i g h w a y s , p a r k s , o r c l e a n s t r e e t s — as a n i n d e x o f w h a t is
felt to b e i m p o r t a n t . T h e l a t t e r m e t h o d is p a r t i c u l a r l y u se -
ful sin c e it r e v e a ls t h i n g s t h a t p e o p l e c a r e d a b o u t e n o u g h
to fig h t for. B u t all o f th e s e m e t h o d s t e n d to b e s c r a p p y a n d
in c o n c lu s iv e . O n l y b y c h a n c e w ill t h e y l i g h t o n s o m e q u e s -
tio n o f site p l a n n i n g t h a t is a t issue.
L i t e r a t u r e s e a r c h : F in a lly , o n e a l w a y s c o n s u l t s p r e -
v io u s e x p e r ie n c e : W h a t a n a l y s e s o f t h e k i n d w a n t e d w e r e
p r e v i o u s l y d o n e ? W h a t d e v e l o p m e n t s o f th is t y p e h a v e b e e n
b u ilt a n d w i t h w h a t lu c k ? T h i s s h o u l d b e a m a j o r s o u r c e o f
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d in t h e f u t u r e m a y b e c o m e so. A t t h e p r e s e n t
ti m e t h e e x is tin g s t u d i e s a r e d i s t r e s s i n g l y t h i n , a n d p r e -
v io u s p r o je c ts h a v e r a r e l y b e e n a n a l y z e d for p e r f o r m a n c e . 103
M o s t r e p o r t i n g s t o p s at t h a t m a g ic m o m e n t w h e n a n e w
p r o je c t is j u s t c o m p l e t e d b u t n o t y e t o c c u p ie d . T h i s is id io c y
sin c e m o s t site p l a n n i n g s o lv e s th e s a m e p r o b l e m s a g a i n
a n d a g a in . A n y r e g u l a r a n a l y s i s o f a c tu a l p e r f o r m a n c e
w o u l d s o o n b u ild a n i m p r e s s i v e b o d y o f e v id e n c e .
T h e s e c o n d g r o u p o f m e t h o d s is b a s e d o n d ir e c t, o n - Direct
t h e - s p o t o b s e r v a t i o n o f b e h a v i o r as it o c c u r s in t h e re a l w o r ld . O b serv atio n
T h is is a ric h b u t l a r g e ly u n u s e d s o u r c e o f o b je c tiv e d a ta . It
is t h e s o r t o f i n f o r m a t i o n o n w h i c h s c ie n c e is f o u n d e d , a n d
e v e r y s e t t i n g — e v e r y r o o m a n d s t r e e t a n d p a r k — is a rel-
e v a n t p la c e for s u c h o b s e r v a t i o n s . E v e ry c o m p l e t e d s ite p l a n
s h o u l d be s u b je c te d to t h e m , so t h a t t h e p l a n n e r c a n l e a r n
f r o m p a s t m i s t a k e s . T h e b e h a v i o r b e i n g o b s e r v e d is u s u a l l y
v isib le b e h a v i o r , b u t o t h e r s e n s e d a t a , s u c h as s o u n d , c a n b e
recorded. A lth o u g h so p h istic a te d in s tru m e n ts can be used, R efere )ice 15
th e b a s ic o b s e r v a t i o n s c a n b e m a d e b y a n y a le r t o b s e r v e r
w ith a noteb o o k , su p p le m e n te d by a cam era and p e rh a p s a
t a p e r e c o r d e r . W e c a n w a t c h all t h e b e h a v i o r in a s in g le
a re a o v e r a c o n t i n u o u s p e r io d , o r w e c a n s a m p l e it b y tr a c k -
in g s e le c te d p e o p le o r b y f o c u s in g o n p a r t s o f t h e a r e a in t u r n
o r b y c h e c k i n g th e w h o l e a r e a at g iv e n m o m e n t s . S u c c e s s iv e
p h o t o g r a p h s f r o m a h i g h v a n t a g e p o i n t (a r o o f t o p , a h e lic o p -
ter) c a n p r o v i d e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n .
B e h a v i o r i s t s w o u l d s a y t h a t d ir e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s a re t h e
o n l y p r o p e r d a t a — n o t h i n g else is r e lia b le . U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
e x c lu s iv e r e l i a n c e o n it e n g e n d e r s t w o d iffic u ltie s. First,
w a t c h i n g p e o p le p r e s e n t s us w i t h a b e w i l d e r i n g m a s s o f o b -
s e r v a tio n s . S in c e w e h a v e n o a d e q u a t e t h e o r y to d ir e c t o u r
a t t e n t i o n , it is te d i o u s w o r k . M u c h o f t h e a c tio n h a s little to
d o w i t h th e s p a t i a l s e ttin g . W o r s e , w e c a n n o t tell w h e t h e r it
d o e s or n o t. T h e m o m e n t s o f c le a r r e le v a n c e m a y b e in fre -
q u e n t. S e c o n d , e v e n w e r e w e a b le to e x t r a c t th e r e l e v a n t ac -
tio n , w e h a v e l e a r n e d n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e i n n e r e x p e r ie n c e :
th e fe e lin g s, im a g e s , a t t i t u d e s , a n d v a lu e s t h a t a c c o m p a n y
th e a c t i o n a n d giv e it its c h a r a c t e r . If p e o p le a re d e fle c te d
b y a w a ll, h o w c a n w e e v a l u a t e t h a t w a ll u n l e s s w e k n o w
w h e r e p e o p le w a n t to g o a n d h o w t h e y feel a b o u t b e i n g de-
fleeted? W e m a y in s e r t o u r o w n i n t u i t i o n s , b u t t h e y c a n be
treach ero u s.
M o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s : T h e c la ssic a l t y p e o f o b s e r v a t i o n
is th e r e c o r d i n g o f m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s : th e flo w o f traffic in
p a r t i c u l a r b u t m o r e r e c e n t l y th e d e ta ile d t r a c k i n g o f th e
m o v e m e n t o f in d i v i d u a l p e r s o n s in sp a c e . M o v e m e n t p a t -
te r n s h a v e a n o b v i o u s r e l a t i o n to p r o v i s i o n s for c i r c u l a t i o n ,
 104 a n d t h e y m a y i n d i c a t e p r e f e r e n c e s a n d r e p u l s i o n s as w ell,
a l t h o u g h th is r e l a t i o n is h a r d e r to defin e . S i m p l e c o u n t s are
th e e a s ie s t to c o n d u c t : w e c o u n t th e n u m b e r , a n d p e r h a p s
th e ty p e , o f v e h ic le s o r p e r s o n s p a s s i n g a p o i n t in b o t h d ir e c -
tio n s o r m a k i n g c e r t a i n t u r n s p e r u n i t p e r i o d o f tim e . T h i s
c o u n t m a y b e l im ite d to a v e r a g e a n d p e a k r a te s o f flo w a n d
t u r n i n g s , w h i c h a r e c ritic a l for c h a n n e l c a p a c itie s , p a r t i c u -
la rly t h o s e o f s t r e e t s b u t a ls o o f in t e n s i v e l y u s e d s i d e w a l k s .
A c o o r d i n a t e d s e rie s o f s u c h c o u n t s c a n d e t e r m i n e flo w s in
a n e n t i r e n e t w o r k or, b y m a n n i n g all p o s s ib le c r o s s i n g s o f
s o m e c o r d o n lin e, d e t e r m i n e th e t o t a l b u i l d u p o r d e c lin e o f
p e r s o n s o r v e h ic le s in a g iv e n a r e a . S a m p l e p e r s o n s o r v e h i-
cles m a y be s t o p p e d to fin d o u t t h e o r i g i n a n d d e s t i n a t i o n o f
t h e i r trip . In s m a l l e r a r e a s w e m a y g o b e y o n d flo w c o u n t s to
t r a c k i n d i v i d u a l s , w i t h t h e a i m o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w th e
e n v i r o n m e n t a ffe c ts t h e i r m o t i o n . M o t i o n s m a y b e r e c o r d e d
b y h a n d o n a m a p if m o v e m e n t is lig h t, o r t h e s c e n e m a y b e
r e c o r d e d b y c a m e r a s a t p r e d e t e r m i n e d i n t e r v a l s so t h a t
s a m p l e i n d i v i d u a l s c a n b e id e n tif ie d a n d tr a c e d . In at le a st
o n e i n s t a l l a t i o n , m o v e m e n t s in a p u b lic r o o m h a v e b e e n
tr a c k e d b y p r e s s u r e - s e n s i t i v e s w i t c h e s in t h e floor. W h i l e
th e i n f o r m a t i o n g a i n e d is a b u n d a n t a n d o b je c tiv e , its u s e f u l-
n e s s w ill v a r y w i t h t h e d e s i g n e r 's c o n c e r n w i t h c i r c u l a t i o n
o r w i t h h is a b i l i t y to m a k e spe c ific h y p o t h e s e s as to t h e ef-
feet o f e n v i r o n m e n t o n m o t i o n . T r a c k i n g o r c o u n t i n g is e a s ie r
a n d m o r e u s e f u l w h e n m o t i o n is p u r p o s e f u l r a t h e r t h a n ex-
p l o r a t o r y a n d w h e n c o n f in e d to c h a n n e l s r a t h e r t h a n free
ranging.
L o c a l i z e d b e h a v i o r : R a t h e r t h a n c o n c e r n i n g its e lf w i t h
flow , o b s e r v a t i o n m a y b e d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e t o t a l set o f v isi-
ble h u m a n b e h a v i o r s in a p la c e to see h o w t h e y in t e r a c t
w i t h t h e s p a t i a l s e t t i n g as a w h o le . I n its m o s t c o m p r e h e n -
sive fo rm , s u c h a r e c o r d w o u l d in d i c a t e w h e r e e a c h in d i v i d -
u a l w a s a n d w h a t h e w a s d o i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e p e r io d .
T h i s p r o c e d u r e is s i m p l y e x h a u s t i n g , a n d it r e q u i r e s a la r g e
s ta f f o f o b s e r v e r s w h o h a v e m a s t e r e d a g r a p h i c n o t a t i o n s im -
ilar to t h a t u s e d in th e d a n c e . A n a l y s i s o f t h e r e s u l t s is te-
d io u s a n d m a y p r o d u c e le ss t h a n w o u l d ju s t i f y t h e effo rt. It
is th e r e f o r e a d v i s a b l e to s im p lif y t h e o b s e r v a t i o n b y c la s s in g
I t yt i n d i v i d u a l s in to g r o u p s , l u m p i n g a c tiv ity i n to c la sse s, a n d
r e c o r d i n g th e p r e s e n c e a n d n u m b e r o f p e r s o n s b y g r o u p , ac-
- tiv ity , a n d b y a r b i t r a r y s u b a r e a s , at s a m p l e i n t e r v a l s o f
wwmmm tim e . A u t o m a t i c c a m e r a s v i e w i n g t h e sc e n e a r e u se fu l. T h e
d a t a will b e a r o n q u e s t i o n s o f c a p a c i t y a n d p e r h a p s o f a r e a o r
f a c ility p r e f e r e n c e o r o n l a t e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o b l e m s s u c h
as u n u s e d p la c e s or d a n g e r s p o ts . O b s e r v a t io n b e c o m e s e v e n 105
m o r e s e le c tiv e w h e n o n e s im p ly b e c o m e s im m e r s e d in th e
s c e n e a n d lo o k s for s o m e t h in g in t e r e s t in g o r r e v e a lin g . R e -
g a r d le s s o f its d o u b tfu l o b je c t iv it y , th e la tte r ty p e o f o b s e r v a -
tio n o fte n p r o d u c e s n e w c lu e s . E x p e r ie n c e d d e s ig n e r s d o it
h a b itu a lly .
A m o r e s y s t e m a t ic k in d o f o b s e r v a tio n c a n b e m a d e if References 10,
1 8 , 20
th e p la n n e r c o n f in e s h im s e lf to a ‫ ״‬b e h a v io r s e t t in g ," in
w h ic h s o m e s t a n d in g p a tte r n o f b e h a v io r r e p e a ts it s e l f at
re g u la r p e r io d s in a d e f in ite lo c a lit y . T h u s h e m a y w a tc h
th e b u y in g o f n e w s p a p e r s at a c o r n e r s ta n d , a n e v e n in g
b a ll g a m e , or a r e g u la r m e e tin g . S in c e th e b e h a v io r a n d th e
o v e r t p u r p o s e s o f th e a c to r s are r e g u la r iz e d , it is e a s ie r to re -
co rd a n d u n d e r s ta n d th e ir s ig n if ic a n c e . R e c o r d in g th e te r r i-
to r ia l a n d te m p o r a l lim it s o f b e h a v io r s e t t in g s , th e ir r e la t iv e
s t a b ilit y , a n d th e n a tu r e o f th e ir p a r tic ip a n ts f u r n is h e s u s
w it h th e b a s ic e le m e n t s fo r w h ic h s it e s a re o r g a n iz e d .
A lt e r n a t iv e ly , w e m a y w a tc h a " b e h a v io r c ir c u it," or
th e a c t io n s o f an in d iv id u a l or s m a ll g r o u p a s t h e y c a r r y o u t
s o m e c o h e r e n t p u r p o s e in sp a c e : o b t a in in g fo o d , g o in g o u t for
an e v e n in g 's e n t e r ta in m e n t, d o in g a d a y 's w o r k . T h is o b s e r -
v a t io n h a s th e s a m e o r g a n iz in g v a lu e th a t a b e h a v io r s e t t in g
d o e s , a lt h o u g h it is m o r e d iffic u lt to tr a c k . B o th s t ill s u ffe r
fro m th e ir in h e r e n t ly d e s c r ip tiv e n a tu r e .
Specialized b e h a v io r : T o m a k e o b s e r v a t io n m o r e e ffi-
' i e n t , w e m a y c o n c e n t r a te o n c e r ta in it e m s o f b e h a v io r th a t
re m o r e lik e ly to illu m in a te th e in te r a c tio n w it h e n v ir o n -
m e n t. For e x a m p le , w e m a y w a tc h a n d re c o r d o n ly th e v is i -
b le a n d m a te r ia l in te r a c tio n s : p u s h in g o p e n d o o r s , w a lk in g
u p s te p s , s it t in g o n s e a ts , d ig g in g , or c lim b in g . O r w e m a y
fo c u s s o le ly o n e v id e n c e s o f d iff ic u lt y in th e in te r a c tio n :
s t u m b lin g s , fa lls, h e s it a t io n s , c o l lis i o n s , th e r e tr a c in g o f
s te p s a n d o th e r e v id e n c e o f b e in g lo s t , a p p a r e n t a n g e r or
fr u s tr a tio n , d e s t r u c t io n , a n d s o o n . W h ile n o t fr e q u e n tly
o v e r t e x c e p t in v e r y u n p le a s a n t e n v ir o n m e n t s , th e m o r e
s u b tle s ig n s o f fru str a ticfn a re o f te n th e r e , a n d t h e y a re q u ite
r e v e a lin g if d e te c te d .
W e ca n a ls o lo o k fo r o c c a s io n s o n w h ic h u s e r s h a v e
c h a n g e d or a d a p te d th e ir e n v ir o n m e n t to th e ir o w n p u r -
p o s e s . N o t h in g is m o r e r e v e a lin g th a n t h e s h a d e s d r a w n
o v e r th e p ic tu r e w in d o w , th e fu r n itu r e se t o u t o n th e p u b lic
la w n , or th e d irt p a th w o r n in th e g r a s s. T h e s e a re p a r tic u -
lar k in d s o f b e h a v io r a l o b s e r v a tio n , r ic h in u s e fu l in fo r m a -
tio n a n d a v a ila b le to a n y a le r t o b s e r v e r b u t u n f o r t u n a te ly
lim ite d a n d p a r tia l.
 106

Leon Lew andoioski

Figure 13 It is re-
vealing to watch
how people must
use the street de-
tail in ways for
which it was nev-
er designed.

Response to intervention : T h e e x p e r im e n te r m a y g a in
m o r e a c c u r a te in fo r m a t io n a n d in fo r m a t io n b e tte r s u ite d to
h is p u r p o s e if h e is a b le to m a k e m o d if ic a tio n s in th e e n v i-
r o n m e n t a n d th e n o b s e r v e s a n y r e s u ltin g c h a n g e in b e h a v -
ior. If th e m o d if ic a tio n is p la n n e d for th e p u r p o s e — a n e w
w a ll or d o o r , n e w b e n c h e s or a n e w c o lo r s c h e m e — h e c a n fit
h is e x p e r im e n t to ju st w h a t h e w a n t s to k n o w . B u t s u c h e x -
p e r im e n ts m a y b e c o s t ly a n d a re g e n e r a lly c o n fin e d to m in o r
c h a n g e s . M o r e im p o r ta n t, s u c h c h a n g e s are a n in tr u s io n
in to th e liv e s o f r e s id e n ts . T h e y m a y b e j u s t ly r e s e n te d a n d
m u s t b e k e p t w e ll b e lo w th e c r itic a l le v e l. C e r ta in ly n o o n e
w o u ld r e m o v e a p e d e s tr ia n c r o s s in g in o r d e r to s e e if tra ffic
f a ta litie s w o u ld r ise. S o m e tim e s a n o b s e r v e r c a n ta k e a d -
v a n ta g e o f a " n a tu r a l" e x p e r im e n t, in w h ic h a b r id g e is
c lo s e d for o th e r r e a s o n s or c o n s t r u c t io n d is r u p ts a site . T h e
o b s e r v e r m u s t h a v e th e lu c k to fo r e s e e a n d b e a b le to u s e
s u c h an e v e n t, w h ic h h a p p e n s to fit h is d e s ir e to le a r n s o m e -
t h in g . B u t p la n n e d d is r u p t io n s c a n h a v e p la n n e d e x p e r i-
m e n ts b u ilt in to th e m . E x p e r im e n ts o f th is k in d h a v e a m o r e
s o lid th e o r e tic a l a n d e th ic a l b a s is if th e y a re b e in g ca r ried
Walker Evans
o u t v o lu n t a r ily b y th e u se r s t h e m s e lv e s . S e lf -e x p e r im e n t a - 107
tio n m a y b e o n e o f th e m o s t fr u itfu l w a y s o f a d v a n c in g
ou r k n o w le d g e , as w ill b e d is c u s s e d la ter . P e r h a p s th e m o s t
h o p e fu l so u r c e o f d a ta o f th is k in d w ill c o m e fr o m p r o -
g r a m m in g . If th e p r o g r a m fo r a n e w d e v e lo p m e n t is p r o p - Reference 18
e r ly m a d e , it w ill c o n t a in a s p e c ific a t io n o f th e b e h a v io r a l re -
s u its d e s ir e d . T h e s p a tia l d e s ig n is t h e n a h y p o t h e s is th a t
s u c h a fo r m w ill in d u c e s u c h a b e h a v io r . B y b u ild in g a c -
c o r d in g to th e d e s ig n , w e se t u p th e o p p o r tu n it y fo r a n e x p e r -
im e n t fro m w h ic h w e c a n le a r n d ir e c tly . P o s t c o n s t r u c t io n
c o m p a r is o n s o f a c tu a l r e s u lts w it h th e o r ig in a l p r o g r a m
s h o u ld b e r o u tin e .
O n e c a n g o b e y o n d o b s e r v a b le e x te r n a l b e h a v io r b y D ir e c t
c o m m u n ic a t in g d ir e c tly w it h p e o p le a b o u t th e ir im a g e s , C o m m u n ic a tio n
f e e lin g s , e x p e r ie n c e s , a n d v a lu e s in re g a r d to th e rea l w o r ld
a b o u t th e m . T h is is o n e o f th e m o s t v a lu a b le a r e a s o f e n v ir o n -
m e n ta l r e s e a r c h n o w o p e n in g u p , a n d it is a n e c e s s a r y c o m -
p le m e n t to b e h a v io r a l o b s e r v a tio n . Y e t e x t e r n a liz in g th e in -
te r io r e x p e r ie n c e o f p e o p le is a d iffic u lt ta s k , w h o s e v a g a r ie s References Í 1,
are fa m ilia r to p s y c h o lo g y a n d p s y c h ia t r y . A n a l y z in g e n v i- 12 , 20

r o n m e n ta l a t tit u d e s is lu c k ily s o m e w h a t le s s d iffic u lt th a n

u n d e r s ta n d in g in te r p e r s o n a l f e e lin g s , s in c e th e fo r m e r a re
n o t q u ite s o h ig h l y c h a r g e d w it h e m o t io n . B u t q u e s t io n s c a n
b e r a ise d a b o u t e a c h o f th e v a r io u s m e t h o d s , a n d th e y m u s t
b e u s e d in c o m b in a t io n to e n s u r e a n y so r t o f r e lia b ility in th e
d a ta . M o s t o f th e t e c h n iq u e s a re n e w a n d e v o lv in g .
Free descriptions: P e r s o n s m a y b e a sk e d to g iv e a fre e
a n d o p e n -e n d e d d e s c r ip tio n o f a p la c e in o r d e r to e v o k e th e ir
p e r c e p t io n s , f e e lin g s , a n d k n o w le d g e a b o u t it. T h e y m a y b e
a sk e d to d o s o w h ile a t th e p la c e it s e l f o r w h ile m o v in g
t h r o u g h it, or th e y m a y b e a s k e d to d e s c r ib e it in r e tr o s p e c t.
A n s w e r s m a y b e n o te d in c o d e d fo r m , o r th e e n tir e p r o c e e d -
in g s m a y b e r e c o r d e d a n d tr a n s c r ib e d to p r e s e r v e v o c a l in -
fle c tio n s a n d a g r e a t m a s s o f d e ta il. It is e v e n p o s s ib le to p h o -
to g r a p h th e g e s tu r e s a n d e x p r e s s io n s o f th e r e s p o n d e n t in
th e p r o c e s s . T h e in te r v ie w m a y b e e n t ir e ly o p e n - e n d e d , or it
m a y b e g u id e d b y v a r io u s le a d in g q u e s tio n s , fo r e x a m p le ,
" W h a t first c o m e s to y o u r m in d ? " or " W h a t is th e m o s t o u t-
s t a n d in g fe a tu r e h e r e ? " o r " W h a t d o e s t h is r e m in d y o u o f? "
" H o w d o y o u fee l h e r e ? " " W h a t k in d o f p e o p le liv e h e r e ? "
P e o p le m a y b e a sk e d to r e s p o n d g r a p h ic a lly , r a th e r th a n
v e r b a lly , as b y a s k in g th e m to m a k e a s k e tc h o f t h e p la c e .
T h e y m a y e v e n b e a sk e d to c o n s tr u c t a m o d e l o f it fr o m a
sto r e o f p a rts.
A ll t h e s e m e t h o d s p r o d u c e a ric h a n d c h a o t ic se t o f
108 d a ta , d iffic u lt to c o m p a r e o r q u a n tif y b u t o f te n e x t r e m e ly
s u g g e s t iv e . T h u s th e y c a n b e m o s t u s e f u l in a n e x p lo r a to r y
s ta g e or if o n e w a n t s to g e t a r a p id im p r e s s io n o f th e im p a c t
o f a p la c e . T h e c ir c u m s t a n c e s o f th e in te r v ie w , th e se t o f
q u e s t io n s , a n d th e r e la t io n s b e t w e e n in te r v ie w e r a n d in te r -
v ie w e d , a ll a ffe c t th e m a te r ia l r e c e iv e d . T h e r e s p o n d e n t
o f te n r e p e a ts w h a t h e b e lie v e s th e in te r v ie w e r m o s t w a n t s
to h e a r o r w h a t h e t h in k s it is p r o p e r to s a y u n d e r th e cir -
c u m s ta n c e s . T h e in te r v ie w e r w ill th e r e fo r e tr y to ta k e as
n e u tr a l a s t a n c e a s p o s s ib le , a t t e m p t in g to s h o w u n ifo r m in -
te r e s t a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t to w h a t e v e r is sa id . O r , h a v in g a
t h e o r y a s to th e h id d e n fa c to r s h e w is h e s to u n c o v e r , h e m a y
u s e p r o b in g q u e s t io n s , at th e s e r io u s r isk o f a n s w e r in g th e m
h im s e lf in th e p r o c e s s o f p r o b in g . H e m a y g iv e th e r e s p o n -
d e n t s o m e d iffic u lt ta sk , s u c h a s m a k in g a s k e t c h u n d e r th e
p r e s s u r e o f tim e , s o th a t th e r e s p o n d e n t lo s e s s o m e c o n s c io u s
c o n t r o l o v e r h is o u tp u t. B u t h e c a n n o t th e n b e su r e w h e th e r
o r n o t th e d iff ic u lt ie s o f th e m e d iu m h a v e s h a r p ly d is t o r t e d
th e o u tp u t. T h e a n s w e r s to s u c h a n o p e n - e n d e d a p p r o a c h a re
c o m p a r a b le o n ly w it h d iff ic u lt y a n d a re v e r y m u c h s u b je c t
to th e in te r p r e ta t io n o f th e a n a ly s t . N e v e r t h e le s s , t h e y a re
a lm o s t in d is p e n s a b le a s a n e n t e r in g t e c h n iq u e , a n d th e y
c o r r e s p o n d to n a tu r a l w a y s in w h ic h w e c o m m u n ic a t e to
e a c h o th e r a b o u t o u r e n v ir o n m e n t s .
Spatial images: In s o m e w h a t th e s a m e v e in , b u t in a
n a r r o w e r a n d th e r e fo r e m o r e p r e c is e s e n s e , w e m a y a t te m p t
to e v o k e th e im a g e o f a p la c e , th e m e n ta l c o n c e p t o f it w h ic h
a llo w s u s to r e c o g n iz e it, to o r g a n iz e its p a r ts , a n d to o p e r a te
w it h in it. T h u s w e g e t , n o t th e w h o l e m e a n in g o f a p la c e ,
b u t th e c o g n it iv e s tr u c tu r e to w h ic h t h e s e m e a n in g s a re a t-
ta c h e d . A n u m b e r o f t e c h n iq u e s h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d fo r
th is p u r p o s e , in c lu d in g r e q u e s ts fo r m a p s to b e d r a w n , for
d e s c r ip tio n s o f a r o u te to s o m e d e s t in a t io n w it h its a s s o c ia t e d
d e c is io n s , for th e r e c o g n it io n o f p la c e s in p h o t o g r a p h s or in
r e a lity , for d ir e c t io n s to a p la c e fr o m p a ssersb y in th e
s tr e e ts , o r fo r a n a n a ly s is o f r e m e m b e r e d d ir e c t io n -f in d in g
b e h a v io r . W h ile su b je c t to th e s a m e c r it ic is m th a t e a c h m e -
d iu m im p o s e s its o w n d is t o r t io n s , it s e e m s to b e p o s s ib le , b y
u s in g t h e s e c o m b in e d t e c h n iq u e s , to c o n s t r u c t a fa ir ly s ta b le
a n d o b je c tiv e r e p r e s e n ta t io n o f th e im a g e h e ld b y s o m e p e r -
s o n . T h e t e c h n iq u e s a re r e a s o n a b ly w e ll d e v e lo p e d a n d h a v e
b e e n u se d in m a n y d iffe r e n t s it u a t io n s . For th e p u r p o s e s o f
s ite p la n n in g , p r o b le m s o f o r ie n ta t io n a n d c o g n it iv e g r a s p ,
as w e ll a s f e e lin g s o f te r r ito r y , c a n b e d e d u c e d , b u t th e
v a lu e s to b e p la c e d o n t h e s e fe a tu r e s a r ise o n ly in p a r t fro m
th e d a ta . T h e t e c h n iq u e s a re a ls o u s e fu l fo r m a n y k in d s o f 109
s o c io lo g ic a l a n d p s y c h o lo g ic a l p u r p o s e s th a t a re n o t d ir e c t ly
r e la te d to d e s ig n .
Temporal im ages : T h is s a m e t y p e o f in v e s t ig a t io n m a y
b e a p p lie d to a p e r s o n 's s e n s e o f t im e , a s e m b o d ie d in th e e n -
v ir o n m e n t. S p e c if ic a lly , h e m a y b e a s k e d to d e s c r ib e h is
v ie w o f p a s t, p r e s e n t, a n d e x p e c t e d fu tu r e e n v ir o n m e n t a l
c h a n g e s , or th e w a y h is s u r r o u n d in g s e v o k e p a s t or fu tu r e
e v e n t s . W h ile le s s w e ll d e v e lo p e d a s a se t o f m e t h o d s , th e
q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e p e r c e p t io n o f p a s t a n d fu tu r e c h a n g e
a n d w h o is a c c o m p lis h in g th a t c h a n g e a n d w h a t it m e a n s
are a lm o s t a lw a y s r e le v a n t to a d e s ig n e r w h o is e n g a g e d in
s h if t in g th e s c e n e r y . T h e g e n e r a l r e le v a n c e o f th e s e t t in g to
o u r c r u c ia l im a g e o f tim e h a s y e t to b e e x p lo r e d , h o w e v e r .
Current spatial b e h a v io r : R e s p o n d e n t s m a y b e a s k e d a
m o r e d ir e c t se t o f q u e s tio n s : H o w d o t h e y n o w a ct in th e e n -
v ir o n m e n t? W h e r e d o t h e y g o , w h a t d o t h e y d o th e r e , w h y ,
w h e n d o t h e y d o it, w h a t d o t h e y u s e , w it h w h o m d o t h e y in -
tera ct? T h e s e r e la t iv e ly o b je c t iv e d a ta , b u ilt o u t o f c u r r e n t
m e m o r y , c a n g iv e u s a s o lid a n d y e t w id e - r a n g in g p ic tu r e o f
h o w p e o p le in fa ct u s e th e ir w o r ld a n d r e la te to e a c h o th e r .
A t th e s a m e t im e , th a t p ic tu r e w ill b e o r g a n iz e d in te r m s o f
p u r p o s e , as a s o le ly v is u a l o b s e r v a tio n o f b e h a v io r c a n n o t e a s -
ily b e. M e m o r y , e s p e c ia lly lo n g - r a n g e m em o ry , can be
fa u lty , b u t c u r r e n t m e m o r y is le s s lik e ly to b e s o , w h ile it
s till s e r v e s as a u s e fu l filte r to th e m a s s o f d a ta . M e m o r y
m a y b e s u p p le m e n t e d b y c u r r e n t d ia r ie s , if r e s p o n d e n t s
ca n b e m o tiv a t e d to k e e p t h e m , or b y o u t s id e o b s e r v a tio n .
T h r o u g h t h e s e d e s c r ip tio n s o f d a ily life , w e m a y le a r n a g o o d
d e a l a b o u t its p r o b le m s a n d p le a s u r e s .
Problem identification: W e m a y a sk r e s p o n d e n t s to
id e n tify th e ir p r o b le m s d ir e c t ly , a s w e ll a s to o u t lin e th e ir
s a t is f a c t io n s in th e e n v ir o n m e n t. T h e a n s w e r s a re o f d ir e c t
in te r e s t to th e p la n n e r . P r o b le m s are u s u a lly e a s ie r to p e r -
c e iv e th a n s a t is f a c t io n s , a n d th e fo r m e r w ill b e e m p h a s iz e d .
P r o b le m s a n d s a t is f a c t io n s m a y a ls o b e s t e r e o t y p e d e x p r e s -
s io n s , p u t in w a y s le a r n e d fr o m th e m a s s m e d ia , r a th e r th a n
a r is in g d ir e c tly fr o m e x p e r ie n c e . P e o p le m a y s im p ly b e u n -
c o n s c io u s o f s o m e o f th e ir r e a l p r o b le m s a n d s a t is f a c t io n s ,
p a r tic u la r ly s in c e t h e y are u n a w a r e o f o th e r k in d s o f e n v i-
r o n m e n t th a t are p o s s ib le . O r t h e y m a y h id e th e m c o n -
s c io u s ly b e c a u s e th e y d o n o t s e e m p r o p e r . W e m a y th e r e fo r e
a sk th e r e s p o n d e n t h is o p in io n s a b o u t p r o b le m s th a t other
p e o p le h a v e . T h e r e s u lts w ill a ls o b e m o r e p r e c is e if w e a sk
w h a t s p e c ific fr u s tr a tio n s h a v e b e e n e n c o u n te r e d to d a y .
110 Past m em ories: A r ic h s o u r c e o f in fo r m a t io n , a b o u t
w h ic h m a n y r e s p o n d e n ts a re p le a s e d to s p e a k , c o m e s fr o m
th e ir o w n p e r s o n a l m e m o r ie s a s t h e y a re a s s o c ia t e d w it h
th e ir s u r r o u n d in g s . C h ild h o o d m e m o r ie s , in p a r tic u la r , w ill
e v o k e a flo o d o f s t r o n g f e e lin g s . D is t o r t e d a n d filte r e d a s
t h e s e a re b y th e p a s s a g e o f t im e , t h e y a re a c o n v e n ie n t
m e a n s o f e x p lo r in g m a n y s t r o n g ly h e ld v a lu e s a n d a s s o c ia -
tio n s . L ik e fr e e d e s c r ip tio n s , t h e y a re d iffic u lt to c o m p a r e
a n d q u a n tif y , b u t th e y a re o f te n q u ite m o v in g . S in c e t h e y
re fer to s t a g e s o f life n o w p a s s e d b y , t h e y m u s t b e u s e d w it h
c a u t io n in a n a ly z in g p r e s e n t d e s ir e s . B u t s in c e t h e y are
p r e s e n t id e a liz a t io n s , t h e y m u s t b e u s e d w it h e q u a l c a u t io n
in a n a ly z in g th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f c h ild r e n .
Predictions and preferences: T h e m a te r ia l o f m o s t in -
te r e s t to th e s it e p la n n e r , b u t u n f o r t u n a te ly t h e m o s t u n r e li-
a b le , is th e r e s p o n d e n t's s e n s e o f w h a t h e is lik e ly to d o in
th e fu tu r e a n d o f w h a t h e w o u ld p r e fe r to d o . P r e d ic t io n s a n d
p r e fe r e n c e s are n o t o r io u s ly u n lik e a c tu a l fu tu r e c h o ic e s , y e t
t h e y p o in t to s tr o n g c u r r e n t m o t iv a t io n s a n d h e n c e m u s t b e
ta k e n in to a c c o u n t. T h e in a b i lit y to fo r e s e e t h e fu tu r e a c t io n s
o f o t h e r s , p lu s a n im p e r fe c t k n o w le d g e o f p o s s ib le e n v ir o n -
m e n ta l c h o ic e s , p lu s a n e q u a lly im p e r fe c t k n o w le d g e o f se lf,
a ll m a k e th e a n s w e r s d u b io u s . T h e q u e s tio n " W h a t k in d o f
e n v ir o n m e n t w o u ld y o u lik e to liv e in ? " w ill u s u a lly p r o d u c e
a b a n a l a n s w e r . M o r e o v e r th e r e s p o n d e n t m ig h t n o t c h o o s e it
in th e re a l e v e n t . I n te n d e d o r p r e fe r r e d fu tu r e b e h a v io r is
le s s m is le a d in g th a n gen eral e n v ir o n m e n t a l p r e fe r e n c e .
O n e g e t s a m o r e a c c u r a te a n s w e r to " H o w w o u ld y o u p r e fe r
to ea t y o u r m e a ls ? " t h a n to " W h a t k in d o f d in in g r o o m w o u ld
y o u lik e to h a v e ? " B u t a s y s t e m a t ic s e r ie s o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l
e x p e r im e n ts is th e b e s t g u id e o f a ll. N e v e r t h e le s s , ex-
p r e s s e d p r e fe r e n c e s m a y b e u s e fu l in d ic a t o r s o f p r e s e n t d is -
s a t is f a c t io n s a n d a ls o in d ic a t e p o in t s o f t a k e o f f fo r fu tu r e p r o -
p o s a ls .
T h e U seof S o far w e h a v e b e e n c o n s id e r in g w a y s o f le a r n in g a b o u t
s im u la tio n th e p e r s o n a l im p a c t o f th e re a l, e x i s t i n g w o r ld . O f t e n
e n o u g h it is n o t c o n v e n ie n t to b r in g th a t w o r ld b e fo r e th e re-
s p o n d e n t, or th e a v a ila b le w o r ld d o e s n o t h a v e th e fe a tu r e s
a b o u t w h ic h w e w a n t to le a r n . T h e s it e p la n n e r , s in c e h e is
d e a lin g in fu tu r e s, t y p ic a lly w a n t s to k n o w h o w p e o p le w ill
fe e l a b o u t, o r a ct in , s o m e p o s s ib le b u t s t ill n o n e x is t e n t
w o r ld . T h u s th e r e h a v e b e e n a tte m p ts to p r e s e n t r e s p o n -
d e n ts w it h s im u la te d e v ir o n m e n t s — p h o t o g r a p h s , d r a w -
in g s , m o d e ls , film s, or v e r b a l s k e t c h e s — in th e h o p e th a t
th e ir r e s p o n s e s to th e s im u la tio n w ill p r e d ic t th e ir r e s p o n s e to
th e ir r e a lity . T h e tr a n s it io n is s h a k y , a n d w e h a v e r a th e r I ll
lit t le in fo r m a t io n o n h o w w e ll th a t t r a n s it io n c a n b e m a d e .
Y et s in c e w e d o it r e c u r r e n tly in th e p r o c e s s o f e n v ir o n -
m e n ta l d e s ig n a n d d e c is io n a n y w a y , w e a re fo r c e d to g o o n
e x p e r im e n t in g w it h it. T h e s im u la t io n s m a y a t te m p t to
b e as tru e to r e a lit y a s p o s s ib le , w it h in th e lim it s o f th e
m e d iu m , or th e y m a y b e a b s tr a c te d o r a lte r e d in v a r io u s
w a y s , w h e th e r fo r e c o n o m y o r to te s t th e e ffe c t o f c e r ta in
ch an ges.
M a n y o f th e t e c h n iq u e s lis te d in th e p r e c e d in g s e c t io n
m a y a ls o b e a p p lie d to s im u la tio n s : o n e m a y b e a s k e d fo r fr e e
d e s c r ip tio n s , for th e a s s o c ia t io n s e v o k e d , o r fo r th e s p a tia l or
te m p o r a l im a g e o r a n e v a lu a t io n o f a n e n v ir o n m e n t p r e -
s e n t e d in p h o t o g r a p h s . S im u la t io n s m a y b e p r e s e n te d o n o n e
o c c a s io n a n d th e ir d e s c r ip tio n fr o m m e m o r y r e q u e s te d in a n -
o th e r . M e a n in g s a n d a ffe c ts m a y b e e x p lo r e d , p r e fe r e n c e s
e x p r e s s e d , or th e im p u te d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f th e s im u la te d e n -
v ir o n m e n t for s e lf a n d o t h e r s d is c u s s e d . B u t s o m e a d d it io n a l
k in d s o f t e s t s are a ls o p o s s ib le , a s n o te d in th e f o llo w in g p a r -
a g r a p h s.
Attention analysis : P e r h a p s th e s im p le s t t y p e o f s p e -
c ia l s t u d y is to r e c o r d w h a t th e r e s p o n d e n t a t te n d s t o — in
p a r tic u la r , w h a t h e lo o k s at, fo r h o w lo n g , a n d in w h a t o rd er .
T h is m a y b e d o n e c r u d e ly b y s im p le o b s e r v a tio n o r m o r e p r e -
c is e ly b y a n e y e - m o v e m e n t c a m e r a , w h ic h s u p e r im p o s e s
th e lo c a tio n o f th e p o in t o f v is u a l f ix a tio n o n a m o v ie o f th e
to ta l s c e n e . E v en m o r e s o p h is t ic a t e d e q u ip m e n t m a y s o o n
p e r m it u s (v ia m e a s u r e m e n t s o f p u p il d ila t io n ) to r e c o r d th e
d e g r e e o f a t t e n t iv e n e s s , a s w e ll a s th e lo c u s o f fix a tio n . A ll
th is e q u ip m e n t is e x t r e m e ly b u lk y a n d c o m p le x a n d u s e fu l
o n ly in r a th er r e fin e d s t u d ie s . It h a s o c c a s io n a lly b e e n u se d
o u td o o r s .
Puzzles : T h e r e s p o n d e n t m a y b e g iv e n t a s k s , p r o b -
le m s , or p u z z le s s o d e s ig n e d th a t in th e c o u r s e o f a c c o m p lis h -
in g or s o lv i n g th e m h e r e v e a ls s o m e t h in g a b o u t h is m e n ta l
str u c tu r e o f th e w o r ld . H e m a y b e a s k e d to d o a fr e e h a n d
m a p o f a la r g e c ity o r to m a k e a m o d e l o r s k e t c h o f a p la c e or to
d e s c r ib e th e r o u te b e t w e e n t w o o b s c u r e lo c a t io n s . W h ile c o n -
c e n t r a tin g o n th e p r o b le m , th e r e s p o n d e n t u s e s a n d r e v e a ls
h is c o g n it iv e m a p . T h e in v e s t ig a t o r m a y a ls o e n c o u r a g e fre e
p la y , a s k in g s o m e o n e , fo r e x a m p le , to c r e a te a " c ity " o r a
" v illa g e " o u t o f a v a ila b le m o d e l p a r ts o r e v e n to s k e t c h o r d e -
s c r ib e an id e a l c ity o r b u ild in g or u to p ia . W h ile t h e s e la st
t e c h n iq u e s h a v e b e e n u se d o n ly t e n t a t iv e ly a n d r a ise m a n y
p r o b le m s o f s t a n d a r d iz a tio n , th e y lo o k p r o m is in g .
112 Stereotypes: P e o p le m a y b e a s k e d to so r t r e p r e s e n ta -
t io n s — p h o t o g r a p h s , for e x a m p l e — e ith e r in to g r o u p s a c-
c o r d in g to la b e ls s u p p lie d b y th e in te r v ie w e r o r in to c la s s e s
th a t th e illu s t r a t io n s t h e m s e lv e s e v o k e in th e o b s e r v e r 's
m in d . T h e s e m a y b e d e s c r ip tiv e o f p h y s ic a l q u a litie s ( n e w ,
o ld , d e n s e ) o r o f th e s o c ia l im p lic a t io n s (s lu m , n ic e r e s id e n -
tia l a rea ) o r e v a lu a t iv e o f th e e n v ir o n m e n t it s e l f ( b e a u tifu l,
u n c o m f o r t a b le ) . B o th p r e fe r e n c e s a n d c o g n it iv e s tr u c tu r in g
are r e v e a le d a n d a s s o c ia t e d w it h e n v ir o n m e n t fe a tu r e s . T h e
r e p r e s e n ta t io n s m a y b e s y s t e m a t ic a l ly a lte r e d , a s b y a d d -
in g or s u b t r a c tin g fe a tu r e s in p h o t o g r a p h s o r d r a w in g s , to
tr a c e th e lin k a g e s b e t w e e n a s s o c ia t io n a n d th e fe a tu r e s o f
th e s e t t in g . W h ile th e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e o f s im u la tio n to r e a lity
s till r e m a in s a q u e s t io n , t h is m e t h o d is o t h e r w is e a r e la -
t iv e ly a c c u r a te w a y o f p r o b in g fo r e n v ir o n m e n t a l m e a n in g s .
It is a ls o r a th e r e a s y to ca r r y o u t. T h e a s s o c ia t io n e v o k e d
t h e r e b y m a y b e p u t in q u a n tif ia b le fo r m b y u s in g s e m a n tic
d iffe r e n tia ls : c a r e fu lly ch o sen p a ir s of p o la r a d je c tiv e s
a m o n g w h ic h th e r e s p o n d e n t is a s k e d to in d ic a t e th e o n e s
m o s t a p p r o p r ia te to w h a t h e s e e s , as w e ll a s th e d e g r e e o f a p -
p r o p r ia t e n e s s .
Gaming: In o r d e r to a v o id e v o k in g w is h e s th a t m a y
h a v e n o r e le v a n c e to re a l c h o ic e s , th e r e s p o n d e n t m a y b e
a s k e d to p la y s o m e g a m e th a t is a s im p lif ic a t io n o f r e a lity
b u t w h o s e r u le s , p e n a lt ie s , a n d b e n e f its p a r a lle l th e s itu a -
t io n o n e is t r y in g to s im u la te . M o s t p e o p le w ill e n te r s u c h a
g a m e e a s ily a n d p la y it w it h c o n v ic t io n . T h u s a p e r s o n m a y
b e g iv e n a s u m o f im a g in a r y d o lla r s a n d b e a s k e d to s p e n d
t h e m o n a c o m b in a t io n o f h o u s in g a n d s e r v ic e s , e a c h p o s -
s ib le c h o ic e h a v in g it s p a r tic u la r p r ic e a n d its p a r tic u la r
b e n e fits . O n e c a n t h e n le a r n , fo r e x a m p le , h o w v a r io u s
p e o p le m ig h t tr a d e o f f th e tim e d is t a n c e to w o r k a g a in s t th e
s iz e o f th e ir h o u s e lo t.
G a m e s b e c o m e p a r tic u la r ly a b s o r b in g w h e n t h e y in -
e lu d e d iv e r s e g r o u p s w h o h a v e d iffe r e n t o b je c t iv e s a n d w h o
c o m p e t e or c o o p e r a te w it h e a c h o th e r fo r th e u s e o f r e s o u r c e s .
S u c h g a m e s , w h ic h r e q u ir e c o m p le x r u le s o f g o v e r n a n c e ,
s u b s t a n tia l d a ta , a n d c a r e f u lly d e s ig n e d r e s p o n s e s to th e
a c t io n s o f th e v a r io u s a c to r s , c a n s im u la te s y s t e m s o f b e h a v -
io r a s la r g e a s th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a m e t r o p o lit a n r e g io n .
W h ile th e y c a n n o t a c c u r a te ly p r e d ic t th e e v o lu t io n o f su c h
real s y s t e m s , th e y d o illu m in a t e h o w p e o p le m a k e c h o ic e s
u n d e r r e a lis tic c o n d it io n s o f u n c e r t a in ty a n d c o m p e t it io n .
T h e y a re p a r tic u la r ly u s e fu l fo r t e a c h in g th e n a tu r e o f s o m e
c o m p le x p r o c e s s to a se t o f p la y e r s .
 G a m e s are so a b s o r b in g a n d a ttr a c tiv e th a t th e y r a ise 113
s p e c ia l p r o b le m s . In a g a m e o n e d o e s n o t q u e s tio n th e ru le s;
o n e a c c e p ts th e g iv e n r o le a n d its o b je c t iv e s . T h is s it u a tio n
h a s m a n y p a r a lle ls in real life , b u t f o r t u n a te ly n o t in a ll its
a s p e c t s — it is n o t a m o d e l o f id e a l b e h a v io r . In its in t e n s it y
a n d te m p o r a l c o m p r e s s io n , th e g a m e fa v o r s c o m p e t it io n ,
s h a llo w n e s s a n d r ig id ity o f p u r p o s e , a n d a v ie w o f th e w o r ld
th a t s e e s it to b e r a p id ly c h a n g in g b u t e v e r th e s a m e . T h u s
th e g a m e h a s its d a n g e r s a s a t e a c h in g d e v ic e w h ile b e in g
q u ite u s e fu l for m o r e lim ite d p u r p o s e s o f u n c o v e r in g h o w p e o -
p ie m ig h t r e a ct in b o u n d e d , s t e r e o t y p e d s it u a t io n s o f c h o ic e .
Em pathy : G a m in g is a k in d o f r o le p la y in g , u n d e r se t
c o n d itio n s . R o le p la y in g , o r p r o je c tio n o f o n e s e lf " in s id e " a n -
o th e r p e r s o n or s it u a t io n , is a p o w e r f u l a n d v e r y h u m a n ro a d
to u n d e r s ta n d in g . If e m p a th y is d iffic u lt to s t a n d a r d iz e , it is
n e v e r t h e le s s th e b a s is fo r a n y n o n r o u t in e c o m m u n ic a t io n b e -
t w e e n p e r s o n s . It is th u s a m e a n s for in tim a t e r e la t io n s , for
e t h ic s , an d for lite r a tu r e . A c t o r s a re tr a in e d to g a in s u c h in -
s ig h t s in to h o w o th e r p e o p le fe e l a n d b e h a v e . S e r io u s d e s ig n -
er s a ls o h a b it u a lly p u t t h e m s e lv e s in to th e p la c e o f t h o s e w h o
w ill o c c u p y th e ir s tr u c tu r e s , b u t w it h in d iff e r e n t s u c c e s s
b e c a u s e th e d e s ig n e r is r a r e ly tr a in e d to ',fo r g e t h im s e lf ."
R o le p la y in g , s y s t e m a t ic a lly p u r s u e d , c a n n e v e r t h e -
le s s b e a rich s o u r c e o f in s ig h t s a n d is p a r tic u la r ly u s e fu l as
th e p r e lim in a r y s te p b e fo r e a m o r e s t a n d a r d iz e d s t u d y is
b e g u n , s in c e it c a n g e n e r a t e t e s t a b le h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t b e -
h a v io r . O n e ca n a sk a d e s ig n e r , or e v e n th e m e m b e r o f a
s c h o o l b o a r d , to im a g in e th a t h e is a c h ild w a lk in g to s c h o o l,
a lt h o u g h m o s t a d u lts m u s t b e h a r r ie d b e fo r e t h e y w ill a c -
tu a lly d o so . A s k i n g th e c h ild to im a g in e th a t h e is m e m b e r
o f th e s c h o o l b o a r d is m u c h e a s ie r a n d w ill b e ju s t a s in fo r m a -
tiv e .
A c t u a lly a c t in g a s o n e o f th e p e r s o n s fo r w h o m a n e n v i-
r o n m e n t is b e in g d e s ig n e d is e v e n m o r e u s e f u l fo r th e d e -
s ig n e r . T h u s s o m e o n e p la n n in g h o u s in g fo r th e b lin d s h o u ld
s p e n d a w e e k liv in g b lin d f o ld e d ; a s c h o o l a r c h ite c t s h o u ld g o
to s c h o o l, an d a m e n ta l h o s p it a l d e s ig n e r s h o u ld b e c o m e a
c e r tifie d p a tie n t. T h e e x p e r ie n c e is s o m e t im e s s h o c k in g .
R e s p o n d e n t s m a y a ls o b e a sk e d to p r o je c t t h e m s e lv e s
in to s o m e s it u a tio n r a th e r th a n in to s o m e o th e r p e r s o n . In th e
sta n d a r d th e m a tic a p p e r c e p tio n t e s t, a r e s p o n d e n t is s h o w n
a p ic tu r e o f s o m e s it u a tio n , w h ic h is e v o c a t iv e in fo rm b u t
a ls o o p e n to d iffe r e n t in te r p r e ta t io n s . H e is t h e n a s k e d to
c o m p le t e s o m e s e n t e n c e a b o u t th a t p ic tu r e ( w h ic h m a y b e
s o m e t h in g b e in g sa id b y o n e o f th e c h a r a c te r s r e p r e s e n te d
114 th e r e ) or to te ll a b r ie f s t o r y a b o u t it. F or e x a m p le , a p ic tu r e o f
a c h ild a lo n e in a fo r e s t o r o f t w o p e o p le t a lk in g o n a n a p a r t-
m e n t b a lc o n y h ig h in th e a ir m a y b e s h o w n . S to r ie s in -
v e n t e d for t h o s e s it u a t io n s c a n th e n b e a n a ly z e d for th e e m o -
t io n a l f e e lin g s th a t t h e r e s p o n d e n t h o ld s to w a r d t h o s e
e n v ir o n m e n t s .
N e u tr a l T h e s e t e c h n iq u e s h a v e b e e n d e s c r ib e d a s t h e y w o u ld
O b s e r v a tio n m o s t o f te n b e u se d : b y s o m e o u t s id e " n e u tr a l" o b s e r v e r w h o
is s t u d y in g th e e n v ir o n m e n ta l r e s p o n s e s o f p r e s e n t o r fu tu r e
r e s id e n ts o f a p la c e . B u t s in c e a n e x t e r n a l o b s e r v e r h a s
d iff ic u lt y in p e n e t r a t in g in to a n o th e r p e r s o n 's in n e r fe e l-
in g s , s in c e o b s e r v a tio n in e v it a b ly d is tu r b s th e t h in g o b -
s e r v e d , a n d p a r t ic u la r ly s in c e in fo r m a t io n o n c e c o lle c te d c a n
b e u s e d fo r o r a g a in s t th e in te r e s t s o f th e p e r s o n o b s e r v e d ,
t h is m o d e o f o b s e r v a tio n r a is e s a n u m b e r o f e t h ic a l a n d
s c ie n tific p r o b le m s . T h e y m a y b e s m a ll w h e n w e a re s t u d y -
in g g r o s s v is i b le b e h a v io r th a t is r e le v a n t to w id e ly sh a r e d
p u r p o s e s , s u c h a s th e a n a ly s is o f tr a ffic fo r th e p u r p o s e o f re-
d u c in g a c c id e n ts . B u t t h e s e p r o b le m s a re m o r e t r o u b lin g , for
e x a m p le , if w e a re a n a ly z in g r e s id e n tia l p r e fe r e n c e s a s a
p r e lu d e to r e lo c a tio n .
Participant O n e w a y o f o v e r c o m in g s o m e o f t h e s e o b s t a c le s h a s
observation b e e n th e d e v ic e o f p a r tic ip a n t o b s e r v a t io n w h ic h d e v e lo p e d
in a n t h r o p o lo g y . T h e in v e s t ig a t o r liv e s w it h th e g r o u p h e is
s t u d y in g , j o in s in th e ir p u r s u it s , a n d m a k e s h im s e lf as
m u c h a p a r t o f th e ir w o r ld a s h e c a n m a n a g e . B y g a in in g
th e ir c o n f id e n c e a n d t h e r ig h t to sh a r e in th e ir in t im a t e a n d
in fo r m a l c o m m u n ic a t io n s , a s w e ll as b y th e p a r tia l tr a n s fo r -
m a tio n o f h im s e lf in to a m e m b e r o f th e g r o u p , h e g a in s a
m u c h m o r e p r o f o u n d in s ig h t in t o th e ir f e e lin g s a n d im a g e s .
H e b e g in s to u n d e r s ta n d u n d e r ly in g b u t in a r t ic u la t e s y s -
terns o f b e lie f , la t e n t f u n c t io n s , a n d h id d e n a g e n d a s . In -
d e e d , th e m o s t u s e fu l b a c k g r o u n d m a te r ia l fo r e n v ir o n m e n -
ta l d e s ig n h a s o f te n p r o v e d to b e a n a n t h r o p o lo g is t 's v ie w o f
s o c ie t y r a th e r th a n th e m o r e p r e c is e b u t r e m o te d a ta o f s o -
c io lo g y .
T h e p a r tic ip a n t o b s e r v e r is in a n a m b ig u o u s p o s it io n ,
h o w e v e r . H e is b o th a n in s id e r a n d a str a n g e r , s h a r in g in ti-
m a c ie s b u t a ls o t e llin g ta le s . B y c o lle c t in g in fo r m a t io n to b e
u s e d b y o th e r s , h e m a y b e v io la t in g a n u n s p o k e n tr u st.
K e e p in g e n o u g h o b j e c t iv it y fo r a c c u r a te r e p o r tin g w h ile a ls o
b e in g a p a r tic ip a n t m a y b e a t ig h t r o p e e x e r c is e . T h e
m e t h o d w a s fir st u se d b y " a d v a n c e d " s c ie n t is t s s t u d y in g
" p r im itiv e " s o c ie t ie s , w h e r e th e r e w a s n o fear o f th e s c ie n -
tist b e c o m in g a p r im itiv e a n d n o c o n s c io u s d o u b t th a t th e
s c ie n tis t r e a lly k n e w b e tte r th a n t h e y d id w h a t w a s g o o d 115
for th e m . A s th e m e th o d is a p p lie d to p e o p le m o r e a n d
m o r e lik e o u r s e lv e s , th e u n d e r ly in g a m b ig u it y o f th e p o s it io n
b e c o m e s m o r e o b v io u s . M o r e o v e r , it r e q u ir e s c a r e fu l tr a in in g
a n d y e a r s o f o b s e r v a tio n b e fo r e it c a n b e g in to g e n e r a t e u s e -
ful in fo r m a tio n . T h u s w h ile it o ffe r s v a lu a b le b a c k g r o u n d
m a te r ia l if a lr e a d y a v a ila b le , it is o f d o u b tf u l u s e to th e s it e
p la n n e r a s a s u r v e y m e th o d .
A n e w m o d e o f o b s e r v a tio n is c u r r e n tly d e v e lo p in g . For Self-
th is m e t h o d th e p r e s e n t o r fu tu r e r e s id e n ts o f a n e n v ir o n - observation
m e n t are tr a in e d to e m p lo y th e s u r v e y t e c h n iq u e s th e m -
s e lv e s a n d to a n a ly z e th e ir o w n u s e a n d c o n c e p t io n o f th e ir
o w n s u r r o u n d in g s . M o s t o f th e m e t h o d s a lr e a d y d e s c r ib e d
c a n b e s o u se d : in d ir e c t a n a ly s is , d ir e c t o b s e r v a t io n , d ir e c t
c o m m u n ic a t io n , e v o k e d r e s p o n s e . B u t th e n a tu r e o f th e
m e th o d c h a n g e s w it h th e c h a n g e d r o le s . O b s e r v in g th e re -
sp o n se to e n v ir o n m e n ta l c h a n g e , fo r e x a m p le , b e c o m e s
s e lf- e x p e r im e n t, in w h i c h b o th t h e p o t e n t ia lit ie s o f th e s e t-
t in g a n d o n e 's o w n n a tu r e a re b e in g e x p lo r e d in p a r a lle l.
In t h is c a s e th e a m b ig u it y o f th e o b s e r v e r 's r o le d is a p -
p e a r s . T h e e x p e r t b e c o m e s a te a c h e r o f a n a ly t ic a l t e c h n iq u e
a n d a c r e a to r o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l p o s s ib ilit ie s . T h e in fo r m a t io n
g e n e r a te d r e m a in s in th e h a n d s o f t h o s e w h o p r o d u c e it a n d
to w h o m it is r e le v a n t. It is p o s s ib le to e x p lo r e in w a r d fe e l-
in g s as w e ll a s o u tw a r d s ig n s . T h e v e r y a c t o f s u r v e y e s -
t a b lis h e s th e d e s ig n a n d c o n t r o l o f th e s e t t in g b y t h o s e w h o
w ill u s e it.
T h e a ct o f o b s e r v a tio n c o n t in u e s to d is tu r b th e t h in g o b -
se r v e d , h o w e v e r . In fa c t, th e d is t u r b a n c e is lik e l y to b e r a d i-
c a l, s in c e th e f e e d b a c k is r a p id , in te r n a l, a n d s e lf - c o n s c io u s .
P a r tic ip a n ts c a n b e e x p e c te d to c h a n g e th e ir p e r c e p t io n s o f
e n v ir o n m e n t a n d s o m e o f th e ir v a lu e s a b o u t it, a n d th e p r o -
c e s s m a y m o v e in u n e x p e c t e d d ir e c t io n s . T h e s e a n a ly tic
t e c h n iq u e s o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l a s s e s s m e n t m a y , in fa c t, p r o v e
to h a v e a u s e w e ll b e y o n d th a t o f p r o f e s s io n a l d e s ig n . T h e y
m ay tu r n o u t to b e s t r a t e g ic w a y s b y w h ic h p e o p le c a n b e g in
to u n d e r s ta n d t h e m s e lv e s a n d th e ir w o r ld , a n d to le a r n h o w
to o r g a n iz e t h e m s e lv e s to b e e f f e c tiv e in it. S u r v e y b e c o m e s
s e lf- t r a n s fo r m a tio n .
W h ile th e la tte r p o s s ib ilit y r e m a in s s p e c u la t iv e , it a p -
p e a r s th a t s e lf - a n a ly s is is a p o w e r f u l w a y o f s t u d y in g th e
im p a c t o f e n v ir o n m e n t. A t th e s a m e tim e it is p o lit ic a l ly a n d
e t h ic a lly far le s s a m b ig u o u s , a n d it is a s te p to w a r d la y in g a
s o lid b a s e for p a r tic ip a to r y d e s ig n . It d e v e lo p s c lie n t s w h o
are a w a r e o f th e ir p r o p e r in te r e s t s in th e e n v ir o n m e n t a n d
116 are a b le to s p e a k f o r c e f u lly fo r th e m . S in c e it is e d u c a tiv e
and s e lf - t r a n s f o r m in g , s e lf - a n a ly s is m ay le a d in unex-
p e c te d d ir e c t io n s , h o w e v e r . T h e t e c h n iq u e is o n ly n o w b e in g
t e s te d a n d m a y h a v e u n f o r e s e e n la te n t d iff ic u lt ie s . It m a y
r a ise h o p e s th a t c a n o n ly b e fr u s tr a te d . It is c e r t a in ly m o r e
t im e - c o n s u m in g th a n a s t a n d a r d a n a ly s is b y o u ts id e p r o f e s -
s io n a ls .
T h e th e o r e tic a l a n d e t h ic a l p r o b le m s th a t h a v e le d to
its d e v e lo p m e n t m a k e it c le a r , h o w e v e r , th a t w e c a n n o t c o n -
t in u e to c o n d u c t s u r v e y s in th e o ld im p e r s o n a l m a n n e r . E v e n
w h e n o b s e r v a tio n is d o n e b y p r o f e s s io n a ls , it m u s t b e d o n e
w it h th e k n o w le d g e a n d c o n s e n t o f t h o s e o b s e r v e d , a n d th e
in fo r m a t io n g e n e r a t e d m u s t b e a v a ila b le to t h e m a s w e ll a s
to th e o b s e r v in g a g e n c y . S o m e t im e s it m u s t b e m a d e a v a il-
a b le to th e la tte r o n ly w it h t h e c o n s e n t o f th e fo r m e r . T h is
p r in c ip le h a s t e c h n ic a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . It fa v o r s t h o s e s im -
p ie r s u r v e y t e c h n iq u e s th a t a re m o r e s u ite d to d e c e n tr a liz e d
c o n tr o l a n d th a t r e tu r n th e ir in fo r m a t io n m o r e r a p id ly to
th e ir in v e s t ig a t o r s . D e s i g n e r s a re n o t y e t a c c u s to m e d to
th in k o f in q u ir ie s a b o u t b e h a v io r a n d r e q u ir e m e n ts a n d
w is h e s a s b e in g p o lit ic a l ly s e n s it iv e . I n fo r m a t io n is p o w e r ,
a n d s u r v e y s , e v e n e n v ir o n m e n t a l o n e s , a re e a s ily u s e d for
fu r th e r c o n c e n t r a t in g th e c o n t r o l o f in fo r m a t io n a n d t h u s s o -
lid if y in g th e str u c tu r e o f p o w e r .
W e h a v e a tte m p te d a n in v e n t o r y o f s o c ia l a n d p s y c h o -
lo g ic a l a n a ly s e s r e le v a n t to s it e p la n n in g w h ic h a re p r e s -
E v o lv in g e n t ly o f p r o v e d v a lu e in s o m e ty p ic a l s it u a t io n . M a n y o th e r
T e c h n iq u e s t e c h n iq u e s are b e in g in v e n te d a n d e x p e r im e n te d w ith .
M a n y o f t h e m w ill in t im e b e a d d e d to th e u s e f u l r e p e r -
to r y . W e s h a ll m e n t io n s o m e o f t h e m h e r e in p a s s in g .
It m a y s o o n b e p o s s ib le to r e c o r d d e ta ile d e x p r e s s iv e a c -
t io n s a s w e ll a s g r o s s b e h a v io r . T h u s w e m a y b e a b le to p h o -
to g r a p h , r e c o r d , or d ia g r a m s u c h t h in g s a s fa c ia l e x p r e s s io n ,
th e t o n e o f v o ic e o r th e f r a g m e n ta r y v o c a liz a t io n s , h a n d g e s -
tu r e s, b o d y p o s it io n s a n d m o v e m e n t, d ila t io n o f th e p u p ils ,
g a lv a n ic s k in r e a c t io n s , b r a in r h y t h m s , in te r n a l c h e m is t r y ,
a n d s o o n . M o s t o f t h e s e t e c h n iq u e s a re r o u t in e ly u s e d in
o th e r k in d s o f a n a ly s is , a n d a f e w h a v e b e e n t o y e d w it h in
s t u d y in g e x te r n a l s e t t in g s . T h e y w o u ld p r o v id e u s w it h
r ic h e r d a ta o n th e w a y h u m a n b e in g s r e s p o n d to th e w o r ld
a b o u t th e m . For th e t im e b e in g , t h e y r e q u ir e e la b o r a te
e q u ip m e n t , a n d , m o r e s e r io u s , t h e y w o u ld b u r y u s w it h in -
fo r m a tio n th a t w e a re n o t e q u ip p e d to u se .
In th e la b o r a to r ie s , r e s p o n d e n ts c a n b e s u b je c te d to a r-
t if ic ia lly d is to r te d s tim u li: p e o p le m a y b e b lin d e d , d e a f-
e n e d , b lin k e r e d , is o la te d fr o m s e n s a t io n o r o v e r lo a d e d , o r b e 117
s u b je c te d to v e r y b r ie f e x p o s u r e s or to r e v e r s a ls in t im e or
sp a c e . S p e c ia l s it u a t io n s o f t h is k in d h a v e b e e n o f g r e a t
v a lu e in la b o r a to r y in v e s t ig a t io n s d ir e c te d t o w a r d u n d e r ‫־‬
s t a n d in g th e p e r c e p tu a l or c o g n it iv e p r o c e s s . T h e y a re o n ly
r e c e n tly e m e r g in g in t o th e re a l w o r ld , a n d th e ir v a lu e th e r e
is as y e t u n c e r ta in .
P r e fe r e n c e s m a y b e e v o k e d in m u c h fre er w a y s th a n
t h o s e w e d is c u s s e d e a r lie r . P e o p le m a y b e a s k e d to c r e a te
u to p ia s , or e v e n k a k o t o p ia s , o r to c o m p a r e v e r y u n lik e p la c e s
in la d d e r r a n k in g s . T h e s e m e t h o d s c a n s o m e t im e s b e u s e fu l
for e v o k in g la t e n t f e e lin g s , b u t u n f o r t u n a t e ly m o s t p e o p le
are ill tr a in e d fo r le t t in g th e ir p r e fe r e n c e s w a n d e r . If p e o p le
are s o tr a in e d , h o w e v e r , s o m e o f t h e s e m e t h o d s m a y p r o d u c e
im p o r ta n t r e s u lts .
R e s p o n d e n t s m a y p la y r o le s n o t o n ly a s o th e r p e o p le b u t
a ls o a s t h in g s . T h e y c a n b e a sk e d to im a g in e th a t t h e y a re
th e E m p ire S ta te B u ild in g a n d r e q u ir e d to c o m m e n t a b o u t
th e p e o p le in s id e t h e m o r a b o u t t h e s t r e e ts at th e ir fe e t.
S o m e o n e m a y im a g in e h im s e lf a s a b a th tu b a s a p r e lu d e to
d e s ig n in g a tu b o r a b a th r o o m . T h e m e t h o d s e e m s o d d , b u t it
o c c a s io n a lly p r o d u c e s n e w in s ig h t s o r d e s ig n p o s s ib ilit ie s . It
h a s n o t b e e n a p p lie d in s it e p la n n in g .
A n a l y s e s o f e n v ir o n m e n ta l p r e fe r e n c e m a y b e c a r r ie d
o u t in d e p th b y m e t h o d s u s u a lly a s s o c ia t e d w it h p s y c h ia t r y :
d e p th a n a ly s is , h y p n o s is , d r e a m in te r p r e ta t io n , a n d s o o n .
T h e s c a n t y p u b lis h e d m a te r ia l o f t h is k in d w h ic h r e fe r s to
e n v ir o n m e n t h a s b e e n in t e r e s t in g . A lt h o u g h th e t e c h n iq u e s
are d iffic u lt a n d p o s s ib ly d a n g e r o u s in u n s k ille d h a n d s ,
s u c h s t u d ie s are o f g r e a t th e o r e tic a l in te r e s t b u t a re le s s
lik e ly to b e c o m e u s e fu l t o o ls fo r th e d e s ig n e r .
M a n y o th e r t e c h n iq u e s w ill u n d o u b t e d ly b e d e v e lo p -
in g in th e n e a r fu tu r e . T h e p r o b le m fo r th e d e s ig n e r w ill b e
to c h o o s e th e o n e s m o s t a p t fo r h is p a r tic u la r p r o b le m . It is
e v id e n t , h o w e v e r , th a t h e m u s t c e a s e to r e ly o n h is s im p le
in t u it io n s for p r e d ic tin g th e e ffe c t o f w h a t h e d e s ig n s a n d
c e a s e to t h in k o f d a ta a s s o m u c h n e u tr a l lu m b e r , th e r a w
m a te r ia l h e w ill s h a p e in to a d e s ig n . G e t t in g to k n o w s o m e -
th in g is a p o lit ic a l as w e ll as an in te lle c t u a l a c t, a n d th e p r o c -
e s s o f d o in g it in t im a t e ly a ffe c ts th e e v e n t u a l q u a lity o f b e -
h a v io r a n d s e tt in g .
 C hapter

Movement Systems

. / A c c e s s is a p r e r e q u is it e to th e u s e f u ln e s s o f a n y
b lo c k o f s p a c e . W it h o u t th e a b ilit y to e n te r , le a v e , a n d m o v e
w it h in it, to r e c e iv e a n d tr a n s m it in fo r m a t io n o r g o o d s , s p a c e
is o f n o v a lu e , h o w e v e r v a s t or r ic h in r e s o u r c e s . In o n e s e n s e
a c ity is a c o m m u n ic a t io n n e t, m a d e u p o f r o a d s, p a th s , ra ils,
p ip e s , a n d w ir e s . T h is s y s t e m o f f lo w is in t im a t e ly r e la te d to
th e p a tte r n o f lo c a liz e d a c t iv it ie s , or la n d u se . T h e e c o n o m ic
a n d c u ltu r a l le v e l o f a c ity is r o u g h ly in p r o p o r t io n to th e c a -
p a c ity o f its c ir c u la t io n s y s t e m , a n d th e c o s t o f th a t s y s t e m is
u s u a lly th e m o s t s ig n if ic a n t e le m e n t in to ta l s ite c o s t.
Flow types F lo w s a re o f m a n y d iffe r e n t ty p e s : th e m o v e m e n t o f
p e o p le , o f g o o d s , o f w a s t e s , a n d o f in fo r m a t io n , ca r r ie d in
w h e e le d v e h ic le s , o n f o o t, o n r a ils, in th e a ir, in p ip e s or
w ir e s , a n d o n e n d le s s b e lt s , u n d e r , o n , a n d a b o v e th e su r -
fa ce . E v en o n th e s c a le o f a s it e p la n it is im p o r ta n t to th in k
o f th e s e f lo w s as a to ta l s y s t e m w it h in w h ic h o n e e le m e n t
c a n o fte n b e s u b s t it u t e d fo r a n o th e r . T e le p h o n e c a lls o r te le -
v is e d c o m m u n ic a t io n s m a y s u b s t it u t e fo r p e r s o n a l tr ip s, a n d
th e flo w o f g a s in a p ip e for th e h a u la g e o f s o lid fu e l. B u s
r o u te s r e p la c e car tr ip s. T h e la y o u t o f s tr e e ts a ffe c ts th e p a t-
ter n o f u n d e r g r o u n d u tilitie s , a n d th e lo c a tio n o f t e le p h o n e
c a b le s d e p e n d s o n th e m e th o d b e in g u se d to tr a n s m it p o w e r .
It is in th is d o m a in th a t th e s it e p la n is th e m o s t s e n s it iv e to
t e c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e .
Channel types T h e c h a n n e l t y p e s in m o s t c o m m o n u s e t o d a y are th e
g r a d e d a n d s u r f a c e d r i g h t s - o f - w a y for p e d e s t r i a n s or 119
w h e e le d v e h ic le s, th e rail s y s t e m s , th e w ir e s c o n v e y i n g
p o w e r a n d i n f o r m a t i o n , th e g r a v i t y flow s e w e r s c a r r y i n g o ff
s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e a n d w a t e r b o r n e w a s t e s , a n d th e p r e s s u r e
p ip e s s u p p l y i n g s u c h flu id s as w a t e r , g a s, s t e a m , a n d e v e n
b u l k m a t e r i a l s in w a t e r s u s p e n s i o n . V e h i c u l a r p a t h s a r e
n o r m a l l y laid o n t h e s u r f a c e a n d t h e p ip e s b e n e a t h it. W i r e s
a re p la c e d u n d e r g r o u n d o r s t r u n g o v e r h e a d .
O f all th e s e c h a n n e l s t h e v e h i c u l a r r i g h t s - o f - w a y a r e
lik e ly to be t h e m o s t c ritic a l. T h e y c o n v e y p e r s o n s as w ell as
a v a r i e t y o f o b je c ts , t h e y a re d e m a n d i n g o f s p a c e a n d s e n s i-
tive to a l i g n m e n t , a n d t h e y a r e f u n d a m e n t a l to t h e u s e f u l-
n e s s a n d q u a l i t y o f th e lo c a t i o n s t h a t t h e y b o r d e r o n . T h e
o t h e r c h a n n e l s t e n d to b e p a t t e r n e d in c o n f o r m i t y w i t h th is
d o m i n a n t s y s te m . A ll to o o f te n , in d e e d , e v e n t h e w a l k w a y s
a re t h o u g h t o f o n l y as i n s i g n i f i c a n t a d j u n c t s to t h e s tr e e ts .
A s a first a p p r o x i m a t i o n in d e s i g n , it is p o s s i b l e to c o n s i d e r
t h e l a y o u t o f r o a d s a n d w a l k s b e f o r e t h a t o f t h e r e s t o f t h e cir-
c u l a t i o n s y s t e m a n d t h e n to re f in e th is l a y o u t b y s t u d y o f t h e
o th e r co m p o n en ts.
A m o n g th e u tilitie s ( th e p ip e a n d w i r e c h a n n e l s ) it is Critical utilities
th e w a t e r s u p p l y t h a t is lik e ly to b e m o s t c ritic a l a t t h e c o m -
m u n i t y scale. T h e q u a n t i t y , p o t a b i l i t y , a n d p r e s s u r e o f
w a t e r a v a ila b le m a y e x e rc is e a s e r io u s c h e c k o n d e v e l o p -
m e n t o r e v e n p r e v e n t it. T h e d i s p o s a l o f s a n i t a r y s e w a g e
w ill a ls o in f lu e n c e g r o w t h at t h e la r g e r scale, e s p e c ia lly
w h e n t o p o g r a p h y p r o h i b i t s g r a v i t y flo w to a g o o d d i s p o s a l
p o in t. B u t s e w a g e d i s p o s a l is b e c o m i n g less o f a d e t e r m i n a n t
as t h e t e c h n i q u e o f s m a ll d i s p o s a l p l a n t s i m p r o v e s .
A t t h e lo cal s i t e - p l a n n i n g sc a le n e i t h e r w a t e r s u p p l y
n o r s e w a g e d i s p o s a l is lik e ly to h a v e a s i g n if ic a n t i n f lu e n c e
o n th e p la n , w h e r e a s t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e
t h r o u g h th e s t o r m s e w e r s m a y i m p o s e i m p o r t a n t m o d if ic a -
tio n s b e c a u s e o f t h e size a n d c o st o f t h e s t o r m s e w e r s y s t e m
a n d th e n e e d to tie it i n t o th e n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n o f t h e
a re a . T h e r e f o r e it is lik e ly to b e t h e first u t i l i t y n e t w o r k to be
a n a ly z e d . It i n v o lv e s t h e flo w o f r a i n a n d m e l t w a t e r o v e r th e
e n t i r e site, m o v i n g in s h e e ts o v e r t h e o p e n g r o u n d , c o n c e n -
t r a t i n g in d it c h e s a n d s w a le s , t h e n r u n n i n g i n t o t h e s t r e e t
g u t t e r s , e n t e r i n g t h e u n d e r g r o u n d p i p e s y s t e m , a n d fin a lly
r e a c h i n g th e n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e lin e s o f riv e r , la k e , o r sea.
T h e d e s i g n e r is c o n c e r n e d n o t o n l y w i t h t h e s e w e r s y s t e m
itse lf b u t w i t h th e d r a i n a g e o f t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e a n d its
f lo o d in g a n d e r o s io n , as w ell as w i t h t h e d o w n s t r e a m b u r d e n
h e im p o s e s o n riv e r s , la k e s , a n d o c e a n s . T h e t e c h n i q u e o f
 120 u n d e r g r o u n d c ir c u l a t i o n is r a t h e r b a c k w a r d in c o m p a r i s o n
w i t h t h a t o f s u r f a c e s y s te m s . S u b s u r f a c e s t r u c t u r e s a r e ex-
p ensive and in elegant, th eir d esign h ig h ly em pirical and
t r a d i t i o n a l , t h e h i d d e n la y o u t c h a o t i c to a n e x tr e m e . T h i s is
p a i n f u l l y v is ib le w h e n a s tr e e t is o p e n e d up .
Integration and In g e n e r a l , c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m s m a y b e i n t e g r a t e d o r
dispersion d is p e r s e d . T h a t is, w a t e r m a y c o m e t h r o u g h g r e a t a q u e -
d u c t s f r o m a s in g le m e t r o p o l i t a n r e s e r v o ir , o r e a c h h o u s e m a y
h a v e its o w n w e ll; s e w a g e m a y go to a c e n t r a l d i s p o s a l p l a n t
o r be d i s p o s e d o f in i n d i v i d u a l s e p tic t a n k s ; la n e s m a y lead
o n l y f r o m v illa g e to fields o r b e c o n n e c t e d in a n a t i o n w i d e
s y s t e m ; s t o r m w a t e r m a y b e d iv e r t e d i n t o local b r o o k s a n d
p o n d s o r b e c a r r ie d in g r e a t c o lle c tin g lin e s ; e le c tr ic ity
m a y be d i s t r i b u t e d o n a r e g i o n a l g r id o r b e f u r n i s h e d b y in -
d i v id u a l g e n e r a t o r s ; a n d so o n . T h e c h o ic e b e t w e e n ex-
t r e m e s , o r t h e s t a t i o n s b e t w e e n , is d i c t a t e d b y d e n s i t y , to -
p o g r a p h y , f u n c t i o n , c u s t o m , a n d a v a i l a b l e facilities. B ut it is
m o r e u s u a l to u s e i n t e g r a t e d r o a d s y s t e m s , c e n t r a l i z e d
s o u r c e s o f e le c tr ic ity fo r e c o n o m y a n d r e lia b ility , a n d a c e n -
tr a l w a t e r s u p p l y for r e a s o n s o f p u b l i c h e a l t h . S t o r m d r a i n -
a g e s y s t e m s , o n th e o t h e r h a n d , a r e u s u a l l y as d is p e r s e d as
p o s s ib le .
D i s t r i b u t i o n lin e s m a y a ls o b e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d in o t h e r
w a y s . T h e r e a re t h e s y s t e m s in w h i c h m a t e r i a l s , e n e r g y , or
i n f o r m a t i o n is c o n v e y e d u n d e r " p r e s s u r e , ‫ ״‬s o m e e x t e r n a l
a p p lie d fo rc e t h a t is c o n f in e d to t h e c h a n n e l . T h e s e s y s t e m s
in c l u d e t h e w a t e r , g a s, e le c tr ic ity , a n d t e l e p h o n e lines.
H e r e t h e c h a n n e l s a r e s m a ll in c r o s s s e c tio n , c o n t i n u o u s , flex-
ible, f lo w in g full, t y p i c a l l y fitte d w i t h v a lv e s a n d s u b je c t to
f r e q u e n t b r e a k s . T h e i r p a t t e r n w ill u s u a l l y a p p e a r as a
la r g e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d n e t w o r k o r w e b . T h e n t h e r e a r e s y s -
terns in w h i c h m a t e r i a l s flo w b y g r a v i t y , th e s t o r m a n d s a n -
it a r y s e w e r s in p a r t i c u l a r . T h e s e m u s t b e la id c a r e f u lly to
c o n s i s t e n t s lo p e s ; t h e y a r e r ig id , jo in t e d , r e l a t i v e l y la rg e ,
t y p ic a lly f lo w in g o n l y p a r t i a l l y full, a n d h a v e a b r a n c h i n g
p a t t e r n in p la n . F in a lly , t h e r e a r e t h e c h a n n e l s a l o n g w h i c h
o b je c ts m o v e b y s e lf - p r o p u l s i o n : t h e w a lk s , r o a d s , ra ils , a n d
a ir la n e s.
A l o n g s o m e lines, m a t e r i a l s m o v e o u t f r o m a c e n tr a l
so u rc e , s u c h as a w ell o r a g e n e r a t o r ; a l o n g o t h e r s , t h e y g o to
a s in g le t e r m i n u s , s u c h as a n o u tf a ll o r a g i a n t f a c to r y . Else-
w h e r e , b o t h o r ig in a n d d e s t i n a t i o n a r e m u ltip le . T h e s e
d if f e r e n c e s h a v e c le a r c o n s e q u e n c e s for th e c i r c u l a t i o n p a t -
te r n . T h e n t h e r e a re s y s t e m s in w h i c h t h e m o v i n g e l e m e n t s
a re n o t i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e — as t h e y a re in p u m p i n g w a t e r o r
e le c tric c h a r g e s — b u t m u s t g o f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r o r i g i n to a 121
p a r t i c u l a r d e s t i n a t i o n . C o m p l e x s w i t c h i n g is t h e n r e q u i r e d ,
o r th e m o v i n g u n i t m u s t b e a ll o w e d to find its o w n w a y .
T h e r e is i n t e r f e r e n c e at t h e jo i n t s , a n d c a p a c itie s fall. M o s t
c o m p le x o f all, fin a lly , a r e t h o s e m o v e m e n t s in w h i c h p e r -
s o n s a r e d ir e c tly in v o lv e d , w h e r e w e m u s t th e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r
th e m o v i n g e x p e r ie n c e itself, as w ell as th e fact o f a r r iv a l. If
d r iv e r s w e r e u n c o n s c i o u s a n d w o u l d b e c o n t e n t to a r r i v e at
a n y a d d r e s s , h o w s im p le h i g h w a y d e s i g n w o u l d be!
C i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m s m u s t b e c o n s i d e r e d n o t o n l y for th e
w a y in w h i c h t h e y h a n d l e t h e i r a s s i g n e d flow s b u t for t h e i r
in f lu e n c e o n s u r r o u n d i n g a c tiv itie s . T h i s m a y b e n e g lig ib le
for s o m e u n d e r g r o u n d u tilitie s , b u t u s u a l l y it is a s ig n if ic a n t
c o n c e r n , a n d at t im e s a d o m i n a n t o n e , as in d e s i g n i n g re si-
d e n t i a l s tr e e ts . T h e r e i n lies a p e r s i s t e n t , if o f te n n e g le c te d ,
c onflict. S k ille d d e s i g n c a n s o m e t i m e s t u r n t h i s a n t a g o n i s m
i n to m u t u a l s u p p o r t .
D e s p i t e th e v a r i e t y o f t y p e a n d c o n s t a n t i n n o v a t i o n , Consistent
physical circulation has certain c o n siste n t general ch arac- characteristics
te ris tic s . W h e n t h e q u a n t i t y o f flow is m o r e t h a n in s ig n if i- o f flozo systems
c a n t, it m u s t b e o r g a n i z e d in d e f in e d c h a n n e l s w i t h t e r m i -
n a ls a n d i n t e r c h a n g e s . T h e s e c h a n n e l s a r e t h e n o r g a n i z e d
in to n e t w o r k s , w h i c h d i s t r i b u t e th e flow s o v e r la r g e a r e a s .
T h i s is t r u e n o t o n l y o f r o a d s o r p ip e s b u t o f f o o t w a y s , w ir e s ,
a n d a ir la n e s as w ell. T h e g r e a t e r th e flow , th e g r e a t e r th e
n e c e s s a r y d e f in itio n , c o n t r o l , a n d s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f th e c h a n -
ne l, w i t h m o r e e l a b o r a t e t e r m i n a l s a n d i n t e r c h a n g e s , a n d
w i t h th e r o u t e f r o m o r i g i n to d e s t i n a t i o n b e c o m i n g m o r e in d i-
rect, t h o u g h n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m o r e in e ffic ie n t. T h e n e t w o r k is
m o r e c le a r ly s e p a r a t e d f r o m th e r e g i o n s e r v e d a n d m o r e dif-
ficult to live w i t h . S u p e r h i g h w a y s a re a n e x a m p le . Rail
t r a n s i t m o v e s o n s p e c ia l s t r u c t u r e s , c a r r y i n g la r g e n u m b e r s
a n d m a k i n g i n f r e q u e n t s to p s . It c o r r e s p o n d s to h e a v y , c o n -
c e n t r a t e d d e m a n d s . S in c e o n e k i n d o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n c a n
s u b s t i t u t e for a n o t h e r , a c i r c u l a t i o n p l a n s e e k s a n o p t i m u m
p r e s e n t b a l a n c e , w i t h o u t b l i n d r e lia n c e o n a s in g le m o d e .
D e s i g n o f a p a t h s y s t e m r e q u i r e s a d e c is io n as to th e d e s i r -
a b le a l l o c a t i o n o f t r i p s to c a rs, b u s e s , tr a i n s , a n d b ic y c le s. It is
u n w i s e to d e p e n d s o le ly o n t h e car, b e c a u s e o f t h e d i v e r s i t y
o f p r e s e n t n e e d a n d t h e u n p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f t h e f u tu r e .
T h e s e n e t w o r k s o f c h a n n e l s m a y t a k e o n e o f se v e ra l Grid patterns
g e n e r a l fo r m s . V e r y o f te n t h e y o c c u r as a u n i f o r m , r e c t a n g u -
lar o r t r i a n g u l a r g rid . T h e s e l d o m e n c o u n t e r e d t r i a n g u l a r
g r id p r o d u c e s m o r e d iffic u lt i n t e r s e c t i o n s b u t a llo w s s t r a i g h t
tra v e l in t h r e e i n s t e a d o f t w o d i r e c t i o n s a n d so c o m e s c lo s e r to
122 p r o v i d i n g u n i f o r m access. A h e x a g o n a l o r t r i a n g u l a r g r id
m a y be u se d for a s t r e e t s y s t e m b u t at a s m a ll sc a le t e n d s to
p r o d u c e a w k w a r d s ite s for d e v e l o p m e n t .
G r i d s in g e n e r a l a r e u s e f u l w h e r e flow s a r e s h i f t i n g
a n d b r o a d l y d i s t r i b u t e d . A l t h o u g h g e n e r a l i z e d , t h e y are
c le a r a n d e a s y to fo llo w . T h e y a r e w ell s u i t e d to n e t w o r k s
s e r v i n g c o m p l e x a r e a s a t la r g e scales. T h e r e c t a n g u l a r g r id
is still th e s y s t e m m o r e c o m m o n l y u s e d for p a t t e r n s o f
s tr e e ts . F or s u c h use, it h a s b e e n c r itic iz e d for its v is u a l
m o n o t o n y , for its d i s r e g a r d o f t o p o g r a p h y , for its v u l n e r a b i l -
ity to t h r o u g h traffic, a n d for its la c k o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n be-
t w e e n h e a v ily tr a v e le d a n d li g h t l y tr a v e le d w a y s , w h i c h
p r e v e n t s s p e c ia liz e d d e s i g n a n d t h e e c o n o m i c a l u se o f s p a c e
a n d p a v in g .
T h e s e c r i t i c i s m s a r e n o t i n h e r e n t in th e p a t t e r n itself.
H e a v y o r t h r o u g h traffic c a n be d i r e c t e d o n t o p a r t i c u l a r lin e s
o f t h e g r id , a n d m o n o t o n y c a n be a v o i d e d b y t h e v a r i a t i o n o f
t h e b u i l d i n g a n d l a n d s c a p e p a t t e r n . T h e g r id c a n be c u r v e d
to fit t o p o g r a p h y o r to d i s c o u r a g e t h r o u g h m o v e m e n t . T h e es-
m s e n c e o f a g r id s y s t e m is its r e g u l a r i t y o f i n t e r c o n n e c t i o n . It
n e e d n o t b e c o m p o s e d o f g e o m e t r i c a l l y s t r a i g h t lin e s, n o r
m u s t it e n c lo s e b lo c k s o f e q u a l siz e a n d s h a p e .
T h e g r id m a y b e m o d if ie d b y c o n t r o l l i n g t h e traffic flow
t h r o u g h it. F or e x a m p le , all flo w s m a y be m a d e o n e - w a y , al-
t e r n a t i n g in d i r e c t i o n b e t w e e n o n e lin e a n d t h e n e x t p a r a l -
lei o n e . C a p a c i t i e s w ill in c r e a s e , a n d i n t e r s e c t i o n s w ill be
s im p lifie d , w i t h m o s t o f t h e c o n f lic tin g m a n e u v e r s e lim i-
n a t e d . B u t tra v e l r e q u i r e s m o r e f o r e t h o u g h t a n d a l e n g t h i e r
j o u r n e y . A n e x t r e m e e x a m p l e o f t h is t y p e is t h e s o - c a lle d
, 7s t e a d y - f l o w s y s t e m , " in w h i c h m o v e m e n t is d ir e c te d c lo c k -
w is e a n d c o u n t e r c l o c k w i s e a r o u n d a d j a c e n t b lo c k s , so t h a t
flow in a n y o n e c h a n n e l is o n e - w a y b u t r e v e r s e s its d i r e c t i o n
b e t w e e n e a c h i n t e r s e c t i o n . T h e r e a re n o d ir e c t c r o s s in g s ,
o n l y w e a v i n g m o v e m e n t s , as in a r o t a r y . T h e s y s t e m m a y
w o r k for s m a ll- s c a le ac c e ss n e t w o r k s w h e r e flo w s a r e h e a v y ,
b u t it m a k e s a n y c o n t i n u o u s t r i p e x c e e d i n g l y in d ir e c t.
B lo c k e d g r id s a r e a f u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t . In o r d e r to d ir e c t
t h r o u g h traffic a n d to a l l o w t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f p a t h s , o c c a -
s io n a l i n t e r r u p t i o n s a re m a d e in t h e g r id , w h ile l e a v in g t h e
w h o l e p a t t e r n i n ta c t. T h i s s y s t e m w ill o f t e n t a k e a s w a s t i k a
form .
N o n e o f th e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s a r e n e e d e d w h e r e th e m o v -
in g u n i t s a r e n o t s e lf - d ir e c te d , o f c o u rs e . A g r i d o f w a t e r o r
e le c tric p o w e r lin e s is a v e r y s i m p l e a n d e ffe c tiv e s o lu tio n .
T h e g rid p a t t e r n h a s d e f in ite a d v a n t a g e s o f s im p lic ity , c o n -
v e n i e n t access, g o o d o r i e n t a t i o n , a n d s u i t a b i l i t y for c o m p le x 123
d i s t r i b u t e d flow. O n level o r m o d e r a t e l y r o llin g la n d it m a y
be a v e r y g o o d s o l u t i o n . Its f a m ilia r fa u lts a r e p r i m a r i l y d u e
to p o o r a p p l i c a t i o n .
A n o t h e r g e n e r a l f o r m is th e r a d ia l s y s te m , in w h i c h Radial patterns
c h a n n e l s s p r e a d o u t fro m a c e n te r . T h i s s y s t e m is a p p r o p r i -
a te w h e r e flow s h a v e a c o m m o n o r ig in , i n t e r c h a n g e , o r d e s ti-
n a t i o n , s u c h as s in g le w a t e r s o u r c e o r s e w a g e d i s p o s a l p o i n t ,
a c en tral te lep h o n e ex change, a c o m m o n w o rk p la c e to w a rd
w h i c h c o m m u t e r s are d e s t i n e d , o r e v e n a s y m b o lic c e n t e r
s u c h as a r o y a l p a la c e . T h e r a d ia l s y s t e m g iv e s t h e m o s t d i-
re c t lin e o f tr a v e l for s u c h c e n t r a l l y d ir e c te d flow s, a l t h o u g h
at h ig h levels o f traffic th e c e n t r a l t e r m i n u s b e c o m e s diffi-
c u lt to h a n d le . It is a r e la tiv e ly r ig id s y s t e m in c o m p a r i s o n
w i t h t h e g r id a n d d o e s n o t r e s p o n d e a s ily to s h if ts in t h e
c e n tr a l a c tiv ity , n o r d o e s it w o r k w e ll if s o m e flo w s h a v e n e i-
th e r o r ig in n o r d e s t i n a t i o n in th e c e n te r . R in g s m a y be
a d d e d to th e s y s t e m to m a k e a r a d i o c o n c e n t r i c n e t, w h i c h
still fa v o rs c e n t r a l flow b u t a llo w s b y p a s s i n g m o v e m e n t s as
well. T h i s s y s t e m m a y w o r k w ell w h e r e t h e c e n t r a l flo w is
still p r e d o m i n a n t . In its o u t e r r e a c h e s a n d a t a la r g e s c a le
th is n e t a c ts like a r e c t a n g u l a r g rid . A r a d ia l s y s t e m o f local
s tr e e ts w a s o n c e h i g h l y r e g a r d e d , b u t it is n o w r a r e l y u s e d
s in c e it c a u s e s p r o b l e m s in local flow a n d c r e a te s d iffic u lt
b u i l d i n g sites.
A f u r t h e r m o d i f i c a t i o n of th e r a d ia l s y s t e m is to a llo w
b r a n c h i n g s at o t h e r p o i n t s t h a n t h e c e n t e r itself. T h i s is t h e
cla ssic p a t t e r n , in n a t u r e as w ell as in d e s ig n , o f c e n t r a l d is -
t r i b u t i o n o r c o lle c tio n . It is c o m m o n l y s e e n in w a t e r , p o w e r ,
a n d s e w a g e s y s te m s . It a llo w s t h e m o s t d ir e c t lin e o f tr a v e l,
f a v o rs th e s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f m a j o r v e r s u s m i n o r a r te r ie s , a n d
m a k e s th e i n t e r s e c t i o n p r o b l e m m a n a g e a b l e b y d i s t r i b u t i n g
in t e r s e c t i o n s i n s t e a d o f c o n c e n t r a t i n g t h e m a t t h e c e n te r .
O t h e r w i s e , th e b r a n c h i n g s y s t e m h a s t h e g e n e r a l diffic u l-
ties of t h e r a d ia l ty p e , b e i n g e s p e c ia lly f r u s t r a t i n g to n o n -
c e n tr a l flow. T h u s th e u s e of d e a d - e n d s t r e e t s in r e s i d e n t i a l
l a y o u t s p e r m i t s l i g h tly b u ilt, safe, m i n o r s t r e e t s b u t c re a te s
d iffic u ltie s for e m e r g e n c y o r d e liv e r y v e h ic le s. A n y b r a n c h -
in g s y s t e m is a lso v e r y s e n s itiv e to i n t e r r u p t i o n s a t s in g le
p o i n t s o n th e m a i n lin e s, w h e t h e r it is a b r o k e n w a t e r m a i n
o r a n a r te r ia l o c c lu s io n in t h e h u m a n b o d y .
T h e r e is a t h i r d g e n e r a l c i r c u l a t o r y p a t t e r n : t h e lin e a r
s y s te m . It m a y c o n s is t o f a s in g le lin e o r a p a r a lle l s e rie s, to Linear patterns
w h i c h all o r ig in s a n d d e s t i n a t i o n s a re d i r e c t l y a t t a c h e d .
T h i s is p a r t i c u l a r l y u se fu l w h e r e m a j o r flo w s r u n b e t w e e n
124 tw o p o i n t s r a t h e r t h a n to o r fr o m a s in g le p o i n t . In a d d i t i o n ,
sin c e all a c tiv itie s a r e g r o u p e d a l o n g t h e line, all s u b s i d i a r y
flow s a lso h a v e d ir e c t lin e s o f tr a v e l. It is a n e c o n o m i c a l f o r m
w h e n t h e first c o s t o f t h e c h a n n e l is h i g h b u t t e r m i n a l c o s t is
lo w a n d w h e n t h e r e is little s a v i n g to be g a i n e d b y b u i l d i n g
b r a n c h e s for lo w e r c a p a c itie s . S in c e t h e r e a r e n o i n t e r s e c ‫־‬
tio n s , f r o n t a g e a l o n g t h e c h a n n e l is u s e d to its m a x i m u m .
T h u s th e li n e a r s y s t e m is t y p i c a l l y s e e n in d e v e l o p m e n t s
a l o n g f r e ig h t r a i l r o a d s , c a n a ls , o r t r o lle y c a r lin e s, in p io n e e r
a g r i c u l t u r a l a r e a s w h e r e r o a d c o st is r e l a t i v e l y h i g h , a n d in
s t r i p d e v e l o p m e n t a l o n g h i g h w a y s . Its d i s a d v a n t a g e s a re its
la c k o f fo cu s a n d t h e o v e r l o a d i n g o f t h e c h a n n e l t h a t m a y
e a s ily o c c u r b e c a u s e o f th e i n n u m e r a b l e o n ‫־‬a n d ‫ ־‬o ff m o v e ‫־‬
m e n t s a l o n g its l e n g th .
A t th e s i t e - p l a n n i n g s c a le t h e s y s t e m m a y a p p e a r as a
lin e a r s e t t l e m e n t o r " r o a d t o w n , " o r it m a y b e u s e d in c o n f o r ‫־‬
m i t y w i t h t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f s o m e l i n e a r site a l o n g a t o p o ‫־‬
g r a p h i c ed g e. T h e lin e a r p a t t e r n m a y be m o d if ie d b y d i-
r e c t i n g it i n to s p e c ia liz e d c h a n n e l s , w i t h s o m e t h a t t a k e
t h r o u g h m o v e m e n t s a n d o t h e r s t h a t t a k e th e lo c a l flow s: a
s p i n a l m a i n s t r e e t b o r d e r e d o r i n t e r s e c t e d b y m i n o r w a y s.
A n o t h e r s y s t e m c o n n e c t s m i n o r lo o p s o n a l t e r n a t e s id e s o f a
m ajo r w ay, p ro v id in g tw o c o n tin u o u s p a th s, on e m a jo r a n d
d ir e c t, t h e o t h e r local a n d s i n u o u s .
C l o s i n g t h e lin e u p o n its e lf to f o r m a lo o p i m p r o v e s th e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f flo w b y g i v i n g t w o c h o ic e s o f d i r e c t i o n to
e a c h d e s t i n a t i o n . W i t h o n e o r t w o i n le ts a d d e d , t h i s b e c o m e s
a lo o p d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m , w h i c h is g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r a b l e to
t h e b r a n c h i n g r a d ia l s y s t e m for t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f elec-
tr ic ity or w a te r . S im ila r ly , a m i n o r r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t t h a t
c o m e s o ff th e m a i n a r t e r y as a lo o p r a t h e r t h a n a d e a d e n d
is th e m o r e effic ie n t u n l e s s t h e c u l- d e - s a c is v e r y s h o r t. H e r e
th e lo o p a llo w s a l t e r n a t e e x its as w e ll as c o n t i n u o u s p r o -
g r e s s iv e m o v e m e n t for se rv ic e c i r c u la tio n .
S o m e t i m e s a d e l i b e r a t e d i s o r d e r o f local s t r e e t s m a y be
Disorder c r e a te d to d is c o u r a g e t h r o u g h m o v e m e n t , to a d j u s t to in t r i -
c a te t o p o g r a p h y , o r to c r e a te i n t e r e s t in th e s tr e e t p ic tu r e .
T h i s d i s o r d e r n e e d n o t c a u s e w a s t e o f l a n d o r e x c e ssiv e
s tr e e t f r o n ta g e . It c a n b e ju s tifie d o n d iffic u lt t e r r a i n , w h e r e
th e g r o u n d f o r m , r a t h e r t h a n t h e s tr e e ts , w ill g iv e a s e n s e o f
p a t t e r n . It c a n a lso be u s e d in s m a ll a r e a s , e n c lo s e d w i t h i n a
m o r e r a t i o n a l la y o u t, to g iv e a s e n s e o f in t i m a c y , m y s t e r y , o r
sp e c ia l c h a r a c t e r . B ut if c o n t i n u e d o v e r a r e a s o f a n y size,
such a sch em e becom es c o n fu sin g and ex asp eratin g .
G e n e r a l c i r c u l a t i o n f o r m s a r e w o r t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g as
 ^ tfrrrf^ r^ p •pTffTTit%fTTTTfttf

altern ativ es. T h e y need n o t be g e o m e tric a lly p u re a n d are of

c o u r s e m o d if ie d b y t h e e x t e r n a l in f lu e n c e s o f l a n d u s e o r to -
p o g r a p h y . W h a t e v e r s y s t e m is c h o s e n m u s t fit i n t o t h e g e n -
e r a l p a t t e r n o f t h e r e g i o n o f w h i c h t h e d e v e l o p m e n t is a p a r t .
D e f in e d c h a n n e l s u s u a l l y h a v e a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n d
fa ir ly c o n s i s t e n t c ro s s s e c tio n lo c a te d a l o n g a c o n t i n u o u s c e n -
te r line. T h i s c e n t e r lin e m u s t h a v e a d e f in ite l o c a t i o n in A lign m en t
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l sp a c e , a n a l i g n m e n t , w h i c h is u s u a l l y
a n a l y z e d fo r d e s i g n c o n v e n i e n c e i n t o a h o r i z o n t a l a n d a v e r -
tic a l c o m p o n e n t . E a c h t y p e o f c h a n n e l h a s its o w n r e q u i r e -
m e n t s fo r t h e s e t w o a l i g n m e n t s , d e p e n d i n g o n t h e e x p e c te d
s p e e d , v o l u m e , a n d n a t u r e o f flow . S t a n d a r d s t e n d to s h if t
f r o m ti m e to ti m e a n d f r o m p la c e to p la c e , as t e c h n o l o g y , cli-
m a te , o r c u l t u r e c h a n g e s . T h e size a n d r i g i d i t y o f t h e s e
a l i g n m e n t s t a n d a r d s a r e in c o n flic t w i t h t h e f lu id ity a n d ir-
r e g u l a r i t y o f t h e la n d s c a p e . T h u s it r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e
skill to m a k e a m a j o r r o a d s e e m to ‫ ״‬f lo w ‫ ״‬w i t h t h e l a n d , to
a r r a n g e a h a r m o n i o u s j o i n t b e t w e e n a tr e e a n d a t e l e p h o n e
w ire , o r to g r a d e t h e l a n d s m o o t h l y b e t w e e n a d r i v e w a y a n d
a s l o p i n g g a r d e n . W h i l e a l i g n m e n t s a r e d e t a i l e d a n d fo r-
m a liz e d o n l y t o w a r d th e e n d o f t h e p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s , t h e d e -
s ig n e r is t h i n k i n g in t e r m s o f t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s as he
s k e tc h e s t h e c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m in h is p r e l i m i n a r y la y o u t .
A r e c u r r i n g is s u e in t h e d e s i g n o f c ir c u l a t i o n s y s t e m s
is t h a t o f g r a i n : th e d e g r e e o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f flow a n d t h e
fin e n e s s w i t h w h i c h th e s e s p e c ia liz e d ty p e s a r e m ix e d .
G r e a t e r flow s c a n b e a c c o m m o d a t e d w i t h s a f e ty if p e d e s -
t r i a n s a n d c a rs tr a v e l o n t h e i r o w n s y s te m s . E fficien cy w ill
a lso i n c r e a s e w h e n o n e s o r t s o u t t r u c k s , b ic y c le s, c h i l d r e n ,
idle s tr o lle r s , a n d so o n . It is s i m i l a r l y a d v a n t a g e o u s to p u t
fa st l o n g - d i s t a n c e tra ffic in sp e c ia l c h a n n e l s o f its o w n , s e p -
a r a t e f r o m s lo w local flow . T h e a d v a n t a g e lies b o t h in t h e ef-
fic ie n c y o f h o m o g e n e o u s flo w a n d in t h e s a v i n g s t h a t c a n b e
r e a liz e d in b e i n g a b le to b u ild c h a n n e l s d e s i g n e d for a m o r e
r e s t r i c t e d p u r p o s e , s u c h as a l l o w i n g lig h t p a v e m e n t s o n
m i n o r str e e ts .
O n th e o t h e r h a n d , e a c h g a i n in s p e c i a l i z a t i o n is a loss
in f le x ib ility ; it b e c o m e s m o r e d iffic u lt to c h a n g e f r o m o n e
m o d e o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n to a n o t h e r , a n d p a t h s a r e m o r e in d i-
rect. T h e s y s t e m is lik e ly to b e m o r e c o m p l e x a n d m o r e diffi-
c u lt to c h a n g e as n e e d a rise s. If, for e x a m p le , t r u c k s , c a rs,
a n d p e d e s t r i a n s a r e all c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e d in a r e s i d e n -
tial a r e a , t h e n t r i p s w ill b e lo n g e r , th e s y s t e m w ill i n c lu d e
f r e q u e n t g r a d e s e p a r a t i o n s , a n d e a c h d w e l l i n g w ill r e q u i r e
three entrances. O u r expensive s u p e rh ig h w a y system s,
 126

Fairchild A erial Surveys

Figure 14 ,41>
view o f Baldwin
Hills, Los Ange-
les, classic exam-
pie o f the super-
block. Designed
by Henry Wright
and Clarence
Stein , the inte-
rior is devoted to
a common park.
Note the varia-
tion in pattern o f
the surrounding
residential devel-
opment.
d e m a n d i n g t h e i r o w n sp e c ia l r i g h t s - o f - w a y a n d r e q u i r i n g 127
m a s s iv e e n g i n e e r i n g s t r u c t u r e s , h a v e m a r k e d l y i n c r e a s e d
c a p a c i t y a n d s p e e d for a p a r t i c u l a r ty p e o f flow. S h o u l d th is
ty p e o f c i r c u l a t i o n lo se its d o m i n a n t i m p o r t a n c e , th is s p e c ia l-
ized s y s t e m m a y b e c o m e a s e r io u s o b s t a c l e to a r e a d a p t a t i o n
o f th e e n v i r o n m e n t . A s a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , a
o n e - w a y traffic s y s t e m s p e e d s flo w b u t m a k e s it m o r e diffi-
c u lt to r e a c h a g iv e n d e s t i n a t i o n .
L a rg e s u p e r b l o c k s , w h i c h in c r e a s e t h e g r a i n b e t w e e n Superblocks
the c ircu lato ry and n o n c irc u la to ry zones, im p ro v e th e a m e n -
ity o f th e l iv in g a r e a s a t t h e p r ic e o f f r u s t r a t i n g t h r o u g h
traffic. T h e s u p e r b l o c k is a la r g e p ie c e o f d e v e l o p a b l e la n d
s u r r o u n d e d b y a c o n t i n u o u s s tre e t. A s a r e s u l t o f its size, t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g s t r e e t s y s t e m is m o r e i n d ir e c t. T h e b lo c k is
o f t e n c u r v e d to fit t h e t o p o g r a p h y . T h e size o f th e b lo c k m a y
b e f u r t h e r in c r e a s e d b y th e u s e o f c u l s ‫ ־‬d e ‫־‬sac o r m i n o r lo o p s ,
w h i c h p e n e t r a t e i n w a r d w i t h o u t d i v i d i n g t h e b lo c k . S u p e r -
b lo c k s as la rg e as 50 a c r e s w i t h i n th e b o u n d i n g r i g h t s -
o f ‫ ־‬w a y a r e n o t im p o s s ib le . By e l i m i n a t i n g s t r e e t i n t e r s e c ‫־‬
tio n s , th is t e c h n i q u e m i n i m i z e s e x p e n s i v e s t r e e t f r o n t a g e
p e r u n it. It t e n d s to c o n c e n t r a t e t h r o u g h traffic, k e e p i n g
lo a d s li g h t o n th e m i n o r s tr e e ts . L a r g e a n d r e l a t i v e l y in e x -
p e n s i v e i n t e r i o r p a r k s c a n b e p r o v i d e d . If i n t e r i o r f o o t w a y s
a r e in c l u d e d , p e d e s t r i a n s c a n c o v e r s u b s t a n t i a l d i s t a n c e s
w i t h o u t c r o s s i n g a s tr e e t.
O r i g i n a l l y it w a s t h o u g h t t h a t p e d e s t r i a n a n d m o t o r
a c c e ss c o u ld b e c o m p l e t e l y s e p a r a t e d w i t h i n t h e s e b lo c k s ,
b u t e x p e r i e n c e h a s s h o w n t h a t th e lo o p o r c u l - d e - s a c s tr e e t,
t h e p o i n t o f m o t o r a c c e ss, is a lso u s e d as t h e p r i n c i p a l foot
e n t r a n c e to t h e u n i t s a b o u t it. It a t t r a c t s m o s t o f t h e p e d e s -
t r i a n flow , m u c h o f t h e c l o s e - t o - h o m e p l a y a c t i v i t y o f th e
c h i l d r e n , a n d b e c o m e s th e so cial focus. T h e r e f o r e it is i m p o r -
t a n t to p r o v i d e a l in k b e t w e e n it a n d t h e m a i n w a l k w a y
s y s t e m w i t h i n t h e s u p e r b l o c k , w h ile b r a n c h w a lk s , g iv i n g
a ccess to t h e r e a r o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l u n i t s , c a n o f te n b e d is-
p e n s e d w ith .
A t t h e n o r m a l r e s i d e n t i a l s c a le a t le a st, c o m p l e t e d is s o -
c i a tio n o f foot a n d v e h i c u l a r tr a v e l n o w s e e m s n e i t h e r n e c e s -
s a r y n o r d e s ir a b le , e x c e p t for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s e p a r a t i o n o f
s tr e e t a n d b o r d e r i n g s id e w a lk s . B u t m a j o r w a l k w a y s t h a t
c u t a c r o s s lo n g b lo c k s o r p a s s t h r o u g h t h e i r l a n d s c a p e d i n te -
rio r s at s o m e d i s t a n c e fr o m th e s tr e e ts a n d c a r r y a s u b s t a n -
tial n u m b e r o f p e d e s t r i a n s a re v e r y d e s i r a b l e a s a d d i t i o n s to
th e n o r m a l c h a n n e l s . O f c o u r s e , th e s e s e p a r a t e w a l k w a y s
m u s t b e a d e q u a t e l y m a i n t a i n e d , p o lic e d , a n d lig h te d . E ven
 128 t h e s i d e w a l k s a l o n g t h e s t r e e t s n e e d n o t f o llo w th e r o a d
a l i g n m e n t s l a v i s h l y b u t c a n m e r g e a n d d i v e r g e in r e s p o n s e
to m i n o r a c c i d e n t s o f t e r r a i n , in c o n s o n a n c e w i t h t h e n a t u r e
o f p e d e s t r i a n m o v e m e n t . S i d e w a l k s , as w ell as b e i n g fo o t-
p a t h s , a r e p la c e s for m e e t i n g a n d p l a y a n d a re a n e s s e n tia l
e le m e n t.
S u p e rb lo c k s im p o se a m o re a n d m o re circuitous p a th on
local v e h i c u l a r tra ffic as t h e i r size in c r e a s e s . M o r e o v e r , if n o
i n t e r n a l w a l k s a r e p r o v i d e d , m o v e m e n t o n fo o t b e c o m e s v e r y
diffic u lt. F or t h i s r e a s o n t h e r e a r e c e r t a i n c o m m o n l y ac-
c e p te d m a x i m u m s for t h e l e n g t h s o f b lo c k s , c u ls - d e - s a c , a n d
See p a g e 143 lo o p s tr e e t s , w h i c h a r e q u o t e d in C h a p t e r 7. S o m e o f t h e d is-
a d v a n t a g e s o f l o n g c u l s ‫ ־‬d e ‫ ־‬sa c m a y b e m i t i g a t e d b y i n t e r -
co n n e c tin g th eir en d s b y fo o tp ath s, w ate rlin e easem ents, or
e m e r g e n c y s e rv ic e r o a d s , in o t h e r w o r d s , b y c o n v e r t i n g
t h e m i n t o l o o p s fo r s p e c ia l p u r p o s e s . T o f a c ilita te c i r c u l a t i o n
a n d so c ia l i n t e r c o u r s e , t h e r e a r e d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e s in
k e e p i n g b lo c k l e n g t h s s h o r t , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e r e flo w s a r e
less i n t e n s i v e a n d d is r u p t i v e .
Hierarchies o f T h u s t h e r e a r e a l w a y s p r e s s u r e s b o t h to i n c r e a s e a n d to
channels d e c r e a s e th e g r a i n o f c i r c u l a t i o n , a n d t h e p r o p e r b a l a n c e d e -
p e n d s o n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . M o s t lik e ly , t h e b e s t s o lu -
ti o n w ill p r o v i d e h i g h s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o f tra ffic a t c e n t e r s
w h e r e flo w is i n t e n s e , g r a d i n g to lo w s p e c i a l i z a t i o n w h e r e
flo w is s m a ll, for e x a m p l e , b y u s i n g f r e e w a y s a t o n e e n d o f
th e s y s t e m a n d w a l k i n g - d r i v i n g - p a r k i n g - p l a y a r e a s a t t h e
o t h e r . In a t o ta l s y s t e m s o m e h i e r a r c h y o f c h a n n e l s is lik e ly
to be n e e d e d . T h e c o n v e n t i o n a l h i e r a r c h y o f u r b a n s t r e e t s
b e g i n s w i t h t h e lo o p , c u l- d e - s a c , o r m i n o r s t r e e t s t h a t g iv e
a ccess to t h e l o w - i n t e n s i t y u s e s f r o n t i n g o n t h e m . T h e m i n o r
s tr e e ts lead to t h e c o lle c to r s tr e e t, o n w h i c h f r o n t lo c a l c e n -
te rs, s p e c ia l s m a l l - s c a l e a c tiv itie s , a n d m o d e r a t e - d e n s i t y
h o u s i n g . T h e c o lle c to r e m p t i e s i n t o t h e m a j o r a r t e r i a l , b u ilt
for h e a v y flow s, w i t h i n t e r s e c t i o n s at l o n g e r i n t e r v a l s , i n t e n -
sive f r o n t i n g u s e s , a n d a c c e s s c o n t r o l l e d b u t n o t e x c lu d e d .
A n y m o d e r a t e - i n t e n s i t y u s e o n a n a r t e r i a l w ill f r o n t o n t o a n
V i n t e r v e n i n g s e rv ic e r o a d . F r o m t h e a r t e r i a l o n e e n t e r s t h e
freew ay, w ith w id ely sp aced g ra d e -s e p a ra te d in te rse c tio n s
a n d n o f r o n t i n g access.
Interchange T he p ro b lem of in te rc h a n g e s an d te rm in als a p p ears
w h e n t h e e l e m e n t s o f flo w a r e i n d i v i d u a l l y o r i e n t e d , t h a t is,
w h e n a g iv e n c a r o r t e l e p h o n e m e s s a g e m u s t r e a c h a p a r t i c -
u la r d e s t i n a t i o n . It b e c o m e s a c u te w h e r e flow s a re i n te n s e ,
c h a n n e l s a r e s p e c ia liz e d , a n d t r i p s a re m u l t i m o d a l . H e r e t h e
sto p p in g a n d sh iftin g th a t occurs th r o u g h o u t a n o n sp e c ia l-
ized lin e is c o n c e n t r a t e d a t t h e p o i n t o f i n t e r c h a n g e . T h e d e - 129
la y s a n d c o n flic ts at th e s e p o i n t s t e n d to b e c o m e t h e c h ie f
lo sse s in th e s y s t e m , as e v i d e n c e d b y t h e n o t o r i o u s t e r m i n a l
tim e o f th e a ir lin e s . T h e g r o w t h o f t h e s e d iffic u ltie s m a y call
a h a l t to f u r t h e r s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , o r fo rc e th e d i s t r i b u t i o n a n d
r e d u c t i o n o f t e r m in i.
A t y p i c a l c o n t e m p o r a r y p u z z l e of t h i s k i n d is h o w b e s t
to e n t e r a b u i l d i n g w h e n a r r i v i n g b y car. T h e r e a re f u n c -
t i o n a l p r o b l e m s o f d e c e l e r a t i o n a n d o f e n t r y a n d s t o r a g e ca-
p a c ity . T h e r e a r e e s t h e t i c p r o b l e m s o f a c h a n g e o f s c a le a n d
a d a n g e r o f i s o l a t i n g t h e e n t r a n c e b e h i n d a f o r e c o u r t of
p a r k e d ca rs. T h e r e m u s t b e c le a r o r i e n t a t i o n a n d a v is u a l
t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n v e lo c i t y a n d r e p o s e . It m a y be d e s i r a b l e
for t h e c a r to p a s s c lo se to t h e e n t r a n c e b e f o r e p a r k i n g , a f te r
w h i c h its p a s s e n g e r s a p p r o a c h t h e s a m e e n t r a n c e a s e c o n d
tim e o n foot. P a r k i n g m a y b e d i s p e r s e d , p la c e d in s e p a r a t e
levels, o r t h r e a d e d w i t h lin e s o f a c t i v i t y o r l a n d s c a p i n g t h a t
a ff o r d a n i n v i t i n g p e d e s t r i a n a c cess.
T h e m a x i m u m c a p a c i t y o f a c h a n n e l , in v e h ic le s , p e r - Capacity o f
s o n s , m e s s a g e s , o r v o l u m e o f m a t e r i a l p e r h o u r , is a m e a s u r e channels
o f its a b i l i t y to p e r f o r m its f u n c t i o n . E s t i m a t i o n s o f c a p a c i t y
r e q u i r e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f flo w b e t w e e n t h e
v a r i o u s m o d e s o f m o v e m e n t . E v e n t u a l l y w e s h a ll be a b le to
an aly ze sim u lta n e o u sly th e cap a c ity of a to tal sy ste m of
r o a d s , as w e n o w c a n d o fo r a w a t e r s u p p l y n e t w o r k o r a n elec-
tr ic a l p o w e r s y s t e m . For t h e t i m e b e i n g , h o w e v e r , w e c a l c u l a t e
th e c a p a c itie s o f e l e m e n t s o f a s y s t e m a n d a s s i g n p r o b a b l e
lo a d s to t h o s e e l e m e n t s b y s e q u e n t i a l l y a p p l y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s
a b o u t d r i v e r b e h a v i o r . I n t h e r o a d s y s t e m it is u s u a l l y t h e Reference 38
i n t e r s e c t i o n s a n d i n t a k e s t h a t a r e th e b o t t l e n e c k s , a n d t h e i r
c a p a c i t y is t h e l i m i t i n g f a c to r. R o a d s y s t e m s a ls o p r o d u c e
s e r io u s p r o b l e m s o f t e r m i n a l s t o r a g e o r p a r k i n g , sin c e if t h e
a u t o m o b i l e is p r e d o m i n a n t t h e c a r r i e r s a re l a r g e in c o m p a r i -
s o n w i t h t h e o b je c t c a r r ie d , a n d t h e y a r e i n d i v i d u a l l y o p e r -
a te d a n d id le m u c h o f t h e tim e . P a r k i n g o c c a s i o n a l l y b e -
c o m e s a p r o b l e m i n s o l u b l e b y s i t e - p l a n n i n g m e a n s a lo n e .
T h e c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m is t h e m o s t e x p e n s i v e f e a t u r e o f Cost o f
site d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d its l a y o u t h a s s ig n if ic a n t c o s t i m p li- circulation
c a tio n s . R a t i o n a l l y , f u t u r e o p e r a t i n g c o s ts w o u l d b e c o n s i d - system
e r e d t o g e t h e r w i t h first c o st, b u t t h i s is r a r e l y d o n e a t t h e
s i t e - p l a n n i n g scale. A fe w g e n e r a l r u le s m a y b e s t a t e d for
r e d u c i n g in itia l co st, a t least. T h e first is s i m p l y to m i n i -
m iz e t h e l e n g t h o f c h a n n e l p e r d w e l l i n g o r o t h e r u n i t o f ac-
tiv ity . T h is im p lie s a m i n i m a l n u m b e r o f in t e r s e c t i o n s , e a c h
o f w h i c h e n t a i l s s p e c ia l c o s ts a n d r e q u i r e s l e n g t h t h a t c a n -
130 n o t be d e v e lo p e d as f r o n t a g e . It a ls o im p lie s c o n t i n u o u s d e -
v e l o p m e n t o n b o t h sid e s o f t h e lin e , w i t h m i n i m u m f r o n t a g e
p e r u n it. A h e a v i l y d e v e lo p e d , e n d le s s , s in g le lin e is th e
c h e a p e s t l a y o u t f r o m th is p o i n t o f v ie w , a n d i n c r e a s i n g t h e
size o f b lo c k s a p p r o x i m a t e s it. A n e x c e p t i o n to t h is r u l e oc-
c u r s w h e n r o a d s o n v e r y s te e p l a n d r u n p a r a l l e l to t h e c o n -
t o u r s ; in th is c a se , it m a y b e so d iffic u lt to c o n n e c t d e v e lo p -
m e n t o n t h e lo w e r s id e w i t h t h e r o a d a n d its u tilitie s t h a t it
is c h e a p e r to d e v e l o p o n l y o n e s id e o f t h e p a t h . S e c o n d , it is
u s u a l l y c h e a p e r to s p e c ia liz e s h o r t o f t h e p o i n t w h e r e e la b o -
rate in te rc h a n g e s are needed. T h u s a p la n w ith arteries
a n d m i n o r s t r e e t s w ill b e less e x p e n s i v e t h a n a n u n d if f e r -
e n t i a t e d g rid . T h i r d , it is u s u a l l y c h e a p e r to l a y o u t c h a n -
n e ls so t h a t t h e y h a v e g e n t l e g r a d i e n t s a n d n o m o r e t h a n
/
g e n t l e c u r v e s . S h a r p c u r v e s , s t e e p g r a d e s , a n d v e r y flat
g r a d e s all in c r e a s e c o s ts b e c a u s e o f e a r t h w o r k , d r a i n a g e ,
a n d o t h e r s p e c ia l f e a tu r e s .
T h e r o a d l a y o u t a ls o h a s a d e c is iv e effect o n t h e d e v e l-
o p m e n t p o t e n t i a l o f t h e l a n d n o t o n l y b e c a u s e o f th e w a y t h e
r o a d s c o n f e r a c c e ss b u t a ls o b e c a u s e o f t h e s h a p e o f t h e p lo ts
t h a t r e m a i n : th e h o le s in t h e n e t. O t h e r t h i n g s b e i n g e q u a l,
t h e la r g e r a n d m o r e r e g u l a r t h e s e p l o t s a r e a n d t h e m o r e
n e a r l y t h e i r c o r n e r s a p p r o x i m a t e r i g h t a n g le s , t h e e a s ie r
t h e y a re to d e v e lo p .
Relation to A r o a d t h a t r u n s p a r a l l e l to t h e c o n t o u r s o f a s lo p e p e r -
slope m i t s level f o u n d a t i o n s fo r b u i l d i n g s f r o n t i n g o n it, b u t if t h e
c ro s s s lo p e is s h a r p , t h e n a c c e s s to t h e s e b u i l d i n g s m a y b e
l a b o r e d , s e w e r s d iffic u lt to r e a c h , a n d t h e v i s u a l s p a c e lo p -
sid e d . I n th is c a s e it m a y b e n e c e s s a r y to w i d e n th e r i g h t -
o f ‫ ־‬w a y to t a k e u p th e c r o s s s lo p e a n d to d i s a s s o c i a t e t h e f a c in g
b u i l d i n g s v is u a lly , o r it m a y b e n e c e s s a r y to u s e s e p a r a t e
u tilitie s fo r t h e l o w e r s t r u c t u r e s o r o n e - s i d e d f r o n t a g e o r s p e -
cial b u i l d i n g t y p e s o n th e l o w e r sid e o f t h e s tr e e t, w h i c h a re
e n t e r e d a t a n u p p e r s to r y . For th e s e r e a s o n s , c o n t o u r - f o l -
lo w i n g r o a d s s h o u l d n o r m a l l y be k e p t b a c k f r o m t h e b r o w
o f a hill if d o u b l e f r o n t a g e is i n t e n d e d .
R o a d s p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e c o n t o u r s a v o id th e s e p r o b -
le m s, a l t h o u g h f o u n d a t i o n s m u s t n o w b e s t e p p e d (a s o m e -
w h a t m o r e e x p e n s iv e p r o c e s s ) , a n d s tr e e t a n d u t i l i t y g r a -
d i e n t s m a y b e c o m e to o ste e p . R e a r lo ts m a y h a v e a w k w a r d
c r o s s s lo p e s r e q u i r i n g s u b s t a n t i a l t e r r a c i n g , b u t it will b e
p o s s i b l e to u se s p e c ia l s t e p - d o w n b u i l d i n g t y p e s in a d r a -
‫״'י׳״״י‬. R o a d s d i a g o n a l to t h e c o n t o u r s p r o d u c e p lo t s t h a t
3st d iffic u lt to u se , a n d s h o u l d b e a v o id e d e x c e p t
 131
O gden Tanner, A rchitectu ral Forum

Figure 1 5 Neigh-
b o d y talk along
a common walk-
way in Chatham
Village, Pitts-
burgh, one o f the
most skillfully
designed row
house develop-
ments in the
United States
(Henry Wright
and Clarence
Stein, again ).

w h e r e s lo p e s a r e g e n t l e o r w h e r e t h e y a r e so s te e p t h a t n e i-
t h e r p a r a l l e l n o r p e r p e n d i c u l a r r o a d s w ill serve.
F or t h e c h a n n e l s a l o n g w h i c h p e o p l e m o v e , t h e r e a r e so-
cial a n d e s th e tic effects to b e c o n s i d e r e d . T h e s e effe c ts o c c u r
w h e r e v e r p e o p le g o a n d n o t o n l y w h e n t h e y h a p p e n to b e o n
foot. In r e a c t i o n to t h e h o r r o r s o f A m e r i c a n tra ffic , w e t h i n k o f
p e r s o n s as b e i n g u n r e l a t e d to c a rs, w h i c h a r e m e c h a n i c a l
m o n s t e r s to be k e p t in t u n n e l s a n d u n d e r g r o u n d g a r a g e s .
B u t c a rs h a v e d r i v e r s w h o a r e as h u m a n a s t h e r e s t o f us.
T h e p a t h s y s t e m a ffe c ts c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n p e o - P ath s and
pie. O n e p r i m e w a y to e n c o u r a g e c o n t a c t s b e t w e e n n e i g h - S o cial C o n t a c t
b o r s is to let t h e i r d w e l l i n g s o p e n o n a c o m m o n p a t h w a y .
F r i e n d s h i p s a re m a d e a l o n g th e s t r e e t r a t h e r t h a n a c r o s s t h e
p a r k . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e d e s i g n e r c a n f o s te r p r i v a c y , d iv is io n ,
or isolation by p ro v id in g sep a ra te ro u tes or m a sk e d routes
s u c h as a p a r t m e n t h a l l w a y s o r d o o r s t h a t a r e n o t m u t u a l l y
v isible.
A s th e s c a le o f flow in c r e a s e s , h o w e v e r , a n d th e p a t h
b e c o m e s m o r e d iffic u lt to c r o s s a n d e n t r a n c e s n o l o n g e r o p e n
d ir e c tly u p o n it, it s u d d e n l y r e v e r s e s its ro le a n d b e c o m e s a
b a r r ie r . T h u s e v e n a c r o w d e d b u t s l o w - m o v i n g d o w n t o w n
 132 Street c a n b e a c e n t r a l p la c e , w h i l e a n e x p r e s s w a y is a d iv i-
sive w a ll. A c u l - d e - s a c w ill fo c u s a n e i g h b o r h o o d g r o u p ,
w h ile a b r o a d p l a n t e d p a r k w a y m a y d e l i m i t it. T h e s e ef-
fects c a n u s u a l l y b e i n f e r r e d b y g o i n g t h r o u g h r o u t i n e m o v e -
m e n t s in t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d n o t i n g w h a t c a s u a l c o n t a c t s
w o u l d t h e r e b y arise .
T h e p a tte r n of streets or p a th s m a y p ro v id e or d estro y
th e s e n s e o f fo c u s o r c e n t e r in t h e p l a n , s in c e p e r s o n s in m o -
t i o n a r e o r i e n t e d to t h e f o r w a r d d i r e c t i o n a n d a f o c u s i n g o f
p a t h s a u t o m a t i c a l l y g iv e s t h e fe e lin g o f a s t r a t e g i c c o m m o n
p o i n t . S u r p r i s i n g effects o f a p p a r e n t a s s o c i a t i o n o r d i s a s s o -
ciatio n w ith n e ig h b o rin g areas can be p ro d u c e d by co n n ect-
in g o r d i s c o n n e c t i n g o n e lo c a l s tr e e t s y s t e m w i t h a n o t h e r .
R e a l e s t a t e d e v e l o p e r s a re w e ll a w a r e o f th is effect a n d
u s u a l l y s e e k to a t t a c h t h e i r r o a d s to t h o s e o f t h e " b e s t " d is-
tr ic ts in t h e i r v ic in ity .
Multiple use o f T h e tra d itio n a l stre e t served m a n y fu n c tio n s b e y o n d
rights-of-way t h a t o f p a s s a g e . It w a s m a r k e t , w o r k r o o m , a n d m e e t i n g hall.
W e h a v e s h o u l d e r e d th e s e f u n c t i o n s o u t o f t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y ,
to t h e a d v a n t a g e o f tra ffic a n d to s o c i e t y 's loss. N o w w e im -
p r o v e s tr e e ts still f u r t h e r b y w i d e n i n g t h e a u t o la n e s a t t h e
e x p e n s e o f p e d e s t r i a n s , tre e s , a n d o t h e r m a r g i n a l n u i-
s a n c e s . S i d e w a l k s a r e still p l a y g r o u n d s , h o w e v e r , a n d
s t r e e t c o r n e r s h a n g o u t s . A q u e d u c t s m a k e fin e li n e a r p a r k s .
T h u s p a t h w a y s s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d w i t h a n eye to s u p p o r t -
in g o t h e r f u n c t i o n s — b y p a y i n g a t t e n t i o n to t h e f o r m a n d
f u r n i t u r e o f t h e s i d e w a l k s o r to t h e i r r e l a t i o n to b o r d e r i n g
u s e s , for e x a m p le . R o a d p a v e m e n t s t h e m s e l v e s c a n o n sp e -
cial o c c a s io n s b e d e d i c a t e d to o t h e r a c tiv itie s . S h o u l d e r s a n d
m e d ia n s are u n e x p lo ite d w a ste la n d s. S eein g th e ro a d a n d
its a s s o c i a t e d u s e s as a n o p p o r t u n i t y fo r i n t e g r a t e d d e v e lo p -
m e n t is a fa irly n e w a p p o a c h in site p l a n n i n g .
Visual sequence P a t h w a y s a r e t h e lo c u s o f p o i n t s f r o m w h i c h t h e d e v e l-
o p m e n t w ill b e se e n . T h e y th e r e f o r e h a v e a p r o f o u n d effect
o n t h e v is u a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e w h o le . T h e y s h o u l d h a v e a
c le a r o r d e r o f t h e i r o w n a n d b u ild u p a b a s ic i m a g e t h a t is
e x p r e s s iv e o f t h e f u n c t i o n a n d n a t u r e o f t h e site. A l o n g t h e m
th e traveler sh o u ld experience a p le a sa n t sequence of space
a n d f o r m , a s u b je c t to b e t r e a t e d m o r e fu lly in C h a p t e r 9.
T h e p a t h s y s t e m is a p o w e r f u l m e a n s o f e x p r e s s i n g t h e u n -
d e r l y i n g t o p o g r a p h y , w h e t h e r it r u n s s u b m i s s i v e l y a l o n g
t h e c o n t o u r s o r a g g r e s s i v e l y o p p o s e s t h e m . T o th e m a n in m o -
tio n , r o a d s a n d p a t h s a r e s e e n as s h a r p l y f o r e s h o r t e n e d o b -
je c ts in p e r s p e c t i v e , a n d n o t as p a t t e r n s f r o m t h e air. M i n o r
d e v i a t i o n s w ill a p p e a r s ig n if ic a n t, p r o n o u n c e d c u r v e s w ill
s e e m s t a r t l i n g l y a b r u p t , a n d c o m p le x p a t t e r n s w ill b e in - 133
c o m p r e h e n s i b l e . T h e p a t h w a y s s h o u l d s e e m to g o to t h e ir
d e s t i n a t i o n , a n d c h a n g e s in d i r e c t i o n s h o u l d a p p e a r r e a s o n -
able. T o d o th is , it m a y at tim e s b e n e c e s s a r y for th e p l a n n e r
to i n t r o d u c e a rtific ia l o b s t a c l e s o f t e r r a i n o r s t r u c t u r e o r to
m a s k p o s s ib le s h o r t c u t s .
T h e r e is s o m e co n flict, p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e s i d e n t i a l
a re a s , b e t w e e n t h e f u n c t i o n a l d e s i r a b i l i t y o f a c o n t i n u o u s
n e t w o r k a n d th e v is u a l p le a s u r e s o f b o u n d e d s p a c e s. T h e
lo n g s t r a i g h t s t r e e t w ill s e e m to g o n o w h e r e , a n d e v e n t h e
c u r v i n g l a y o u t , t h o u g h b l o c k i n g t h e " i n f i n i t e " v ie w , b e -
c o m e s w e a r y i n g as t h e e n d l e s s c u r v e s p a s s b y . For th is re a -
s o n , d e s i g n e r s r e s o r t to T j u n c t i o n s o n m i n o r s tr e e ts , w i t h a n
i m p o r t a n t s t r u c t u r e o n t h e axis. B u t th is m e t h o d is u n w o r k -
0 .‫ם ם ם ם‬
a b le for a n a r t e r i a l a n d m a y b r i n g o n c h a o s if u s e d fo r to o
õ □‫םם‬°
m a n y m i n o r s tr e e ts . O t h e r t e c h n i q u e s i n c l u d e th e o p e n i n g
a n d c lo s in g o f b u i l d i n g o r p l a n t i n g lin e s to m a k e v is u a l c o m - ‫□ ס‬a
p a r t m e n t s a l o n g a c o n t i n u o u s r o a d a n d t h e u s e o f m o r e defi-
n ite d i r e c t i o n c h a n g e s , w i t h i m p o r t a n t o b je c ts a t th e b r e a k
to a c t as v is u a l te r m i n i .
T h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e lin e d e p e n d s o n th e s p e e d w i t h Path character
w h i c h it is t r a v e r s e d . A f o o t p a t h r e s p o n d s n e r v o u s l y to m i n o r
c h a n g e s in t e r r a i n a n d h a s i n t i m a t e s p a c e s , w h e r e a s a
h i g h w a y w ill t a k e a s w e e p i n g lin e a n d p a s s t h r o u g h e x p a n -
sive s p a c e s. P e d e s t r i a n m o t i o n , lik e a flow o f w a t e r , h a s a n
a p p a r e n t fluid m o m e n t u m . It fo llo w s lin e s o f le a s t re sis-
ta n c e , s h o r t e n i n g d i s t a n c e b y c u to ffs. It s w e e p s w i d e o n
c u rv e s , e d d ie s a b o u t o b s ta c le s , f o r m s p o o ls a b o v e a n d b e l o w
r e s t r i c t e d c h a n n e l s , s u c h as s t a i r s o r c o r r id o r s . T h e flo w m a y
be s m o o t h o r t u r b u l e n t , p u r p o s e f u l o r m e a n d e r i n g . It c a n be
d e fle c te d o r e n c o u r a g e d b y v is u a l a t t r a c t i o n s , b y levels,
o p e n i n g s , o r t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e floor. A w a l k m a y b e a r -
c a d e d , h e a t e d , c o o le d , o r its floor w a r m e d to m e lt t h e s n o w . It
c a n b e p r o v i d e d w i t h b e n c h e s , p l a n t s , k io s k s , c afés, d i s p l a y
ca se s, o r i n f o r m a t i o n ,devices. A s a fine h i g h w a y e x p r e s s e s
th e n a t u r e o f v e h i c u l a r m o v e m e n t , so a n a d e q u a t e w a l k s y s -
tern reflects th e p l e a s u r e s a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f m o t i o n o n
foot.
B e c a u se o f t h e p r e v a l e n t u g l i n e s s o f m u c h o f o u r c ir c u - W hy hide
la tio n e q u i p m e n t , w e c o n s i d e r r o a d s a n d u t ilitie s as r e g r e t - utilities?
fully n e c e s s a r y t h i n g s t h a t m u s t be s u p p l i e d b u t s h o u l d b e
h id d e n . E lectric lin e s a n d t r a n s i t lin e s a r e p u t u n d e r -
g r o u n d , p a r k i n g a r e a s p l a n t e d o u t, a n d r o a d s d e c k e d o ver.
Y et since th e flo w s y s t e m is o n e o f t h e t w o b a s ic a t t r i b u t e s o f
a d e v e lo p e d site a n d h a s m u c h to d o w i t h its u s e f u ln e s s , in-
 Nisluiti Bichnjinn
Figure 16 A portion o f the Central Artery in Boston. The rigidly specialized
expressway , with its demanding alignment, slashes through the old city fabric.

terest, and meaning, we should demand an even clearer ex-

pression of the essential elements of this system, instead of
camouflaging them. Power lines and highways can be an
expressive component of the landscape; exposed pipes can
be handsome.
Environmental A t t h e s a m e tim e , t h e p o s s i b l e n e g a t i v e effect o f c irc u -
impact o f l a t i o n o n th e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a s m u s t r e g u l a r l y b e t a k e n i n t o
circulation a c c o u n t. J u s t as w e h a v e s t a n d a r d s for te c h n i c a l r o a d fu n c -
tio n , so w e s h o u l d h a v e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t a n d a r d s for its e n v i-
r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t. T h e s e c r ite r ia w o u l d g o v e r n s u c h n u i -
s a n c e s as n o is e , p o l l u t i o n , t h e d a n g e r o f a c c id e n t, a c tu a l o r
a p p a r e n t d if f ic u lty in c r o s s i n g , e c o lo g ic a l d a m a g e s u c h as
the b locking of d ra in a g e , or the ta k in g of valued space or
s t r u c t u r e s . T h e s t a n d a r d s w o u l d b e k e y e d to t h e n a t u r e o f
th e site t r a v e r s e d : th e c h a r a c t e r o f a c tiv ity , th e d e n s i t y o f
Reference 4 ‫כ‬ p e d e s t r i a n m o v e m e n t s , t h e e c o lo g ic a l q u a l i t y . B u c h a n a n , for
e x a m p le , s u g g e s t s a s t a n d a r d for r e s i d e n t i a l s tr e e ts w h i c h
sets th e m a x i m u m ti m e d e l a y t h a t m a y b e e x p e r i e n c e d in
c r o s s i n g a s t r e e t b y a p r u d e n t a d u lt. T h e d e l a y t h e n de-
p e n d s o n s tr e e t w i d t h , traffic v o lu m e , a n d th e s y s t e m o f
c r o s s in g . O t h e r q u a n t i t a t i v e s t a n d a r d s for n o is e level o r ca r-
b o n d io x id e e m i s s i o n c o u ld as e a s ily b e c o n s t r u c t e d .
T h e d e ta i l e d t e c h n i c a l s t a n d a r d s for l a y o u t o f w a lk s ,
r o a d s , a n d u tilitie s a re d e a lt w i t h in C h a p t e r s 7 a n d 8 . It is
u s u a l to b e g i n w i t h t h e w a l k s a n d s tr e e ts , s in c e t h e y h a v e
th e m o s t c ritic a l effect, a n d to c h e c k th e o t h e r u tilitie s la te r.
T h e s y s t e m is d e s i g n e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e v is u a l f o r m a n d
th e a c ti v i t y p a t t e r n , a n d its in f lu e n c e o n t h e s e t w o f a c to r s 135
is r e v ie w e d c o n s t a n t l y . S t u d i e s d e v o t e d s o le ly to c i r c u la -
tio n m a y be m a d e , e s p e c ia lly a t a n e a r l y s ta g e , b u t th e s e
w ill b e d o n e o n l y to d e v e l o p a s e n s e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . N o
d e s ig n d e c is io n s c a n b e r e a c h e d w i t h o u t m a k i n g s k e t c h e s o r
m o d e ls t h a t s h o w use, flow , a n d f o r m as a n o p e r a t i n g w h o le .
A ll th e s e f e a tu r e s a r e u s u a l l y b r o u g h t u p t h r o u g h m a n y al-
te r n a t i v e s to a d e ta ile d s k e t c h s ta g e , a n d t h e n t h e e n g i n e e r -
in g o f t h e flo w s y s t e m is i n v e s t i g a t e d to see w h a t m o d if ic a -
tio n s m a y b e r e q u ir e d .
In t h e a n a l y s i s o f site p l a n s t h e c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m T e s tin g the
s h o u l d b e te s te d in e v e r y d i m e n s i o n . D o e s t h e s y s t e m a c q u i t system
its p r o p e r f u n c t i o n ; t h a t is, c a n t h e n e c e s s a r y m o v e m e n t s b e
a c c o m p l i s h e d a l o n g it at a c c e p t a b l e s t a n d a r d s o f tim e , c o st,
a n d s a fe ty ? A p l a n o f s t r e e t s a n d w a l k s s h o u l d a l w a y s b e
checked by m e n ta lly m a k in g the ro u tin e trips a n d n o tin g
th e i r n a t u r e . W h i l e a u t o m o b i l e m o v e m e n t s m a y b e p r o v i d e d
for, t h e r e is a t e n d e n c y to n e g le c t m o v e m e n t o n fo o t, o r b y b u s
o r bicycle. H o w d o e s o n e g e t f r o m c a r to h o u s e , a n d w h a t is
th is a p p r o a c h like? H o w d o c h i l d r e n w a l k to s c h o o l, o r a d u l t s
to a b u s o r to t h e s h o p s ? H o w d o e s o n e g e t ac c e ss to a b u i l d i n g
or a site for r e p a i r a n d m a i n t e n a n c e ? C a n o n e r id e a b ic y c le
sa fe ly ? C a n a n e ffic ie n t set o f b u s r o u t e s b e la id o u t? T h e
c h e c k s h o u l d be q u a n t i t a t i v e as w e ll: C a n t h e p a r t i c u l a r
c h a n n e l s c a r r y t h e a m o u n t o f flow d e s ir e d , g iv e n t h e p r e -
d ie te d d i s t r i b u t i o n b y m o d e s ? A s o u r k n o w l e d g e d e v e lo p s ,
w e sh a ll p r o c e e d f r o m t h e c h e c k i n g o f s in g le c h a n n e l s to t h e
q u a n tita tiv e a n aly sis of e n tire n e tw o rk s.
T h e p l a n for th e c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m s h o u l d a ls o be c riti-
cized to see if t h e r i g h t b a l a n c e o f m o d e s a n d o f c h a n n e l s p e -
c ia liz a tio n h a s b e e n s t r u c k , a n d if t h e i n t e r c h a n g e s a n d te r -
m in a ls a r e w o r k a b l e . It m u s t b e te s t e d for co st, p a r t i c u l a r l y
for t h e l e n g t h o f r o a d o r u t i l i t y p e r u s i n g a c ti v i t y a n d for t h e
p r e s e n c e o f s p e c ia l f e a tu r e s . T h e l i k e lih o o d o f i m p o s i n g n u i -
s a n c e , d a n g e r , o r o t h e r d a m a g e o n its s u r r o u n d i n g s m u s t b e
a n a l y z e d as w ell as t h e p o t e n t i a l s for u s i n g th e r i g h t - o f - w a y
for o t h e r f u n c t i o n s t h a n p u r e m o v e m e n t . T h e d e s i g n s h o u l d
b e c h e c k e d to see t h a t th e p a r c e ls r e m a i n i n g for d e v e lo p -
m e n t a re g o o d o n e s , s u ite d to t h e u se p r o p o s e d a n d c a p a b l e o f
a d j u s t m e n t to o t h e r use. T h e so c ia l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e p a t h
s y s t e m as w ell as its v is u a l im p a c t — b o t h t h e v ie w s o f a n d
fro m th e r o a d — c a n be a n a l y z e d .
T h e c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m w ill f in a lly be ju d g e d as a to ta l-
ity. Is th e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o n e t h a t is s u i t a b l e fo r t h e b a s ic
ta s k ? W ill it s e e m o r d e r l y a n d w ell o r i e n t e d to s o m e o n e o n
136 th e g r o u n d ? C a n it b e a b str a c te d a s a d iff e r e n t ia te d s y s t e m
in to a b a s ic str u c tu r e o f m a in lin e s o n w h ic h a re d e p e n d e n t
a se t o f s u b s id ia r y lin e s ? D o e s it p r o v id e for a b a la n c e a n d a
d iv e r s it y o f m o d e s o f m o v e m e n t? D o its r e g io n s o f h ig h ca -
p a c ity c o in c id e w it h th e fo c u s e s o f a c t iv ity ? Is its str u c tu r e
c o h e r e n t w it h th e str u c tu r e o f u se? Is it in b a la n c e w it h th e
in t e n s it y o f a c t iv ity , n e ith e r o v e r w h e lm in g n o r b e in g o v e r -
w h e lm e d ? A s a to ta l s y s t e m , w ill it h e lp to e x p r e s s s it e a n d
fu n c tio n ? D o e s it c o n n e c t s m o o t h ly w it h th e s u r r o u n d in g
sy stem s?
T h e c ir c u la t io n s y s t e m is th e o n e m o s t p r o n e to t e c h n o -
lo g ic a l d e v e lo p m e n t , a n d th e r e fo r e it m u s t b e m o s t a d a p ta -
b le to fu tu r e c h a n g e . If a s e lf - c o n t a in e d w a te r a n d s e w a g e
p u r ific a tio n c y c le for th e in d iv id u a l u n it b e c o m e s e c o n o m i-
c a l, a s it is n o w t e c h n ic a lly fe a s ib le , th e n it m a y b e c o m e u n -
n e c e s s a r y to tie a b u ild in g to a n u n d e r g r o u n d w a te r a n d
s e w a g e s y s t e m . If fu tu r e la n d v e h ic le s w ill h o v e r o v e r th e
g r o u n d o n c o m p r e s s e d a ir, r a th e r th a n r o llin g o n w h e e ls ,
th e n ro a d c h a r a c te r is tic s w ill b e r e v is e d . If u r b a n a r e a s are
r o o fe d w ith v a s t lig h t s p a n s , th e n s u r fa c e d r a in a g e lo s e s its
s ig n if ic a n c e . If w e c a n d e v e lo p an a c c e p t a b le d is p e r s e d
tr a n s it s y s t e m , w e c o u ld s h a k e o f f o u r d e p e n d e n c e o n th e in -
d iv id u a l a u to m o b ile . If w e le a r n h o w to m o v e la r g e n u m b e r s
o f p e o p le in t h r e e - d im e n s io n a l c o n v e y o r s y s t e m s , th e n c e n -
tral d is t r ic ts w ill b e tr a n s fo r m e d . V id e o p h o n e s m a y c h a n g e
c o m m u t in g h a b its . C e r ta in ly th e r e w ill b e m a n y le s s r a d i-
ca l in n o v a t io n s th a t w ill at le a s t m o d if y th e d e s ig n o f c ir c u -
la tio n s y s t e m s . It is for th is r e a s o n th a t s u c h g e n e r a l c o n s id -
e r a tio n s as p a tte r n , b a la n c e , d iv e r s it y , th e d e g r e e o f s p e c ia l-
iz a tio n , a n d th e s o c ia l a n d v is u a l im p a c t s h o u ld h a v e m o r e
w e ig h t th a n p r e c is e t e c h n ic a l sta n d a r d s .
Chapter

Technique:
Streets an d W ays

^ / e h i c u l a r w a y s a re la id o u t w it h a c r o s s s e c t io n th a t
m o s t o f te n r e m a in s fix e d for s u b s t a n tia l d is t a n c e s . T h is
c r o ss s e c t io n is n o r m a lly lo c a te d b y th e c e n te r lin e o f th e Cross sections
p a v e m e n t. T h e p r in c ip a l fe a tu r e s o f th e m o s t c o m m o n c r o s s
s e c t io n , n o t d r a w n to s c a le , are th e se :

juttip plontina
F " strip 1
Lj‫'*״‬---------------------- rL^kt 0\ watj -

M a n y c r o s s s e c t io n s a re p o s s ib le , e a c h w it h d is t in c t t e c h n i-
cal a n d v is u a l im p lic a t io n s . T h e m in im u m d im e n s io n s o f
th e e le m e n ts o f th e c r o s s s e c t io n a re c o n t r o lle d b y th e v a r y -
in g r e g u la tio n s o f lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t s , m o s t o f te n w it h u n -
n e c e s s a r y r ig id ity .
T h e p a v e m e n t its e lf is u s u a l l y c r o w n e d at t h e c e n t e r
for d r a i n a g e , th e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l s lo p e b e i n g 1/4 in c h p e r fo o t
fr o m c r o w n to e d g e for c o n c r e te a n d b i t u m i n o u s p a v e m e n t s ,
a n d 1/2 to 3/4 in c h p e r foot for e a r t h a n d g r a v e l r o a d s . P a v e -
m e n t s s l o p i n g to o n e s id e are u s e d w h e n a h e i g h t d if f e r e n -
tial b e t w e e n o p p o s i n g c u r b s is a llo w a b le , as w i t h a m e d i a n ‫ן‬
s tr ip . W h e r e h e a v y r a i n o r f r e e z in g is n o t lik e ly to o c c u r, th e í - " j j ..-j
p a v e m e n t m a y b e s lo p e d to its c e n t e r line, u s i n g th e s t r e e t I i
itse lf as th e d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l a n d so s a v i n g o n th e l e n g t h o f
138 s t o r m d r a in s . A 6 - i n c h v e r tic a l c u r b a n d g u t t e r is u s e d o n
m a j o r s tr e e ts , w h ile a 4 ‫ ־‬in c h roll c u r b m a y b e u s e d in r u r a l
a r e a s o r o n m i n o r s t r e e t s w h e r e r e s i d e n t i a l d e n s i t i e s a re lo w .
A s im p le t u r f o r g r a v e l s h o u l d e r , f la n k e d b y a s h a l l o w d i t c h
a b o u t 3 feet w id e a n d p r o b a b l y s o d d e d , m a y b e e m p l o y e d at
v e r y lo w d e n s itie s . In r e s i d e n t i a l w o r k , t h e u se o f a d i t c h re-
q u ir e s a c u lv e r t u n d e r e v e r y d r i v e w a y a n d a t e a c h i n t e r s e c ‫־‬
tio n , b u t it d o e s a ll o w s u r f a c e w a t e r to s e e p b a c k i n t o th e
g r o u n d . T h i s m a y b e m o r e e x p e n s i v e t h a n a ro ll c u r b o r o t h e r
d e v ic e t h a t u s e s t h e s tr e e t as t h e d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l . T h e
c u r b a lso p r e v e n t s t h e b r e a k d o w n o f t h e p a v e m e n t ed g e.
Pavements D e p e n d i n g o n traffic, t h e p a v e m e n t m a y b e c o n c r e te ,
b i t u m i n o u s m a c a d a m , g r a v e l, s ta b iliz e d soil, o r s i m p l y a
g r a d e d a n d d r a i n e d e a r t h s u rfa c e . W e s e e m to h a v e f o r g o t-
ten th e te c h n iq u e of b u ild in g a n e a rth o r gravel road, su r-
faces t h a t a r e q u i t e s u i t a b l e fo r l i g h t tra ffic if t h e c r o w n a n d
d i t c h e s a r e m a i n t a i n e d . A n e a r t h r o a d m a y b e s ta b iliz e d b y
sp re a d in g a n d m ix in g p o rtla n d ce m e n t into th e u p p e r 6
in c h e s , 3 to 5 p e r c e n t b y d r y w e i g h t if th e soil is a g r a v e l o r
See page 58 a s a n d o r 4 to 10 p e r c e n t if it is a silt o r a n o n p l a s t i c clay.
For c la y e y so ils a n d c la y e y s a n d s o r g r a v e ls , it is a d v i s a b l e
to u se h y d r a t e d lim e, in s im ila r p r o p o r t i o n s . T e m p o r a r y ,
e x p e d i e n t r o a d s m a y b e b u ilt o f c o r d u r o y (logs a n d b r u s h ) ,
o f p l a n k s , o r e v e n o f w ir e m e s h a n d b u r l a p .
Dimensions R o a d w i d t h is c o m p u t e d b y s u m m i n g u p t h e n u m b e r o f
traffic a n d p a r k i n g la n e s r e q u i r e d . C u r b s i d e p a r k i n g la n e s ,
if p r o v i d e d , s h o u l d b e 8 feet w id e . E a c h o f t h e traffic la n e s
R efer en ce 34 s h o u l d b e 9 to 10 feet w i d e o n m i n o r r o a d s , a n d u p to 12 feet
w id e o n h i g h w a y s . T h e m i n i m u m v e r tic a l c l e a r a n c e is n o w
14 feet, to a l l o w for t h e p a s s a g e o f t r u c k s w i t h h i g h lo a d s. A
p r a c tic a l m i n i m u m p a v e m e n t w i d t h for m i n o r r e s i d e n t i a l
s tr e e ts w i t h l i g h t p a r k i n g is o n e p a r k i n g l a n e p lu s t w o tr a f -
fic la n e s , o r 26 feet. If p a r k i n g w ill n e v e r o c c u r , o r a t v e r y
lo w d e n s itie s w h e r e p a r k i n g w ill b e v e r y s p o r a d i c , th is m i n -
im u m m a y d r o p to 2 0 feet for a t w o - w a y m i n o r r o a d . O n a
o n e - w a y s tr e e t w i t h p a r k i n g o n o n l y o n e side, t h e p a v e m e n t
m a y b e 18 feet. S u c h a s tr e e t m i g h t b e u s e d as a s h o r t lo o p ,
o r as a m a r g i n a l a c c e ss r o a d a l o n g s i d e a m a j o r t h o r o u g h f a r e .
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e p l a n t i n g s t r i p is to s e p a r a t e t h e
w a l k f r o m th e s tr e e t for c o n v e n i e n c e a n d s a f e ty , to a llo w
r o o m for u tilitie s a n d s t r e e t fix tu r e s a b o v e a n d b e l o w g r o u n d ,
to p r o v i d e fo r p i l i n g o f s n o w , a n d to p e r m i t t h e p l a n t i n g o f
s tr e e t tr e e s , a l t h o u g h th is u s u a l l y p la c e s t h e m to o c lo se to th e
m o v i n g traffic. It s h o u l d b e at le a s t 7 feet w id e if it c o n t a i n s
tre e s o r 4 feet w id e for g r a s s a lo n e . If p a v e d a n d u s e d o n l y for
u tilitie s , it m a y be r e d u c e d to 2 feet. In c o m m e r c i a l a r e a s it 139
is s o m e t i m e s e l i m i n a t e d , a n d p o le s a n d h y d r a n t s a r e p la c e d
in t h e w i d e n e d s id e w a lk . In a n y case, s t r e e t p o le s s h o u l d b e
set in 2 feet f r o m t h e c u r b for s a fe ty . O n i m p o r t a n t r o a d s th e
o p p o s i n g traffic la n e s m a y be s e p a r a t e d b y a n o t h e r p l a n t i n g
s tr ip , o r m e d i a n , for r e a s o n s o f s a fe ty , t h e c h a n n e l i z i n g o f in -
te r s e c t i o n m a n e u v e r s , t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f s te e p c ro s s s lo p e s ,
o r v is u a l a m e n i t y .
S i d e w a l k s s h o u l d h a v e a m i n i m u m w i d t h o f 4 feet, Sidew alks
w h i c h a llo w s t h r e e p e r s o n s to p a s s o r w a l k a b r e a s t , a l t h o u g h
w h e r e t h e y le a d d i r e c tly to s i n g l e - d w e l l i n g e n t r a n c e s t h e y
m a y b e o n l y 2 V2 feet w id e , w i t h a w i d e n i n g a t t h e d o o r . C o l-
le c to r w a l k s h a n d l i n g n u m b e r s o f p e d e s t r i a n s m u s t a t le a s t
be 6 to 8 feet w id e . In c e n t r a l a r e a s , w h e r e la r g e p e d e s t r i a n
flow s a r e e x p e c te d , s i d e w a l k s m u s t b e siz e d to d e m a n d j u s t S ee p a g es 149—151
as r o a d s are. W a l k s , lik e s t r e e t p a v e m e n t s , s h o u l d be
c r o w n e d , o r h a v e a V4 i n c h p e r fo o t c r o s s slo p e . W a l k w a y s
a re n o r m a l l y a n d r a t h e r m o n o t o n o u s l y m a d e o f c o n c r e t e o r a s-
p h a l t , b u t g r a v e l, b r ic k , o r s t o n e m a y a ls o b e u s e d , o r t h e
c o n c r e te m a y b e t e x t u r e d , c o lo r e d , o r la id in p a t t e r n s . W a l k s
m a y o c c u r o n o n l y o n e s id e o f t h e s tr e e t in l o w - d e n s i t y re s i-
d e n t i a l a r e a s . W h i l e t h e m a j o r w a l k s y s t e m m a y be d e-
s ig n e d to b e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e r o a d s y s t e m , t h e r e m u s t be
a w a l k o n a t le a st o n e s id e o f all s t r e e t s , e x c e p t v e r y s h o r t
local s tr e e ts , s e rv ic e d r iv e s , o r r o a d s in r u r a l o r s e m i r u r a l
a r e a s w i t h n o s u b s t a n t i a l f r o n t i n g d e v e l o p m e n t . P e o p le p e r -
sist in w a l k i n g a l o n g t h e s tr e e t. W a l k s a re u s e f u l fo r c h il-
d r e n 's p l a y a n d q u i t e n e c e s s a r y w h e r e s n o w is f r e q u e n t . In
h ig h -d e n sity areas th ey c a n n o t be sk im p ed b u t m u st be
w id e e n o u g h to a c c o m m o d a t e all t h e m o v e m e n t a n d so c ia l ac-
t iv ity t h a t w ill ta k e p la c e u p o n t h e m . O c c a s i o n a l l y , a d d i-
tio n a l levels o f w a l k w a y m a y b e u s e d , w h e r e p e d e s t r i a n s
a re n u m e r o u s a n d e a s ily m o t i v a t e d to u s e t h a t a d d i t i o n a l
level, as b y e le v a te d s h o p s , a fall in g r a d e , o r a n u n d e r -
g r o u n d t r a n s i t t e r m i n a l . E le v a te d w a lk s a r e u s u a l l y feasi-
ble w h e r e floor a r e a r a t i o s a re n e a r 15, a n d p e r h a p s m a n d a -
t o r y a t 25.
T r a v e l b y b ic y c le h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f q u i e t n e s s , Cycleways
e c o n o m y , n o p o l l u t i o n , g o o d e x e rc ise , e a s y p a r k i n g , a n d
s a f e ty for o th e r s . A t th e s a m e tim e , th e a c c i d e n t r a t e fo r cy -
clists is v e r y h i g h w h e n t h e y a re m ix e d w i t h a u t o m o b i l e
traffic. S e p a r a t e c y c le w a y s w ill e n c o u r a g e c y c lin g for rec-
r e a t i o n a n d for r e g u l a r j o u r n e y s , a n d s u c h s e p a r a t e w a y s
a re c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y w h e r e v e r t h e flo w o f c y c lis ts is
lik e ly to exc e e d 1 5 0 0 p e r d a y o r w h e r e h e a v y p e a k s a r e ex-
 140 p e c te d , as at i n d u s t r i a l p l a n t s o r s c h o o ls . C y c l e w a y s a re n o r -
m a lly b u ilt o f lig h t p a v e m e n t s 1 2 feet w id e , w i t h g e n t l y
c u r v i n g a l i g n m e n t s a n d e a s y g r a d e s . C r o s s i n g s s h o u l d be
offset, a n d T j u n c t i o n s a r e p r e f e r r e d . T h e y s h o u l d b e g r a d e
s e p a r a t e d fro m m o t o r traffic, o r t h e ir c r o s s i n g s s h o u l d b e c o n -
tr o lle d at i n t e r s e c t i o n s w i t h s ig n a ls , sin c e to m e r g e cyc le -
w a y s b a c k i n t o h e a v y tra ffic m a y a c t u a l l y c a u s e a h e a v ie r
a c c i d e n t r a te t h a n to h a v e n o c y c l e w a y s at all. T h e s e w a y s
m a y s a f e ly b e c o m b i n e d w i t h m a j o r p e d e s t r i a n r o u te s , o r
e v e n a l l o w th e u se o f e le c tr ic c a r t s a n d l o w - p o w e r e d m o t o r -
b ik e s o f v e r y r e s t r i c t e d s p e e d .
T h e p r i v a t e p r o p e r t y lin e is set o n l y a n o m i n a l d i s t a n c e
b e y o n d t h e e d g e o f t h e w a l k u n l e s s t h e r e is p u b l i c p l a n t i n g
th e r e . S t r e e t tr e e s a r e p e r h a p s b e s t p l a n t e d a t th is p o i n t , or
in p r i v a t e f r o n t lo ts, r a t h e r t h a n in t h e p l a n t i n g s tr ip . T h i s
p r e v e n t s b r a n c h e s f r o m i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h o v e r h e a d p o le s,
lig h ts , a n d w ir e s , k e e p s r o o t s f r o m d i s r u p t i n g t h e p ip e s a n d
c a b le s u n d e r g r o u n d , a n d p r o t e c t s t h e t r e e f r o m all th e
c h e m ic a l p o i s o n s u s e d in r o a d m a i n t e n a n c e .
Variable cross A lth o u g h s ta n d a rd cro ss sectio n s are c o m m o n ly used
sections for r o a d s o f s i m i l a r t y p e a n d s i m p l y a p p l i e d to t h e c h a n g i n g
g r o u n d s u r f a c e as if a rig id t e m p l a t e h a d b e e n t r u n d l e d
a l o n g t h e c e n t e r line, it m a k e s m u c h m o r e s e n s e to a d a p t t h e
c r o s s s e c tio n to th e c o n t e x t . W a l k s m a y m o v e t o w a r d a n d
a w a y f r o m t h e c u r b ; r o a d la n e s m a y s e p a r a t e to s a v e s o m e
l a n d s c a p e f e a tu r e , o r c h a n g e e l e v a t i o n w i t h a d i v i d i n g s t r i p
b e t w e e n t h e m ; c u t - a n d - f i l l s lo p e s m a y m a t c h t h e flow o f t h e
t e r r a i n ; tre e s m a y b e p l a n t e d in i r r e g u l a r g r o v e s . T h e a d a p -
t a t i o n s m e a n a d d e d d e s i g n a n d s u p e r v i s i o n b u t a d d fa r m o r e
to a p p e a r a n c e a n d u s e f u l n e s s a n d o f t e n d e c r e a s e c o n s t r u e -
ti o n c o s ts as w ell.
T h e r i g h t - o f - w a y is t h e t o t a l p u b l i c s t r i p o f l a n d w i t h i n
w h i c h t h e r e is p u b l i c c o n t r o l a n d c o m m o n r i g h t o f p a s s a g e
a n d w i t h i n w h i c h all p a v e m e n t s a n d u t i l i t y lin e s a r e Io-
c a te d if p o s s ib le . Its w i d t h d e p e n d s o n th e f e a t u r e s i n c l u d e d
w i t h i n it. T h e m i n i m u m is c o m m o n l y g iv e n as 5 0 feet, b u t
th is w i d t h c a n a c t u a l l y b e r e d u c e d o n m i n o r s t r e e t s to as lit-
tie a s 3 0 feet. T h i s m a k e s for a m o r e e c o n o m i c a l a n d flexible
p l a n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in r o u g h g r o u n d , a n d i m p r o v e s t h e v is u a l
scale. W h e r e t h e f u t u r e tra ffic lo a d is u n c e r t a i n , it m a y b e
n e c e s s a r y to u s e a w i d e r r i g h t - o f - w a y , w h i l e b e g i n n i n g
w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y n a r r o w p a v e m e n t . A t t h e o t h e r e x tr e m e , a
Horizontal m a j o r f r e e w a y m a y u s e a r i g h t - o f - w a y t h a t is 6 0 0 feet w id e .
alignment H o r i z o n t a l a l i g n m e n t o f t h e r o a d is b a s e d o n t h e p a v e -
m erit c e n t e r line, w h i c h is m a r k e d off in 1 0 0 -f o o t " s t a t i o n s " 141
for re f e r e n c e , b e g i n n i n g a t s o m e a r b i t r a r y e n d o f t h e sy s -
tern. A s e p a r a t e n u m b e r i n g s y s t e m is u s e d for e a c h s in g le
c o n t i n u o u s line. A ll s ig n if ic a n t p o i n t s , s u c h as t h e i n t e r s e c ‫־‬
tio n s o f o n e c e n t e r lin e w i t h a n o t h e r , o r t h e b e g i n n i n g a n d
e n d i n g o f h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r tic a l c u r v e s , a r e l o c a te d b y
r e f e r e n c e to t h i s n u m b e r i n g s y s te m .
C e n t e r lin e s a r e m a d e u p o f t w o k i n d s o f e l e m e n t s u s e d
a l t e r n a t e l y : s t r a i g h t lin e s, c a lle d " t a n g e n t s , " a n d p o r t i o n s
o f c i r c u l a r c u r v e s , to w h i c h t h e c o n n e c t i n g s t r a i g h t lin e s a re
t a n g e n t . If t w o c u r v e s a r e d i r e c t l y j o i n e d w i t h o u t s u c h a n
i n t e r v e n i n g s t r a i g h t line, b o t h c u r v e s a r e m a d e t a n g e n t to
th e s a m e i m a g i n a r y lin e a t t h e i r j u n c t i o n . T a n g e n t s a n d
c ir c u la r c u r v e s a r e u s e d for e a s e o f l a y o u t a n d so t h a t c u r v e s ,
o n c e e n t e r e d , c a n b e n e g o t i a t e d w i t h o n e s e t t i n g o f th e s te e r -
in g w h e e l. O n m a j o r r o a d s , t h e j o i n t b e t w e e n t a n g e n t a n d
c ir c u la r c u r v e m a y be s o f t e n e d b y a " s p i r a l " c u r v e , w h i c h
is o n e w h o s e r a d i u s b e g i n s b y b e i n g i n f in ite ly l o n g ( t h a t is,
it is a s t r a i g h t line) a n d t h e n p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e c r e a s e s u n t i l
it r e a c h e s th e r a d i u s o f t h e c i r c u l a r c u r v e t h a t it is i n t r o d u c -
in g . T h e s e s p ir a l c u r v e s o f t r a n s i t i o n a r e r a r e l y u s e d o n
m i n o r r o a d s a n d w ill n o t b e t r e a t e d f u r t h e r h e re .
T h e c i r c u l a r c u r v e h a s t h e e l e m e n t s s h o w n in F ig u r e H orizon tal
17• curves

Figure 17 Elements of the circular curve used in horizontal

alignment.

T h e c u r v a t u r e o f a r o a d is s o m e t i m e s g iv e n in d e g r e e s ,
a 1 - d e g r e e c u r v e b e i n g o n e w h o s e l e n g t h is 1 0 0 feet for
e a c h 1 d e g r e e o f i n t e r n a l a n g l e t h a t it m o v e s t h r o u g h , w h ile
 142 a 2 - d e g r e e c u r v e h a s th e s a m e le n g t h for 2 d e g r e e s o f
a n g le , a n d so o n . C o n v e r s io n m a y b e m a d e b y th e fo r m u la

5730
R =
D

w h e r e R is th e r a d iu s in fe e t a n d D is th e d e g r e e o f th e
c u r v e . T h e sh a r p e r th e c u r v e , th e sh o r te r is its r a d iu s a n d
th e h ig h e r its d e g r e e . I s h a ll u s e th e c u r v e r a d iu s in th e fo l-
lo w in g d is c u s s io n . T h e r u le s a n d s ta n d a r d s are b a s e d o n th e
c h a r a c te r is tic s o f t o d a y 's a u t o m o b ile a n d w ill c h a n g e w it h
it.
Curve It is p r e fe r a b le to a v o id t w o c u r v e s in th e s a m e d ir e c -
com binations t io n , s e p a r a te d b y a t a n g e n t o f le s s th a n 2 0 0 fe e t (a " b r o -
k e n -b a c k " c u r v e ). It lo o k s a w k w a r d a n d is h a rd to d r iv e
9.1 p-c.
t h r o u g h . S im ila r ly , it is b e s t to a v o id t w o sh a r p c u r v e s in o p -
p o s it e d ir e c t io n s , s e p a r a te d b y a t a n g e n t o f le s s th a n 1 0 0
fe e t. G e n t le r e v e r se c u r v e s m a y b e d ir e c t ly j o in e d w it h o u t a
t a n g e n t , h o w e v e r . T w o c u r v e s o f th e s a m e d ir e c t io n , b u t o f
d iffe r e n t r a d iu s , w h ic h a re d ir e c t ly jo in e d t o g e t h e r ( " c o m -
p o u n d " c u r v e s ) s h o u ld b e a v o id e d w h e r e p o s s ib le b u t a re o c -
c a s io n a lly n e c e s s a r y . T h e m in im u m a llo w a b le r a d iu s o f a
c u r v e d e p e n d s o n d e s ig n s p e e d , th a t is, th e m a x im u m sa fe
sp e e d th a t c a n b e m a in t a in e d c o n t in u o u s ly o n th a t p ie c e o f
5 cc page 150 ro a d .
O n r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s , t a n g e n t s m a y be jo i n e d w i t h o u t
a n i n t e r v e n i n g h o r i z o n t a l c u r v e w h e r e th e a n g l e o f in t e r s e c -
t i o n is le ss t h a n 15 d e g r e e s . T h i s m a y a ls o b e d o n e a t m u c h
s h a r p e r t u r n s , w h e r e it is o b v i o u s to t h e d r i v e r t h a t h e m u s t
s lo w o r s t o p b e f o r e n e g o t i a t i n g t h e t u r n , a s a t a s t r e e t c o r n e r .
Intersections Street in te rse c tio n s sh o u ld be w ith in 20 degrees of the
p e r p e n d i c u l a r for 1 0 0 feet e a c h w a y f r o m t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n .
I n t e r s e c t i o n s o f a c u te a n g l e a r e d iffic u lt to n e g o t i a t e a n d
lim it t h e a p p r o a c h v is ib ility . D i r e c t c r o s s i n g s , o r c r o s s i n g s
t h a t a r e o ffse t b y a t le a s t 1 5 0 feet, a r e p r e f e r a b l e to s li g h t
o ffse ts, w h i c h f r u s t r a t e t h e c r o s s tra ffic a n d d i s t u r b flow o n
th e lin e t h a t is b e i n g c r o s s e d . O n m i n o r r o a d s , w h e r e t h e
c o m p l i c a t i o n s to c r o s s flo w a r e n o t o f i m p o r t a n c e , t h e T i n t e r -
s e c tio n , s u f f ic ie n tly o ffse t f r o m th e n e x t j u n c t i o n , m a y be
p r e f e r a b l e to th e s t r a i g h t c r o s s for r e a s o n s o f s a f e t y o r for clo-
s u r e o f t h e v is u a l s p a c e . I n t e r s e c t i o n s w i t h a n a r t e r i a l r o a d ,
o r m a j o r s tr e e t, s h o u l d b e n o c lo s e r t h a n 8 0 0 feet a p a r t to
p r e v e n t d i s r u p t i o n to t h e m a j o r flow. O n f r e e w a y s , i n te r s e c -
tio n s w ill b e lim ite d to 1 - m ile o r 1/ 2 - m ile in t e r v a l s . T h e c u r b
a t c o r n e r s s h o u l d h a v e a r a d i u s o f 1 2 feet for m i n o r s tr e e ts , o r
50 feet a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s w i t h m a j o r s t r e e t s , to a llo w e a s y 143
tu r n s .
M i n i m u m f o r w a r d s i g h t d i s t a n c e m u s t be m a i n t a i n e d
at all p o i n t s o n t h e lin e to giv e d r i v e r s a m p l e t i m e to r e a c t to
d a n g e r s a p p e a r i n g in t h e r o a d . It c a n b e sc a le d f r o m th e
p l a n s a n d s h o u l d t a k e a c c o u n t o f b u i l d i n g s , hills, l a n d s c a p -
ing, a n d o t h e r b lo c k s to v is io n . T h e m i n i m u m v a lu e d e p e n d s See page 156
o n th e d e s ig n s p e e d . A d r i v e r 75 feet f r o m a n i n t e r s e c t i o n
s h o u l d see th e e n t i r e i n t e r s e c t i o n p lu s 75 feet o f t h e i n t e r -
s e c tin g s t r e e t o n e a c h side.
T h e m a x im u m d e p th o f a lo o p d r iv e is u s u a lly g iv e n as Limiting
7 0 0 fee t a n d th a t o f a c u l- d e -s a c as 4 0 0 fe e t. T h e m a x im u m dimensions
a llo w a b le b lo c k le n g t h is 1 6 0 0 fe e t. A ll o f t h e s e s ta n d a r d s
are b a se d o n th e s a m e r e a s o n in g : a s b lo c k , lo o p , a n d c u l-
d e -s a c le n g t h in c r e a s e , g e n e r a l c ir c u la t io n b e c o m e s m o r e in -
d ir e c t, s e r v ic e d e liv e r ie s lo n g e r , a n d e m e r g e n c y a c c e s s m o r e
lia b le to m is d ir e c t io n . T h e s e r u le s a re c o m m o n ly h e ld s ta n d -
a rd s o f " r e a s o n a b le n e s s ." N o t all s it e p la n n e r s a g r e e to
th e m , h o w e v e r . O b v io u s ly , th e r u le s w o u ld n o t a p p ly w h e r e
th r o u g h c ir c u la t io n is a lr e a d y b lo c k e d for o th e r r e a s o n s , a s o n
a n a r r o w p e n in s u la , r id g e , o r p o c k e t o f la n d .
A m i n i m u m t u r n a r o u n d a t th e e n d o f a c u l- d e - s a c Dead ends
s h o u l d h a v e a 4 0 - f o o t o u t s i d e r a d i u s free o f p a r k i n g , so t h a t
v e h ic le s s u c h a fire e n g i n e s c a n n e g o t i a t e it. T h i s r e q u i r e s a
la rg e c ir c u la r r i g h t - o f - w a y a n d m a y d e f e a t t h e e c o n o m i c
a n d v is u a l p u r p o s e s o f s m a ll c u ls - d e - s a c . A T - s h a p e d te r m i -
n u s o r s h u n t is a n a l t e r n a t i v e w a y o f p r o v i d i n g for b a c k i n g
tu rn s o n very sh o rt dead ends. T h e w in g s of th e s h u n t
s h o u l d be a t le a s t a c a r 's l e n g t h d e e p o n e a c h side, e x c lu s iv e
o f th e w i d t h o f th e s tr e e t, a n d a t le a s t 1 2 feet w id e if n o
p a r k i n g is a llo w e d . T h e in s id e c u r b s h o u l d h a v e a 2 0 -fo o t
r a d iu s . A s lo n g as th e s e t u r n i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e p r o v i d e d
for, free o f o b s ta c le s , a s m a ll s h o r t r e s i d e n t i a l c u l- d e - s a c
n e e d n o t a d h e r e r i g i d l y to t h e s e s h a p e s . In fact, a fre e ly
f o r m e d p a r k i n g a n d a r r iv a l c o u r t m a y be q u i t e d e s ir a b le .
I n d i v i d u a l d r i v e w a y s s h o u l d be 8 feet w id e , th e c u r b Driveways and
a t th e e n t r a n c e b e in g r o u n d e d o ff w i t h a r a d i u s o f 3 to 5 feet. walking
D r i v e w a y e n t r a n c e s s h o u l d b e a t le a st 5 0 feet f r o m a n y distances
s tr e e t i n t e r s e c t i o n to p r e v e n t c o n f u s i o n w i t h th e t u r n i n g
m o v e m e n t s th e r e . S e p a r a t e d r i v e w a y s a n d e n t r a n c e w a lk s
s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d for e a c h d w e l l i n g u n i t u n le s s t h e y a re
m a d e c o m m o n to la rg e n u m b e r s o f u n its . W a l k s a n d d r iv e s
t h a t j o i n t l y s e rv e t w o o r t h r e e u n i t s a r c p o t e n t i a l s o u r c e s o f
fric tio n in r e g a r d to m a i n t e n a n c e .
144 T h e m a x im u m d is t a n c e fr o m th e str e e t to th e d o o r o f a
d w e llin g u n it is o f te n g iv e n a s 1 5 0 fe e t for c a r r y in g c o n v e -
n ie n c e , b u t p e r h a p s it s h o u ld b e 1 0 0 fe e t. For s im ila r r e a s o n s
th e r e s h o u ld n o t b e a s t e e p g r a d e b e t w e e n h o u s e d o o r a n d
s tr e e t. T h is s t r e e t ‫ ־‬t o ‫־‬d o o r d is t a n c e sta n d a r d is a ls o in d is -
p u te : s o m e w o u ld r e s tr ic t it to 50 fe e t; o th e r s w o u ld re la x it
to 3 0 0 . It h a s a n im p o r ta n t e ffe c t o n c o s t a n d o n d e s ig n fr e e -
d o m . It d e p e n d s o n th e w a y o f life : in A m e r ic a , b o th b y
p r e fe r e n c e and by n e c e s s it y , t h is m a x im u m d is t a n c e is
s h r in k in g . In c o u n tr ie s w h e r e m u c h w a lk in g is c u s to m a r y ,
th e d is t a n c e c o u ld b e s u b s t a n t ia lly lo n g e r .
H o u s e s s h o u ld b e lo c a te d s o th a t ca r h e a d lig h t s w ill n o t
s h in e in to g r o u n d flo o r w in d o w s a n d s o th a t th e r e w ill b e n o
d a n g e r o f th e h o u s e b e in g s tr u c k b y ca r s o u t o f c o n t r o l. T h is
a r g u e s a g a in s t a x ia l p o s it io n s at s h a r p c u r v e s o r T in t e r s e c ‫־‬
t io n s , e s p e c ia lly at th e f o o t o f s lo p e s .
Parking lots P a r k in g m a y b e p r o v id e d in v a r io u s w a y s : o n th e str e e t
( w h ic h is c o n v e n ie n t b u t e x p e n s iv e a n d d is t u r b in g to m o v -
in g tr a ffic ), in s m a ll p a r k in g b a y s , in la r g e p a r k in g lo ts
( w h ic h is th e c h e a p e s t m e t h o d b u t m a y b e in c o n v e n ie n t or
u n s ig h t ly ) , u n d e r g r o u n d , or in r a m p s tr u c tu r e s or g a r a g e s
( th e m o s t e x p e n s iv e w a y s o f a ll).
P a r k i n g lo ts c a n be laid o u t if t h e f o ll o w i n g d i m e n s i o n s
for t h e m o d e r n j u g g e r n a u t a r e k e p t in m i n d : e a c h s ta ll
s h o u l d b e 19 feet l o n g a n d 8 feet w id e if a t t e n d a n t s p a r k
ca rs, a n d 8 V2 b y 2 0 feet if d r i v e r s p a r k t h e i r o w n c a rs , o r
e v e n 9 feet w i d e to giv e a s e n s e o f a m p l e r o o m . If f r o n t
b u m p e r s c a n n o t o v e r h a n g t h e c u r b , t h e n s ta ll l e n g t h s m a y
h a v e to b e i n c r e a s e d b y s e v e r a l feet. S ta lls m a y be p a r a lle l,
p e r p e n d i c u l a r , o r a t 3 0 -, 4 5 -, o r 6 0 - d e g r e e a n g l e s to t h e
m o v i n g la n e . A n g l e d p a r k i n g r e q u i r e s o n e - w a y traffic flow ,
w h i c h m a y b e c o n f u s i n g . A is le w i d t h s r a n g e f r o m 1 2 feet
for o n e - w a y la n e s s e r v i n g 3 0 - d e g r e e a n d 4 5 - d e g r e e p a r k i n g
to 2 2 feet for t w o - w a y la n e s s e r v i n g p e r p e n d i c u l a r p a r k i n g .
F or effic ie n cy , t h e r e s h o u l d b e s ta lls o n e a c h s id e o f e a c h
m o v i n g la n e . H e r r i n g b o n e d iv id e r s p la c e d b e t w e e n th e
i n n e r e n d s o f a n g l e s ta lls w ill s a v e s o m e f u r t h e r sp a c e . D i-
v id e r s a n d c u r b s m a y h a m p e r s n o w r e m o v a l a n d t h e f u t u r e
r e a r r a n g e m e n t s o f t h e lo t, h o w e v e r . T h e p e r p e n d i c u l a r la y -
o u t is t h e m o s t efficient, a n d 3 0 - d e g r e e a n g l e p a r k i n g th e
least. A s a r o u g h g u id e , o v e r a ll s p a c e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f la rg e
a n d effic ie n t lo ts r u n f r o m 2 5 0 s q u a r e feet p e r c a r for a t-
t e n d a n t - p a r k e d lots in w h i c h c a r s a re s t o r e d t h r e e o r f o u r
d e e p to 4 0 0 s q u a r e feet p e r c a r for g e n e r o u s s e l f - p a r k i n g .
T h e m a x i m u m a l l o w a b l e s lo p e in a n y d i r e c t i o n is 5 p e r c e n t , 145
a n d th e m i n i m u m 1 p e r c e n t.
T h e c ir c u l a t i o n w i t h i n la rg e lo ts s h o u l d b e c o n t i n u o u s ,
w i t h d i s p e r s e d e x its a n d a m i n i m u m o f t u r n s . L ot e n t r a n c e s
s h o u l d b e a t le a st 1 2 to 14 feet w i d e if o n e - w a y . T h o u g h t
s h o u ld b e g iv e n to t h e m o v e m e n t o f p e d e s t r i a n s to a n d f r o m
th e cars. O n e s o l u t i o n is to p r o v i d e a r a is e d a n d p l a n t e d
s t r i p b e t w e e n th e r a n k s o f v e h ic le s. T r e e p l a n t i n g w ill im -
p r o v e th e c lim a te a n d lo o k o f a p a r k i n g lot, b u t tr e e s r e q u i r e
s u b s t a n t i a l s p a c e for r o o t fe e d in g . L o ts m a y b e s c r e e n e d
w i t h w a lls o r p l a n t i n g o r s u n k e n a fe w feet to a l l o w v is io n
o v e r th e m . For c o n v e n i e n c e , v is u a l scale, a n d i n d i v i d u a l c o n -
tro l o v e r th e c a r, it is p r e f e r a b l e in r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s n o t to
a llo w p a r k i n g in g r o u p s o f o v e r six to te n c a rs. E ven in la r g e
lots s e r v i n g c o m m e r c i a l a r e a s , it is d e s i r a b l e to k e e p t h e c a r s
w i t h i n 6 0 0 feet o f th e i r d e s t i n a t i o n s , u n l e s s s p e c ia l t r a n s -
p o r t a t i o n is p r o v id e d .
L a rg e t r a c t o r - t r a i l e r t r u c k s a r e a b o u t 50 feet b y 8 feet. Loading areas
T h e y r e q u i r e a m i n i m u m o u t s i d e t u r n i n g r a d i u s o f 60 feet
a n d a v e r tic a l c le a r a n c e o f 14 feet. C u r b r a d ii a t c o r n e r s
m u s t b e 3 0 to 4 0 feet w h e r e s u c h t r u c k s a r e c o m m o n . L o a d -
in g d o c k s for tr u c k s s h o u l d be 1 0 to 1 2 feet w id e p e r t r u c k ,
set a t t r u c k - b e d h e i g h t — a b o u t 4 feet o f f th e p a v e m e n t —
a n d a r r a n g e d so t h a t , w h e n b a c k i n g , t h e tr a i l e r s w i n g s c le a r
o f th e d r i v e r 's lin e o f v is io n . A 5 0 - f o o t p a r k i n g a n d m a n e u -
v e r i n g a p r o n is n e e d e d in f r o n t o f t h e d o c k . A g e n e r a l r u le
is t h a t t h e floor o f a l o a d i n g d o c k s h o u l d b e a b o u t tw ic e
th e flo o r a r e a o f th e b e d s o f all t h e t r u c k s t h a t c o u ld b e
b r o u g h t u p to t h e d o c k at o n e tim e : t h i s a l l o w s r o o m for
u n lo a d in g a n d te m p o ra ry stacking.
T h e c a p a c ity o f a ro a d d e p e n d s o n th e c h a r a c t e r is tic s o f Road capacity
th e ro a d — w id th , s u r fa c e , a lig n m e n t, c o n d it io n s at th e
e d g e — and th e c h a r a c te r is tic s of th e tr a ffic — v e h ic le
ty p e , s p e e d , c o n t r o l, d r iv e r s k ill. T h e t h e o r e tic a l c a p a c ity o f
o n e la n e o f tra ffic is 2 0 0 0 c a r s p er h o u r w h e r e t h is f lo w is Reference 38
c o m p le t e ly s t e a d y , u n in te r r u p te d , a n d at o p tim u m sp e e d
an d s p a c in g . It m ig h t b e a p p r o x im a te d b y a n o r g a n iz e d c o n -
v o y m o v in g o n an id e a l p a v e m e n t. In p r a c tic e , a m u lt ila n e
f r e e w a y m a y ca r r y u p to 1 5 0 0 or e v e n 1 8 0 0 ca r s p er h o u r
p er la n e , w h ile a c o n g e s te d s tr e e t w it h fr e q u e n t s id e fr ic tio n
d u e to c a r s p a r k in g a n d e n t e r in g m a y c a r r y o n ly 2 0 0 to 3 0 0
cars p er h o u r o n th e o u ts id e la n e . A lo c a l r e s id e n tia l str e e t
w ill ca r ry a b o u t 4 0 0 to 5 0 0 ca rs p er h o u r p er la n e . F ou r la n e s
in e a c h d ir e c t io n s e e m to b e th e w id e s t ro a d th a t o n e c a n
 146 d r iv e o n w it h o u t lo s s o f s a n it y . E x p e c te d lo c a l str e e t v o lu m e s
in s u b u r b a n a r e a s m a y b e r o u g h ly e s tim a t e d b y a s s u m in g
th a t e a c h d w e llin g w ill g e n e r a t e a b o u t s e v e n o n e - w a y v e h ic -
u la r tr ip s p e r d a y , o r o n e o r t w o p e r p e a k h o u r . L a rg er,
d e n s e r , o r m o r e c o m p le x a r e a s r e q u ir e m o r e c a r e fu l tr a ffic
a s s ig n m e n t s tu d ie s .
In tersection W h e n traffic flo w is h e a v y , th e c r itic a l lim it to c a p a c -
design ity is t h e i n t e r s e c t i o n . E ven w h e r e t o t a l v o l u m e t h r o u g h a n
i n t e r s e c t i o n is as lo w a s 5 0 0 c a r s p e r h o u r in all d i r e c t i o n s ,
u p to 5 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e a p p r o a c h i n g c a rs m a y h a v e to s to p
before g o in g th ro u g h o r tu rn in g . S u ch a n in te rse c tio n , or a n y
o n e h a n d l i n g h i g h e r lo a d s , w ill r e q u i r e s o m e t r e a t m e n t . T h e
s i m p l e s t is a s t o p s ig n o n t h e s e c o n d a r y s tr e e t. F r o m th e r e ,
t h e d e s i g n e r m a y g o to tra ffic s ig n a ls , c h a n n e l i z a t i o n , o r
g ra d e se p a ra tio n . T h e desig n a n d an aly sis of h ig h -c a p a c ity
r o a d s a n d i n t e r s e c t i o n s is a m a t t e r for tra ffic e n g i n e e r s , b u t
s o m e m e n t i o n o f it m u s t b e m a d e to g iv e t h e site p l a n n e r a
s e n s e o f t h e p r o b l e m s in v o lv e d .
I n te r s e c t io n s a re d e s ig n e d to a v o id c o n f lic t in g m a n e u -
v e r s, to m o d e r a te th e ir d iff ic u lt y , or to s e p a r a te th e m in tim e
o r s p a c e . T h e s e c o n f lic t in g m an eu vers in c lu d e m e r g in g ,
d iv e r g in g , a n d c r o s s in g , a n d th e ir d a n g e r is p r o p o r t io n a l to
th e r e la tiv e sp e e d o f th e a p p r o a c h in g v e h ic le s . For e x a m p le ,
th e r e la tiv e sp e e d o f t w o c a r s in a h e a d -o n c o l lis i o n is th e
su m o f th e ir in d iv id u a l s p e e d s , w h ile th a t o f t w o v e h ic le s
g o in g e q u a lly fa st b u t m e r g in g in to th e s a m e tr a ffic str e a m
fr o m t w o s l i g h t l y d iffe r e n t d ir e c t io n s is a lm o s t z e r o .
Traffic sig n a ls T r a ffic s ig n a ls , b y a lt e r n a t e ly s t o p p in g s o m e e n t e r in g
m o v e m e n t s , r e d u c e th e n u m b e r o f c o n f lic ts . S ig n a ls m a y b e
w a r r a n te d w h e n in t e r s e c t io n v o lu m e s r is e a b o v e 7 5 0 v e h i-
L
H—
c le s p er h o u r , w it h at le a s t o n e -q u a r te r o f th e f lo w o n th e
m in o r s tr e e t. T h e y m a y h a v e a s im p le t w o - p h a s e c y c le ,

r
­­‫זי‬
w h ic h a lt e r n a t e ly p a s s e s th e tr a ffic o f o n e str e e t a n d th e n
‫ר‬ th e o th e r , w it h a y e l lo w w a r n in g in te r v a l b e t w e e n e a c h
c h a n g e fro m g r e e n to red . O r t h e y m a y b e m o r e e la b o r a te ,
w it h th r e e , fo u r , or e v e n m o r e p h a s e s , to a llo w u n h in d e r e d
j 1_
le ft tu r n s. T o ta l c y c le s a re u s u a lly fr o m 3 5 to 5 0 s e c o n d s
­ ‫זי‬ lo n g , a n d e a c h in t e r v e n in g y e l lo w in te r v a l is a b o u t 3 s e c o n d s .
T h e c a p a c ity o f s u c h a c o n t r o lle d in te r s e c t io n c a n b e c o m -
‫ר‬ I f p u te d b y a s s u m in g th a t a s m a n y as 1 0 0 0 v e h ic le s c a n m o v e
t h r o u g h e a c h la n e d u r in g e a c h h o u r o f to ta l g r e e n tim e , th a t
is, e x c lu d in g fo r e a c h m o v e m e n t a ll its red a n d y e l lo w (s to p
and w a r n in g ) p e r io d s . T h is is a h ig h fig u r e a t ta in a b le
u n d e r o p tim u m c o n d it io n s a n d d o e s n o t a llo w for th e e f f e c ts o f
h e a v y tr u c k s , l e f t - t u r n o r p e d e s t r i a n c o n flic ts , o r a n y s t o p - 147
p i n g o r p a r k i n g at t h e c r o s s in g . A c t u a l fig u re s a r e c lo s e r to
3 0 0 to 6 0 0 v e h ic le s p e r la n e p e r h o u r o f g r e e n .
C h a n n e liz a t io n , w h ic h is th e s e p a r a tio n o f la n e s b y th e Channelization
u s e o f is la n d s a n d m e d ia n s , d o e s n o t r e d u c e th e n u m b e r o f
c o n flic ts b u t s e p a r a te s th e m in s p a c e a n d t im e so th a t o n ly
o n e c o n flic t n e e d b e d e a lt w it h at o n e m o m e n t b y th e d r iv e r .
It a llo w s d r iv e r s to w a it fo r a fa v o r a b le c h a n c e to c o n d u c t o n e
m a n e u v e r w it h o u t p r e v e n t in g o th e r d r iv e r s fr o m c o n d u c t in g
o th e r m a n e u v e r s . It a ls o m a k e s a ll m a n e u v e r s e ith e r m e r g -
in g - d iv e r g in g at lo w r e la t iv e s p e e d s or d ir e c t r ig h t - a n g le d
c r o s s in g s , w h e r e th e d r iv e r h a s b e tte r v i s i b i l i t y a n d th e ‫ ז ף ־‬Y Tr
c o n flic t is o f s h o r te r d u r a tio n t h a n in a n g le d c r o s s in g s .
C h a n n e liz a t io n is o f te n u s e d in c o n j u n c t io n w it h tr a ffic s ig -
n a ls at m a jo r in t e r s e c t io n s . E v e n o n m in o r in t e r s e c t io n s , is -
la n d s m a y b e u s e d to im p r o v e s a f e t y , to p r o v id e r o o m fo r
p la n t in g , o r to a llo w a n e a s ie r a d ju s tm e n t to s t e e p c r o s s
s lo p e s .
T h e r o ta r y is a d e v ic e to c o n v e r t a ll c r o s s in g s in to m e r g - Rotaries
in g a n d d iv e r g in g s e q u e n c e s , th a t is, in to w e a v in g o p e r a -
t io n s , w h ic h a re sa fe r b e c a u s e o f th e ir lo w r e la tiv e s p e e d s .
S in c e o n ly o n e la n e c a n w e a v e at a tim e , th e t o ta l c a p a c ity o f
a r o ta r y is n e v e r m o r e t h a n c a n b e g a in e d w it h o n e la n e o f
c r o s s in g flo w a r o u n d th e c ir c le . T h e w id t h o f th e r o ta r y p a v e -
m e n t, h o w e v e r , s h o u ld at le a s t e q u a l th e n u m b e r o f e n t e r in g
la n e s o n th e la r g e s t in c o m in g s tr e e t, p lu s o n e la n e . R o ta r ie s
are u s e fu l w h e r e t o ta l in t e r s e c t io n f lo w is a p p r o x im a t e ly 5 0 0
to 3 0 0 0 v e h ic le s p er h o u r , d e p e n d in g o n th e p r e d o m in a n c e o f
t h r o u g h a n d le ft - tu r n m o v e m e n t s . A t t h is v o lu m e o f f lo w ,
th e y are p a r tic u la r ly u s e fu l w h e r e m o r e th a n fo u r r o a d s c o n -
v e r g e . T h e le n g t h a llo w e d fo r w e a v in g is c r itic a l fo r c a p a c -
ity . A t 25 m ile s p e r h o u r , a 1 0 0 - f o o t w e a v in g s e c t io n m a y
ca r ry o n ly h a lf th e n o r m a l s in g le - la n e c a p a c ity , a n d 4 0 0
fee t m a y b e r e q u ir e d to g iv e fu ll s in g le - la n e flo w . A t h ig h e r
s p e e d s , 8 0 0 feet m a y b e r e q u ir e d fo r fu ll c a p a c ity , a n d 3 0 0
fee t for h a lf c a p a c ity . M in im u m w e a v in g le n g t h s are
u s u a lly se t at a b o u t 2 0 0 o r 2 5 0 fe e t. T h e r o ta r y k e e p s tr a ffic
m o v in g s m o o t h ly w h e r e f lo w s d o n o t e x c e e d t h e s e s in g le - la n e
le v e ls a n d w h e r e th e c ir c le c a n b e m a d e la r g e e n o u g h to
g iv e a d e q u a te w e a v in g le n g t h . B u t w h e r e r o ta r ie s a re s m a ll
or f lo w s e x c e e d th e c a p a c ity o f th e s in g le w e a v in g la n e , tr a f-
fic is lia b le to " fr e e z e ." T h u s r o ta r ie s h a v e o n ly a r e s tr ic te d
u s e f u ln e s s a n d te n d to c o n s u m e t r e m e n d o u s a r e a s o f g r o u n d .
T h e e n c lo s e d c ir c le is n o r m a lly b a r r e n . R o ta r ie s a re a ls o d if-
148 fic u lt fo r p e d e s t r ia n s to c r o s s , e x c e p t b y b r id g e s or tu n n e ls .
Grade G ra d e s e p a ra tio n s are exp en siv e, sp a c e -d e m a n d in g ,
separations c o n f u s i n g to th e d r iv e r , a n d in f le x ib le w i t h r e g a r d to f u t u r e
c h a n g e . T h e y s h o u l d b e u s e d o n l y w h e r e n e c e s s a r y , t h a t is,
w h e n a c h a n n e liz ed in te rse c tio n w ith sig n als c a n n o t carry
t h e lo a d . A g r a d e s e p a r a t i o n is o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d n e c e s s a r y
w h e n t h e flo w o n t h e m a j o r c h a n n e l is o v e r 3 0 0 0 v e h ic le s
per hour.
O n e o f th e m o s t c o m m o n t y p e s o f g r a d e - s e p a r a te d in -
t e r c h a n g e is th e c lo v e r le a f , w it h its in d ir e c t le ft tu r n s. C lo -
v e r le a fs m a y b e fu ll o r p a r tia l, d e p e n d in g o n w h e th e r a ll
p o s s ib le tu r n s a re a llo w e d . T h e y t a k e m u c h s p a c e a n d a re
c o n f u s in g in fo r m , b u t th e p u b lic is b y n o w s o m e w h a t a d -
ju s te d to th e m . C a p a c it y is h ig h , e x c e p t w it h r e g a r d to th e
le ft tu r n , w h e r e n o m o r e th a n a s in g le la n e c a n d iv e r g e a n d
s p e e d is s lo w a r o u n d th e t ig h t r e v e r s e tu r n .
If le ft - tu r n v o lu m e s a re h ig h , a s fo r e x a m p le w h e r e t w o
u rb an fr e e w a y s in t e r s e c t , th e n a d ir e c t le ft - tu r n in te r -
c h a n g e w ill h a v e to b e u s e d , w h ic h r e q u ir e s a c o m p le x a n d
e x p e n s iv e str u c tu r e . M o r e th a n o n e la n e c a n b e p u lle d o ff,
a n d in a d ir e c t io n th a t m a k e s s e n s e to th e d r iv e r . L e ft-
tu r n in g r a m p s m a y b e p r o v id e d fo r a ll le ft tu r n s o r o n ly fo r
p a r tic u la r o n e s .
W h e r e o n ly o n e c h a n n e l is o f m a jo r im p o r ta n c e , it is
c o m m o n to u s e e ith e r a b r id g e d r o ta r y or a d ia m o n d in te r s e c -
t io n , in w h ic h c o n f lic ts a re a llo w e d o n th e s e c o n d a r y r o a d b u t
n o t o n th e m a jo r o n e . T h e d ia m o n d ty p e , in p a r tic u la r , is s a v -
in g o f s p a c e in t ig h t u r b a n s it u a t io n s .
M a n y s p e c ia l t y p e s o f g r a d e s e p a r a tio n a re in u s e or
c a n b e d e v e lo p e d . H o w e v e r c o m p lic a te d , t h e y c a n b e a n a -
ly z e d b y t r a c in g o u t e a c h p o s s ib le t h r o u g h o r tu r n in g m o v e -
m e n t a n d b y c h e c k in g th e c a p a c ity o f e a c h p a r t o f th e in te r -
s e c t io n w it h e x p e c t e d f lo w s in th a t d ir e c tio n . S p e c ia l ty p e s
fo r p a r tic u la r p r o b le m s c a n b e s t b e d e v e lo p e d b y th e u s e o f
m o v e m e n t d ia g r a m s , b e g in n i n g w it h th e e x p e c t e d p a tte r n
o f h e a v y f lo w s . S u c h d ia g r a m s e x p la in th e c o n f lic ts r e s u lt-
in g fr o m a lte r n a te p a tte r n s . C o lo r s c a n b e u se d to s e p a r a te
le v e ls d ia g r a m m a t ic a lly a n d to in d ic a t e th e b r id g in g re -
q u ir e d , w h ic h is in d ic a t iv e o f th e to ta l c o s t.
D im ensions R ough s c a le d r a w in g s can th en be u sed to ch eck
of grade w h e th e r th e in te r s e c t io n w o u ld b e w o r k a b le a n d to in d ic a t e
separations th e s p a c e re q u ir e d . T h e r e q u ir e m e n ts th a t are m o s t c r itic a l
for th e s iz e a n d f e a s ib ilit y o f a se p a r a te d in t e r s e c t io n are th e
m a x im u m r a m p g r a d e s , th e m in im u m r a m p r a d ii, a n d th e
m in im u m le n g t h s o f a c c e le r a tio n a n d d e c e le r a t io n la n e s .
M a x im u m ra m p g r a d e s a re u s u a lly g iv e n a s f o llo w s : 149
U p ram ps 4—6 %
U p r a m p s, h ig h v o lu m e 3—4 %
D o w n ra m p s 8%
M in im u m ra m p r a d ii a re th e s a m e a s t h o s e fo r a n y tr a ffic
p a v e m e n t a n d d e p e n d o n d e s ig n s p e e d . D e s i g n s p e e d s o f 2 0
to 3 0 m ile s p er h o u r a re u s u a lly e m p lo y e d o n s u c h r a m p s. See page 156
T h e re q u ir e d le n g t h o f a c c e le r a tio n a n d d e c e le r a t io n la n e s ,
in c lu d in g th e e n t e r in g ta p e r , d e p e n d s o n th e r e la t iv e s p e e d
o f tra ffic o n th e m a in ro a d a n d o n th e r a m p b e in g e n te r e d or
le ft. G iv e n a ra m p d e s ig n e d fo r 2 0 m ile s p er h o u r , th e re -
q u ir ed to ta l le n g t h s are:

D esign sp eed o f h ig h w a y (m iles per hour) 40 50 60

Length of deceleration lane and taper (ft) 250 350 400

Length of acceleration lane and taper (ft) 250 450 700

T h e capacity of su ch com plex in te rse c tio n s m u st be an -

a ly z e d p a r t b y p a r t : t h e t h r o u g h l a n e s , t h e t u r n i n g la n e s ,
a n d so o n . L im its to c a p a c i t y a r e lik e ly to b e m e t a t t h e acc e l-
e r a t i o n la n e s , w h e r e t u r n i n g tra ffic is m e r g i n g b a c k i n t o
t h r o u g h traffic. H e r e , if t h e m a n e u v e r is s m o o t h l y d e s i g n e d
w i t h a n a d e q u a t e l y lo n g a c c e l e r a t i o n la n e , to t a l flo w in t h e
m e r g i n g lin e m a y c o m e u p to 8 0 p e r c e n t o f full s i n g l e - l a n e
c a p a c ity . W h e r e m a j o r flo w s a r e c o m i n g t o g e t h e r , it m a y b e
p o s s ib le to b r i n g in t w o la n e s i n s t e a d o f o n e , a l t h o u g h m e r g -
in g c a n n o t b e e ffe c ted for a l o n g d i s t a n c e . I n t h e e x t r e m e
case, it is a ls o p o s s i b l e to a llo w tw o , th r e e , o r e v e n m o r e s e p -
a r a t e la n e s to m e r g e o r d iv e r g e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i n t o o r f r o m
a n e q u a l n u m b e r o f t h r o u g h la n e s b y u s i n g s e p a r a t e o n o r o ff
r a m p s fo r e a c h set o f l a n e s . O b v i o u s l y , t h i s is a c o m p le x , ex-
p e n s i v e s o l u tio n .
P e d e s t r i a n s p a c e s m a y a ls o b e a n a l y z e d for t h e i r ca- Stan ding room
p a c ity . S p a c e for s t a n d i n g is u n i m p e d e d w h e n t h e r e is a n only
a r e a o f m o r e t h a n 13 s q u a r e feet p e r p e r s o n , a n d it is e a s y to
m o v e a b o u t . T h i s is a d e s i r a b l e s t a n d a r d for c r o w d s p a c e s.
B e lo w t h i s p o i n t , c i r c u l a t i o n is s o m e w h a t i m p e d e d , a n d p e o - o
p ie m u s t r e s o r t to p o lite w a r n i n g s o r t o u c h e s to m o v e t h r o u g h °
t h e c r o w d . B e lo w 7 s q u a r e feet p e r p e r s o n , s t a n d i n g b e c o m e s cr*

c o n s t r a i n e d : o n l y l im ite d i n t e r n a l c i r c u l a t i o n is p o s s ib le ,
a n d p e o p le m o v e as a g r o u p r a t h e r t h a n a s i n d i v i d u a l s . T h i s
is t h e to l e r a b l e m i n i m u m for c r o w d s p a c e s. A t 3 s q u a r e feet
p e r p e r s o n , t h e r e is n o i n t e r n a l c i r c u l a t i o n , a n d p e o p le a re
fo rc e d i n to p h y s i c a l c o n t a c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r , a n u n p l e a s a n t
s i t u a t i o n in th is c u l t u r e a n d d a n g e r o u s if p a n i c m o v e m e n t s
‫־‬#
150 s h o u l d o c c u r. It is, h o w e v e r , p h y s i c a l l y p o s s i b l e to p a c k p e o -
p ie i n t o s p a c e s o f e v e n less t h a n 1 V2 s q u a r e feet p e r p e r s o n .
W alkw ay T h e c a p a c i t y o f w a l k w a y s is s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 2 .
capacities S in c e a v e r a g e s p e e d s v a r y f r o m o v e r 3 0 0 feet p e r m i n u t e

T able 2. C apacity of W alkways Rate of flow

Reference 63 (persons per
m inute per
foot of walk-
Q u ality of flow w ay w idth )

C om pletely open u n d e r 1/2

U n i m p e d e d : free m o v e m e n t; w a lk in g g ro u p s
are m a in ta in e d easily 1/ 2 - 2
I m p e d e d : g ro u p s m u st shift and re-form ; m uch
m a n e u v e rin g but few conflicts 2 -6
C o n s t r a i n e d : g ro u p s c annot be m a in ta in e d ;
cross flows cause conflicts 6 -1 0
M o d e r a t e l y c o n g e s t e d : tou ch in g necessary;
frequent conflicts t h r o u g h o u t the stream 1 0 -1 4
H e a v i l y c o n g e s t e d : even slow est w alkers are
o b stru c te d 1 4 -1 8
J a m m e d : enforced m ass m o vem ent or a sta n d -
still 0-25

( b r i s k w a l k ) in o p e n f lo w to less t h a n 1 5 0 feet p e r m i n u t e
(sh u ffle ) a t m a x i m u m r a t e s o f flo w , t h e to t a l w a l k w a y s p a c e
o c c u p ie d b y a s in g le p e d e s t r i a n in t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n c a n
v a r y f r o m o v e r 6 0 0 s q u a r e feet in o p e n flo w to less t h a n 6
s q u a r e feet in a j a m ( t h a t is, t h e c o n d i t i o n o f " c o n s t r a i n e d
s t a n d i n g " ) . Six p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e p e r fo o t o f w a l k w i d t h
m a y b e t a k e n a s t h e d e s i r a b l e m a x i m u m r a t e a n d 1 0 as t h e
t o l e r a b l e m a x i m u m in t h e o r d i n a r y case.
P e d e s t r i a n f lo w u s u a l l y c o m e s in p u ls e s , o r " p l a t o o n s , "
as c r o w d s a r e i n t e r m i t t e n t l y r e le a s e d o r i n t e r r u p t e d , a n d as
sl o w e r w a l k e r s i m p e d e m o r e r a p i d o n e s . T h i s effect is m o r e
n o t i c e a b l e w h e r e flo w s a r e m o d e r a t e r a t h e r t h a n w h e r e t h e y
a re h e a v y o r v e r y lig h t. T h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s r a t e o f flo w w h i l e
a p l a t o o n is p a s s i n g m a y b e 1 V2 to 2 V2 ti m e s t h e flo w a v e r -
a g e d o v e r a 1 5 - m i n u t e p e r i o d . R a t e s o f flo w w ill a ls o v a r y
t h r o u g h o u t t h e d a y , w h e n e m p l o y e e s p o u r in a n d o u t o f a n
a r e a a t t h e r u s h h o u r s o r w h e n s h o p p e r s a n d l u n c h e r s fre-
q u e n t t h e s t o r e s a n d r e s t a u r a n t s a t m i d d a y . A v e r a g e flo w s
d u r i n g p e a k p e r i o d s o f t h i s k i n d m a y b e 2 to 4 tim e s t h e a v -
e r a g e flo w for a n o r m a l 1 5 - m i n u t e p e r io d . F lo w s m u s t b e cal-
c u l a t e d f r o m d ir e c t o b s e r v a t i o n o r f r o m a s s u m e d r e l a t i o n s b e -
tw e e n the q u a n tity of resid en ts, em ployees, or sh o p p e rs a n d 151
th e q u a n t i t y o f flo o r s p a c e p r o v i d e d . I n m i d t o w n M a n h a t t a n ,
for e x a m p l e , 1 0 0 0 s q u a r e feet o f r e s i d e n t i a l flo o r s p a c e a t-
tracts 6 in -a n d -o u t trips p er day, w hile a sim ilar a m o u n t of
office s p a c e a t t r a c t s 14 t r ip s , a n d t h i s a m o u n t o f d e p a r t m e n t
s t o r e sp a c e , 3 0 0 trip s .
T w o - d i r e c t i o n a l flo w o n a s i d e w a l k is n o t m u c h le ss ef-
ficient t h a n o n e - w a y flow , s in c e p e d e s t r i a n s a d j u s t t h e m -
selves i n t o n o n c o n f l i c t i n g s t r e a m s . T h i s is n o t tr u e , h o w e v e r ,
w h e n t h e r e is a s m a ll r e v e r s e flo w o p p o s i n g a m a j o r s t r e a m .
W h e n t h e r e v e r s e flo w is o n l y 1 0 p e r c e n t o f t o t a l flow , for ex-
a m p le , t o ta l w a l k w a y c a p a c i t y m a y b e r e d u c e d b y 15 p e r -
c e n t.
P u b lic s t a i r w a y s , u n d e r n o r m a l a n d e a s y c o n d i t i o n s , d o Stairs a n d
n o t a v e r a g e m o r e t h a n 2 p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e p e r fo o t o f crossings
w i d t h . T h i s r a t e m a y rise to a m a x i m u m o f 16 p e r s o n s ,
w h e n a c r o w d e d s t a i r is fed b y a p e r m a n e n t q u e u e a n d
w h e n t h e r e is n o p a s s i n g o r a n y r e v e r s e flow . E s c a la to r s d o
n o t i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e o f flo w m o v i n g u p s t a i r s ; t h e y s i m p l y
r e d u c e t h e e ff o r t o f m o u n t i n g . W h e r e v e r flo w s o f m o r e t h a n 2
p e r s o n s p e r m i n u t e p e r f o o t a r e e x p e c te d , b u n c h i n g a t t h e
h e a d o r fo o t o f s t a i r s a n d e s c a l a t o r s w ill o c c u r, a n d r e s e r v o i r
s p a c e m u s t b e p r o v i d e d for th is.
S im ila r ly , r e s e r v o ir s p a c e s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d w h e r e
p e d e s t r i a n s m u s t w a i t a t s t r e e t c r o s s i n g s , e s p e c ia lly w h e n
t h e flo w o f t h e f e e d in g s i d e w a l k s is m o r e t h a n 2 p e r s o n s p e r
m i n u t e p e r foot. C r o s s w a l k s s h o u l d b e w i d e r t h a n t h e i n c o m -
in g s i d e w a l k s , s in c e t w o p e d e s t r i a n s t r e a m s w ill m e e t h e a d
o n . A n d w h e n a d j a c e n t w a l k flo w s rise to 6 o r 1 0 p e r s o n s p e r
m i n u t e p e r f o o t, g r a d e i n t e r s e c t i o n s w ill b e c h a o tic , w i t h
p e o p le w a i t i n g in th e s t r e e t o r c r o s s i n g a g a i n s t t h e lig h ts.
T h e v e r tic a l a l i g n m e n t o f t h e c e n t e r lin e o f a r o a d is V ertical
a lso m a d e u p o f s t r a i g h t t a n g e n t s — c o n s t a n t u p g r a d e s o r A lig n m e n t
d o w n g r a d e s — w ith vertical curves at th e ju n c tio n s. T h e se
v e r tic a l c u r v e s a r e p a r a b o l i c r a t h e r t h a n c ir c u la r . P a r a b o l i c
c u r v e s a r e u s e d b e c a u s e t h e y a r e e a s y to set o u t in t h e field
a n d th ey m a k e a sm o o th tra n s itio n b e tw e e n the inte rse c tin g
g r a d e s . T h e g r a d e s o f t h e t a n g e n t s a re e x p r e s s e d in p e r -
c e n ta g e s , o r t h e feet o f rise o r fall p e r 1 0 0 feet o f h o r i z o n t a l
r u n . B y c o n v e n t i o n , g r a d e s a r e g iv e n as p o s i t i v e p e r c e n t a g e s
w h e n u p h i l l in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r s in th e
s t a t i o n i n g a n d n e g a t i v e w h e n d o w n h i l l . T h i s v e r tic a l a li g n -
m e n t is c o n v e n t i o n a l l y s h o w n o n a se rie s o f p r o f i l e s , o r c o n t i n -
V.C.
 152 u o u s s e c t i o n s o f t h e c e n t e r lin e o f a s t r e t c h o f r o a d , d r a w n to
a n e x a g g e r a t e d v e r tic a l scale.
Gradients T h e m i n i m u m g r a d e o f t a n g e n t s so t h a t w a t e r w ill
d r a i n o f f t h e r o a d s u r f a c e is 0 .5 p e r c e n t . In s p e c ia l c a se s,
S ee p a g e 1 72 t h e p a v e m e n t m a y b e la id d e a d flat. B u t if p o s s i b l e , th e
s t r e e t p r o f ile h a s p o s i t i v e d r a i n a g e t h r o u g h o u t : t h e r e a r e n o
sag curves or d o w n h ill d e a d -e n d stre e ts o c c u rrin g a t p o in ts
t h a t w ill b e d if f ic u lt to d r a i n o n t h e p l a n .
T h e m a x im u m g ra d e of streets d e p e n d s o n d esig n
S ee p a g e 156 speed. M a x im u m g ra d e s sh o u ld n o t be lo n g su sta in e d . A
p a s s e n g e r c a r c a n n o t s t a y in h i g h g e a r if t h e g r a d e is c o n -
t i n u o u s l y a b o v e 7 p e r c e n t , w h i l e a l a r g e t r u c k m u s t s h if t
d o w n o n su sta in e d g ra d e s of over 3 p ercen t. M a x im u m
g r a d e s a r e s o m e w h a t flex ib le, d e p e n d i n g o n w i n t e r c o n d i -
ti o n s a n d o n lo cal h a b i t s d u e to p r e v a i l i n g t e r r a i n . W h e r e
ic in g is s e v e re , a n y t h i n g o v e r 1 0 p e r c e n t m a y b e to o ste e p ,
w h i l e in S a n F r a n c is c o r e g u l a t i o n s m a y a l l o w g r a d e s u p to
15 p e r c e n t o n m i n o r s tr e e ts . A 1 7 p e r c e n t s u s t a i n e d g r a d e is
t h e m o s t t h a t a l a r g e t r u c k c a n c l i m b in l o w e s t g e a r .
T h e m a x im u m g rad e of sid ew alk s sh o u ld be 1 0 per-
c e n t, o r le ss if ic in g is f r e q u e n t . S h o r t r a m p s a t b r e a k s in
g r a d e m a y g o u p to 15 p e r c e n t , h o w e v e r . If s t e p s a r e u s e d ,
t h e r e m u s t b e a t le a s t t h r e e r is e r s , so t h a t t h e y w ill b e n o -
tic e d , a n d a c c i d e n t a l falls a v o id e d . T h e s t e p s s h o u l d b e d e -
s i g n e d to p r e v e n t b y p a s s i n g . In t h e s t e p p e d r a m p , t h e r e is
a s i n g l e r i s e r to e a c h lo n g , g e n t l y s l o p i n g t r e a d (5 to 8 p e r -
c e n t) . T h e t r e a d is lo n g e n o u g h to r e q u i r e a n o d d n u m b e r o f
p a c e s to t r a v e r s e it. S in c e a n o r m a l p a c e is a b o u t 2 V2 feet,
p r e f e r a b l e t r e a d d e p t h s a r e th e r e f o r e 2 ' 6 " , 7 ' 6 ‫ ״‬, a n d
1 2 ' 6 ". T h e size o f t h e n o r m a l p a c e s h o u l d a ls o b e r e m e m -
b e r e d in p l a c i n g s t e p p i n g - s t o n e s . A u s e f u l r u le for p r o p o r -
t i o n i n g c o n v e n t i o n a l e x t e r i o r s te p s is t h a t t h e h e i g h t o f
t w o r is e r s a d d e d to t h e d e p t h o f t h e t r e a d s h o u l d e q u a l 2 7
in c h e s. R is e r h e i g h t m a y v a r y b e t w e e n 6 V2 i n c h e s as a
m a x i m u m a n d 3 in c h e s as a m i n i m u m . S t a i r s in h e a v y
p u b l i c u s e s h o u l d n e v e r rise a b o v e a g r a d i e n t o f 50 p e r c e n t .
Vertical curves T h e s y m m e t r i c a l p a r a b o l i c v e r tic a l c u r v e h a s t h e ele-
m e n t s s h o w n in F ig u r e 18. T h i s p a r a b o l i c c u r v e d r o p s b e l o w
t h e o r i g i n a l t a n g e n t lin e in p r o p o r t i o n to t h e s q u a r e o f its d is-
ta n c e f r o m t h e p o i n t o f c u r v a t u r e , b u t it c a n e a s ily b e la id
‫ו‬
o u t g r a p h i c a l l y w i t h su f f ic ie n t a c c u r a c y for r e s i d e n t i a l
w o r k . C h o o s e t h e l e n g t h L, lo c a te t h e P C a n d P T so t h a t t h e y
a re e q u i d i s t a n t h o r i z o n t a l l y f r o m t h e PI, a n d d r a w t h e
c h o r d . T h e n lo c a te t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t o f t h e p a r a b o l i c
c u rv e , w h i c h is h a l f w a y , v e r tic a lly , b e t w e e n t h e c h o r d a n d
t h e PI. T h e P C , t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t , a n d t h e P T a r e 153
t h r e e p o i n t s o n t h e r e q u i r e d p a r a b o l a , w h i c h c a n t h e n be
d r a w n w i t h a F r e n c h c u rv e .
W h e r e t h e a l g e b r a ic d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t a n g e n t s is
m o r e t h a n 9 p e r c e n t , t h e lo n g lo w m o d e r n c a r s w ill s t r i k e
t h e r o a d s u r f a c e in p a s s i n g t h e b r e a k in g r a d e . (In F ig u r e
18, fo r e x a m p le , t h e a lg e b r a i c d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e i n t e r -
s e c tin g t a n g e n t s w o u l d b e x% — ( — y % ) , o r x + y % ) . T h e r e -
fore, v e r tic a l c u r v e s m u s t b e i n s e r t e d in a n y d r i v e w a y
w h e r e s u c h a b r e a k o c c u r s , u s i n g a c u r v e t h a t is 1 fo o t l o n g
for e a c h 1 p e r c e n t o f a lg e b r a i c d if f e r e n c e in g r a d e .

Figure 18 Elements of the parabolic curve used in vertical

alignment.

T h e r e q u i r e d l e n g t h o f a v e r tic a l c u r v e in a n o r d i n a r y
s tr e e t, h o w e v e r , is c o n t r o l l e d b y " r o a d a b i l i t y " — t h e a v o i d -
a n c e o f a n u n p l e a s a n t jo lt in t h e v e h ic le m a k i n g t h e g r a d e
t r a n s i t i o n , a jo lt w h i c h is c a u s e d b y a n e x c e s s iv e a c c e le r a -
t i o n o r d e c e l e r a t i o n o f v e r tic a l v e l o c i t y — a n d b y t h e n e e d
to m a i n t a i n a d e q u a t e s i g h t d i s t a n c e . For r o a d a b i l i t y , a v e r t i -
cal c u r v e is r e q u i r e d w h e r e v e r t h e a l g e b r a i c d if f e r e n c e in
g r a d e is 2 p e r c e n t o r m o r e . T h e m i n i m u m l e n g t h o f t h e
c u r v e d e p e n d s o n d e s i g n s p e e d a n d t h e d if f e r e n c e in g r a d e . S ee p a g e 156
If, for e x a m p le , t h e g r a d i e n t s in t h e d i a g r a m w e r e + 5 p e r -
c e n t a n d — 8 p e r c e n t a n d t h e d e s i g n s p e e d w a s 3 0 m ile s p e r
h o u r , t h e n t h e r e q u i r e d c u r v e l e n g t h w o u l d be: 2 0 (5 4 8 ‫)־‬
= 2 6 0 ft.
M i n i m u m f o r w a r d s i g h t d i s t a n c e m u s t be m a i n t a i n e d Sight distance
t h r o u g h o u t th e v e r tic a l as w ell as t h e h o r i z o n t a l a l i g n m e n t .
T h i s is c o m p u t e d as b e i n g v is i o n f r o m a p o i n t 4 feet a b o v e
th e r o a d to a p o i n t 4 i n c h e s a b o v e t h e r o a d a n d m a y b e sc a le d
 154 f r o m t h e p ro file s. S i g h t d i s t a n c e m a y s o m e t i m e s r e q u i r e
l o n g e r v e r tic a l c u r v e s a t s u m m i t s t h a n a r e n e e d e d for r o a d -
a b ility . In s a g c u r v e s t h e r e s u l t i n g l e n g t h o f h e a d l i g h t b e a m
m u s t a ls o b e c h e c k e d to see t h a t it is e q u a l to m i n i m u m
s i g h t d is ta n c e .
P ro f ile s s h o u l d b e f l a t t e n e d a t s tr e e t i n t e r s e c t i o n s so
t h a t h a l t e d v e h ic le s n e e d n o t h a n g o n t h e i r b r a k e s a n d c a n
s t a r t e a sily . T h e r e s h o u l d b e a " p l a t f o r m " o f n o t o v e r 4 p e r -
c e n t g r a d e e x t e n d i n g a t le a s t 4 0 feet e a c h w a y f r o m t h e in -
t e r s e c t i o n . T h i s o f t e n c a u s e s d if f ic u lty w h e r e m a n y c r o s s
s t r e e t s i n t e r s e c t a s t r e e t o n a s te e p g r a d i e n t a n d m u s t s o m e -
ti m e s b e sa c rific e d .
From profiles to O n c e t h e p ro file h a s b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d , it m a y a t a n y
contours ti m e b e c o n v e r t e d to a c o n t o u r e d m a p a s fo llo w s. F irst, t h e
d r a f t s m a n lo c a te s w h e r e e a c h c o n t o u r c r o s s e s t h e c e n t e r lin e
o n t h e p ro file a n d t r a n s f e r s t h i s to t h e m a p . T h e n , k n o w i n g
8’ t h e fall f r o m c r o w n o f r o a d to g u t t e r , h e c a n see t h a t t h e c o n -
t o u r w ill c r o s s t h e g u t t e r a t a p o i n t p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y as far
u p h i l l t o w a r d t h e n e x t c o n t o u r a b o v e a s t h e fall f r o m c r o w n to
2',
C a n '* g u t t e r is in p r o p o r t i o n to t h e c o n t o u r in te r v a l. T h u s , if t h e
g u t t e r is 6 in c h e s b e l o w t h e c r o w n a n d t h e c o n t o u r i n t e r v a l
is 2 feet, t h e n a n y n e w c o n t o u r w ill c r o s s t h e g u t t e r , in p la n ,
o n e -q u a rte r of th e w a y uphill b e tw e e n the p o in t th a t th e
04 ‫־!י‬ s a m e n e w c o n t o u r c r o s s e s t h e c e n t e r lin e in p l a n a n d t h e
p o i n t t h a t th e n e x t - h i g h e r c o n t o u r c r o s s e s th e c e n te r line.
1 1 I T h i s c a n e a s ily b e a p p r o x i m a t e d b y eye. In t h e s a m e w a y t h e
_9_ - K . k
<L U" n e w c o n t o u r c r o s s e s t h e c u r b , in p l a n , as far d o w n h i l l f r o m
!<<.. «24"
! ‫ ־‬6I t h e g u t t e r c r o s s i n g a s t h e h e i g h t o f th e c u r b its e lf is in p r o -
p o r t i o n to t h e c o n t o u r in te r v a l.
O n c e th e d r a f t s m a n h a s l o c a t e d w h e r e t h e c o n t o u r
c r o s s e s t h e c e n t e r lin e, g u t t e r , a n d to p o f c u r b w i t h t ic k
m ark s, he can d ra w freeh an d a s m o o th curve b e tw een
th e m , a curve th a t h as th e e x a g g e ra te d fo rm of th e ro a d cross
s e c tio n itself. T h e d e g r e e o f e x a g g e r a t i o n is less o n s te e p
slo p e s a n d g r e a t e r o n flat o n e s . L ik e all lo c a l c o n t o u r f o r m s , it
" p o i n t s " d o w n h i l l . T h u s , a r o a d t h a t is first r a t h e r flat, t h e n
t ises, t h e n falls s t e e p l y i n t o a sa g , a n d rise s a g a i n m o r e
g e n t l y w o u l d if c o n t o u r e d h a v e t h e a p p e a r a n c e t h a t is s h o w n
h e re :

c c tu t ‫ שש!!הג‬c ‫ש‬
 T h is is a g e n e r a l t e c h n i q u e for d r a w i n g th e c o n t o u r 155
p a t t e r n t h a t r e p r e s e n t s a s u r f a c e o f k n o w n s lo p e a n d e le v a -
tio n , a n d it c a n be u s e d for a n y p r e d e t e r m i n e d te r r a c e , b a n k ,
d itc h , p a r k i n g lot, floor, o r o t h e r fo rm . It c o n s is ts o f lo c a t-
in g all th e p o i n t s w h e r e e v e n c o n t o u r lin e s m u s t c r o s s lin e s
o f fixed p ro file , o r w h e r e t h e y m u s t a p p e a r b e t w e e n p o i n t s o f
k n o w n e le v a tio n . T h e n t h e c o n t o u r s c a n be d r a w n o u t w a r d
f r o m th e s e p o i n t s so t h a t th e i r p a t t e r n e x h i b i t s t h e s lo p e
a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r m o f t h a t g iv e n s u rfa c e . D iffic u lt to
fo llo w in w o r d s , it is q u ite e a s y to d o a f te r b r i e f p r a c tic e .
T h e h o r iz o n t a l a n d v e r tic a l a lig n m e n t s m u s t b e c o n s id - Alignment as a
ered t o g e t h e r , s in c e w h a t is b e in g p la n n e d is a c t u a lly th e related whole
lo c u s o f a s in g le c e n te r lin e in t h r e e - d im e n s io n a l s p a c e . T h e
p e r s p e c t iv e v ie w o f th a t c e n te r lin e in s p a c e is a n im p o r ta n t
v is u a l fe a tu r e o f th e la n d s c a p e : it is m a r k e d ly d iffe r e n t
fro m th e ro a d a lig n m e n t a s it a p p e a r s in p la n . S m a ll u n e x -
p la in e d d ip s a n d b u m p s lo o k a w k w a r d , e s p e c ia lly w h e n
th e y are c le a r ly v is ib le , a s o n a lo n g fla t c u r v e or a lo n g
g r a d e s e e n fro m th e s id e . S o m e s h a p e s g iv e th e s e n s e o f d is -
c o n t in u it y or t w is t in g : a d ip ju st b e fo r e a c u r v e , a d ip in th e
t a n g e n t w it h in a b r o k e n -b a c k c u r v e , a h o r iz o n t a l c u r v e th a t
b e g in s in a d ip , or a b r id g e th a t is s k e w e d to th e r o a d or
w h o s e d e c k d o e s n o t fit s m o o t h ly in to th e v e r tic a l a lig n m e n t.
T h e r e are a ls o h a n d s o m e c o m b in a t io n s , fo r e x a m p le , w h e n
v e r tic a l a n d h o r iz o n t a l c u r v e s c o in c id e or w h e n th e a p p r o a c h
a lig n m e n t is a r r a n g e d to d is p la y a fin e b r id g e fr o m th e sid e .
It is a g o o d ru le to a v o id th e p a r tia l o v e r la p p in g o f h o r iz o n t a l
a n d v e r tic a l c u r v e s or to m a k e su r e th a t n o v is u a l d is t o r t io n
r e s u lts fr o m th e o v e r la p . It is o fte n u s e fu l to c o n s t r u c t a s im -
p ie s t r in g or c a r d b o a r d m o d e l o f th e r o a d c e n te r lin e a n d th u s
to a n a ly z e its a p p e a r a n c e d ir e c tly .
For r e a s o n s o f s a f e t y , sh a r p h o r iz o n t a l c u r v e s s h o u ld b e
a v o id e d o n h ig h h ills , in d e e p c u ts, or at th e f o o t o f s te e p
g r a d e s . T h e c h a n g e in d ir e c t io n o n a r e v e r se c u r v e s h o u ld
n o t o c c u r w h e n g o in g o v e r a s u m m it. W h e r e a h o r iz o n t a l
cu r v e o c c u r s o n a g r a d e o f o v e r 5 p e r c e n t, th e m a x im u m a l-
lo w a b le p e r c e n t o f g r a d e o n th e c u r v e s h o u ld b e r e d u c e d b y
0.5 p e r c e n t for e a c h 50 fe e t th a t th e c u r v e r a d iu s is le s s
th a n 5 0 0 feet.
T a b le 3 i n d i c a t e s th e v a r i a t i o n s in a l i g n m e n t s t a n - Numerical
d a r d s a c c o r d i n g to d e s i g n s p e e d . A n a p p r o p r i a t e d e s i g n standards by
s p e e d fo r m i n o r r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s is 25 m ile s p e r h o u r . design speed
M a j o r s t r e e t s w o u l d b e d e s i g n e d for 3 5 o r 4 0 m ile s p e r h o u r ,
156 a n d h i g h w a y s fo r 5 0 o r 60. M a x i m u m g r a d e s a t t h e s lo w e s t
s p e e d s m a y b e i n c r e a s e d s o m e w h a t w h e r e ice a n d s n o w a r e
i n f r e q u e n t , b u t t h e s e g r a d e s s h o u l d n o t b e c o n t i n u o u s fo r
lo n g stretches.

T able 3. A lignment S tandards in R elation

to D esign S peed

Minimum
length
Minimum Minimum of vertical
radius of forward curve for
Design horizontal Maximum sight each 1%
speed curves % of distance change of
(mph) (ft) grade (ft) grade (ft)

20 10 0 12 150 10
30 250 10 200 20
40 450 8 275 35
50 750 7 350 70
60 110 0 5 475 150
70 1600 4 600 200
C hapter 8

Technique:
Earthwork an d U tilities

/\1 1 s it e d e v e lo p m e n t r e q u ir e s a r e m o d e lin g o f th e
e a r th 's s u r fa c e , a n d s o m e t im e s it c a lls fo r a v e r y la r g e d is -
tu r b a n c e . T h e r e m o d e lin g is s p e c ifie d b y a g r a d in g p la n ,
w h ic h c o m e s to b e th e k e y te c h n ic a l d o c u m e n t in s it e p la n -
n in g . G r a d in g h a s a s t r o n g in flu e n c e o n c o s t , u t ilit y , a n d a p -
p e a r a n c e o f th e c o m p le t e d p r o je c t. C h a n g e s in e a r t h - m o v in g
t e c h n o lo g y h a v e b e e n m o r e s t r ik in g th a n in a n y o th e r a s p e c t
o f s it e c o n s t r u c t io n .
G r a d in g o p e r a t io n s b e g in b y s t r ip p in g o f f th e t o p s o il, Grading
w h ic h is sto r e d in h e a p s a n d w ill la te r b e r e p la c e d o v e r process
th e n e w s h a p e o f th e s u b s o il. T h e r e m u s t b e a p la c e to p u t
th e s e t e m p o r a r y p ile s w h e r e t h e y w ill n o t in te r fe r e w it h
R efer en ce 40
su r fa c e d r a in a g e o r w it h b u ild in g o p e r a t io n s . G r a d e s t a k e s
s h o w i n g th e r e q u ir e d n e w le v e ls a re t h e n s e t a t in te r v a ls
in th e s u b s o il — o f te n , b u t n o t a lw a y s , a fte r m o s t o f th e
m a jo r s tr u c tu r e s h a v e b e e n e r e c te d . T h e g r a d e s t a k e s a re p u t
at c r itic a l p o in t s , s u c h a s p e a k s , c h a n g e s in g r a d e , o u tle ts ,
c u lv e r ts , r o a d s, b u ild in g s , a s w e ll a s a t r e g u la r in te r v a ls
in a n y f e a tu r e le s s g r o u n d . S ta k e s a ls o in d ic a t e th e lin e s
a lo n g w h ic h a r e a s o f cu t a n d fill m e r g e b a c k in to th e e x is t -
in g g r a d e or in to e a c h o th e r . M a c h in e s th e n c u t o r fill th e
g r o u n d to th e s ta k e d le v e ls a n d s h a p e it in to a s m o o t h
c u rv e b e t w e e n th e s ta k e s . A llo w a n c e is m a d e fo r th e d e p th
o f t o p s o il th a t w ill b e r e p la c e d a n d fo r th e e x p e c te d s e t t le -
m e n t o f th e fill.
158 M a t e r i a l c u t o u t o f t h e g r o u n d fluffs u p to as m u c h as
Com paction 1 4 5 p e r c e n t o f its o r i g i n a l v o l u m e as it is b e i n g h a n d l e d in a
lo o se s t a t e a n d t h e n r e c o m p a c t s as it is r e p la c e d in fill. T h e
final r a t i o b e t w e e n t h e v o l u m e o f e a r t h b e f o r e it is c u t o u t
a n d a f te r it is filled in e l s e w h e r e v a r ie s a c c o r d i n g to th e
m ate ria l a n d the m e th o d of h a n d lin g . T h is ratio m u st be
k n o w n w h e n e a r t h w o r k v o l u m e s a r e c a lc u la te d . If t h e r e is
n o m a c h i n e c o m p a c t i o n , t h e v o l u m e o f fill m a y e x c e e d t h e
c u t f r o m w h i c h it c a m e b y 15 p e r c e n t o r e v e n 25 p e r c e n t . If
it is c o m p a c t e d w e ll, t h e r e m a y b e 1 0 p e r c e n t le ss fill t h a n
cut. I n n o r m a l w o r k , it is c u s t o m a r y to m a k e t h e p r e l i m i n a r y
a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e filled m a t e r i a l w ill b e 5 p e r c e n t le ss in
v o l u m e t h a n it w a s b e f o r e b e i n g c ut. T h i s is g o o d o n l y as a
first g u e s s , h o w e v e r .
T h e d e g r e e o f c o m p a c t i o n is p a r t l y c o n t r o l l a b l e , a n d t h e
id e a l d e g r e e is o n e t h a t p r o d u c e s a soil d e n s e e n o u g h so t h a t
it w ill n o t s e ttle a f te r t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e site, y e t lo o s e
e n o u g h so t h a t i n t e r n a l d r a i n a g e is n o t d e s t r o y e d . I n a r e a s in
w h i c h s e t t l e m e n t w ill n o t b e c ritic a l, fill c a n b e d u m p e d as
it c o m e s , f r o m w h a t e v e r s o u r c e . W h e n s e t t l e m e n t m u s t b e
c o n t r o l l e d , th e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e fill w ill b e s e le c te d , its
m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t w ill b e se t so t h e r e is j u s t e n o u g h to a l l o w
t h e soil g r a i n s to s lid e i n t o s t a b l e p o s i t i o n s at t h e r i g h t d e n -
sity , a n d t h e fill w ill b e p r e s s e d d o w n b y r o lle r s o r l o a d e d ve-
h i d e s t h a t r u n o v e r it a sp e c ifie d n u m b e r o f tim e s . W h e r e
g r e a t e r s t a b i l i t y is r e q u i r e d , t h e fill w ill b e p l a c e d in t h i n
la y e r s , e a c h o f w h i c h is i n d e p e n d e n t l y m o i s t e n e d a n d c o m -
p a c te d . H o w e v e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y in a r e a s to b e r e p l a n t e d , t h e
s u b s o il m a y h a v e i n a d v e r t e n t l y b e e n c o m p a c t e d to o m u c h
b y th e m o v e m e n t o f h e a v y m a c h i n e r y o v e r it, so t h a t it w ill
l a te r f o r m a n i m p e r v i o u s la y e r u n d e r a w a t e r l o g g e d to p s o il.
T h u s b r e a k i n g u p th e t o p la y e r s o f t h e r e g r a d e d s u b s o il b y
p l o w i n g a n d h a r r o w i n g is o f t e n sp e c ifie d b e f o r e t h e t o p s o il
c a n b e r e s p r e a d . T h e s t a b l e b a l a n c e o f t h e o r i g i n a l soil s y s -
tern is d iffic u lt to r e g a in .
Loss o f soil O t h e r d is tu rb a n c e s a p p e a r d u rin g th e g ra d in g proc-
ess. T o p s o i l a n d s u b s o i l m a y b e m ix e d t o g e t h e r , a n d v a lu -
a b le o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l is t h e r e b y lost. E v e n w h e n t o p s o i l is
s a v e d as it s h o u l d be, t h e n a t u r a l soil p ro file is a c o n t i n u o u s
g r a d a t i o n d o w n to t h e b e d r o c k , a n d t h e o v e r t u r n i n g a n d
m i x i n g o f t h e s u b s o il u s u a l l y m e a n s t h a t th e b io lo g ic a l p e r -
f o r m a n c e o f t h e n e w s u r f a c e w ill b e i m p a i r e d . S u r f a c e e r o -
s io n w ill a p p e a r o n n e w l y g r a d e d g r o u n d s t r i p p e d o f v e g e t a -
ti o n , e v e n o n 2 p e r c e n t s lo p e s a f te r a l i g h t r a in . T h i s r e s u l t s
in a loss o f to p s o il a n d t h e p o l l u t i o n o f d o w n s t r e a m r iv e r s a n d
p o n d s . H e a v y s iltin g in a w a t e r s h e d is a c o m m o n a c c o m p a - 159
n i m e n t to l a r g e - s c a le d e v e l o p m e n t . O n e r e m e d y is to s c h e d -
ule g r a d i n g so t h a t it d o e s n o t r e m a i n u n f i n i s h e d b u t is
q u ic k ly f o llo w e d b y r e p l a n t i n g a n d o c c u p a t i o n . N e w te c h -
n i q u e s o f g r a s s s e e d in g , as b y s p r a y i n g w a t e r , seed, a n d
liq u id fe rtiliz e r f r o m a v e h ic le , w ill a lso h e lp . A ll n e w l y
g ra d e d areas sh o u ld be d a m m e d at th eir low er edges by
t e m p o r a r y b e r m s ( lo w b a n k s ) o f e a r t h s u f f ic ie n tly h i g h to
i m p o u n d t h e lo c a l r u n o f f fo r t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d for t h e soil
p a r t i c l e s to s e ttle o u t. T h e i m p o u n d e d w a t e r s e e p s t h r o u g h
th e b e r m o r r u n s o u t t h r o u g h s m a ll p ip e s , w h i c h ac t as w e e p
ho le s. W h e n s ite c o n s t r u c t i o n is c o m p l e t e a n d t h e g r o u n d -
c o v e r e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e n th e b e r m s a re r e m o v e d . N e v e r t h e -
less, c o n s t r u c t i o n s ite s a r e n o t o r i o u s for t h e i r m u d , d u s t , a n d
p o llu ted o u tw a sh .
D e s p i t e all th e s e d iffic u ltie s, e a r t h - m o v i n g t e c h n o l o g y
o ffe rs m a n y c o m p e n s a t i n g p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . T h e p o w e r t h a t c a n
b e a p p l i e d to m o v i n g g r o u n d is n o w so la r g e t h a t h ills c a n b e
r e g r a d e d , so lid r o c k c u t o u t , la r g e le n s e s o f soil r e m o v e d o r
i m p o r t e d , h a r d in f e r tile soil p u l v e r i z e d a n d m a d e p r o d u c -
tive. It b e c o m e s e c o n o m i c a l to te r r a c e t h e S a n t a M o n i c a
m o u n t a i n s for s m a l l h o u s e s , to m a k e s m o o t h n e w la n d in
M i c h i g a n fo r c h e r r y o r c h a r d s , o r to t h r o w u p a rtific ia l h ills
in D e t r o i t f r o m h i g h w a y c u t t i n g s . T h e r e s u l t s m a y b e g o o d
or bad, b u t th e y are surely startling.
E a r t h is m o v e d b y a la r g e v a r i e t y o f m a c h i n e s , a n d t h e Earth-moving
d e s i g n e r s h o u l d k n o w s o m e t h i n g o f t h e i r c a p a b ilitie s . T h e m achinery
tr a c k e d b u l l d o z e r c a n p u s h t h e e a r t h a h e a d o f it w i t h a
h e a v y b l a d e t h a t c a n b e r a is e d , lo w e r e d , o r tilte d . It is t h e
m o s t v e r s a t i l e o f t h e e a r t h m a c h i n e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y g o o d for Reference 44
b a n k s , p l a t e a u s , a n d e x t e n s i v e i r r e g u l a r r e s u r f a c i n g , b u t it
is u s e d w h e r e v e r a p u s h i n g o r p u l l i n g force is n e e d e d —
i n c l u d i n g t h e fe llin g o f tr e e s , t h e r e m o v a l o f b o u l d e r s , a n d
t h e t r a c t i o n o f o t h e r e a r t h m a c h i n e r y . It c a n t u r n o n circ le s
o f 1 2 ‫ ־‬to 2 0 - f o o t radium a n d w o r k o n s lo p e s u p to 8 5 p e r c e n t .
T h e h u g e w h eeled scrapers, self-pow ered or d r a w n by
tr a c t o r s , t a k e u p e a r t h f r o m t h e i r u n d e r s i d e s a n d t h e n c a r r y
it a l o n g to b e r e le a s e d a t w ill. T h e y a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l
for s h a l l o w c u ts a n d l o n g h a u l s o v e r r o u g h g r o u n d . T h e y c a n
t u r n in 3 0 feet a n d o p e r a t e o n s lo p e s u p to 6 0 p e r c e n t lo n g i-
t u d i n a l a n d 25 p e r c e n t t r a n s v e r s e . T h e h i g h - w h e e l e d g r a d -
e rs, w i t h a lo n g , d e lic a te ly a d j u s t a b l e b l a d e s u s p e n d e d u n -
d e r n e a t h , a re u s e d fo r t h e final s h a p i n g o f th e s u rfa c e . T h e
p o w e r s h o v e ls , w h i c h c u t in t o m a t e r i a l f r o m b e l o w w i t h th e i r
t o o t h e d s c o o p s , lo a d t h e d u m p tr u c k s fo r l o n g h a u l s o v e r
160 r o a d s , h a n d l e w e a k o r b r o k e n r o c k , a n d e x c a v a t e h ills, r o c k
faces, a n d o t h e r v o l u m e s a t t h e i r e l e v a t i o n o r h ig h e r . T h e y
t u r n o n 2 0 ‫ ־‬to 4 0 - f o o t circles.
T h e b u c k e t s o f t h e d r a g l i n e s h a n g f r o m c a b le s a t t h e
en d of lo n g b o o m s, w h ic h in so m e m o n s te r m e c h a n ism s m a y
b e 3 0 0 fe e t l o n g b u t a r e m o r e n o r m a l l y 25 to 85 feet. T h e
b u ck e ts are d ra g g e d to w a rd th e o p e ra to r, th r o u g h the m a te -
r ia l to b e e x c a v a t e d . D r a g l i n e s a r e u s e f u l fo r l a r g e c u ts a n d
c h a n n e l s b e l o w t h e level o f t h e m a c h i n e a n d f o r m a k i n g
v a lle y s , m o u n d s , s lo p e s , a n d b a n k s . T h e y c a n t u r n o n 4 0 ‫ ־‬to
8 0 - f o o t r a d ii.
O c c a s i o n a l l y , so il m a y b e m o v e d h y d r a u l i c a l l y , b e i n g
t r a n s p o r t e d a s a s l u r r y o f w a t e r a n d 2 0 p e r c e n t soil, t h r o u g h
p i p e s w h o s e o u t l e t s a r e m o v e d f r o m p o i n t to p o i n t . A f t e r t h e
w a t e r r u n s off, t h e soil is left a t t h e o u t l e t l o c a t i o n as a n a llu -
v ia l f a n , w h i c h m a y h a v e a 7 5 - f o o t r a d i u s w i t h a 6 to 7 p e r -
c e n t slo p e .
F in a lly , t h e r e a r e v a r i o u s k i n d s o f r o lle r s a n d sc a r if ie r s
to b r e a k u p o r c o m p a c t t h e g r o u n d . A n e c o n o m i c a l g r a d i n g
p l a n w ill r e s p e c t t h e l i m i t a t i o n s a n d c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e s e
m a c h i n e s in o r d e r to a v o i d e x p e n s i v e h a n d s h o v e l i n g . T h e
curves of n e w c o n to u rs sh o u ld n o t be sh a rp e r th a n th e m in i-
m u m r a d ii o f t h e e x p e c t e d e q u i p m e n t . E q u i p m e n t c a n n o t
w o r k o n s lo p e s t h a t a r e to o s t e e p fo r it, n o r c a n it w o r k eco-
n o m i c a l l y in c o n f i n e d p la c e s o r o n s m a l l s c a t t e r e d sites.
N o r m a l l y , n e w g r a d e s a r e k e p t as c lo se to p r e e x i s t i n g
g r a d e s a s p o s s ib le , s in c e th e s e u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t a n e s t a b -
lis h e d e q u i l i b r i u m . D e p a r t u r e s u p s e t t h e d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n ,
e x p o s e o r b u r y t h e r o o t s o f p l a n t s , d i s t u r b o ld f o u n d a t i o n s ,
an d m a y m a k e visually a w k w a rd shapes. T h e ag ricu ltu ral
v a lu e o f th e l a n d m u s t b e c o n s e r v e d s in c e it is a r e s o u r c e
t h a t o n l y s l o w l y r e n e w s itself. T o p s o i l is s t r i p p e d , s to c k -
p ile d , a n d r e p la c e d . E v e n t h e n , t h e d i s t u r b a n c e to t h e to t a l
soil p r o f ile c a n b e s e r i o u s , e s p e c ia lly w h e n t h e soil w ill
b e c u t a w a y . O n e t h e r e f o r e a v o id s u n n e c e s s a r y s h a l l o w
c u ts. B u t th e s ite m u s t b e d i s t u r b e d to s o m e d e g r e e , a n d
s o m e t i m e s a d r a m a t i c d i s t u r b a n c e is b e s t — a hill s h e a r e d
off, a r iv e r d r a i n e d . O n e d o e s n o t d o t h i s l i g h t l y b u t , o n th e
o t h e r h a n d , n e v e r a u t o m a t i c a l l y e x c lu d e s t h a t p o s s i b i l i t y .
Grading T h e p r i n c i p a l c r i t e r i a fo r a n e w s u r f a c e a r e its f itn e s s
criteria for t h e p u r p o s e s o f its o c c u p a n t s a n d its a b i l i t y to b e m a i n -
t a i n e d as p a r t o f a s t a b l e s y s te m . It is n e c e s s a r y to i m a g i n e
a c t i n g a n d m o v i n g o v e r it a n d to c h e c k it for its i n t e n d e d
p l a n t c o v e r, for e r o s i o n , a n d for d r a i n a g e . G r a s s y s lo p e s
s h o u l d b e k e p t b e l o w 2 5 p e r c e n t , w h i l e s p e c ia l g r o u n d c o v -
e rs lik e iv y m a y h o l d s t a b l e c u t s lo p e s o f u p to 1 0 0 p e r c e n t .
B e y o n d t h a t , it is n e c e s s a r y to c r ib o r t e r r a c e t h e g r o u n d .
T h e angle of repose (the lim itin g ste e p n e ss b e y o n d w h ic h
soil g r a i n s w ill slip d o w n h i l l ) is a f u r t h e r l i m i t a t i o n if o n e is
m a k i n g s lo p e s o f n e w fill. T h e l i m i t i n g a n g l e s r a n g e f r o m 3 0
p e r c e n t for v e r y w e t c la y a n d silt to 8 0 p e r c e n t fo r w e t s a n d .
E v e n h e r e , a s t e p p e d slo p e , a t e r r a c e a t t h e f o o t o f t h e slo p e ,
o r d r a i n a g e a t its t o p w ill h e l p to p r e v e n t s lip p a g e .
T h e g r o u n d sh o u ld h av e p o sitiv e d ra in a g e th ro u g h o u t, Drainage
w i t h o u t a n y i s o l a t e d d e p r e s s i o n s , to p r e v e n t lo c a l flo o d in g .
D r a i n a g e f r o m site s u p s t r e a m s h o u l d n o t b e b l o c k e d , n o r
s h o u l d t h e d i s c h a r g e u p o n d o w n s t r e a m s ite s b e in c r e a s e d .
W a t e r s h o u l d flo w a w a y f r o m b u i l d i n g s a n d r o a d s , a n d n o t
b e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n v a lle y s a n d s w a l e s i n w h i c h n o p r o v i s i o n
is m a d e fo r t h e a d d i t i o n a l flow .
T h e n e w g ro u n d m u s t h a v e a p le a sin g v isu al form ,
h a r m o n i o u s w i t h its l a n d s c a p e c o n te x t. In m o s t in s t a n c e s , See pages 206—209
th is w ill b e a s im p le , s m o o t h l y c u r v i n g , v is u a lly s t a b l e
f o rm . T h e g r o u n d s h a p e m u s t b e i m a g i n e d f r o m m a n y v ie w -
p o i n t s a n d a p p r o a c h e s . M o s t lik e ly , it w ill b e s t u d i e d in a
m o d e l.
F o r e c o n o m y , t h e a m o u n t s o f c u t a n d fill (less a ll o w - Econom y
a n c e s for c o m p a c t i o n ) s h o u l d b a l a n c e o u t o v e r t h e s ite as a
w h o l e o r, p r e f e r a b l y , w i t h i n s u b a r e a s o f t h e site. T h i s is t r u e S e e p a g es 163—168
e x c e p t in s p e c ia l s i t u a t i o n s s u c h as w h e r e b e d r o c k is clo se to
t h e s u r f a c e o r l a r g e v o l u m e s o f p e a t a r e p r e s e n t , w h e n it is
u n a v o i d a b l e t h a t e a r t h b e b r o u g h t in o r t a k e n o u t.
E a r t h m a c h i n e s d e m a n d b r o a d s i m p l e fo r m s . F u s s y
s h a p e s as w e ll as s h a l l o w c u t s a n d fills a r e to b e a v o id e d .
T h e m a c h i n e r y p e r f o r m s b e s t w h e n it r u n s a l o n g p a r a l l e l
m o v e m e n t l i n e s — fo r d i s t a n c e s o f less t h a n 5 0 0 y a r d s .
U n d u l a t i n g h ill a n d v a lle y f o r m s a r e c h e a p e r t h a n t e r r a c -
in g s. S o a r e r e p e t i t i v e l a n d fo r m s . A ll th e s e c o s t r u le s re fe r
e s p e c ia lly to l a r g e r a r e a s , p e r h a p s o v e r 5 a c r e s in size.
T h e m o s t c o m m o n d iffic u ltie s t h a t a p p e a r in a g r a d i n g Grading
p l a n a re e x c e s s iv e o r u n b a l a n c e d c u t a n d fill; d r a i n a g e failures
p o c k e t s in th e l a n d , o n t h e r o a d s , o r a g a i n s t t h e s id e s o f 11 ‫׳‬
b u i l d i n g s ; s te e p g r a d e s t h a t a l l o w e r o s i o n o r a r e d a n g e r o u s o r
m a k e u se , acc e ss, o r m a i n t e n a n c e d iffic u lt; a p o o r v is u a l o r
f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a b u i l d i n g o r a r o a d a n d its
im m e d ia te s u rro u n d in g s ; a v isually a w k w a rd tra n sitio n be-
t w e e n o n e s e c tio n a n d a n o t h e r ; t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f e x i s t i n g
tre e s b y c h a n g e s in th e g r o u n d level; a n d th e f r e q u e n t u se
o f e x p e n s i v e a n d u n d e s i r a b l e s te p s a n d r e t a i n i n g w a lls.
T h e n e w s u r f a c e is u s u a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d b y a d r a w i n g
F igure 19 Grading and paving plan for a small industrial plant, by Hideo
Sasaki, landscape architect.
t h a t s h o w s th e n e w c o n t o u r lin e s in r e l a t i o n to t h e o ld o n e s , 163
su p p le m e n te d by spot elev atio n s at som e key p o in ts. O cca- Representation
s io n a lly , in s m a ll a r e a s w h e r e t h e r e is little to b e d o n e , o n l y o f grading
th e s p o t e l e v a tio n s m a y b e s h o w n . O r if a s m a ll a r e a is to b e
g r a d e d to a v e r y e x a c t su r f a c e , t h e n e w e l e v a t i o n s m a y b e
g iv e n at e a c h c o r n e r o f a n a r b i t r a r y b u t c l o s e - m e s h e d i m a g i-
n a r y g rid . In a n y c a se, it is b e s t to s k e t c h t h e c o n t o u r s first,
o r to u se a m o d e l, in o r d e r to v i s u a liz e a n d c o n t r o l t h e t o p o -
g r a p h i c fo rm .
M o r e o f te n t h a n n o t , t h e n e w fo r m is s i m p l y t h e b e s t
t r a n s i t i o n t h a t c a n be f o u n d b e t w e e n a se t o f fixed
p o i n t s — t h e r o a d s , b u i l d i n g s , s e w e r s , a n d s p e c ia l l a n d -
sc a p e f e a tu r e s — a n d t h e e x i s t i n g l a n d a t th e site b o u n d a -
ries o r a t t h e e d g e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s s o u g h t - f o r t r a n s i t i o n
r e s p e c ts all t h e c r ite r ia m e n t i o n e d e a r lie r : f u n c t i o n , e c o n -
o m y , d r a i n a g e , a p p e a r a n c e , a n d m i n i m u m e c o lo g ic a l d a m -
age. S o m e t i m e s , h o w e v e r , t h e d e s i g n e r is n o t s i m p l y m a k -
in g a tr o u b l e - f r e e t r a n s i t i o n b u t is h a n d l i n g th e g r o u n d a s a
s c u l p t u r a l m e d i u m . In e i t h e r ca se , c o n t o u r s k e t c h e s a re h is
l a n g u a g e , a n d he m u s t b e flu e n t in t h a t l a n g u a g e .
B a l a n c i n g c u t a n d fill o r e s t i m a t i n g s ite c o s ts r e q u i r e s Earthwork
a c a lc u la tio n o f th e e a r t h v o l u m e to b e m o v e d . A m o n g t h e calculations
s e v e ra l m e t h o d s o f c a l c u l a t i o n a re t h e c o n t o u r - a r e a m e t h o d ,
t h e e n d - a r e a m e t h o d , a n d t h e u s e o f e le v a t i o n c h a n g e s at
g rid c o r n e r s . T h e first is b e s t for g e n e r a l s i t e - p l a n n i n g p u r -
p o s e s s in c e it is a c c u r a t e e n o u g h for first e s t i m a t e s , fits di-
re c tly i n t o t h e p r o c e s s o f d e v e l o p i n g a c o n t o u r e d g r a d i n g
p la n , a n d g iv e s a n i m m e d i a t e g r a p h i c p i c t u r e o f t h e q u a n -
t ity a n d l o c a tio n o f e a r t h w o r k o v e r a n e x t e n d e d a r e a . T h e u se
o f e n d a r e a s is c o m m o n in h i g h w a y w o r k o r a n y l i n e a r e a r t h
m o v in g , w h e r e it is a c c u r a t e a n d a p p r o p r i a t e for d e t e r m i n -
in g th e b e s t s t r a t e g y for h a u l i n g c u t to fill. T h e la s t m e t h o d ,
like th e first, c a n be u se d in m o r e e x t e n s i v e e a r t h m o v i n g o r
for b u i l d i n g e x c a v a t i o n s , b u t w i t h g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n a n d c o r-
r e s p o n d i n g l y le ss g r a p h i c c o n t r o l . A ll th e s e m e t h o d s c a n b e
s u p p l e m e n t e d b y r o u g h s t u d i e s a n d c a l c u l a t i o n s in m o d e l
fo rm . T h e r e f o r e t h e first m e t h o d w ill b e d i s c u s s e d in s o m e
d e ta il a n d th e o t h e r s in p a s s i n g .
T h e first s te p in t h e c o n t o u r - a r e a c a l c u l a t i o n is to m a k e Contour-area
a n e a r t h w o r k d i a g r a m o n a c o p y o f t h e g r a d i n g p la n . T h e m ethod
n e w c o n t o u r s a re b r o u g h t o u t w h e r e t h e y d iffe r fr o m t h e o ld
a n d th e b o u n d a r y lin e s o f n o - c u t , no-fill a r e d r a w n . T h e s e
b o u n d a r i e s a re d r a w n b y i n t e r c o n n e c t i n g th e p o i n t s w h e r e
n e w c o n t o u r s re jo in t h e old o n e s a n d r e p r e s e n t t h e b o u n d a -
ries b e t w e e n d i s t u r b e d a n d u n d i s t u r b e d la n d o r b e t w e e n
164 a r e a s o f c u t a n d o f fill. A l o n g th e s e lin e s, t h e n e w s u r f a c e
c o r r e s p o n d s to t h e o ld o n e . N e x t , o n e s h o u l d s h a d e th e a r e a s
b e t w e e n o ld a n d n e w c o n t o u r s at e a c h level, u s i n g o n e c o lo r
o r p a t t e r n for c u t a n d a n o t h e r for fill. T h e r e s u lt is s h o w n in
F ig u re 2 0 .

Figure 20 A n earthwork diagram, showing the extent of cut

and fill.

T h e d i a g r a m a l r e a d y g iv e s a g o o d v is u a l im a g e o f th e
a m o u n t a n d b a l a n c e o f c u t a n d fill, sin c e th e v o l u m e s o f
e a r t h to b e m o v e d a r e p r o p o r t i o n a l to th e s u m s o f th e s h a d e d
a re a s . U s i n g th is v is u a l im a g e a lo n e , o n e c a n q u ic k ly re-
s k e t c h th e n e w c o n t o u r s to get a b e t t e r a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f b a l-
a n c e . T h e d i a g r a m a ls o c o n v e y s th e d e p t h o f cu t a n d fill,
s in c e w h e r e th e s h a d e d a r e a s a l m o s t to u c h , th e d e p t h is al-
m o s t o n e c o n t o u r i n te r v a l, w h e r e t h e y o v e r la p , it is m o r e
t h a n o n e in te r v a l, a n d w h e r e t h e y a r e w id e ly s p a c e d , th e
d e p t h s a re s h a llo w . M o r e o v e r , as in a n y c o n t o u r d r a w i n g ,
s m a ll r e g io n s o f th e e a r t h w o r k d i a g r a m , w h e n lo o k e d at
d o w n h i l l , c o n v e y a s o m e w h a t e x a g g e r a t e d p i c t u r e o f h o w th e
g r o u n d w o u ld lo o k in s e c tio n , w i t h th e n e w g r a d e line c u t-
t i n g t h r o u g h th e old s u rfa c e . W h e n c u ts o r fills are s e v e ra l
c o n t o u r i n te r v a ls d e e p , h o w e v e r , th e s h a d e d le n se s o v e r la p
e a c h o t h e r in m u l t i p l e la y e rs . For d e e p d i s t u r b a n c e s , t h e n ,
th is m e t h o d c a n be c o n f u s in g .
T h e d i a g r a m is v a l u a b l e n o t o n l y for v is u a l in s p e c t i o n
b u t a lso as a b a s is for a q u a n t i t a t i v e e s t i m a t e , u s i n g a n a p -
p r o x i m a t i o n to t h e v o l u m e o f a p r i s m o i d , o r so lid f ig u re w i t h 165
t w o p a r a lle l faces. In e a c h c o n t i n u o u s c u t o r fill f ig u re ( t h a t
is, t h e r e g i o n b o u n d e d b y o n e n o - c u t , n o -fill lin e ) m e a s u r e
th e s h a d e d a r e a s w i t h a p l a n i m e t e r o r b y s o m e o t h e r a p p r o x -
i m a t i o n a n d s u m t h e m u p . W h e n t h is s u m is m u l t i p l i e d b y
th e c o n t o u r in t e r v a l , t h e p r o d u c t is t h e v o l u m e o f c u t o r fill in
t h a t p a r t i c u l a r r e g io n . In F ig u r e 2 0 , if t h e c o n t o u r in t e r v a l is
5 feet, t h e to ta l v o l u m e o f c u t, V, in t h e u p p e r r e g i o n , in
c u b ic feet, w o u l d b e a p p r o x i m a t e l y V = 5 ( A 1 -f A 2 + A s ) ,
w h e r e t h e s h a d e d s h a p e s A \ , A 2 , A s w e r e m e a s u r e d in
s q u a r e feet, u s i n g a p l a n i m e t e r a n d t h e m a p scale. (A p la -
n i m e t e r w ill re a d w i t h le ss t h a n 1 p e r c e n t e r r o r if p r o p e r l y
u se d .) T h i s is a n a p p r o x i m a t e f o r m u l a , w h i c h a s s u m e s t h a t
th e v o l u m e s b e t w e e n e a c h c o n t o u r a r e a r e g u l a r p r i s m o i d ,
a n d t h a t t h e to p a n d b o t t o m o f a v o l u m e o f c u t o r fill is a r e g u -
lar c o n e . B y s u m m i n g all th e v o l u m e s in e v e r y r e g io n o f c u t,
o n e c a n c o m p a r e t h e i r to ta l w i t h a s i m i l a r s u m o f s u m s for all
r e g i o n s o f fill, to see h o w clo se o n e is to t o t a l b a la n c e . T h e p e r -
c e n t a g e o f lo ss o r g a i n d u e to c o m p a c t i o n m u s t be a p p l i e d to
th e s u m o f c u t v o l u m e s a t th is s te p .
M o r e o v e r , if th e site is la rg e , v a r i o u s g r o u p s o f c u t a n d
fill r e g i o n s c a n b e c o m p a r e d to see if t h e r e is local b a l a n c e ,
w h i c h w o u l d a v o id l o n g h a u ls . W h e r e b a l a n c e is l a c k i n g
a n d th is i m b a l a n c e is n o t a c c e p ta b le , th e g r a d i n g p l a n is re-
w o r k e d b y r e d r a w i n g th e n e w c o n t o u r s in t h o s e r e g i o n s o f
cut o r fill w h e r e local b a l a n c e is m o s t s h a r p l y o u t, a n d t h e
v o l u m e s for t h o s e r e g i o n s a r e t h e n r e c o m p u t e d . A few a p -
p r o x i m a t i o n s w ill u s u a l l y suffice to a c h ie v e t h e n e c e s s a r y
b a la n c e , a n d m e a n w h i l e t h e e n t i r e t o p o g r a p h i c f o r m h a s
b e e n k e p t u n d e r v is u a l c o n tr o l.
T h e e n d - a r e a m e t h o d u se s th e s a m e m a t h e m a t i c a l a p - En d - a r c a
p r o x i m a t i o n : t h a t t h e v o l u m e o f a p r i s m o i d w i t h t w o p a r a lle l m ethod
b u t i r r e g u l a r faces is e q u a l to t h e a v e r a g e a r e a o f t h o s e faces
tim e s th e p e r p e n d i c u l a r d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e m . B u t th e
p a r a lle l faces a r e n o w v e r tic a l r a t h e r t h a n h o r i z o n t a l . S ec-
tio n s a re d r a w n at r e g u l a r i n t e r v a l s a l o n g a r o a d c e n t e r
line, s h o w i n g t h e n e w c ro s s s e c t i o n as a p p l i e d to t h e e x i s t i n g
g r o u n d . T h i s is a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e c u t
a n d fill p e r p e n d i c u l a r to th e c e n t e r line at t h a t p o i n t . C o u n t -
in g c u t as p o s itiv e a n d fill as n e g a t i v e a n d a l l o w i n g for c o m -
p a c t i o n , s u m th e a r e a s at e a c h s e c tio n , a v e r a g e t h a t s u m
w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s u m at th e n e x t s e c tio n , a n d m u l t i -
p ly b y th e h o r i z o n t a l d is t a n c e b e t w e e n s e c t i o n s ( c o n v e n t i o n -
ally, o n e s t a t i o n , o r 1 0 0 feet). T h i s g iv e s a to ta l v o l u m e o f ex-
cess c u t ( p o s itiv e ) o r excess fill ( n e g a tiv e ) b e t w e e n t h o s e
 166 s e c tio n s . If t h o s e c u ts a n d fills a r e p r o g r e s s i v e l y c u m u l a t e d
a l o n g t h e c e n t e r line, a g r a p h c a lle d a m a s s d i a g r a m c a n be
d r a w n ; th is s h o w s t h e s u r p l u s o r d e fic it o f soil t h a t w o u l d be
c a r r ie d if o n e h a d b e g u n at t h e v e r y b e g i n n i n g o f th e ro a d .
In f le c tio n s ( c h a n g e s in d i r e c t i o n ) in t h is m a s s d i a g r a m c o r-
r e s p o n d to p o i n t s o n t h e r o a d w h e r e c u t c h a n g e s to fill, o r vice
v e r s a , a n d t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e lin e at t h e e n d o f th e
g r a p h is th e to ta l i m b a l a n c e . M o r e i m p o r t a n t , c u t a n d fill
a re e q u a l b e t w e e n a n y t w o l o c a t i o n s d e f in e d b y a n y h o r i z o n -
tal lin e t h a t c u ts t w o p o i n t s o n t h e lin e o f t h e m a s s d i a g r a m .
T h e l e n g t h o f t h a t h o r i z o n t a l lin e e q u a l s th e m a x i m u m h a u l
d i s t a n c e r e q u i r e d to a c h i e v e t h a t b a la n c e . T h u s t h e m a s s
d i a g r a m is u s e f u l for p l a n n i n g a s t r a t e g y o f e a r t h m o v i n g in
t h e field, as w e ll as fo r a d j u s t i n g th e b a la n c e .
C a l c u l a t i o n s b a s e d o n t h e e l e v a t i o n s o f g r id c o r n e r s a re
a p p r o p r i a t e for th e v o l u m e o f a b o r r o w p it o r a b u i l d i n g e x c a -
v a t i o n , as w e ll as fo r m o r e e x t e n s i v e r e g r a d i n g . T h e y a re
m o r e a c c u r a t e t h a n t h e c o n t o u r - a r e a m e t h o d a n d d o n o t re-
q uire the use of a p la n im e te r. B ut th e y do n o t p e rm it c o n tin -
u o u s v is u a l c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o c e s s o f a d j u s t i n g t h e g r a d i n g
s u r f a c e , a n d t h e s u c c e s s iv e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s n e e d e d to
a c h ie v e a b a l a n c e a re m o r e la b o r i o u s . T h e m e t h o d is b a s e d
on the a s s u m p tio n th a t a v o lu m e of e a rth of irre g u la r d e p th
b u t w i t h i n t h e f o u r v e r tic a l faces o f a p r i s m b a s e d o n a h o r i -
z o n t a l s q u a r e is e q u a l to t h e a r e a o f t h a t s q u a r e t i m e s t h e
a v e r a g e d e p t h o f t h e v o l u m e a t e a c h o f t h e f o u r c o r n e r s o f th e
p r is m .
Calculation by A n i m a g i n a r y h o r i z o n t a l s q u a r e g r id is a p p l i e d to t h e
grid site o r t h e e x c a v a t i o n . E x is tin g a n d p r o p o s e d n e w e l e v a t i o n s
a re d e t e r m i n e d for e a c h g r id c o r n e r , a n d t h e d if f e r e n c e c o m -
p u t e d — p o i n t s o f c u t, w h e r e t h e n e w e l e v a t i o n is b e l o w th e
old , b e i n g p o s itiv e , a n d p o i n t s o f fill n e g a tiv e . A ll t h e d iffe r-
e n c e s m u s t t h e n b e a d j u s t e d for c o m p a c t i o n . F or e x a m p l e , if
c u t e a r t h will e v e n t u a l l y p a c k d o w n to 95 p e r c e n t of its o r ig -
c
in a l v o l u m e w h e n r e p l a c e d in fill, t h e n all p o s i t i v e d iffe r-
e n c e s s h o u l d b e d e c r e a s e d b y 5 p e r c e n t . In th e d i a g r a m , if
all th e e l e v a t i o n d if f e r e n c e s a t s a l i e n t c o r n e r s ( w h i c h a r e
p a r t o f o n l y o n e g r id s q u a r e ) a r e la b e le d c, t h o s e at t h e s id e s
( c o m m o n to t w o s q u a r e s ) a r e la b e le d s, t h o s e at r e e n t r a n t
c o r n e r s ( c o m m o n to t h r e e s q u a r e s ) a r e c a lle d r, a n d t h e in -
t e r n a l c o r n e r s (at t h e j u n c t i o n s o f f o u r s q u a r e s ) a r e c a lle d i,
t h e n th e v o l u m e is c a lc u la te d b y t h e e q u a t i o n

V = (2 c + 2 2s -f 3 2 r + 42/),
4
w h e r e x is th e h o r i z o n t a l d i m e n s i o n o f th e sid e o f e v e ry 167
s q u a r e . T h i s to ta l v o l u m e is p o s itiv e if t h e r e is a s u r p l u s of
cut, n e g a t i v e if t h e r e is a s u r p l u s of fill, a n d z e r o if t h e r e is a
b a la n c e . T h e to ta l v o l u m e s o f c u t a n d fill, ir r e s p e c tiv e of
b a la n c e , c a n be c o m p u t e d b y s e p a r a t i n g t h e s u m m a t i o n of
p o s itiv e a n d n e g a t i v e d iff e r e n c e s . Local b a l a n c e c a n be id e n -
tified b y s e p a r a t i n g p a r t s o f th e g r id a n d t r e a t i n g th e m as if
t h e y w e r e is o la te d figures. B a la n c e is a c h ie v e d b y r a i s i n g
a n d l o w e r i n g th e v a r i o u s p o i n t s a n d r e c o m p u t i n g t h e w h o le ,
w h i c h m a y r e q u ir e t h r e e o r f o u r r u n s . T h i s is la b o r i o u s b y
h a n d b u t e a s ily d o n e o n a c o m p u t e r . It is a p r o b l e m , h o w -
e ver, to k e e p in m i n d th e f o r m o f t h e w h o l e s u r f a c e as d is-
c re te p o i n t s a r e p u s h e d u p o r d r o p p e d .
A s i m p l e r v e r s i o n o f th is m e t h o d , u s e d o n l y fo r c h e c k -
in g b a l a n c e , n e g le c ts th e d i f f e r e n t i a l effect o f i n t e r i o r a n d
e x t e r i o r c o r n e r s a n d is t h e r e f o r e a p p r o p r i a t e to l a r g e a r e a s o r
w h e r e t h e r e is n e i t h e r c u t n o r fill a t a n y e x t e r i o r e d g e o r c o r-
n e r . In th is case, th e s u m to t a l o f all th e e x i s t i n g e l e v a t i o n s
at g r id c o r n e r s is c o m p a r e d to t h e t o ta l o f all n e w e l e v a tio n s .
E q u a l i t y in d i c a t e s a b a l a n c e , o r b a l a n c e m a y be a c h ie v e d
b y a d d i n g o r s u b t r a c t i n g e n o u g h at t h e n e w e l e v a t i o n s to
m a k e t h e to ta l e q u a l to th e e x i s t i n g to ta l.
A n o t h e r m e t h o d o f a p p r o x i m a t i n g b a l a n c e is to m o d e l C alculation b y
t h e e x i s t i n g g r o u n d s u r f a c e in d a m p s a n d o r P l a s tic in e . If m odel
th e m o d e l s u r f a c e is c h a n g e d w i t h o u t a d d i n g o r s u b t r a c t i n g
m a t e r i a l , t h e n it is a n e w t o p o g r a p h y t h a t is a c h i e v a b l e b y
b a l a n c e d c u t a n d fill ( a l t h o u g h t h e c o m p a c t i o n f a c to r h a s
b e e n n e g le c te d ) . L ike t h e c o n t o u r - a r e a m e t h o d , t h i s is a n
e x c e lle n t w a y o f s i m u l t a n e o u s l y c o n t r o l l i n g f o r m a n d b a l-
a n c e . B u t th e n e w f o r m m u s t still b e t r a n s f e r r e d to a c o n t o u r
d r a w i n g for field c o n t r o l s a n d a d j u s t m e n t to a p r e c is e b a l-
a n c e . M a k i n g a c o n t o u r d r a w i n g f r o m a m o d e l is u n f o r t u -
n a t e l y m o r e d iffic u lt t h a n t h e r e v e rs e . It i n v o lv e s m e a s u r e -
m e n t s d o w n fr o m a g r id s u s p e n d e d o v e r th e m o d e l t e r r a i n o r
t r a c i n g o u t th e n e w c o n t o u r s w i t h a n a c c u r a t e c a n t i l e v e r
a r m set to s u c c e s s iv e c o n t o u r le v e ls o r p e r h a p s b y s u b m e r g -
in g t h e m o d e l in a t a n k filled w i t h s u c c e s s iv e ly h i g h e r
w a t e r levels.
L e n g t h y c o m p u t a t i o n s for e a r t h v o l u m e a n d b a l a n c e
a re n o w b e in g d o n e b y c o m p u t e r s , a n d it is u n l i k e l y t h a t site
p l a n n e r s w ill o f te n h a v e to m a k e t h e m in th e f u tu r e . It is
m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e y u n d e r s t a n d th e b a s is o f t h o s e c o m -
p u t a t i o n s a n d be a b le to u s e s i m p l e m e t h o d s w h e r e c o m p u t -
ers a r e u n a v a i l a b l e o r u n e c o n o m i c a l o r w h e r e t h e y a r e g iv -
 168 in g t h e w r o n g a n s w e r . M o s t i m p o r t a n t , d e s i g n e r s m u s t be
a b le to p r o d u c e g r a d i n g p l a n s t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e a b a l a n c e , o r
in w h i c h t h e y a re a w a r e o f t h e d e g r e e o f im b a l a n c e , a n d at
th e s a m e tim e k e e p c o n t r o l o f t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e as a n im -
p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in th e d e s ig n . It is for t h is r e a s o n t h a t m o d -
e lin g a n d t h e c o n t o u r - a r e a e a r t h w o r k d i a g r a m w ill p r o b a b l y
r e t a i n t h e i r u s e f u ln e s s .
S to r m D rain ag e T h e s t o r m d r a i n a g e s y s t e m t a k e s o ff t h e flo w o f s u r f a c e
w a t e r . It is a s u b s t i t u t e for n a t u r a l s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e , a n d it
m a y b e u n n e c e s s a r y in l o w - d e n s i t y d e v e l o p m e n t o f less
t h a n 1 o r 2 fa m ilie s p e r acre. It n e e d n o t b e a c o n t i n u o u s
s y s t e m b u t c a n d i s c h a r g e i n t o lo cal s t r e a m s , la k e s , a n d g u l-
lies w h e r e v e r th is w ill n o t c a u s e f lo o d in g o r in c r e a s e p o llu -
tio n . H o w e v e r , s t o r m w a t e r s a r e n o t free o f p o l l u t a n t s o n c e
t h e y h a v e r u n o y e r d i s t u r b e d la n d o r t h r o u g h th e d e b r is a n d
c h e m i c a l s o f t h e s t r e e t s o r h a v e t a k e n u p t h e fe rtiliz e r s a n d
p e s t i c i d e s o f t h e fields. L a r g e s t o r m d i s c h a r g e s m u s t o f te n
b e c o n t r o l l e d o r t r e a t e d , a n d e v e r y e ffo rt m u s t be m a d e to de-
c r e a s e p o l l u t i o n at t h e s o u r c e b o t h b y m o d i f y i n g t h e u se o f
c h e m i c a l s a n d b y s t a b i l i z i n g t h e n e w e a r t h s u r f a c e s . If n a t -
u r a l w a t e r b o d ie s o r d r a i n a g e lin es a re n o t a v a ila b le , it is
p o s s i b l e to d i s c h a r g e i n t o s e t t l i n g p i t s o r o v e r f lo w b a s in s .
T h e s e a r e m a d e in p e r v i o u s soil a n d m u s t b e b ig e n o u g h to
h o ld w a t e r fr o m t h e w o r s t s t o r m . T h e y c a n be u s e d to e c o n o -
m iz e o n t h e l e n g t h o f m a i n n e e d e d to r e a c h a s t r e a m or
p u b l i c s e w e r , b u t t h e y r e n d e r u s e le s s a s u b s t a n t i a l p ie c e o f
g ro u n d an d are not very h a n d so m e.
S in c e t h e r e q u i r e d p i p e sizes a r e o f t e n la rg e , t h e u n -
d e r g r o u n d s t o r m d r a i n a g e s y s t e m is e x p e n s iv e , a n d e v e r y
e ffo rt is m a d e to m i n i m i z e or e l i m i n a t e it. W h e r e e c o n o m i c
r e s o u r c e s a r e s c a n t y , u n d e r g r o u n d d r a i n a g e m a y be a v o id e d
b y k e e p i n g d e v e l o p m e n t at lo w d e n s itie s , d e c r e a s i n g p a v e d
s u r f a c e s a n d i n c r e a s i n g p l a n t e d o n e s , g r a d i n g c a r e f u lly to
e n s u r e g e n tle s lo p e s a n d p o s i t i v e flow , a n d r e l y i n g o n
d itc h e s , c h e c k d a m s , s h o r t c u lv e r ts , a n d c o n t i n u o u s m a i n t e -
n a n c e . T h e p ip e s o f l a r g e d i a m e t e r a t t h e b o t t o m o f r u n s in
t h e u n d e r g r o u n d s y s t e m m a y c a u s e d iffic u ltie s in th e g r a d -
in g p l a n b y t e n d i n g to " r i d e u p " o u t o f th e g r o u n d as th e y
m a i n t a i n su f f ic ie n t e l e v a t i o n to r e a c h t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n o r as
t h e y f la tte n o u t to p r e v e n t s c o u r in s i d e th e p ip e . N e v e r t h e -
less, sin c e t h e ro o fs a n d p a v e d s u r f a c e s o f r e s i d e n t i a l d e v e l-
o p m e n t s u s u a l l y in t e r f e r e w i t h e x i s t i n g s u r f a c e flow a n d
s h a r p l y i n c r e a s e th e r u n o f f , s o m e k i n d o f a rtific ia l d r a i n a g e
s t r u c t u r e s , h o w e v e r s im p le , a r e u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d to p r e v e n t
f l o o d in g d u r i n g s t o r m s . T h e s t o r m s y s t e m is t o d a y k e p t sep-
a r a t e fro m th e s a n i t a r y d r a i n a g e to m i n i m i z e th e v o l u m e 169
t h a t m u s t be t r e a t e d in s e w a g e d i s p o s a l a n d to p r e v e n t
b a c k i n g u p o f s a n i t a r y w a s te s .
T h e s t o r m s y s t e m is m a d e u p o f a d r a i n a g e s u r f a c e , a Storm system
set o f o p e n g u t t e r s a n d d itc h e s , a n d p r o b a b l y a se rie s o f u n - elements
d e r g r o u n d p ip e s , u s u a l l y m a d e o f v itrifie d c la y a n d laid
s t r a i g h t to lin e a n d g r a d e , c o n n e c t e d b y m a n h o l e s a n d fed
b y in le ts. L a r g e s e w e r s , o v e r 4 2 in c h e s in d i a m e t e r , a re
m a d e o f c o n c r e t e i n s t e a d of clay. W h e n t h e p ip e s a re la r g e
e n o u g h for a m a n to e n t e r for i n s p e c t i o n o r c le a n i n g , th e y c a n
be g e n t l y c u r v e d in h o r i z o n t a l a l i g n m e n t . It is n o w b e c o m -
in g a c c e p te d p r a c t i c e in s o m e lo c a litie s for all sizes o f s e w e r
lines to be laid in r e g u l a r h o r i z o n t a l c u rv e s , as lo n g as th e
r a d i u s is n o t less t h a n 1 0 0 feet a n d t h e v e r tic a l g r a d e is c o n -
s t a n t . P a r t i c u l a r l y w h e r e s t r e e t s a r e c u r v in g , th is t e c h -
n iq u e m i n i m i z e s s e w e r l e n g t h a n d t h e n u m b e r o f m a n h o l e s
a n d a llo w s t h e s e w e r to r e m a i n in a s t a n d a r d l o c a t i o n w i t h
r e f e r e n c e to t h e s tr e e t a n d o t h e r u tilitie s . T h e s m a l l e r lin e s
c a n n o t t h e n b e i n s p e c t e d v is u a lly , a n d flow is s o m e w h a t
s lo w e r , b u t m o d e r n c l e a n i n g m a c h i n e r y c a n e a s ily b e s e n t
t h r o u g h s u c h c u rv e s . S m a ll c u r v e d s e w e r s m a y n o t b e p e r ‫־‬
m i t t e d b y local o r d i n a n c e , h o w e v e r .
M a n h o l e s — m a n - s i z e d c i r c u l a r p i t s — a r e u s e d to
e n t e r t h e lin e s o r to lo o k d o w n t h e i r l e n g t h . T h e y a re p la c e d
at t h e u p p e r e n d o f lin e s a n d a t e v e r y c h a n g e in h o r i z o n t a l or
v e rtic a l d i r e c t i o n o r c u r v a t u r e . T h e y s h o u l d a ls o b e p la c e d n o
m o r e t h a n 3 0 0 to 5 0 0 feet a p a r t to p e r m i t t h e u s e o f c l e a n i n g
a p p a r a t u s . A n e c o n o m i c a l d e s i g n will m i n i m i z e th e i r n u m -
ber.
S u r f a c e w a t e r first flo w s in a film a c r o s s t h e g r o u n d , Surface flow
a n d it is k e p t s p r e a d o u t as lo n g as p o s s ib le . T h e a i m is to
k e e p th is s u r f a c e w a t e r m o v i n g , b u t n o t so fa st as to c a u s e
e r o s io n . A l l o w a b l e s lo p e s t h e r e f o r e d e p e n d o n t h e v o l u m e o f
w a t e r e x p e c te d , th e s u r f a c e fin is h , a n d th e a m o u n t o f d a m -
a ge t h a t c a n b e d o n e b y local f lo o d in g . P l a n t e d a r e a s a n d
b ro ad paved areas sh o u ld h av e a m in im u m g rad e of 1 per-
c e n t, a l t h o u g h o p e n l a n d far f r o m s t r u c t u r e s , w h e r e oc c a -
s io n a l p o n d i n g c a n be p e r m i t t e d , m a y s lo p e as little as 0 .5
p e r c e n t. S t r e e t s a n d o t h e r p a v e d s u r f a c e s t h a t a r e la id to
e x a c t e l e v a t i o n s m a y a ls o h a v e a m i n i m u m g r a d e o f 0 .5 p e r -
c e n t. L a n d s h o u l d s lo p e a w a y f r o m all b u i l d i n g s for 1 0 feet
w i t h a m i n i m u m g r a d e o f 2 p e r c e n t. D r a i n a g e s w a le s a n d
d i t c h e s r e q u ir e a s im ila r m i n i m u m o f 2 p e r c e n t a n d a m a x i-
m u m g r a d i e n t o f 10 p e r c e n t , o r o f 5 p e r c e n t if t h e a r e a
d r a i n e d is o v e r h a l f a n acre. L a w n s a n d g r a s s b a n k s c a n
170 h a v e a m a x i m u m s lo p e o f 25 p e r c e n t , w h i l e u n m o w e d
p l a n t e d b a n k s c a n s lo p e u p to 5 0 p e r c e n t , o r p e r h a p s u p to
6 0 p e r c e n t in firm , u n d i s t u r b e d soil. E x p e n s iv e c r i b b i n g or
r e t a i n i n g w a lls a r e n e e d e d to h o ld s t e e p e r s lo p e s .
T h e g r o u n d s h o u l d b e s lo p e d so t h a t t h e r e is p o s i t i v e
d r a i n a g e t h r o u g h o u t , e v e n if t h e r e is a ls o a n u n d e r g r o u n d
s y s t e m , s in c e t h a t u n d e r g r o u n d s y s t e m m a y a t tim e s b e
c lo g g e d . U n d r a i n e d s i n k s s h o u l d b e a v o id e d . T h e d e s i g n e r
m u s t b e a w a r e o f t h e q u a n t i t y a n d v e lo c ity o f flo w e n t e r i n g
h is site f r o m t h e o u t s i d e a n d o f h o w it m a y c h a n g e in th e fu-
tu r e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , if he w a n t s to a v o id c la im s for d a m -
a g e s, h e c o n t r i v e s to let s u r f a c e w a t e r le a v e h is o w n p r o p e r t y
on ly a lo n g the d ra in a g e courses p re v io u sly ex istin g an d
n e v e r in g r e a t e r a m o u n t s t h a n b e fo re .
Gutters and S u r f a c e flow o v e r a u n i f o r m , m o d e r a t e s lo p e w ill o f t e n
ditches b e g in to c u t s m a ll r i v u l e t s w i t h i n 5 0 0 feet. B e fo re it b e g i n s to
c o n c e n t r a t e n a t u r a l l y a n d to f o r m th e s e g u llie s , it is c o n c e n -
t r a t e d a r tif ic ia lly a n d p u t u n d e r c o n t r o l in m a n - m a d e c h a n -
n e ls. It is p ic k e d u p b y t h e w a l k s o r in g r a s s d i t c h e s a n d d e -
liv e re d i n t o t h e s t r e e t g u t t e r s o r d itc h e s . W h e r e s w a le s o r
d i t c h e s d r a i n m o r e t h a n o n e lo t o f l a n d , t h e y m u s t b e o p e n to
c o m m o n m a in te n a n c e , a n d e a s e m e n ts are re q u ire d . N a tu r a l
c r e e k s a n d g u llie s m a y n o w re c e iv e i n c r e a s e d flo w s b e c a u s e
o f t h e h a r d - s u r f a c e d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e y w ill e r o d e a n d be
la d e n w i t h silt, a n d b a n k s i d e tr e e s w ill b e u n d e r m i n e d . T o
p r e v e n t e r o s i o n , c h e c k d a m s m u s t b e i n s t a l l e d to r e d u c e ve-
lo c itie s, o r t h e c h a n n e l m a y b e p a v e d , o r d r a i n s m a y h a v e to
b e i n s ta lle d . B u t if s t o r m d r a i n s a r e la id , tr e e s in a w o o d e d
s w a le m a y b e lo s t in a n y ca se a s a b r o a d s w a t h e is c l e a r e d
for c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e b e s t s o l u t i o n m a y t h e n b e a b y p a s s
d rain , leading w a te r a w a y from th e d raw .
In t h e s t r e e t g u t t e r t h e s t o r m w a t e r c a n b e a l l o w e d to
flow for s o m e d i s t a n c e b e f o r e b e i n g t a k e n u p b y t h e u n d e r -
g r o u n d d r a i n s o r d i s c h a r g e d i n t o s t r e a m s o r o ff t h e p r o p e r t y .
T h i s g u t t e r flo w s h o u l d n o t be a l l o w e d to r u n a c r o s s a s t r e e t
o r w a lk , a n d t h u s it m u s t b e p ic k e d u p a t le a s t o n c e o n e a c h
b lo c k , a t th e l o w e s t c o r n e r , o r b e c a r r ie d u n d e r t h e c r o s s r o a d
in a c u lv e r t. U s u a l l y t h e g u t t e r w ill h a v e s u f f ic ie n t c a p a c -
ity to c a r r y t h e flo w f r o m o n e b lo c k , a l t h o u g h it is d e s i r a b l e
n o t to a l l o w w a t e r to r u n m o r e t h a n 8 0 0 to 1 0 0 0 feet b e f o r e
r e a c h i n g t h e s e w e r s , a n d t h e n o n l y in f a ir ly level g r o u n d
w i t h e ffic ie n t i n le t s y s t e m s . If n e c e s s a r y , t h e c a p a c i t y o f a
g u t t e r to c a r r y a n y g iv e n flo w c a n be te s t e d b y t h e M a n n i n g
Sec page 7 77 f o r m u la . N o s u b s t a n t i a l g u t t e r flo w s h o u l d h a v e to t u r n a
s h a r p c o r n e r o r m e e t a s u d d e n o b s ta c le , s u c h a s a p r o t r u d i n g
d r i v e w a y a p r o n . If it d o e s , a h e a v y flow m a y j u m p o u t o f t h e 171
g u t t e r a n d c a u s e e r o s i o n a n d f lo o d in g .
T h e flo w f r o m g u t t e r s a n d d i t c h e s , if n o t p r e v i o u s l y
t u r n e d in to a n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e c o u r s e , is f in a lly c a u g h t b y R eferen ce 42
in le ts p la c e d in t h e g u t t e r o r face o f t h e c u r b , u s u a l l y at
s t r e e t i n t e r s e c t i o n s o r at lo w p o i n t s in s t r e e t s o r g r o u n d s . I n -
lets h a v e a g r a t i n g to h o ld b a c k l a r g e d e b r i s a n d a r e c o n -
n e c te d b y s h o r t b r a n c h lin e s to t h e m a i n d r a i n , p r e f e r a b l y
at a m a n h o l e . C a t c h b a s i n s (or " t r a p p e d i n l e t s , " as t h e y a r e
c a lle d in s o m e lo c a litie s ) a r e s o m e t i m e s i n s e r t e d h e r e to col-
lect th e g r i t a n d t r a s h . B u t s in c e t h e s e b a s i n s m a y b e c o m e
n u isa n c e s a n d re q u ire fre q u e n t c lean in g , th e y are used o n ly
w h e r e m u c h g r i t is lik e ly , b e c a u s e o f s a n d y soil o r e a r t h
r o a d s , a n d w h e r e s lo p e s a r e flat a n d v e lo c itie s low .
S e w e r lin e s m u s t b e c o v e r e d d e e p l y e n o u g h to p r e v e n t Sewer lines
b r e a k a g e a n d f r e e z in g (4 feet in th e l a t i t u d e o f N e w E n-
g l a n d , for e x a m p l e ) , w h i l e if t h e y a r e b u r i e d m o r e t h a n 2 0
feet d e e p , th e e x c a v a t i o n w o r k w ill b e c o s tly . L in e s m u s t
h a v e a m i n i m u m s lo p e so t h a t t h e v e lo c ity o f flow a llo w s
s e lf - c le a n in g . T h e s lo p e r e q u i r e d to a c h i e v e th is v e lo c ity d e -
p e n d s o n p ip e size a n d q u a n t i t y o f flow , b u t it m a y b e t a k e n
as 0.3 p e r c e n t m i n i m u m in p r e l i m i n a r y tr ia ls b e f o r e size
a n d q u a n t i t y h a v e b e e n d e t e r m i n e d . In l a te r c a l c u l a t i o n s ,
th is m i n i m u m v e lo c ity is t a k e n as 2 feet p e r s e c o n d w h e n
f lo w in g full, w h i c h w ill p r o v i d e for su f f ic ie n t sp e e d w h e n t h e
s e w e r flo w s o n l y p a r t i a l l y full. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e s lo p e
m u s t n o t giv e v e lo c itie s o v e r 1 0 feet p e r s e c o n d , w h i c h b e -
g in s to c a u s e s c o u r i n g o f t h e p ip e . T h i s m a y d e m a n d l a r g e
p ip e s a n d flat s lo p e s in t h e lo w e r e n d s o f lin e s as q u a n t i t i e s
b u ild up.
C h a n g e s in s lo p e m a y b e m a d e o n l y a t m a n h o l e s . M a n -
h o le s m a y b e o f th e d r o p ty p e , w h e r e t h e u p p e r lin e e n t e r s
a b o v e th e lo w e r r e c e iv in g o n e . O t h e r w i s e , th e e n d s o f t w o
c o n n e c t i n g lin e s a re laid so t h a t t h e t o p s o r c e n t e r lin e s ( n o t
t h e b o t t o m s ! ) o f t h e p ip e s a re a t th e s a m e level. H o w e v e r ,
th e v e r tic a l p o s i t i o n o f p ip e s is t r a d i t i o n a l l y sp e c ifie d b y g iv -
in g t h e e le v a t i o n o f th e in v e r t, o r t h e l o w e s t p o i n t o n t h e in -
te r n a l s u rfa c e . A p ip e is n e v e r a l lo w e d to d i s c h a r g e i n to o n e
s m a l l e r t h a n its e lf s in c e f lo a t i n g m a t t e r m i g h t j a m a t t h e
sm aller entrance.
T h e s t o r m s e w e r s y s t e m is i n itia lly la id o u t in p l a n , Sewer layout
w i t h th e first in le ts lo c a te d as fa r d o w n t h e s lo p e s as p o s s i-
ble, w i t h i n th e lim it for flow in t h e o p e n g u t t e r . T h e p a t t e r n
o f c o n v e r g i n g s e w e r s is t h e n a r r a n g e d so t h a t t h e r e is a m i n -
i m u m le n g t h o f lin e a n d a m i n i m u m n u m b e r o f m a n h o l e s ,
172 w h i c h a r e n e v e r t h e l e s s p la c e d to be clo se to all n e c e s s a r y in -
lets a n d to a l l o w s t r a i g h t r u n s (o r p e r h a p s r e g u l a r c i r c u l a r
c u r v e s ) w i t h i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y b e t w e e n th e i r lo c a tio n s .
S in c e r e p a i r a n d c l e a n i n g a r e u s u a l l y d o n e at th e m a n h o l e
r a t h e r t h a n in b e t w e e n , th e m a n h o l e s m u s t b e in th e
r i g h t - o f - w a y , b u t t h e s e w e r lin e s t h e m s e l v e s m a y o c c a s io n -
a lly r u n t h r o u g h e a s e m e n t s s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y .
P r e l i m i n a r y p ro file s o f th e t o p o f t h e s e w e r p i p e a re t h e n
p l o t t e d o n th e s t r e e t p r o f ile s , w i t h t h e p i p e as c lo se to g r o u n d
s u r f a c e as p o s s i b l e w i t h i n th e lim its s t a t e d for c o v e r a n d
m i n i m u m slo p e . S in c e t h e s y s t e m m u s t m e e t th e o u tf a ll
s e w e r , s e t t l i n g b a s i n , o r s t r e a m at t h e r i g h t e le v a t i o n , it is
e a s ie r to d r a w th is p r e l i m i n a r y p ro file u p w a r d f r o m t h e d is -
c h a r g e p o i n t . F in a lly , p i p e size m u s t b e c o m p u t e d b y th e
site p l a n n e r o r h is e n g i n e e r in o r d e r to e s t i m a t e co st, c h e c k
v e lo c itie s in t h e p ip e , a n d a v o id e x c e s s iv e d e p t h o f c u t.
T e c h n i c a l p r o b l e m s o f t h e s t o r m d r a i n a g e s y s t e m w ill s o m e -
tim e s r e q u i r e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l site p l a n . In l a y i n g
o u t th e s y s t e m a n d c o m p u t i n g p ip e size, t h e d e s i g n e r m u s t
ta k e a c c o u n t o f o t h e r a r e a s d r a i n i n g i n t o th e a r e a u n d e r
stu d y a n d of the p o ssib ility th a t m o re in te n siv e d e v e lo p m e n t
m a y increase future d rain ag e.
O c c a s i o n a l l y a d e v e l o p m e n t h a s to b e la id o u t o n a c o m -
p l e t e l y flat o r s w a m p y site, w h i c h c a u s e s p r o b l e m s for all
th e u tilitie s . S t o r m d r a i n a g e c a n s o m e t i m e s b e h a n d l e d b y
k e e p i n g th e c r o w n o f th e r o a d d e a d level b u t l e t t i n g t h e g u t -
te r s a l t e r n a t e l y rise a n d fall so t h a t t h e y w ill d i s c h a r g e in t o
a s e rie s o f in le ts a l o n g t h e i r l e n g t h . H e r e t h e w a t e r falls i n t o
th e u n d e r g r o u n d s y s t e m , o r if t h e r e is n o o u tle t for a n u n d e r -
g r o u n d s y s t e m , t h e w a t e r r u n s o ff t h r o u g h d i t c h e s to o v e r -
flow b a s i n s , w h e r e th e w a t e r is p o n d e d u n til it s e e p s i n t o
th e g r o u n d . T h e l a n d s u r f a c e is g r a d e d so t h a t h o u s e s ite s
a n d p a t h s a r e a b o v e th e p o n d levels, a n d t h u s th e c ritic a l
p a r t s o f th e site a re p r o t e c t e d f r o m flo o d in g . S u c h r e t e n t i o n
b a s in s , o r e v e n th e s t r e e t itself, m a y b e u s e d for t e m p o r a r y
p o n d i n g so t h a t p i p e sizes lo w e r d o w n c a n b e m o r e effi-
r i e n t l y sized. B ut t e m p o r a r y p o n d s le a v e a m u d d y s c a r a n d
m u s t be s p r a y e d a g a i n s t t h e b r e e d i n g o f in s e c ts .
Die runoff A s a p r e l i m i n a r y to f i n d in g r e q u i r e d p ip e size, flow s
form ula a re c o m p u t e d b y th e s o - c a lle d " r a t i o n a l " f o r m u l a Q = C I A ,
in w h i c h Q is th e q u a n t i t y o f r u n o f f in c u b ic feet p e r s e c o n d ,
1 is t h e i n t e n s i t y o f r a in f a ll in in c h e s p e r h o u r , A is th e
d r a i n a g e a r e a in a c re s , a n d C is th e c o e ffic ie n t o f r u n o f f . T h e
q u a n t i t y Q is in c u b ic feet p e r s e c o n d , e v e n t h o u g h I is in
in c h e s p e r h o u r a n d A in a c re s , s i m p l y b e c a u s e th e u n i t
" i n c h - a c r e s p e r h o u r " h a p p e n s b y c h a n c e to b e v e r y c lo se ly
e q u i v a l e n t to c u b ic feet p e r s e c o n d ( 1 : 1 .0 0 8 ) . A c o m p l e t e 173
e x p o s i t i o n o f th e a s s u m p t i o n s a n d t e c h n i q u e s i n v o lv e d in th e
u s e o f th is f o r m u l a is u n n e c e s s a r y for g e n e r a l s i t e - p l a n n i n g
w o r k s in c e a n e n g i n e e r e x p e r i e n c e d in th e s e u t i l i t y s y s t e m s
w o u ld be r e q u i r e d to d e t a i l t h e m a n d t h e r e a r e o t h e r m e t h o d s
o f c a l c u l a t i o n in use, p a r t i c u l a r l y for m a j o r h y d r a u l i c i n s t a l -
la tio n s . It is w o r t h w h i l e , h o w e v e r , to u n d e r s t a n d t h e b a s ic
m e t h o d , sin c e th e f o r m u l a m a y b e u s e d in all m i n o r d r a i n -
a g e w o r k a n d a lso b e c a u s e it is u s e f u l to be a b le to m a k e a
r o u g h c h e c k o f q u a n t i t i e s , sizes, a n d s lo p e s in d i t c h e s , c u l-
v e r ts , a n d in th e l o w e r e n d s o f s t o r m d r a i n a g e lin e s. In a n y
case, th e m i n i m u m d i a m e t e r is 1 2 i n c h e s for a s t o r m s e w e r
t h a t d r a i n s a s t r e e t a n d 1 0 i n c h e s for o n e t h a t d r a i n s a y a r d
a re a . T h e s e m i n i m u m s a r e se t to p r e v e n t s t o p p a g e b y t r a s h .
T h e c o e ffic ien t o f r u n o f f C, th e f r a c t i o n o f t o t a l r a i n f a l l
t h a t r u n s o ff o n t h e su r f a c e , m a y v a r y f r o m a l m o s t 1 o n R un off
w a t e r p r o o f s u r f a c e s — o r e v e n o v e r 1 w h e r e w a r m r a i n falls coefficients
o n ice o r s n o w — to a s l o w a s 0 . 0 1 in d e n s e o ld w o o d s w i t h
s p o n g y soil. T h e c o e ffic ie n t for a n y a r e a m a y b e e s t i m a t e d
f r o m th e f o l l o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t e v a lu e s :

C
R o o fs, a s p h a l t a n d c o n c r e t e p a v e m e n t s ,
o th e r w a te rp ro o f surfaces 0 .9
M a c a d a m , c o m p a c t e d e a r t h a n d g r a v e l,
w ith o u t p la n t g ro w th 0 .7
I m p e r v i o u s soil, w i t h p l a n t c o v e r 0 .5
L aw ns and p la n te d areas, w ith n o rm a l
soil 0 .2
W oods 0 .1

T h e s e v a lu e s for C a r e fo r flat s lo p e s. T h e y s h o u l d b e in -
c r e a s e d s o m e w h a t for s lo p e s o v e r 3 o r 4 p e r c e n t . O r t h e y
m a y m o r e q u ic k ly b e e s t i m a t e d fo r c o m p o s i t e a r e a s f r o m t h e
f o llo w in g :

C
R e s i d e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t a t 1 0 f a m ilie s p e r
a c re 0 . 3 —0 .5
R e s i d e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t a t 4 0 fa m ilie s p e r
a c re 0 . 5 —0 .7
D e n se u rb a n c o m m ercial areas 0 . 7 —0 .9

V a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n th e r a n g e s d e p e n d o n th e p e r v i o u s n e s s o f
th e soil, its p l a n t o r a rtific ia l co v e r, a n d t h e s t e e p n e s s o f
slo p e s.
T h e i n t e n s i t y o f r a in f a ll / d e p e n d s o n th e g e n e r a l cli- The year o f
m a t i c r e g i o n in w h i c h th e site is l o c a te d a n d a ls o o n t h e c h o - storm
 174 sen ‫ ״‬year of s to rm ," or th e freq u en cy w ith w h ic h a sto rm of
a c e r t a i n i n t e n s i t y is lik e ly to o c c u r. T h u s a " 5 - y e a r s t o r m "
h a s a n i n t e n s i t y w h i c h w a s e q u a l e d o r e x c e e d e d as m a n y
tim e s in all t h e y e a r s o f r e c o r d as if t h a t h a d h a p p e n e d o n c e
e v e r y 5 y e a rs . It m a y h a p p e n a n y tim e , o f c o u r s e , b u t th e
p r o b a b i l i t y o f its h a p p e n i n g in a n y f u t u r e y e a r is 1 in 5 . A
" 2 0 - y e a r s t o r m " is a n u n u s u a l l y h e a v y o n e w h o s e p r o b a b i l -
ity o f o c c u r r e n c e in a n y y e a r is 1 in 2 0 , a n d so o n. A lo w y e a r
o f s t o r m m a y b e c h o s e n as t h e b a s is o f c a l c u l a t i o n for s c a t-
te r e d , l o w - v a l u e d e v e l o p m e n t w h e r e a n o c c a s i o n a l o v e r l o a d o f
t h e s y s t e m is n o t c ritic a l. A h i g h e r y e a r o f s t o r m w o u l d b e
u s e d for a d e n s e , h i g h - v a l u e a r e a w h e r e e v e n i n f r e q u e n t
f lo o d in g m i g h t b e s e r i o u s ; t h e r e s u l t i n g s y s t e m w ill b e a n
e x p e n s i v e o n e , r a r e l y u s e d to c a p a c ity . T h u s , 1 0 - y e a r , o r
e v e n 5 - y e a r , s t o r m f r e q u e n c i e s m a y b e u s e d for r e s i d e n t i a l
d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d 2 5 - y e a r , o r e v e n 5 0 - y e a r , f r e q u e n c ie s for
s h o p p i n g c e n t e r s , b u t lo c a l r e g u l a t i o n s v a r y .
Rainfall rate T h e i n t e n s i t y o f r a i n f a ll d u r i n g a s t o r m a l s o v a r i e s f r o m
m o m e n t to m o m e n t . It is u s u a l l y a s s u m e d f r o m g e n e r a l e x -
p e r i e n c e t h a t a v e r a g e i n t e n s i t y d e c r e a s e s as s t o r m d u r a t i o n
in c r e a s e s . T h u s the average in te n sity o f rainfall o f a n y
s t o r m , u p to a n y g i v e n m o m e n t , d e p e n d s o n t h e c l i m a t i c re-
g io n , the c h o s e n storm freq u en cy , and th e ela p se d tim e
s i n c e t h e s t o r m b e g a n . T h i s ra te is e s t i m a t e d fr o m t h e p a s t
r a i n f a ll e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e area, as s u m m a r i z e d in lo c a l h y -
d r o l o g i c or w e a t h e r d a ta . T h e s i m p l e s t e s t i m a t i o n f o r m u l a is

w h e r e I is t h e a v e r a g e i n t e n s i t y in i n c h e s p e r h o u r , t is t h e
t i m e in m i n u t e s s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e s t o r m , a n d K a n d
b are c o n s t a n t s t h a t d e p e n d o n t h e s t o r m f r e q u e n c y a n d t h e
c l i m a t i c r e g i o n . T a b l e 4 a n d F ig u r e 2 1 g i v e t h e s e c o n s t a n t s
for r e g i o n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
Time o f T h e v a lu e o f t u s e d in a c a l c u l a t i o n for p i p e size is t h e
concentration ti m e r e q u i r e d for t h e c r e s t o f m a x i m u m flow to r e a c h th e
p o i n t in q u e s t i o n . A t t h e t o p o f a s e w e r line, t h i s tim e is
t h e in t e r v a l n e e d e d fo r t h e la r g e s t v o l u m e o f w a t e r to r e a c h
t h e t o p m o s t in le t f r o m its t r i b u t a r y a re a . I n le t t im e s v a r y
f r o m 5 to 4 0 m i n u t e s a n d m a y b e t a k e n to b e 10 m i n u t e s in
s u b u r b a n r e s i d e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t . In g e n e r a l , in le t tim e s
v a r y d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e d i s t a n c e to t h e f a r t h e s t p o i n t o f t h e
d r a i n a g e a re a , a n d in v e r s e l y as t h e c o e ffic ie n t o f r u n o f f a n d
t h e s q u a r e r o o t o f a v e r a g e slo p e . S in c e p e a k flo w s fall o ff as
ti m e o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n c r e a s e s , it fo llo w s t h a t flow s ( a n d
 Figure 21 R a i n -
fall regions of
the U n it e d S t a t e s ,
to b e u s e d in T a -
b l e 4.

T able 4. I ntensity of R ainfall by R egions

Fre- R e g io n (see Figure 2 1 )

qucncy Coeffi-
(years) c i e n ts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

2 K 206 140 106 70 70 68 32

b 30 21 17 13 16 14 11

5 K 247 190 131 97 81 75 48

b 29 25 19 16 13 12 12

1 10 K 300 230 170 111 111 12 2 60

b 36 29 23 16 17 23 13
25 K 327 260 230 170 130 155 67
b 33 32 30 27 17 26 10

50 K 315 350 250 187 187 160 65

b 28 38 27 24 25 21 8

10 0 K 367 375 290 220 240 2 10 77

b 33 36 31 28 29 26 10

th e r e f o r e p i p e sizes) m a y b e d e c r e a s e d b y i n c r e a s i n g th e in -
let tim e , t h a t is, b y s l o w i n g d o w n t h e r a t e at w h i c h r a i n -
w a t e r flow s a c r o s s t h e la n d , w h e t h e r b y f l a t t e n i n g s lo p e s
o r b y in c r e a s i n g t h e r u n o f f c o e ffic ien t C (as b y p l a n t i n g ) , o r
e v e n b y t e m p o r a r i l y i m p o u n d i n g t h e f lo w in g w a t e r s .
T h e tim e u s e d for c a l c u l a t i n g i n t e n s i t y a t a n y l o w e r
p o i n t in th e s e w e r is th e o r i g i n a l in le t tim e p lu s t h e ti m e re -
q u i r e d for t h e c r e s t o f flow to r u n d o w n th e lin e to t h a t p o i n t .
 176 g ra d u a lly le n g th e n in g a n d the averag e in te n sity th erefo re
g ra d u a lly slackening.
Estimating For m a n y p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d , t h e r e a r e n o d e t a i l e d d a t a
when data arc t h a t p e r m i t th e e s t i m a t i o n o f a v e r a g e s t o r m i n t e n s i t y b y
inadequate year of freq u en cy an d tim e of c o n c e n tra tio n . M u c h ro u g h e r
c a l c u l a t i o n s m u s t b e m a d e . T h e r e m a y b e a r e c o r d o f th e
h e a v ie s t o n e - h o u r s t o r m t h a t o c c u r r e d in th e la s t 2 0 y e a r s ,
w h i c h c a n t h e n b e u s e d w i t h o u t c o r r e c t i n g for tim e o f c o n -
c e n t r a t i o n . O r t h e r e c o r d m a y h a v e b e e n for o n l y a s h o r t e r
p e r i o d , in w h i c h c a s e o n e c a n c o n v e r t f r o m o n e y e a r o f s t o r m
f r e q u e n c y to a n o t h e r b y a f o r m u l a b a s e d o n g e n e r a l e x p e r i-
ence:

h _ 1 -f k log x
h 1 ‫־־‬ + k log y

w h e r e h is th e i n t e n s i t y for a s t o r m o f x y e a r s o f f r e q u e n c y ,
a n d h o f y y e a r s , a n d k is a c o n s t a n t t h a t is 1 . 0 for a r e a s of
m o d e r a t e r a in f a ll a n d r a n g e s f r o m 0 .6 5 fo r a r e a s o f h i g h
r a in f a ll to 1 .7 5 for a r e a s o f lo w r a in f a ll. T h a t is, in d r y a r e a s
t h e r e is u s u a l l y a g r e a t e r d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n u n u s u a l a n d
n o r m a l s t o r m s . T h e r a i n f a l l r e c o r d in a p la c e is e v e n m o r e
lik e ly to r e fe r to m a x i m u m r a i n f a l l d u r i n g a 2 4 - h o u r d a y
t h a n to th e m a x i m u m a v e r a g e i n t e n s i t y fo r o n e h o u r . T h e
f o r m e r c a n b e c o n v e r t e d to t h e la t t e r b y t h e r o u g h g u e s s t h a t
4 0 p e r c e n t o f a d a y ' s r a i n fell in t h e p e a k h o u r . O b v i o u s l y ,
o n e u s e s b e t t e r d a t a w h e n e v e r a v a ila b le .
Drainage areas T h e a r e a A, e x p r e s s e d in a c r e s , is s i m p l y t h e to t a l a r e a
d r a i n e d b y e a c h set o f in le ts . W i t h t h e k n o w l e d g e t h a t s u r -
face w a t e r flo w s p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y to t h e c o n t o u r s , t h e " d i -
v i d e s " b e t w e e n in le t d r a i n a g e a r e a s c a n be d r a w n , a n d t h e
size o f e a c h a r e a c a n b e c o m p u t e d b y p l a n i m e t e r . O f f - s i t e as
w e ll as o n - s i t e d r a i n a g e a r e a s m u s t b e in c l u d e d in t h e a n a l -
ysis.
T h e to ta l flo w le a v i n g a n y m a n h o l e to e n t e r t h e n e x t
s e c t i o n o f p i p e is t h e r e f o r e t h e s u m o f t h e r a t e o f flo w o f t h e
c r e s t a r r i v i n g f r o m a n y lin e a b o v e , p lu s th e r a t e e n t e r i n g at
t h a t j n o m e n t a t t h e m a n h o l e 's o w n in le ts . T h e l a t t e r q u a n -
t i t y is c o m p u t e d f r o m Q = C I A , u s i n g th e v a lu e s o f C , /, a n d
A p r o p e r to th is set o f in le ts.
Size o f storm If t h e r a t e o f flo w in a n y p ip e a n d its s lo p e f r o m t h e p r e -
drains l i m i n a r y p ro file a re k n o w n , its r e q u i r e d size m a y b e c o m -
p u t e d f r o m th e f o r m u l a
w h e r e Q is t h e r a t e in c u b ic feet p e r s e c o n d , S is t h e s lo p e 177
w r i t t e n as a d e c im a l, a n d D is t h e i n s i d e d i a m e t e r o f t h e re-
q u i r e d p ip e in feet. S in c e D w ill c o m e o u t as a f r a c t i o n a l
n u m b e r , t h e p ip e c h o s e n fo r u s e s h o u l d b e t h e n e x t s t a n d a r d
size la r g e r . S t a n d a r d sizes o f s e w e r p ip e i n c r e a s e b y 2 - i n c h
i n t e r v a l s f r o m 4 to 12 in c h e s , a n d t h e n c e b y 3 - i n c h i n t e r v a l s
to 36 in c h e s . P ip e s h o u l d n e v e r b e m u c h o v e r s iz e , h o w -
ever, s in c e r e s u l t i n g v e lo c itie s a t lig h t lo a d s m a y b e to o
sm a ll.
T h i s f o r m u l a fo r p i p e size is d e r i v e d f r o m t h e M a n n i n g M anning
f o r m u l a for flo w in o p e n c h a n n e l s : form ula

v= s ’/‫־‬,
n

w h e r e V is t h e v e lo c ity o f flo w in feet p e r s e c o n d , S is t h e

s lo p e w r i t t e n as a d e c im a l, R is t h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s , a n d n
is t h e c o e ffic ie n t o f r o u g h n e s s o f t h e i n n e r s u r f a c e o f p i p e o r
c h a n n e l . T h i s c o e f f ic ie n t v a r ie s as fo llo w s :
n
S m o o t h , c le a n , m e t a l p i p e 0 .0 1
S m o o th c o n crete 0 .0 1 3
B r ic k o r v itr if ie d c la y 0 .0 1 5
S m o o th earth 0 .0 2 —0 .0 3 5
R o u g h c h an n el, o v e rg ro w n 0 .0 3 —0 .0 5

T h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s R is e q u a l to t h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f
th e f lo w in g w a t e r , d i v i d e d b y t h e l e n g t h o f t h a t p a r t o f t h e
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l p e r i m e t e r o f t h e c h a n n e l w h i c h is in c o n t a c t
w i t h t h e flow .
T h i s f o r m u l a m a y b e e m p l o y e d for p i p e s a t a t m o s p h e r i c
p r e s s u r e , as w e ll a s fo r d i t c h e s , o p e n c h a n n e l s , g u t t e r s , a n d
s t r e a m s . B u t it s h o u l d n o t b e u s e d w h e r e v e l o c i t y is o v e r 1 0
feet p e r s e c o n d , o r w h e r e t h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s is g r e a t e r
t h a n 1 0 feet. It is u s e d to c a lc u l a t e v e lo c ity , g iv e n t h e s lo p e ,
t h e h y d r a u l i c r a d i u s r e s u l t i n g f r o m th e d e p t h o f f lo w in t h e
c h a n n e l , a n d t h e c o e ffic ie n t o f r o u g h n e s s d u e to th e t y p e o f
c h a n n e l . T h e r a t e o f flo w is t h e n t h e p r o d u c t o f t h i s v e lo c ity
t im e s th e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a o f t h e f lo w in g w a t e r .
T h e g e n e r a l f o r m u l a for t h e siz e o f s e w e r p ip e , g iv e n
e a r lie r , h a s b e e n d e r i v e d f r o m t h e M a n n i n g f o r m u l a b y a s-
s u m i n g th e u s e o f v itr if ie d c la y p i p e { n = 0 . 0 1 5 ) , c i r c u l a r
a n d f lo w in g full, s in c e t h e p u r p o s e is to fin d t h e s m a l l e s t
p ip e t h a t w ill c a r r y t h e e x p e c te d flow. In t h i s c a se R is
e q u a l to o n e - f o u r t h t h e in s i d e d i a m e t e r o f th e p ip e , a n d t h e
c ro s s s e c tio n o f flow e q u a l s 7t D 2/ 4 .
A f t e r p ip e size h a s b e e n c a lc u la te d , t h e v e lo c ity o f flow
 178 m u s t b e c h e c k e d , b y t h e M a n n i n g f o r m u l a , fo r t h e o c c a s io n s
Velocity o f o f m a x i m u m flow . B y o u r s im p lif ic a tio n , t h e r e s u l t i n g ve-
flow lo c ity is

V = 4 0 D 2/3 S V2,

S b e i n g t h e s lo p e a s a d e c i m a l a n d D t h e a c t u a l i n t e r n a l
p ip e d i a m e t e r in feet. If t h e r e s u l t i n g v e lo c ity in t h e p ip e is
o u t s i d e t h e p r e f e r r e d r a n g e o f b e t w e e n 2 a n d 1 0 feet p e r
s e c o n d , t h e n t h e s lo p e o f t h e p i p e m u s t b e r e a d j u s t e d . V e lo c -
ities b e l o w 2 m a y fail to k e e p t h e p i p e c le a n , a n d t h o s e
a b o v e 1 0 m a y s c o u r its i n n e r s u r f a c e . T h e n t h e r e q u i r e d
p i p e size a n d v e lo c ity m u s t b e r e c o m p u t e d a n d th e p r o c e s s
r e p e a t e d u n t i l a s a t i s f a c t o r y c o m b i n a t i o n is f o u n d .
N o r m a l l y , t h is s y s t e m w o u l d b e c o m p u t e d a n d d e -
s i g n e d b y a n e n g i n e e r s p e c ia lis t, b u t it is u se fu l for t h e s ite
p l a n n e r to u n d e r s t a n d t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a n d its i m p l i c a t i o n s
a n d to see h o w it c a n b e a p p l i e d to all k i n d s o f d r a i n a g e w o r k
a n d flo w in o p e n c h a n n e l s . W i t h t h i s k n o w l e d g e a d e s i g n e r
c a n a l w a y s c h e c k a p a r t i c u l a r d i t c h o r g u t t e r o r r u n o f p ip e
t h a t m a y b e c r itic a l fo r siz e o r slo p e . S in c e t r o u b l e o f t e n a p -
p e a r s at t h e b o t t o m o f a r u n , t h e la s t p i p e is w o r t h a c h e c k .
Approxim a- T h e q u a n t i t y o f flo w a t t h e e n d o r a t a n y p o i n t in th e
tions at critical lin e c a n b e a p p r o x i m a t e d b y u s i n g t h e " r a t i o n a l " f o r m u l a ,
points Q = C IA , first e x t i m a t i n g t h e o v e r a ll C a n d t h e n c o m p u t i n g
a n A t h a t c o v e r s t h e e n t i r e s ite d r a i n e d b y e v e r y i n le t u p to
a n d i n c l u d i n g th e la s t o n e u p s t r e a m . N e x t , o n e ta k e s a n I
t h a t is a n a v e r a g e b e t w e e n t h e v a l u e e x p e c t e d a t t h e t o p
in le t (t = in le t tim e ) a n d t h e v a l u e o f I t h a t w o u l d b e e x ‫־‬
p e c te d a t t h e la st in le t j u s t u p s t r e a m if th e c r e s t h a d
m o v e d d o w n f r o m t h e l o n g e s t b r a n c h at s o m e r e a s o n a b l e c o n -
s t a n t r a te , s a y 4 feet p e r s e c o n d . T h e q u a n t i t y Q c o m p u t e d
f r o m t h e s e v a lu e s o f C , /, a n d A c a n t h e n b e tr ie d o u t a t th e
s lo p e t e n t a t i v e l y g iv e n for th e lin e in q u e s t i o n .
Culverts A s h o r t l e n g t h o f p i p e t h a t is in s e r t e d u n d e r a r o a d o r
o t h e r b a r r i e r to c a r r y s t o r m w a t e r o r a s m a l l b r o o k is c a lle d a
c u lv e r t. It is, in effect, a f r a g m e n t a r y s t o r m d r a i n a g e sy s-
tern. N o r m a l l y , c u l v e r t s a r e c i r c u l a r in c r o s s s e c t i o n a n d a re
m a d e o f c o n c r e t e o r c o r r u g a t e d m e ta l. T h e y s h o u l d b e
stra ig h t, sh o u ld cross th e ro ad a p p ro x im a te ly at rig h t an-
gles, a n d s h o u l d u se th e lin e o f t h e o ld c h a n n e l if p o s s ib le .
B ut in a n y c a se t h e y s h o u l d c r o s s t h e r o a d a t t h e first o p p o r -
t u n i t y , a n d s h o u l d n o t a l l o w w a t e r to c o u r s e a l o n g t h e u p h ill
s id e o f th e r o a d , w h i c h c a u s e s e r o s io n .
W h e r e p o s s ib le , c u lv e r ts a re la id a t t h e s lo p e o f th e old
c h a n n e l , b u t w i t h a m a x i m u m g r a d e o f 8 to 1 0 p e r c e n t a n d 179
a m i n i m u m g r a d e o f 0 .5 p e r c e n t . T h e g r a d i e n t j u s t b e l o w
th e o u t l e t m u s t b e at le a s t as s te e p as t h e s lo p e j u s t a b o v e
th e in le t to p r e v e n t s iltin g . I n le ts a n d o u t l e t s r e q u i r e w i n g
w a lls a n d a p r o n s to p r e v e n t e r o s io n . T o p r o t e c t it f r o m b e-
in g c r u s h e d , th e c u lv e r t s h o u l d b e c o v e r e d w i t h a d e p t h o f
fill t h a t is e q u a l to o n e - h a l f th e p ip e d i a m e t e r b u t m u s t b e at
le a st 1 foot.
T h e size o f c u lv e r ts is c a lc u l a t e d in t h e s a m e w a y as
th e size o f s e w e r p ip e s , b y c o m p u t i n g t h e q u a n t i t y o f flo w
f r o m th e p r o p e r v a lu e s o f t h e a c r e a g e o f t h e w a t e r s h e d a n d
its a v e r a g e c o e ffic ie n t o f r u n o f f . T h e flo w s h o u l d b e c a lc u -
la te d for a 2 5 - y e a r s t o r m , o r e v e n for a g r e a t e r o n e , sin c e th e
c u lv e r t c o s t is s m a ll a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n u n d e r e s t i -
m a t e se r io u s . A s in t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n g iv e n e a r lie r for m a k -
in g a s p o t c h e c k in a s e w e r s y s t e m , t h e r a t e w o u l d be b a s e d
o n a n in le t ti m e e q u a l to th e ti m e t h a t w a t e r m i g h t t a k e to
flow h a l f w a y to t h e c u lv e r t f r o m t h e f a r t h e s t p o i n t o f t h e
d r a i n a g e a re a . T h e r e q u i r e d c u lv e r t size t h e n d e p e n d s o n
t h e s lo p e o f t h e c u lv e r t its e lf a n d o n t h e c a l c u l a t e d q u a n t i t y
o f flow , as s h o w n in t h e f o r e g o i n g c o m p u t a t i o n s .
S o m e t i m e s s u b s u r f a c e d r a i n s a re i n s t a l l e d to c a r r y t h e Subsurface
w a t e r a w a y f r o m w e t g r o u n d , to p r e v e n t s e e p a g e t h r o u g h drains
f o u n d a t i o n s o r at e m b a n k m e n t s , o r to c o r r e c t fr o s t h e a v i n g
o r a h i g h w a t e r ta b le . M o s t o f t e n th e s e a r e 4 - to 6 - i n c h tile
p ip e s , p e r f o r a t e d o r w i t h o p e n jo in ts , laid in a g r a v e l fill.
T h e y le a d i n t o t h e s t o r m s y s t e m o r i n t o n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e
c o u rs e s . T h e y a r e p u t 2 V2 to 5 feet b e l o w g r o u n d : d e e p e r a n d
m o r e w id e ly s p a c e d in p e r m e a b l e soil a n d s h a l l o w e r a n d
c lo s e r t o g e t h e r in m o r e i m p e r v i o u s soil.
S a n it a r y (a e u p h e m is m fo r in s a n ita r y ) w a s t e s , s u c h a s S a n ita ry "
t h o s e fro m s in k s a n d t o ile t s , are g e n e r a lly k e p t o u t o f th e D r a in a g e
s to r m d r a in s b u t are c a r r ie d d o w n in a s y s t e m q u ite s im ila r
in fo rm . T h is w a s t e is u s u a lly ca r r ie d to a d is p o s a l p la n t,
w h ic h c o n v e r ts th e s e w a g e in to a n e fflu e n t th a t c a n s a f e ly
b e d is c h a r g e d in to s o m e b o d y o f n a tu r a l w a te r . It is n o lo n g e r
to le r a b le to a llo w r a w s e w a g e to flo w in to la k e s o r r iv e r s.
M o r e o v e r , w e are le a r n in g th a t w e h a v e as m u c h to fea r fr o m
c h e m ic a l a n d th e r m a l p o llu t io n as fr o m b io lo g ic a l p o llu t io n
a n d th a t e la b o r a te t r e a tm e n t, or r e c y c lin g , o f w a s t e s is n o w
im p e r a tiv e . I n d e e d , if w e c a n n o t m o d if y o u r h a b it s o f p o llu t-
in g th e w a te r , air, a n d la n d , w e m a y s o o n b e a b le to d is -
p e n s e w it h s ite p la n n in g a n d o th e r p r o b le m s o f c iv iliz a t io n .
S a n ita r y d r a in a g e is t y p ic a lly a c o n v e r g in g s y s t e m o f
m a n h o le s an d s tr a ig h t p ip e s , or p ip e s o f g e n t le h o r iz o n t a l
 180 c u r v a tu r e , le a d in g to a d is p o s a l p la n t. U n lik e th e s to r m s y s -
te m , it is lik e ly to b e c o n t in u o u s o v e r la r g e a r e a s, a n d it
s o m e t im e s m u s t b e p u m p e d u p o v e r d iv id e s in o r d e r to r e a c h
a c o m m o n p o in t o f d is c h a r g e . P u m p in g is a v o id e d if p o s s ib le
at th e s it e - p la n n in g s c a le . S a n it a r y d r a in s m a y b e c r itic a l
at th e la r g e s c a le , b u t t h e la y o u t it s e l f is r a r e ly c o n t r o llin g at
th e s it e - p la n n in g s c a le .
U n l i k e s t o r m s e w e r s , s a n i t a r y s e w e r s f o r m a c lo s e d
d r a i n a g e s y s t e m c o n n e c t e d , n o t to o p e n in le ts , b u t d i r e c t l y to
s i n k a n d to ile t d r a i n s v ia t r a p s t h a t seal o ff t h e s e w e r o d o r s .
T h e b r a n c h lin e s l e a d i n g to h o u s e s c o n n e c t i n t o t h e m a i n all
a l o n g its c o u r s e r a t h e r t h a n j u s t a t t h e m a n h o l e s . If p e r m i t -
te d b y lo c a l r e g u l a t i o n s , m a n h o l e s m a y b e r e p l a c e d b y s im -
p ie a n d r e l a t i v e l y i n e x p e n s i v e c l e a n o u t s a t t h e u p p e r e n d s
o f lin e s a n d a ls o a t b r a n c h i n g s o r b r e a k s in a l i g n m e n t e i t h e r
o f h o u s e lin e s o r o f s h o r t l a t e r a l s b e a r i n g t h e flo w o f n o t m o r e
t h a n 1 0 to 1 2 h o u s e s to a m a i n se w e r . W h e r e a c l e a n o u t is
u s e d a t a c h a n g e in d i r e c t i o n , t h e c h a n g e m u s t b e le ss t h a n
9 0 d e g r e e s . W h e r e t w o b r a n c h e s jo i n a t a c l e a n o u t , o n l y o n e
b r a n c h s h o u l d c h a n g e d i r e c t i o n . L in e s, p a r t i c u l a r l y s h o r t la t-
e r a ls , n e e d n o t a l w a y s b e e n t i r e l y w i t h i n t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y
as l o n g as m a n h o l e s a n d c l e a n o u t s a re a c c e s s ib le : a p r o p e r l y
d e s i g n e d s y s t e m r a r e l y n e e d s r e p a i r o r e v e n c le a n in g . O t h -
e r w is e , t h e l a y o u t t e c h n i q u e is s i m i l a r to t h e s t o r m d r a i n a g e
s y s te m .
Size o f sanitary T h e m i n i m u m size o f s a n i t a r y s e w e r p i p e is se t r a t h e r
drains la r g e in r e l a t i o n to r a t e s o f flo w in o r d e r to p r e v e n t s to p p a g e :
8 - i n c h p i p e fo r m a i n s o r la t e r a l s a n d 6 - i n c h p ip e for h o u s e
b ra n c h e s. O n ly th e m a in outfalls of ex ten siv e areas re q u ire
a l a r g e r - s i z e p ip e . B e c a u s e o f t h e s m a ll q u a n t i t i e s f l o w in g in
th e u p p e r e n d s of th e sy ste m , w h e re th e pip es are m u c h
la r g e r t h a n c a p a c i t y r e q u i r e s , t h e r e is a d a n g e r t h a t s lo p e s
m a y n o t b e s u f f ic ie n t to m a i n t a i n t h e m i n i m u m self-
c l e a n i n g v e lo c ity . T h u s a s t a n d a r d o f m i n i m u m s lo p e s for
p ip e s s e r v i n g s m a ll n u m b e r s o f h o u s e s m u s t b e set, a s t a n -
d a r d m o r e r e s t r i c t i v e t h a n t h e s t o r m d r a i n m i n i m u m o f 0.3
p e rcen t:

N u m b e r of houses
served 1 2 3 4 5 10 20

M in im u m slope
(percent) 1.4 1.1 0.85 0.75 0.7 0.5 0.4

T h e s tr e e t m a in s m u s t b e s e t lo w e n o u g h to r e c e iv e th e
h o u s e la te r a ls , d r o p p in g at t h e s e m in im u m g r a d ie n t s fr o m
th e c e lla r s o f b u ild in g s . T h e m a in s a re th e r e fo r e lik e ly to b e
set a t le a st 6 feet d o w n , a n d m o r e w h e r e l a n d s lo p e s d o w n 181
f r o m th e s t r e e t o r w h e r e t h e r e a r e d e e p b a s e m e n t s .
If a p u b lic d i s p o s a l p l a n t is n o t w i t h i n r e a c h , it is p o s s i-
b le to c o n s t r u c t a n e c o n o m i c a l p r i v a t e d is p o s a l p l a n t , al-
t h o u g h t h i s w ill r e q u i r e o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e . A
s m a ll p r i v a t e p l a n t w o u l d c o n s i s t o f a s e p tic o r I m h o f f t a n k ,
f o llo w e d b y o n e o r m o r e s a n d a n d t r i c k l i n g filters. T h i s p l a n t
s h o u l d be set s e v e r a l h u n d r e d feet f r o m a n y h o u s e a n d c o u ld
be e c o n o m i c a l l y d e s i g n e d to s e r v e f r o m 50 to 5 0 0 d w e l l i n g
u n its .
W h e r e soil is s u f f ic ie n tly p e r v i o u s a n d g r o u n d w a t e r Septic tanks
lo w , it is p o s s ib le to d i s p e n s e w i t h a c o m m o n d r a i n a g e s y s -
tern in l o w - d e n s i t y d e v e l o p m e n t a n d to g iv e e a c h u n i t a se p -
tic t a n k d i s c h a r g i n g i n t o a n u n d e r g r o u n d d r a i n field. D r a i n
fields m u s t b e k e p t 1 0 0 feet f r o m a n y s u r f a c e w a t e r o r w e ll,
a n d t h e y s h o u l d be n e i t h e r h e a v i l y s h a d e d n o r c r o s s e d b y
a n y v e h ic le s. T h e i r r e q u i r e d size w ill d e p e n d o n t h e a b s o r p -
ti o n c a p a c i t y o f t h e soil.
A b s o r p t i o n c a p a c i t y m a y b e c h e c k e d b y d i g g i n g a te s t
p it at t h e d r a i n field site in t h e w e t s e a s o n to t h e d e p t h t h a t
t h e field w ill lie. T h e n t h e p i t is filled w i t h 2 feet o f w a t e r ,
w h i c h is a l lo w e d to fall to a 6 - i n c h d e p t h , a n d t h e d r o p is
t i m e d f r o m 6 to 5 i n c h e s . T h i s p r o c e d u r e s h o u l d be r e p e a t e d
u n t i l it ta k e s t h e s a m e t i m e to m a k e t h i s 1 - i n c h d r o p fo r t w o
te s ts r u n n i n g . T h e a l l o w a b l e a b s o r p t i o n r a t e o f t h e soil, in
g a l l o n s p e r s q u a r e fo o t o f d r a i n field a r e a p e r d a y , is s h o w n
in T a b le 5. If t h e ti m e o f fall is m u c h lo n g e r , it is d o u b t f u l

T able 5. A llowable A bsorption R ates of S oil

T im e for 1-inch A b s o r p t i o n rate (gal
fall ( m i n ) per sq ft p er d a y)

5 or less 2.5
8 2.0
10 1.7
12 1.5
15 1.3
22 ‫״‬ 1.0

t h a t a d r a i n field is u s a b le . G i v e n th e ra te , t h e n e c e s s a r y t o ta l
field a r e a c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d in a h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t b y a s-
s u m i n g t h a t t o ta l s e w a g e flo w w ill e q u a l 1 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r
p e rso n per day.
If p r o p e r l y i n s ta lle d , se p tic t a n k s s h o u l d g iv e n o f u t u r e
t r o u b l e a n d a re m o r e e c o n o m i c a l t h a n a s e w a g e s y s t e m c o m -
p le te w i t h d i s p o s a l p l a n t . T h e s m a ll c o m m u n i t y d i s p o s a l
p l a n t h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e s t h a t it c a n l a t e r be h o o k e d i n t o a fu-
t u r e p u b lic s y s t e m , w i t h n o loss o n t h e i n v e s t m e n t in t h e
 182 s e w e r s t h e m s e lv e s . E ith er s y s t e m , h o w e v e r , te n d s to m a k e
fu tu r e e x t e n s io n o f p u b lic s e w e r s m o r e d iffic u lt to j u s t if y e c o -
n o m ic a lly .
Pits a n d p riv ie s In th e s im p le s t c a s e , s a n it a r y d is p o s a l m a y b e r e d u c e d
to a s y s t e m o f s o a k a g e p its a n d p r iv ie s , o r e a r th c lo s e t s . S h o r t
p ip e s ta k e th e d r a in a g e fr o m s in k s , s h o w e r s , o r w a s h in g
s it e s to s o a k a g e p its or c e s s p o o l s — p its fille d w it h c o a r s e
g r a v e l a n d c o v e r e d o v e r . A b s o r p t io n c a p a c ity is c o m p u te d as
b e fo r e , a lt h o u g h th e f lo w p er p e r s o n p e r d a y m a y b e m u c h
le s s in a p r im it iv e s it u a tio n . P its , lik e s e p tic ta n k s , a re k e p t
w e ll a w a y fr o m s tr u c tu r e s a n d fro m w e lls . W a t e r -f lu s h e d
t o ile t s d o n o t d is c h a r g e in to t h e s e p its . T h e y a re e lim in a t e d
in fa v o r o f p r iv ie s , w h ic h a re t ig h t ly b u ilt a n d a ls o p u t at
s o m e d is t a n c e fr o m o th e r b u ild in g s . P its w ill r e q u ir e a n o c -
c a s io n a l c le a n in g , a n d p r iv ie s m u s t b e m o v e d to a n e w s it e
p e r io d ic a lly . T h e s y s t e m is in c o n v e n ie n t , r e q u ir e s lo w d e n -
s it ie s , a n d d e m a n d s c o n s t a n t c a r e to p r e v e n t in s e c t- b o r n e
d is e a s e and u n p le a s a n t o d o r s . B u t w h i le it is o f f ic ia lly
f r o w n e d u p o n a n d ille g a l in m o s t d e v e lo p e d r e g io n s , th e s y s -
tern is q u ite s a n it a r y if p r o p e r ly m a d e a n d m a in t a in e d .
W a t e r S u p p ly T h e p o t a b ilit y , q u a n tit y , a n d p r e s s u r e o f w a te r s u p -
p lie d to r e s id e n ts o f a n area a re v it a l to th e ir h e a lt h a n d c o n -
v e n ie n c e . C le a n w a te r is th e m o s t c r itic a l u t ilit y , a n e c e s -
s it y e v e n in th e m o s t p r im it iv e s e tt le m e n t . Y e t, w h ile th e
w a te r s u p p ly m a y m a k e th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a g iv e n s ite
e ith e r fe a s ib le , c o s t ly , o r im p o s s ib le , it r a r e ly im p o s e s c o n -
tr o ls o n th e p a tte r n o f th e s it e p la n it s e lf. T h e p ip e s o f a p r e s -
su r e s y s t e m c a n b e la id w it h b e n d s a n d g e n t le c u r v e s a n d
c a n e a s ily b e a d a p te d to m o s t la y o u ts .
W a t e r lin e s le a k or b r e a k r a th e r fr e q u e n tly a n d th e r e -
fo re m u s t a lw a y s b e lo c a te d in th e p u b lic r i g h t - o f - w a y , p r e f-
e r a b ly c lo s e to a tr a ffic p a v e m e n t th a t c a n c a r r y re p a ir v e -
h i d e s . F u r th e r m o r e , ca r e m u s t b e ta k e n to p r e v e n t c o n t a m i-
n a tio n . T h e m a in s fo r p o t a b le w a te r are d ir e c t ly c o n n e c t e d to
u s in g fix tu r e s , a n d th e r e a re n o c r o ss c o n n e c t io n s w it h o th e r
lin e s . S e w e r lin e s a re la id b e lo w w a te r m a in s a n d w h e r e
p o s s ib le o n th e o p p o s it e s id e o f th e str e e t or 1 0 fe e t d is t a n t
h o r iz o n t a lly . W a te r is u s u a lly b r o u g h t in to th e b u ild in g s ,
b u t in lo w - c o s t d e v e lo p m e n t it m a y b e c o n v e y e d o n ly to a
p u b lic ta p or f o u n ta in h e a d , fr o m w h ic h it is c a r ried in to
d w e llin g s .
L a y o u t o f the A s w it h a n y p r e s s u r e s y s t e m , th e r e a re t w o b a s ic d is -
w ater system tr ib u t io n la y o u t s th a t m a y b e u se d . O n e is a tr e e lik e p a t-
te r n , w it h lin e s b r a n c h in g o u t fr o m th e p o in t o f e n tr y . A sec^
o n d is a lo o p or in te r c o n n e c te d n e t w o r k , w h ic h m a y h a v e
m o r e t h a n o n e p o i n t o f e n t e r i n g s u p p ly . T h e tr e e lik e p a t t e r n 183
is lik e ly to m i n i m i z e l e n g t h o f lin e a n d t h u s be c h e a p e s t ,
b u t th e lo o p o r n e t w o r k is m u c h th e p r e f e r a b l e s y s t e m sin c e
it a v o id s th e d r o p in p r e s s u r e a t t h e e n d s o f lo n g b r a n c h e s
a n d th e d if f ic u lty o f k e e p i n g d e a d - e n d p i p e s c le a r, w h ile
few o r n o u n i t s w ill be c u t o ff f r o m se r v ic e w h e n a m a i n
b r e a k s . W h e r e d e a d e n d s d o o c c u r , as at t h e e n d s o f c u ls-
d e - s a c , h y d r a n t s o r b l o w o f f s m u s t be i n s t a l l e d to a llo w o c c a -
s io n a l c le a n in g .
S in c e th is u t i l i t y is t h e o n e m o s t s e r i o u s l y a ff e c te d b y
fro st, in N e w E n g l a n d it is n o r m a l l y la id u n d e r 5 feet o f
cover. T h e lin e m a y rise a n d fall w i t h t h e s lo p e o f t h e s u r -
face, a s l o n g as p o s i t i v e p r e s s u r e s a re m a i n t a i n e d a t th e
h i g h p o i n t s . S in c e w a t e r s u p p l y is p a i d fo r a c c o r d i n g to th e
q u a n t i t y d e liv e r e d , m e t e r s a r e i n s t a l l e d in t h e lin e a t i n d i-
v id u a l d w e l l i n g s , a t g r o u p s o f d w e l l i n g s , o r a t t h e b o u n d a r y
o f a n e n t i r e d e v e l o p m e n t . V a lv e s a r e p l a c e d in h o u s e
b r a n c h e s w h e r e t h e y le a v e t h e m a i n s a n d i n t h e m a i n s a t
p o i n t s n e c e s s a r y to c u t o ff s e c tio n s in t h e e v e n t o f b r e a k s .
T h e s e v a lv e s m u s t b e n o m o r e t h a n 1 0 0 0 feet a p a r t . F ire h y -
d r a n t s a r e p u t a l o n g v e h i c u l a r w a y s at i n t e r s e c t i o n s a n d
o t h e r p o i n t s so t h a t all p a r t s o f b u i l d i n g s m a y b e r e a c h e d b y
h o s e lin e s n o t o v e r 5 0 0 feet l o n g f r o m o n e a n d p r e f e r a b l y t w o
h y d r a n t s . Y et to k e e p t h e m u s a b l e in c a se o f fire, n o h y d r a n t
s h o u l d b e c lo s e r t h a n 2 5 , a n d p r e f e r a b l y 50 , feet f r o m a n y
s t r u c t u r e . In h i g h - v a l u e c o m m e r c i a l d i s t r i c t s , a s p e c ia l
h i g h - p r e s s u r e s y s t e m for fire f i g h t i n g is s o m e t i m e s in -
s ta lle d s e p a r a t e l y f r o m t h e p o t a b l e s u p p ly .
T h e m i n i m u m d i a m e t e r for w a t e r m a i n s is 6 in c h e s , o r Size o f water
8 i n c h e s in h i g h - v a l u e a r e a s . C o m p u t a t i o n o f r e q u i r e d p ip e pipe
size is c o m p le x . In d e v e l o p m e n t s o f u p to m o d e r a t e size, h o w -
ev e r, t h e 8 - i n c h m a i n is u s u a l l y a d e q u a t e . P ip e size is
b a s e d o n th e r e q u i r e m e n t o f d e l i v e r i n g m a x i m u m i n s t a n t a -
neous d e m a n d w hile m a in ta in in g m in im u m pressu re. T h e
la t t e r is u s u a l l y g iv e n as b e i n g 2 0 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e i n c h
at th e h y d r a n t o r d w e l l i n g . M a x i m u m i n s t a n t a n e o u s d e -
m a n d is t h e s u m o f t h e d e m a n d for f i g h t i n g a fire a n d t h e
m a x i m u m d e m a n d for d o m e s t i c u se , u n l e s s t h e r e is s e p a r a t e
f ir e - f ig h tin g s u p p l y . O n th e b a s is o f t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f si-
m u l t a n e o u s d e m a n d , m a x i m u m d o m e s t i c u s e d e c lin e s f r o m
4 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e for o n e h o u s e to 9 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e
p e r d w e l l i n g u n i t for t e n h o u s e s , to 2 V2 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e
p e r u n i t for 1 0 0 h o u s e s , a n d to 1 g a l l o n p e r m i n u t e p e r u n i t
for 1 0 0 0 h o u s e s . Fire d e m a n d , e x p r e s s e d in g a l l o n s p e r m i n -
u te, m a y b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m t h e f o r m u l a
 184

w h e r e P is t h e p o p u l a t i o n in t h o u s a n d s o f p e o p l e .
P ip e s i z e for a n y o n e p i e c e o f li n e is e s t i m a t e d b y fin d -
in g the d ia m e te r that w ill d eliv er th e q u a n tity w a n t e d w ith
n o m o r e t h a n t h e a l l o w a b l e p r e s s u r e l o s s in t h e lin e. T h e al-
l o w a b l e p r e s s u r e l o s s is t h e e n t e r i n g p r e s s u r e m i n u s t h e d e -
sir e d l e a v i n g p r e s s u r e , m i n u s p r e s s u r e l o s s e s in m e t e r s a n d
v a l v e s , a n d p l u s o r m i n u s t h e p r e s s u r e g a i n or l o s s d u e to
ris e o r fall o f t h e p ip e . S i n c e e a c h p o r t i o n o f p i p e is i n t e r c o m
n e c t e d w i t h a n o v e r a l l g r id , w h o s e f l o w s a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a l s o a f fe c t t h e t e r m i n a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e p r o b l e m is u s u a l l y in -
d e t e r m i n a t e in f o r m . In s i t e - p l a n n i n g w o r k , w h e r e t h e s iz -
i n g a n d d e t a i l i n g o f t h e s y s t e m are le ft to s p e c i a l i s t s , l a y o u t
o f t h e w a t e r s y s t e m is u s u a l l y c o n f i n e d to l o c a t i o n o f t h e
li n e s , v a l v e s , m eters, and h y d r a n t s in t h e p u b l i c r i g h t -
o f - w a y . T h i s r a r e ly c a l ls for c h a n g e s in t h e d e s i g n it s e l f.
C a l c u l a t i o n s o f c a p a c i t y for t h e w a t e r s u p p l y , ra th e r
t h a n for t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m , u s e a v e r a g e d e m a n d ra tes.
T h e s e re q u ir em en ts d e p e n d o n p o p u la tio n , clim a te, in d u s-
t r i a l i z a t i o n , a n d t h e p r e v a i l i n g s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g . In U .S .
c i ti e s , for e x a m p l e , a v e r a g e d e m a n d v a r i e s f r o m 1 2 0 to 2 5 0
g a l l o n s p er c a p i t a p e r d a y . In ru ral or l o w - d e n s i t y d e v e l o p -
m en ts, in d iv id u a l w e lls can take the p la ce o f a c o m m o n
w a t e r s u p p l y . L ik e p r i v i e s b u t u n l i k e s e p t i c t a n k s , t h e y are
n o t r e c o m m e n d e d e x c e p t w h e r e u n a v o i d a b l e . T h e y a re g e n -
erally u n relia b le, o fte n e x p e n s iv e , and n o t e a s ily su p e rv ised
to m a i n t a i n p u r it y . A p r i v a t e g r o u p w a t e r s u p p l y is q u it e
f e a s ib le , h o w e v e r , a n d its m a i n t e n a n c e c a n b e s u p p o r t e d b y
w a ter ch a rg e s o n th e users. S u c h a sy s te m , c o n s is tin g o f a
w e l l , or g r o u p o f w e l l s , a p u m p , a n d p r e s s u r e or g r a v i t y
t a n k s , c a n s e r v e d e v e l o p m e n t s o f 50 to 5 0 0 h o u s e s . T h e
w e l l s m u s t b e at l e a s t 1 0 0 feet f r o m t h e n e a r e s t s e w e r or
d r a in field . T h e r e is a t h r e s h o l d in c o s t at a b o u t 2 0 0 d w e l l -
in g u n i t s , w h e r e m o r e t h a n o n e w e l l m u s t u s u a l l y b e p u t in.
B u t t h e p r in c ip a l c o s t is in t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m ra th er
t h a n t h e p u m p or w e l l . A la r g e a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l l y o p e r a t e d
p u b l i c w a t e r s y s t e m is still t h e p r e f e r a b le s o l u t i o n w h e r e v e r
p o ssib le.
E lec tr ic P ow er P o w e r is b r o u g h t in o n p r i m a r y h i g h - v o l t a g e lin e s a n d
t h e n is s t e p p e d d o w n a t t r a n s f o r m e r s to e n t e r s e c o n d a r y
l o w - v o l t a g e lin e s g o i n g to p o i n t s o f use. S in c e lo w - v o l t a g e
t r a n s m i s s i o n is w a s t e f u l , s e c o n d a r y r u n s s h o u l d b e k e p t
d o w n to 4 0 0 feet, w i t h t r a n s f o r m e r s p la c e d in t h e c e n t e r o f
t h e lo a d . A s w i t h t h e w a t e r s y s t e m , t h e e l e c tr ic l i n e s m a y 185
fo llo w eith er a b ra n c h in g pattern, fa n n in g ou t from the p o in t
o f e n t r y to t h e p o i n t s o f u s e , or a l o o p d i s t r i b u t i o n . T h e first
p a tt e r n is c h e a p e r , b u t t h e s e c o n d is p r e f e r a b le . H o w e v e r ,
t h e d i f f e r e n c e is n o t as i m p o r t a n t as it is in t h e w a t e r s y s -
tern.
T h e c o n d u c t o r s m a y b e p l a c e d o v e r h e a d o n p o l e s or u n -
d e r g r o u n d in r a c e w a y s . U n d e r g r o u n d d i s t r i b u t i o n m a y b e
t w o to fo u r t i m e s as e x p e n s i v e in t h e first c o s t , b u t it r e d u c e s
b r e a k s , d o e s n o t in te r f e r e w i t h tre es, a n d e l i m i n a t e s t h e
c lu tte r o f p o l e s . O n c e b r e a k s o c c u r , h o w e v e r , t h e y ta k e
l o n g e r to rep a ir w h e n u n d e r g r o u n d a n d c a u s e m o r e d i s r u p -
tio n . W h e n p o w e r p o l e s are l o c a t e d o n t h e s t r e e t , t h e y are
a l s o u s e f u l for m o u n t i n g s t r e e t l i g h t s , t e l e p h o n e li n e s , s i g n s ,
a n d ca ll b o x e s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , c o n s u m e r s m a y o f t e n b e w i l l ‫־‬
i n g to p a y t h e p r e m i u m for u n d e r g r o u n d e le c t r ic li n e s for
v is u a l r e a s o n s . C o s t s o f u n d e r g r o u n d i n s t a l l a t i o n a re m o s t fa ‫־‬
v o r a b l e in li g h t s o il , a n d n e w t e c h n i q u e s o f l a y i n g c a b le are
m a k i n g t h e m m o r e f a v o r a b le . W h e r e t h e r e is r o c k or a h i g h
w a t e r ta b le , t h e c o s t d i f f e r e n c e is l i k e l y to b e p r o h i b i t i v e ,
a n d p o l e s t h e r e f o r e b e c o m e m a n d a t o r y . E l s e w h e r e t h e p r in -
c ip a l d i f f i c u l t y m a y b e t h e t r a n s f o r m e r s , w h i c h m u s t b e d e -
sig n ed to d i s p e r s e in t e r n a l h e a t if p u t u n d e r g r o u n d a n d
w h i c h , if a b o v e g r o u n d , b u lk la r g e in a r e s i d e n t i a l area.
If t h e o v e r h e a d s y s t e m is u s e d , it is e v e n p o s s i b l e to
s t r i n g th e s e c o n d a r y lin e s o n t h e b u i l d i n g s w h e n s i t i n g p e r -
m its it. B u t th is e n t a i l s a r is k to b u i l d i n g r e p a i r m e n a n d a d -
v e n t u r o u s c h i l d r e n . N o r m a l l y , all lin e s b u t t h o s e d i r e c t l y
e n t e r i n g th e s t r u c t u r e a r e s t r u n g o n p o le s , w h e r e t h e y a r e
g u y e d a t c h a n g e s in d i r e c t i o n a n d a t t h e e n d s o f lin e s, a n d
th e p o le s a r e s p a c e d 1 2 5 feet a p a r t o r less. T r a n s f o r m e r s a re
h u n g o n p o le s o r i n s t a l l e d p a r t i a l l y o r w h o l l y u n d e r g r o u n d ,
w i t h e x t e r i o r v e n t i n g . W h e r e p o le s o r r a c e w a y s d o n o t fo llo w
s tr e e ts , a n 8 ‫ ־‬fo o t e a s e m e n t is r e q u i r e d . T h e c h o ic e o f p u t t i n g
p o le lin e s o n th e s t r e e t o r at r e a r lo t lin e s is u s u a l l y d i c t a t e d
b y w h a t e v e r m i n i m i z e s t h e l e n g t h o f s e c o n d a r y r u n s . P la c -
in g p o le s at th e r e a r to " b e a u t i f y " th e s t r e e t is q u e s t i o n a b l e
w h e r e th e d w e l l i n g s a r e lo w , sin c e t h e p o le s a re e v e n m o r e
p r o m i n e n t o n th e s k y l i n e t h a n w h e n d i r e c tly o v e r h e a d .
P o l e s at t h e rear lo t li n e s a re a l s o m o r e d iff ic u lt to s e r v ic e .
E x ter io r l i g h t i n g is re q u ir e d o n all s t r e e t s o t h e r t h a n Lighting
rural r o a d s or lo c a l o n e s in l o w - d e n s i t y d e v e l o p m e n t a n d o n
all p e d e s t r i a n w a y s o n w h i c h p e o p l e m a y b e e x p e c t e d to
m o v e at n i g h t . O n lo c a l r o a d s w i t h o u t s t r e e t l a m p s , i n d i v i d -
ual d w e l l i n g s m a y b e re q u ir e d to m a i n t a i n d o o r or p o s t
186 l a m p s to i l l u m i n a t e t h e i r e n t r a n c e s a n d t h e a d j a c e n t w a lk .
L ig h t is e s p e c ia lly n e e d e d a t e n t r a n c e s , i n t e r s e c t i o n s , s te p s ,
d e a d e n d s , a n d r e m o t e w a l k w a y s . P o w e r f u l li g h t s h i g h in
t h e a ir g iv e a s t r o n g e v e n i l l u m i n a t i o n a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e
sp e c ifie d fo r r o a d s , b u t t h e y p r o d u c e a g e n e r a l p a l l o r t h a t
l ig h ts u p h o u s e s u n p l e a s a n t l y . W a l k w a y s a r e sa fe w i t h
m u c h l o w e r a n d v a r i a b l e i l l u m i n a t i o n as lo n g a s e n t r a n c e s
a n d p o t e n t i a l l u r k i n g p la c e s a r e w e ll lit. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , s o -
d iu m a n d m e rc u ry v a p o r la m p s are th e m o st e c o n o m ical,
h e n c e t h e y e l l o w i s h , g r e e n i s h g l o w o f o u r h i g h w a y s . T h e old
i n c a n d e s c e n t l a m p h a s t h e w a r m e s t c o lo r b u t is m o r e e x p e n -
siv e s in c e m u c h o f its e n e r g y is d i s s i p a t e d in h e a t. I n c a n -
d escents m a y be used on w a lk w a y s, h o w ever, or h ig h w a y
l a m p s m a y b e c o lo r c o r r e c t e d a t s o m e c o st. I n a n y c ase, th e
v is u a l r e q u i r e m e n t s o f d r i v e r s a n d p e d e s t r i a n s a r e q u i t e
d i f f e r e n t , a n d t h e i r l i g h t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s h o u l d b e d iffe r-
e n t.
S t a n d a r d m o u n t i n g h e i g h t s fo r l i g h t s a re 3 0 fe e t o v e r
r o a d w a y s at s p a c i n g s o f 1 5 0 to 2 0 0 feet. L a m p s a re d e s i g n e d
to g iv e a v e r a g e i l l u m i n a t i o n s o f 1 f o o t c a n d l e o n a r t e r i a l r o a d s
o r l a r g e p a r k i n g lo ts, o r 1/2 f o o t c a n d l e o n lo c a l r o a d s . A r e a s o f
l o w e s t i l l u m i n a t i o n a r e n o t a ll o w e d to fall b e l o w 4 0 p e r c e n t o f
a v e r a g e levels o n a r t e r i a i s o r b e l o w 10 p e r c e n t o n lo cal
s tr e e ts . T a ll l a m p s m u s t b e s h r o u d e d to p r e v e n t g l a r e i n t o
w i n d o w s , p r i v a t e s i t t i n g a r e a s , o r d r i v e r s ' eyes. T h e i r lo c a -
ti o n m u s t b e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a d j a c e n t b u i l d i n g s a n d p l a n t -
in g s.
L a m p s o n w a l k w a y s a r e n o r m a l l y 12 feet h i g h . O n e
c a n see p h y s i c a l o b s t a c l e s a t v e r y lo w i l l u m i n a t i o n s ; th e
c ritic a l f a c to r s a re t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e l i g h t a n d t h e p s y c h o l o g -
ical s e n s e o f s a f e ty . T h u s s h r u b s a n d tr e e s m a y b e w e ll lit,
as w e ll as d o o r w a y s , s te p s , a n d in t e r s e c t i o n s . S u c h s p o t s
m a y r e c e iv e 5 f o o t c a n d l e s , w h i l e t h e p a t h its e lf is i r r e g u -
la r ly lit at a v e r a g e le v e ls o f a f r a c t i o n o f a f o o tc a n d le .
P o w e r a n d l i g h t p o le s a r e a n o b v i o u s p a r t o f t h e d a y -
ti m e v is u a l sc e n e . T h e d e s i g n e r s h o u l d in s i s t t h a t th e s e
p o le s b e as h a n d s o m e as th e o t h e r f e a tu r e s o f h is l a n d s c a p e ;
t h e r e f o r e , t h e y m u s t b e c a r e f u l l y s ite d a n d d e s i g n e d . T h e
p a t t e r n o f t h e e x t e r i o r l i g h t i n g w ill o b v i o u s l y h a v e a p r e d o m -
i n a n t effect o n t h e n i g h t la n d s c a p e , as n o t e d in C h a p t e r 9,
a n d it s h o u l d b e s t u d i e d f r o m t h a t v i e w p o i n t . S k e t c h i n g h o w
a n a r e a w ill lo o k a t n i g h t s h o u l d b e a r o u t i n e p a r t o f its d e-
sig n . N i g h t l i g h t i n g c a n i d e n t i f y a n d s t r u c t u r e a d a r k e n e d
l a n d s c a p e so t h a t p e o p l e c a n m o r e e a s ily fin d t h e i r w a y o r
r e c o g n i z e th e f a m i l i a r f e a t u r e s o f t h e d a y t i m e sc e n e . L ig h t
w ill a lso c o n v e y a s e n s e o f w a r m th and a ctivity. But flood - 187
l i g h t i n g t h e g r o u n d s or l i g h t i n g e m p t y b u i l d i n g s for " e f-
fee t" m a y o n l y u n d e r s c o r e t h e a b s e n c e o f p e o p l e . I d e a ll y ,
u n l e s s t h e y a re s y m b o l i c l a n d m a r k s , b u i l d i n g s s h o u l d b e lit
f r o m in s i d e , in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e ir real n i g h t t i m e u se .
O u t d o o r l ig h t s h o u l d b e c o n c e n t r a t e d w h e r e t h e p e o p l e are
a n d w h e r e t h e y w a n t t h e l i g h t to s e e b y . D a r k n e s s is a n e e -
e s s a r y fo il for t h e p l a y o f l ig h t , as s i l e n c e is for s o u n d . O u t -
d o o r l i g h t i n g h a s g e n e r a l l y b e e n g u i d e d b y o n e s i m p l e rule:
as e v e n a n d as h i g h a le v e l o f i l l u m i n a t i o n as p o s s i b l e o v e r
e v e r y s q u a r e in c h . T h e r e s u lt h a s b e e n g h a s t l y .
G a s is p i p e d u n d e r g r o u n d in a s y s t e m s i m i l a r to t h e Gas
w a t e r d i s t r i b u t i o n n e t w o r k , in a b r a n c h i n g o r a l o o p p a t t e r n ,
w i t h its o w n v a l v e s a n d m e t e r s . T h e p i p e s are o f s m a l l d i-
a m e t e r . T h e p r i n c i p a l p r o b l e m is t h e d a n g e r o f l e a k a g e or
e x p l o s i o n , a n d t h u s l i n e s m u s t n o t b e la id u n d e r o r c l o s e to
b u i l d i n g s e x c e p t w h e n e n t e r i n g t h e m , n o r s h o u l d t h e y b e in
t h e s a m e t r e n c h w i t h e l e c t r i c c a b le .
T e le p h o n e lin es are stru n g o v e r h e a d o n th e electric Telephones
p o w e r p o l e s , if t h e v o l t a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e p o w e r l i n e s
are s u i t a b l e . O t h e r w i s e , t e l e p h o n e l i n e s are r a t h e r e a s i l y
la id in u n d e r g r o u n d c o n d u i t s or m o r e s i m p l y as b u r ie d
c a b le . In u r b a n a r e a s , c o n n e c t i o n s to a m a s t e r t e l e v i s i o n a n -
t e n n a a re n o w c o m m o n . In t h e f u tu r e , w e m a y e x p e c t s i m i -
lar c o n n e c t i o n s to c e n t r a l c o m p u t e r s a n d to c a b l e t e l e v i s i o n .
W h e r e c e n t r a l h e a t i n g is p r o v i d e d , t h e h e a t i n g m e - Heating and
d i u m , u s u a l l y h i g h - t e m p e r a t u r e s t e a m , is d i s t r i b u t e d in in - cooling
su lated u n d er g ro u n d p ressu re m a in s , eq u ip p ed w ith v a lv e s
a n d s e t in r a c e w a y s or r u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e b a s e m e n t s o f
s t r u c t u r e s . S p a c e is r e q u ir e d for a c e n t r a l p l a n t in o n e o f t h e
s t r u c t u r e s or in a s t r u c t u r e o f it s o w n . T h i s h e a t i n g p l a n t
w i l l h a v e a tall s t a c k a n d p r o v i s i o n for la r g e fu e l d e l i v e r i e s .
Its l o c a t i o n is p r e f e r a b l y in t h e m i d d l e o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o n
l o w g r o u n d to f a c il it a t e t h e r e tu r n o f c o n d e n s a t e . In u n u s u a l
s i t u a t i o n s , g r o u p c o o l i n g s y s t e m s m a y b e in s t a l l e d .
T h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n c e n t r a l or g r o u p h e a t i n g p l a n t s , o p -
erated b y m a n a g e m e n t, an d in d iv id u a l p la n ts, op erated b y
t e n a n t or o w n e r , as w e l l as t h e c h o i c e o f fu e l to b e u s e d , is a n
e c o n o m i c p r o b l e m . It d e p e n d s o n t h e t y p e a n d n u m b e r o f
d w e l l i n g u n it s , t h e a t t i t u d e o f r e s i d e n t s , m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t s ,
t h e r e la t iv e e f f i c i e n c y o f p l a n t s , a n d t h e r e l a t i v e c o s t o f c o a l,
g a s , o il, a n d e l e c tr ic i ty . A c e n t r a l p la n t is w o r t h i n v e s t i g a t -
i n g w h e n o n e is d e a l i n g w i t h fr o m 1 0 0 to 2 0 0 f a m i l i e s or
m o r e . T h e c h o i c e h a s a n i m p o r t a n t e f f e c t o n t h e s it e p la n .
W h e n i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t s are u s e d , p r o v i s i o n m u s t b e m a d e
 188 for t h e d e l i v e r y a n d s t o r a g e o f fu el. If c o a l is b u r n e d , it
s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e to c h u t e it d i r e c t l y f r o m tr u c k to b in o v e r
n o m o r e t h a n 2 0 feet. H o s e s o n o il d e l i v e r y t r u c k s h a v e a
m a x i m u m r e a c h o f f r o m 1 0 0 to 2 0 0 feet. G a s a n d e l e c t r i c i t y
c a n b e b r o u g h t d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e u n it .
Interrelation o f In g e n e r a l , t h e l o c a t i o n o f all u t i l i t i e s m u s t b e c o n s i d -
utilities er e d together, a v o id in g cross co n n ectio n s, m in im iz in g
t r e n c h i n g , a n d k e e p i n g r e q u ir e d s e p a r a t i o n s b e t w e e n in -
c o m p a t i b l e s y s t e m s . In p a r t ic u la r , t h e l a y o u t m u s t b e
c h e c k e d in t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s to s e e t h a t c r o s s i n g s in p la n
w i l l n o t r e s u lt in a c t u a l i n t e r s e c t i o n s b e l o w g r o u n d .
W h e r e c u r v e s o r g r a d e s p e r m i t , it is d e s i r a b l e to k e e p
u t i l i t i e s in a u n i f o r m l o c a t i o n r e la t iv e to t h e s tr e e t a n d a l s o to
p u t t h e m u n d e r n e a t h t h e p l a n t i n g strip in o r d e r to p r e v e n t
p erio d ic d ig g in g in t h e ro a d . In i n t e n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t ,
w h e r e u t i l i t y s y s t e m s are n u m e r o u s a n d o f la r g e c a p a c i t y , it
m a y s a v e i n s t a l l a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e c o s t if g r o u p s o f
t h e m are p l a c e d in a c o m m o n c o n d u i t , b i g e n o u g h to a l l o w
m e n to e n t e r a n d i n s p e c t t h e lin e s . W h e r e t h e s it e p l a n c o n -
s i s t s o f f a ir ly c o n t i n u o u s s t r u c t u r e s u n d e r s i n g l e c o n t r o l , it is
s o m e t i m e s b e t te r to ru n u t i l i t y l i n e s , e x c e p t for g a s , in b a s e -
m e n ts or cra w l sp a ces. T h is sa v e s e x c a v a tio n an d sim p lifies
rep a irs.
Solid waste Large q u a n tities of so lid w aste, in clu d in g o rg a n ic
m aterial and co m b u stib le and n o n co m b u stib le r u b b is h ,
m ust be rem oved from in h a b ited a re a s. T hese m ay be
p i c k e d u p in v a r y i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s a n d at v a r i o u s t im e s .
S o m e o f th is m aterial m a y be d e str o y e d o n the site in in cin -
e r a t o r s , b u t t h is m e t h o d o n l y p u t s t h e b u r d e n o f w a s t e d i s -
p o s a l o n t h e a t m o s p h e r e — a p r a c t ic e n o w d a n g e r o u s in
la r g e u r b a n a r e a s. If h o u s e h o l d e r s are w i l l i n g to m a k e t h e
e f f o r t , a g o o d p o r t i o n o f t h e o r g a n i c w a s t e c a n b e c o n v e r t e d to
u s e f u l c o m p o s t at t h e site . B u t t h e n o n c o m b u s t i b l e m a t e r ia l
m u s t in a n y c a s e b e h a u l e d a w a y u n l e s s , in a rural or l o w -
r e s o u r c e s i t u a t i o n , it is l o c a l l y b u r ie d . G r o u p c o l l e c t i o n s t a -
t i o n s m a y b e u s e d if t h e y are s c r e e n e d a n d d r a in e d , b u t
s e p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n f r o m e a c h d w e l l i n g u n i t is p r e f e r a b le . For
s e p a r a t e c o l l e c t i o n , a d r a i n e d a n d p r o t e c t e d area m u s t b e
p r o v i d e d for t h e w a s t e c a n s , c o n v e n i e n t to t h e d w e l l i n g u n it
a n d as c l o s e to t h e cu r b as p o s s i b l e . T h e r o u t e f r o m t h e w a s t e
c a n s to c u rb s h o u l d n o t b e t o o s t e e p a n d p r e f e r a b l y s h o u l d b e
p a v e d . If s t r u c t u r e s are c l o s e to t h e r o a d , it is p o s s i b l e to p u t
w a s t e c o n t a i n e r s w i t h i n t h e u n it , s o p la c e d t h a t t h e y c a n b e
filled f r o m i n s i d e a n d b e p i c k e d u p a n d e m p t i e d f r o m o u t -
sid e.
C hapter

S en su ou s Form

p la c e a f fe c t s u s d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h o u r s e n s e s — b y
sig h t, h ea rin g , to u ch , an d sm ell. T h e s e n s u o u s q u a lity o f a
p la c e is a c o n s e q u e n c e o f f o r m a n d o f h o w a n d b y w h o m it is
p e r c e i v e d . It is ir r e le v a n t in a s e w e r l a y o u t or in a n a u t o -
m a t e d w a r e h o u s e . B u t w h e r e v e r p e o p l e are i n v o l v e d , it is as
i m p o r t a n t a s c o s t or s h e l t e r or c i r c u l a t i o n . S e n s u o u s r e q u ir e -
m e n t s m a y c o i n c i d e o r c o n f lic t w i t h o t h e r d e m a n d s b u t c a n -
n o t b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e m in d e s i g n i n g o r j u d g i n g , n o r are
t h e y " i m p r a c t i c a l " or m e r e l y d e c o r a t i v e , or e v e n n o b l e r t h a n
o t h e r c o n c e r n s . S e n s i n g is i n d i s p e n s a b l e to b e i n g a liv e . P er -
c e p tio n in clu d es the e s th etic ex p erien ce, w h e re the d ia lo g u e
b e t w e e n p e r c e i v e r a n d o b je c t is i m m e d i a t e , i n t e n s e , a n d p r o -
f o u n d , s e e m i n g l y d e t a c h e d fro m o t h e r c o n s e q u e n c e s . B u t it
is a ls o e n t a n g l e d w i t h m a n y o t h e r p u r p o s e s : c o m f o r t , h u -
m an in teraction , o rien ta tio n , and th e c o m m u n ic a tio n o f
s t a t u s , for e x a m p l e . A l l o f t h e s e m u s t b e d e a lt w i t h t o g e t h e r .
M o s t p e o p l e w ill u n d e r s t a n d t h i s n e e d w h e n a r r a n g -
i n g a l i v i n g r o o m b u t m a y i g n o r e it in t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f a
s it e p la n . W e a t t e n d to t e c h n i c a l f e a t u r e s , b u t o f t e n p a s s
o v e r th e ir i n t e g r a t i o n i n t o a v i s u a l w h o l e . It is a s t h o u g h w e
w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a m o u n t o f f u r n it u r e to b e p u t in a
r o o m b u t let t h e m o v e r s p u t it d o w n at w i l l . W h a t w e re q u ir e
is a landscape, t e c h n i c a l l y o r g a n i z e d s o t h a t its p a r t s w o r k
t o g e t h e r b u t p e r c e p t u a l l y c o h e r e n t as w e l l , w h o s e v i s u a l
i m a g e is c o n g r u e n t w i t h its life a n d a c t i o n . T h i s c o n c e p t o f
 190 l a n d s c a p e as a v i s u a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l w h o l e is a r e l a t i v e l y re-
c e n t o n e in W e s t e r n c u lt u r e . A w h o l e in n a t u r e r e p r e s e n t s a
m a t u r e s t a g e o f d e v e l o p m e n t , s h a p e d b y t h e c o n s i s t e n t im -
p a c t o f w e l l - b a l a n c e d f o r c e s . In art it is t h e r e s u lt o f c o m p r e -
h e n s i v e p u r p o s e s k i l l f u l l y a p p li e d .
Perception o f In e s s e n c e , t h e s e n s u o u s e x p e r i e n c e o f a p l a c e is s p a -
space tia l, a p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e v o l u m e o f air t h a t s u r r o u n d s t h e o b -
s e r v e r , rea d t h r o u g h t h e e y e s , t h e e a r s, t h e s k i n . W h i l e o u t -
d o o r s p a c e , lik e a r c h i t e c t u r a l s p a c e , is m a d e p a l p a b l e b y
lig h t and sou nd and d efin ed by en clo su r e— overhead,
a l o n g s i d e , a n d u n d e r f o o t — it h a s p e c u l i a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f its o w n . T h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a v e f u n d a m e n t a l i m p l i c a -
t i o n s for t h e art o f s it e p l a n n i n g .
In c o n t r a s t to a r c h i t e c t u r a l s p a c e , s it e s p a c e is m u c h
la r g er in e x t e n t a n d l o o s e r in f o r m . T h e h o r i z o n t a l d i m e n ‫־‬
s i o n s a re n o r m a l l y m u c h g r e a t e r t h a n t h e v e r t ic a l o n e s .
S t r u c t u r e is le s s g e o m e t r i c or d e m a n d i n g , c o n n e c t i o n s are
le s s p r e c is e , s h a p e s m o r e ir r e g u la r . A n ir r e g u la r it y in p l a n
t h a t w o u l d b e u n b e a r a b l e in a r o o m m a y in a c i t y s q u a r e b e
t o l e r a b l e or e v e n d e s ir a b l e .
T h e s it e p l a n u s e s d if f e r e n t m a t e r i a l s , n o t a b l y e a r t h ,
r o c k , w a t e r , a n d p l a n t s , a n d is s u b j e c t to c o n s t a n t c h a n g e ,
w h e t h e r it is t h e r h y t h m o f h u m a n a c t i v i t y a n d o f n a tu r a l
u1r= 3
c y c l e s or t h e c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t s o f g r o w t h , d e c a y , a n d a lte r -
a t io n . T h e l i g h t t h a t g i v e s it f o r m s h i f t s c o n s t a n t l y w i t h
w e a t h e r , h o u r , a n d s e a s o n . It is s e e n in s e q u e n c e , o v e r a n
e x t e n d e d p e r i o d o f tim e .
Spatial A l l t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s call for c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i f f e r e n c e s
illusions in d e s i g n tech n iq u e. T h e lo o s e n e s s o f o u td o o r sp ace —
c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e d i f f i c u l t y t h a t all b u t t r a in e d e y e s h a v e
in e s t i m a t i n g d i s t a n c e , g e o m e t r y o f p la n , le v e l, or g r a d i e n t
— a l l o w s a c e r t a in f r e e d o m in l a y o u t . F o rm a l f l a w s ca n
b e m a s k e d a n d o p t ic a l i l l u s i o n s a c h i e v e d : t w o b o d i e s o f
w a t e r c o a l e s c e b e c a u s e t h e ir o u t l i n e s s e e m to m a t c h , a la r g e
o b j e c t " d i s a p p e a r s ‫ ״‬w h e n b l o c k e d o u t b y a s m a l l o b je c t
n e a r b y , an a x is a p p e a r s s t r a i g h t t h o u g h in r e a l i t y it is b e n t.
L e v el a re a s m a y tilt b y c o n t r a s t w i t h a d j a c e n t c o u n t e r -
s l o p e s , or t h e r e la t iv e e l e v a t i o n s o f o b j e c t s m a y b e r e v e r s e d
b y the treatm en t o f the grad es su rr o u n d in g them .
T h e f r e e d o m to d e c e i v e c a r ries w i t h it a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
to m a k e a c le a r a n d c o n n e c t e d w h o l e . A s i m p l e , r e a d a b le ,
w e l l - p r o p o r t i o n e d s p a c e in t h e o u t d o o r s is a p o w e r f u l e v e n t .
S t r u c t u r e c a n b e e x p l a i n e d in a w a y t h a t p u r e l y n a tu r a l
f o r c e s r a r e l y a c c o m p l i s h ; c o n n e c t i o n s th a t d e f y t i m e a n d
d i s t a n c e c a n b e e s t a b l i s h e d . D i m e n s i o n s t h a t are d iff ic u lt to
g r a s p are m a d e l e g i b l e b y t h e u s e o f r o a d s , tr e e s , or o t h e r 191
m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e s ; t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f p a rt w i t h t h e w h o l e is
i n t i m a t e d b y s y m b o l i c e c h o e s o f s h a p e or m a te r ia l .
T h e d e s i g n e r u s e s e v e r y r e s o u r c e to c o n f i r m t h e f o r m h e
i n t e n d s to e s t a b l i s h . E x c e p t in t h e s p e c i a l c a s e s w h e r e h e
w a n t s a n air o f m y s t e r y a n d d o u b t , h e m a k e s s u r e t h a t ' h i s
s p a c e s are w e l l d e f in e d a n d c l e a r ly j o i n e d at m a r k e d t r a n s i-
t i o n s , w h e t h e r t h e v o l u m e s t h e m s e l v e s are c r isp a n d g e o -
m e t r ic or ir r e g u la r a n d f l o w i n g . R h y t h m a n d d i r e c t i o n w ill
b e s u p p o r t e d b y t h e fo r m o f all v i s i b l e e l e m e n t s . C h a n g e s
in p la n w i l l c o o r d i n a t e w i t h c h a n g e s in s e c t i o n .
S p a t ia l d i m e n s i o n s a re r e in f o r c e d b y l i g h t , c o l o r , t e x -
ture, a n d d e t a il. T h e e y e j u d g e s d i s t a n c e b y m a n y o p t i c a l
f e a t u r e s , a n d s o m e o f t h e m ca n b e m a n i p u l a t e d to e x a g g e r -
ate or d i m i n i s h a p p a r e n t d e p th : t h e o v e r l a p p i n g o f m o r e d i s -
ta n t o b j e c t s b y c l o s e r o n e s , t h e p a r a l l a c t i c m o v e m e n t o f o b -
0 ‫נ‬
j ec ts d i s p o s e d in d e p t h , t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t fa rth e r t h i n g s
w i l l b e h i g h e r a b o v e t h e h o r i z o n t a l b a s e lin e , t h e s m a l l e r
s i z e a n d fin er t e x t u r e o f t h i n g s far a w a y , t h e b l u i s h c o l o r o f
d i s t a n t s u r f a c e s , t h e c o n v e r g e n c e o f p a r a lle l lin e s . U s e d
w i t h r e s t r a in t , t h e s e m a n i p u l a t i o n s a d d to t h e s p a t i a l e ff e c t.
A s w i t h a n y i l l u s i o n , t h e r e is a d a n g e r t h a t f r o m a n o t h e r
v i e w p o i n t , or in a n o t h e r s e a s o n , t h e tric k w i l l b e e x p o s e d . II-
l u s i o n s o f f e a t u r e s i n d i r e c t l y p e r c e i v e d , s u c h as g e o m e t r i c
p la n , d i s t a n c e , or le v e l, a re t h e e a s i e s t to a c h i e v e a n d m a i n -
ta in . I l l u s i o n s o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s e e n d i r e c t l y , s u c h as t h e
a t t e m p t to i m i t a t e th e c o l o r a n d t e x t u r e o f o n e m a t e r i a l in a
s u b s t i t u t e , are m u c h m o r e d iffic u lt.
O u t d o o r s p a c e s are r a r e ly c r e a t e d b y c o m p l e t e e n c l o - Vertical
su re. T h e y are o n l y p a r t i a l l y b o u n d e d ; t h e ir f o r m is c o m - el e men ts
p le t e d b y t h e c o n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e flo o r a n d b y s m a l l e r v e r t i- in outdoor
cal e l e m e n t s t h a t m a r k o u t i m a g i n a r y a e r ia l d e f i n i t i o n s . perception
S i n c e th e o u t - o f - d o o r s is d o m i n a n t l y h o r i z o n t a l , v e r t ic a l fea -
tu r es or c h a n g e s t a k e o n e x a g g e r a t e d i m p o r t a n c e . A g r e a t
h ill in fact o c c u p i e s o n l y a v e r y s m a l l v e r t ic a l a n g l e in o u r
v i s u a l field . T h i s fact is i ll u s t r a t e d w h e n w e p h o t o g r a p h an W
a w e s o m e m o u n t a i n l a n d s c a p e a n d fin d w e h a v e r e c o r d e d
o n ly a m in o r d istu r b a n ce o f th e h o rizo n . Even a g e n tle gra-
d ien t can d o m in a te a scene. L e v el changes w ill d efin e
spaces; th e y can op en v ie w s; and th e y can create effects o f
s i l h o u e t t e , t r u n c a t i o n , or d y n a m i c m o v e m e n t . S t e e p s l o p e s or
d r o p s are d iff ic u lt to h a n d l e w i t h i n a r e g u l a r l y o r g a n i z e d
sp a ce : it is a sa fe r ru le to m a k e u p v e r t ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s in
t h e a p p r o a c h to im p o r t a n t o p e n i n g s or in t h e s e p a r a t i o n s b e-
t w e e n t h e m . T h e g e n e r a l s h a p e o f a s it e p la n m a y h a v e le ss
 192 b e a r i n g o n its v i s u a l s u c c e s s t h a n t h e s m a l l p r o j e c t i o n s , le v -
els , or f o c a l o b j e c t s t h a t m a k e u p t h e real v i s u a l s p a c e o n t h e
ground.
O n c e a r e a d a b l e s p a c e is e s t a b l i s h e d , it h a s a s t r o n g
e m o t i o n a l im p a c t o n t h e o b s e r v e r . T h e i n t i m a c y or c o n s t r a i n t
c o n v e y e d b y a s m a l l e n c l o s e d s p a c e a n d t h e e x h i l a r a t i o n or

tn = a awe o f a great o p en in g are u n iv ersa l sen sa tio n s. Even

s t r o n g e r is a t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o : t h e p o w e r f u l s e n s e
o f c o n t r a c t i o n or r e le a s e .
Proportion and S p a c e s d iffe r in c h a r a c t e r a c c o r d i n g to t h e ir s h a p e a n d
scale t h e ir p r o p o r t i o n s . P r o p o r t i o n is a n in t e r n a l r e l a t i o n a n d m a y
b e s t u d i e d in a m o d e l , b u t s p a c e s are a l s o j u d g e d b y t h e ir
s c a le w i t h r e s p e c t to o b j e c t s o u t s i d e t h e m s e l v e s . O u t d o o r e n -

Figure 22 The
vast space o fC en-
tral Park , New
York City.

c l o s u r e s , for e x a m p l e , c o n t e n d w i t h t h e v a s t s c a l e o f t h e s k y .
T h e y m u s t c o n n e c t t h e ir o w n s i z e w i t h t h a t o f t h e e a r t h 's
a t m o s p h e r e ( b y la r g e o p e n i n g s or t h e u s e o f v e r t i c a l s ) or re-
d u c e it to a b a c k d r o p . A r e l a t i o n to t h e s c a l e o f t h e s u r -
r o u n d i n g l a n d s c a p e m u s t a l s o b e e s t a b l i s h e d . F it t i n g n e w
— U— U‫־ ־‬
f u n c tio n s in to a m a tu re and e s ta b lish e d la n d sc a p e w it h o u t
‫ד‬ rO— 0-‫ן‬ 1 1
di‫־‬±j
1‫י‬
laaq
J -fr ‫־‬ d i s r u p t i n g t h e o ld s c a l e is a n e x a c t i n g ta s k . F in a lly , a s p a c e
,m 2 . E iq n ° h a s a s c a l e w i t h r e s p e c t to t h e o b s e r v e r h i m s e l f a n d e i t h e r
a p p e a r s m e a s u r a b l e b y h i m or t a k e s o n a n a w e s o m e a n d s u -
p e r h u m a n s iz e. In e a c h c a s e , t h e s c a le r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o u l d
b e d e c i s i v e l y i n t e n d e d a n d d e c i s i v e l y ca r ried o u t.
A f e w t e n t a t i v e q u a n t i t i e s c a n b e a s s i g n e d to t h e s i z e
and p ro p o rtio n o f co m fo rta b le extern al sp aces. D e v e lo p e d
e m p i r i c a l l y , t h e s e r u le s s e e m to d e r i v e f r o m t h e c h a r a c t e r i s -
tics o f t h e h u m a n e y e a n d f r o m t h e s iz e o f t h e o b je c t s th a t
 193
A linari P hoto

F igure; 23 The
narrow, rich, in-
tensely human
space o f a FI or-
entitle street
(the Borgo Al-
legri).
 194 a r e g e n e r a l l y o f g r e a t e s t i n t e r e s t to it, t h a t is, o t h e r h u m a n
b e in g s . W e c a n d e te c t a m a n a b o u t 4 0 0 0 feet a w a y , re c o g -
niz e h i m a t 80 feet, see h is face c le a r ly at 4 5 feet, a n d feel
h i m to be in d ir e c t r e l a t i o n to us, w h e t h e r p l e a s a n t o r i n t r u -
sive, a t 3 to 10 feet. O u t d o o r s p a c e s o f t h e la t t e r d i m e n s i o n
s e e m e x t r e m e l y o r i n t o l e r a b l y s m a ll. D i m e n s i o n s o f 4 0 feet
a p p e a r i n t i m a t e . U p to 8 0 feet is still a n e a s y h u m a n scale.
M o s t of the successful en clo sed sq u a re s of th e p a st h av e not
e x c e e d e d 4 5 0 feet in t h e s m a l l e r d i m e n s i o n . T h e r e a r e few
g o o d u r b a n v is ta s m u c h o v e r a m ile in l e n g t h , u n le s s t h e y
a re d i s t a n t p a n o r a m a s s e e n o v e r a f e a tu r e le s s f o r e g r o u n d ,
s u c h as v ie w s o v e r w a t e r o r f r o m h i g h p la c e s . T h e f o r e g o i n g
o b s e r v a t i o n s r e fe r to th e s t a t i o n a r y o b s e r v e r o r t h e m a n m o v -
in g s lo w ly . S p a c e p e r c e p t i o n at h i g h s p e e d is q u i t e a n o t h e r
anim al.
T h e r e are l i m i t s to t h e a n g l e o f cle a r v i s i o n a n d to t h e
r a p i d i t y o f s c a n n i n g . A n o b je c t w h o s e m a jo r d i m e n s i o n
e q u a l s its d i s t a n c e fr o m t h e e y e is d iff ic u lt to s e e as a w h o l e
b u t e a s ie r to a n a l y z e in d e t a il. W h e n it is t w i c e as far a w a y ,
it a p p e a r s c l e a r l y as a u n it ; w h e n it is t h r e e t i m e s as far, it
is s t ill d o m i n a n t in t h e v i s u a l field b u t t e n d s to b e s e e n in
r e l a t i o n to o t h e r o b je c t s . A s t h e d i s t a n c e i n c r e a s e s b e y o n d
fo u r t i m e s t h e m a jo r d i m e n s i o n , a n o b je c t s i m p l y b e c o m e s
o n e p a rt o f t h e g e n e r a l s c e n e , u n l e s s it h a s o t h e r q u a l i t i e s to
f o c u s o u r a t t e n t i o n . T h u s it is o f t e n s a id t h a t a n e x t e r n a l e n -
c l o s u r e is m o s t c o m f o r t a b l e w h e n its w a l l s a re o n e - h a l f or
o n e - t h i r d as h i g h as t h e w i d t h o f t h e s p a c e e n c l o s e d , w h i l e if
t h e r a tio fa lls b e l o w o n e - f o u r t h , t h e s p a c e c e a s e s to s e e m e n -
k ...... . , , , 1
c l o s e d . If t h e h e i g h t o f w a l l s is g r e a t e r t h a n t h e w i d t h , t h e n
o n e d o e s n o t s e e t h e s k y l i n e or e a s i l y j u d g e t h e w a l l ' s h e i g h t .
k , ,,-,,-1 T h e s p a c e c o m e s to r e s e m b l e a p it or a t r e n c h . T h e s e ru le s
a ssu m e v ie w in g p o s itio n s near the ed g e o f th e sp a ce and the
i n t e n t to p r o d u c e c o m f o r t a b l e y e t c l e a r l y b o u n d e d a re a s.
C h a n g e s o f li g h t or le v e l w i l l a l s o a f fe c t t h e s e i m p r e s s i o n s .
A s a n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f an e s t h e t i c s t a n d a r d b a s e d o n
t h e h u m a n a n a t o m y , w e find it u n p l e a s a n t if t h e li n e o f
s i g h t at e y e le v e l is a m b i g u o u s . A m b i g u i t y m a y b e c a u s e d
b y a n a r r o w b a rrier at t h a t le v e l or b y a v e r t ic a l s u r f a c e ter-
m i n a t i n g th e re . P r e f e r a b ly , v i s i o n is e i t h e r k e p t clea r at
th is s e n s i t i v e e l e v a t i o n or d e c i s i v e l y b l o c k e d . W a l l s s h o u l d
b e l o w or o v e r 6 feet h i g h , a n d r a i lin g s at e y e le v e l are to b e
avoid ed .
Enclosure S p a c e s m a y b e e n c l o s e d b y o p a q u e b a rrier s or b y w a l l s
th a t are s e m i t r a n s p a r e n t or b r o k e n b y g a p s or w i n d o w s . T h e
s p a c e d e f in e r s m a y b e v i s u a l s u g g e s t i o n s ra th er t h a n v i s u a l
 195

Figure 24 A por-
ti on of N o ll i ' 5
map of R o m e ,
1748, showing
the interconnec-
ti0)1 of the inte-
rior and the ex-
terior spaces.

s t o p s : c o l o n n a d e s , b o l l a r d s , c h a n g e s in g r o u n d p a tt e r n , im a g -
in a r y e x t e n s i o n s o f o b je c t s . B u i l d i n g s h a v e b e e n t h e tra d i-
t io n a l e n c l o s e r s o f u r b a n s p a c e , b u t t h is f u n c t i o n h a s b e c o m e
m o r e d iffic u lt to a c c o m p l i s h as t h e d e m a n d for o p e n a r e a s
a r o u n d b u i l d i n g s h a s g r o w n . T o s o m e e x t e n t t h e s e b r e a k s in
e n c l o s u r e m a y b e m a s k e d b y s u c h d e v i c e s as s t a g g e r e d
o p e n i n g s , o v e r l a p s , b u i l d i n g s th a t b r i d g e a s tr e e t, s c r e e n
w a l l s a n d c o l o n n a d e s , or e v e n c o n t i n u o u s l i n e s o f a l o w fe n c e ,
as in a N e w E n g la n d r e s i d e n t i a l str e e t. E n c l o s u r e m a y b e
a ch ie v ed b y p la n tin g . But w e can also m o d ify th e in te n d e d
s p a ti a l e ffec t to fit t h e n e w c o n d i t i o n s .
S p a c e s v a r y in e ffe c t b y t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e y are e n -
tered , p a s s e d t h r o u g h , a n d left b e h i n d , as w e ll as b y t h e re-
la ted s p a c e s th a t p r e c e d e a n d f o l l o w t h e m . T h e i r a p p e a r -
a n c e is m o d if ie d b y t h e a c t i v i t y th a t g o e s o n w i t h i n t h e m ,
b y t h e c o l o r a n d t e x t u r e o f w a l l s a n d flo o r, b y t h e w a y in
w h i c h t h e y are li g h t e d , a n d b y t h e o b j e c t s a n d d e t a i l s w i t h
w h i c h t h e y are f u r n i s h e d . W a l l S tr e e t o n a S u n d a y m o r n i n g
an d W a l l S tr e e t d u r i n g t h e w e e k d a y l u n c h h o u r are q u it e
d i ff e r e n t s p a c e s ; a f a m ilia r s q u a r e ca n c h a n g e m y s t e r i o u s l y
u n d e r a rtificia l lig h t . A n e m p t y r o o m is n o t o r i o u s for a p p e a r -
in g s m a lle r t h a n t h a t s a m e r o o m w i t h fu r n itu r e ; d i s t a n c e s
s e e m m u c h s h o r t e r o v e r o p e n w a te r . A s c a le r e la t io n b e-
t w e e n a m a n a n d a v a s t s p a c e ca n b e e s t a b l i s h e d b y t h e
u se o f a f e w " m a n - s i z e d " o b je c t s ; a tall o b je c t m a y re la te
196 a s m a ll space to the la r g er w orld . B lu e or g r a y w a lls
s t r e n g t h e n t h e a t m o s p h e r i c p e r s p e c t i v e a n d t h u s s e e m far-
th e r a w a y . S u r f a c e s o f h o t , s t r o n g c o l o r c o m e c l o s e r . D o w n h i l l
v i e w s a p p e a r to b e l o n g a n d u p h ill v i e w s f o r e s h o r t e n e d .
Light T h e d irectio n and q u a lity o f the ligh t that b a th es a
s p a c e is a d e t e r m i n a n t o f its c h a r a c t e r . L ig h t w i l l s h a r p e n or
b lur d e f i n i t i o n s , e m p h a s i z e s i l h o u e t t e or t e x t u r e , c o n c e a l or
re v e a l a fe a tu r e , c o n t r a c t or e x p a n d d i m e n s i o n s . S i l h o u e t t e d
o b j e c t s are p r o m i n e n t v i s u a l f e a t u r e s , a n d t h e d e s i g n e r is
a l w a y s c a r e f u l o f o b j e c t s th a t w ill a p p e a r a g a i n s t t h e s k y .
H e is a l s o a w a r e o f t h e a p p a r e n t o u t w a r d r a d i a t i o n o f b r ig h t
s u r f a c e s , w h i c h m a k e s li g h t s o u r c e s s e e m fat a n d s i l h o u -
etted ob jects t h in . Shadow p attern s can be d istin ctiv e,
w h e t h e r t h e y a re la r g e m a s s e s or d e l i c a t e tr a c e r i e s , d a rk
a n d o p a q u e or s c i n t i l l a t i n g w i t h li g h t . S h a d o w s m a y b e e m -
p l o y e d to f o c u s a t t e n t i o n or fr a m e a v i e w , or a l o n g s h a d o w
m a y b e d ir e c t e d to e x p l a i n t h e m o d e l i n g o f a su r f a c e .
T o s o m e e x t e n t , t h e d e s i g n e r ca n m a n i p u l a t e o u t d o o r
l ig h t b y c a s t i n g s h a d o w s , u s i n g r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s , or filter-
in g l i g h t t h r o u g h s c r e e n s . M o r e o f t e n h e is c o n c e r n e d w i t h
c r e a t i n g a f o r m th a t w i l l r e c e i v e n a tu r a l l i g h t g r a c e f u l l y ,
t h a t w i l l r e v e a l i t s e l f e q u a l l y w e l l to t h e h a z y s u n o f w i n t e r
a n d t h e b la z e o f s u m m e r , a n d t h a t s e e m s c o h e r e n t in t h e

Figure 25 The night lighting sets the m ood in the Tivoli gar-
rfejis in Copenhagen.
m o r n i n g a n d t h e e v e n i n g a lik e or u n d e r t h e b r ig h t m o o n . T o 197
d o th is , h e m u s t b e a w a r e o f th e g e o m e t r y o f s u n a n d m o o n
p o sitio n , o f the ligh t effects o f v a rio u s k in d s o f w ea th er, and
in p a r tic u la r h e m u s t b e s e n s i t i v e to t h a t q u a l i t y o f lig h t
w h i c h is s p e c ia l to h is lo c a l e a n d c l i m a t e .
T h e p l a n n e r h a s a n o t h e r r e s o u r c e in a rtific ia l lig h t . Artificial light
M o s t s i t e s are u s e d at n i g h t as w e l l as in t h e d a y t i m e , a n d
s o m e m a y b e i n h a b i t e d e v e n m o r e i n t e n s i v e l y after d ark .
A r t if ic ia l lig h t , in all its v a r i a t i o n o f c o l o r , d i r e c t i o n , m o t i o n ,
a n d i n t e n s i t y , ca n p r o d u c e a n e w v i s u a l w o r l d . S p a c e s c a n
b e m o d i f i e d or e v e n c r e a t e d w i t h l i g h t a l o n e , p l a n e s m a d e to
a d v a n c e or r e c e d e , o b j e c t s b r o u g h t to t h e f o r e g r o u n d , a n d
t e x t u r e s t r a n s f o r m e d . L ig h t c a n r e i n f o r c e t h e f a m il ia r d a y -
t im e s e t t i n g or t r a n s f o r m it. It c a n p i c k o u t t h e s t r u c t u r e o f
p a th s and th e lo c a tio n s o f en tra n ce s, in d ica te the p resen ce o f
a c t iv i t y , a n d c o n f e r a s p e c ia l c h a r a c t e r o n a p la c e . A t im p o r -
ta n t p o i n t s th e r e c a n b e i n t r i g u i n g d i s p l a y s o f c h a n g i n g
lig h t. It is p l e a s a n t to l o o k f r o m d a r k n e s s i n t o l i g h t or v i c e
v e r s a , to w a t c h a r h y t h m i c a l p l a y o f l ig h t p a t t e r n s , or to s e e
an o b je c t t r a n s f o r m e d b y a s t e a d i l y c h a n g i n g l i g h t s o u r c e .
T h i s is a c h e a p a n d e f f e c t i v e r e s o u r c e , n o w a l m o s t u n u s e d .
L i g h t i n g t o d a y is ru le d b y c r u d e u t il it a r ia n s t a n d a r d s , m e -
c h a n i c a l l y a p p li e d .
O th er se n se s b esid es v isio n convey the sh a p e o f a Other senses
s p a c e . M o s t n o t a b l e is t h e s e n s e o f h e a r i n g ; n o c t u r n a l a n i- than vision
m a l s a n d b lin d h u m a n b e i n g s d e p e n d o n e c h o l o c a t i o n in
m o v i n g t h r o u g h t h e w o r l d . T h e c h a r a c t e r o f a s p a c e is g i v e n
to u s p a r t ly b y t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s o u n d r e f le c te d to o u r ears;
a n a b s e n c e o f e c h o , for e x a m p l e , is in t e r p r e t e d as o p e n n e s s .
S i m i l a r l y , t h o u g h to a le s s e r e x t e n t , w e are a f fe c t e d b y t h e
feel o f a s u r f a c e (or b y h o w it l o o k s as if it s h o u l d fee l) a n d b y
t h e r a d i a t i o n o f h e a t to or f r o m o u r s k in . T h u s t h e v i s u a l
i m p r e s s i o n o f a w a l l m a y b e r e in f o r c e d if it is h i g h l y r e flec -
tiv e to s o u n d , l o o k s r o u g h to t o u c h , or r a d ia t e s h e a t . P l a c e s
h a v e p a r t ic u la r s m e l l s t h a t a re p a rt o f th e ir i d e n t i t y , e v e n
t h o u g h it is u n d i g n i f i e d in o u r c u lt u r e to refer to t h e m . S ite
p l a n n e r s n e v e r c o n s i d e r t h is fa c to r , e x c e p t to w o r r y a b o u t
u n p l e a s a n t o d o r s . T h e m i c r o c l i m a t e is a m a r k e d fe a t u r e o f
our p ercep tio n o f a p lace b e y o n d a n y co n sid e r a tio n o f sim p le
c o m f o r t : t h e s it e w ill b e r e m e m b e r e d as c o o l a n d m o i s t , h o t,
b r ig h t, a n d w i n d y , or w a r m a n d s h e l t e r e d . A l l t h e s e s e n s a -
t i o n s o f l ig h t , s o u n d , s m e l l , a n d t o u c h c a n b e u s e d b y t h e d e -
s ig n e r , a l t h o u g h h e is n o t a c c u s t o m e d to d o i n g so.
S p a c e f o r m s a n d th e ir f u r n i s h i n g s h a v e s y m b o l i c c o n - Symbolic
n o t a t i o n s th a t s e e m to b e c o m m o n to o u r c u ltu r e : th e a w e - connotations
198

Figures 26, 27,

and 28 Three ex-
amples o f tradi-
tional types o f
space: the Italian
p ia z z a (Venice),
the French p la c e
(Nancy), and the
English square
(Bath).

SR ADESA by French R eproduction R ights, IQ02

A ero film s Ltii.
199

s o m e n e s s o f g r e a t s i z e a n d s i m p l e f o r m o r t h e p l e a s e d in te r -
e s t e v o k e d b y d i m i n u t i v e s c a le a n d in t r ic a c y ; t h e a s p i r a t i o n
o f tall, s l e n d e r v e r t i c a l s a n d t h e p a s s i v i t y a n d p e r m a n e n c e
o f t h e h o r i z o n t a l lin e; t h e c l o s e d , s t a ti c a p p e a r a n c e o f c ir c u -
lar f o r m s a n d t h e d y n a m i s m o f p r o j e c t i n g , j a g g e d s h a p e s ;
th e p ro tec tio n o f the lo w ca v e lik e sp ace v ersu s the freed o m o f
t h e p ra ir ie. S t r o n g f e e l i n g s a re e v o k e d b y f u n d a m e n t a l e l e -
m e n t s o f h u m a n s h e lt e r , s u c h as t h e r o o f or t h e d o o r , or b y
b a s ic n a tu r a l m a t e r i a l s , s u c h as e a r t h , r o c k , w a t e r , a n d
p la n t s .
T h e r e is a rich v o c a b u l a r y o f t y p e s o f e x t e r n a l s p a c e A vocabulary
th a t ca n b e d r a w n u p o n : t h e v i s t a , t h e c o u r t , t h e s lo t , t h e o f spaces
m a z e , t h e t u n n e l , t h e a v e n u e or a x is , t h e c a n o p y , t h e free
f o r m , t h e h e m i c y c l e , t h e p a rk , t h e b o w l , t h e cr es t, t h e s l o p e ,
the v a lle y , the h o n e y c o m b , and m a n y others. M o s t o f th e se
f o r m s a re p art o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f e v e r y o n e , b u t t h e d e -
s ig n e r h a s t h e h a b it o f c o n s c i o u s l y e x a m i n i n g t h e m w h e n -
e v e r h e h a s t h e o p p o r t u n i t y : c h e c k i n g real a g a i n s t a p p a r -
en t d im e n s io n s , m a k in g im a g in a r y correction s, e x p lo r in g
t h e p a r tic u la r im p a c t o f th e t y p e . S u c h a s t o r e h o u s e o f re-
m e m b e r e d s p a ti a l e f f e c t s is p a rt o f h is w o r k i n g e q u i p m e n t .
T h e d e s i g n e r m a k e s h is a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t y p ic a l
a n d h a r m o n i o u s n a tu r a l l a n d s c a p e s , s u c h as th e p ra ir ie,
fo re st, m e a d o w , d u n e , a n d m a r s h , a n d w i t h t h o s e m o r e c o m -
p le x s p a c e s th a t are a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p a r t ic u la r h u m a n ac-
t iv it ie s a n d p a r t ic u la r h is t o r ic p e r i o d s : t h e E n g l i s h r e s i d e n -
tial s q u a r e , w i t h its t o w n h o u s e s set a b o u t a s m a l l f e n c e d
p a rk , or t h e u r b a n It a lia n piazza, c o m p l e t e l y p a v e d a n d i n ­
 200 t e n s i v e l y u s e d . P e r h a p s h e r e m e m b e r s a s u c c e s s i o n o f i n te r -
lin k e d c o l l e g e q u a d r a n g l e s or t h e f o r m a l F r e n c h place or t h e
c a t h e d r a l c l o s e . P l a n t e d s p a c e s m a y b e m a n a g e d as E n g l i s h
p a r k s , a s f o r m a l g a r d e n s , or as g r o v e s . T h e r e are t h e w i n d i n g ,
r o m a n t i c s u b u r b a n s t r e e t , t h e b r o a d a v e n u e w i t h its r a n k s
o f t re es, t h e A m e r i c a n p a r k w a y , t h e w a t e r f r o n t p r o m e n a d e ,
t h e a r c a d e , t h e terra ce. A l l o f t h e s e a re p a r t ic u la r k i n d s o f
s p a c e , u s e f u l as s o l u t i o n s in p a r t ic u la r s i t u a t i o n s . W e h o p e
th a t n e w t y p e s o f s p a c e w i l l d e v e l o p in o u r c u lt u r e , ju st as
n e w b u i l d i n g t y p e s are e v o l v i n g . T h e i r s u c c e s s w i l l d e p e n d
o n t h e c r e a t i v e e f f o r t s o f m a n y s i t e d e s i g n e r s a n d s it e u s e r s .
V i s ib le A c t i v i t y If v i s i b l e s p a c e is t h e p e r c e p t u a l q u a l i t y o v e r w h i c h
t h e d e s i g n e r t r a d i t i o n a l l y e x e r c i s e s c o n t r o l , it is n e v e r t h e -
le s s n o t t h e s a l i e n t i m p r e s s i o n o f m o s t p l a c e s for m o s t o b -
s e r v e r s . P e o p l e are m o s t in t e r e s t e d in o t h e r p e o p l e . T h e
s i g h t a n d s o u n d o f h u m a n b e i n g s in a c t i o n are u s u a l l y t h e
p r o m i n e n t f e a t u r e s o f t h e p e r c e p t u a l f o r m o f a p la ce . T h i s
o b v i o u s s t a t e m e n t s u r p r is e s d e s i g n e r s , w h o are a c c u s t o m e d
to e q u a t i n g " d e s i g n " w i t h t h i n g s a n d w h o c a t e g o r i z e p e r ‫־‬
s o n s a s t h e u s e r s a n d o b s e r v e r s o f t h i n g s , b u t n o t as b e i n g
t h e m s e l v e s p art o f t h e v i s i b l e e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e l if e le s s p re-
s e n t a t i o n a l p h o t o g r a p h s o f a r c h i te c t u r a l m a g a z i n e s are t e s t i ‫־‬
m o n i a l s o f t h is li m i t e d p o i n t o f v i e w .
P l a c e s w i t h o u t p e o p l e or o t h e r l i v i n g t h i n g s s i m p l y h o r ‫־‬
rifv u s, a n d t h o s e th a t c o n c e a l t h e h u m a n tra c e, as m a n y o f
o u r n e w b u i l d i n g s d o , are c o l d , d u ll, a n d d e p r e s s i n g . T o s e e
or h ea r a c t i v e p e o p l e is e n d l e s s l y e n t e r t a i n i n g . W e are a l‫־‬
w a y s in t e r e s t e d in w h o are th e r e , w h a t t h e y are lik e, w h a t
t h e y i n t e n d t o w a r d u s , w h a t t h e y are d o i n g . S e e i n g a n d
b e in g seen , p r o m e n a d in g o n a b u s y street, and w a tc h in g a
c o n s t r u c t i o n c r e w a re p e r m a n e n t p l e a s u r e s .
A l t h o u g h w e c a n i m a g i n e a n o u t d o o r p la c e in w h i c h
c o s t u m e d a c t o r s p e r f o r m in a p r e s c r ib e d w a y at p r e s c r ib e d
t i m e s , t h e s it e p l a n n e r r a r e ly e x e r c i s e s a n y d ir e c t c o n t r o l
o v e r t h is a s p e c t o f t h e v i s i b l e f o r m o f a p la c e . T h i s is s u r e l y
f o r t u n a te . B u t a s it e p l a n c a n s u p p o r t or s u p p r e s s t h e v i s i b l e
tra c e o f a c t i v i t y ; it c a n le t p e o p l e b e c o m e a w a r e o f o n e a n ‫־‬
o t h e r . T h i s ca n b e d o n e in m a n y w a y s : b y c o n c e n t r a t i n g
a n d m i x i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f d if f e r e n t a c t i v i t i e s s o t h a t t h e y
are i n t e r v i s i b l e ; b y p r o v i d i n g p l a c e s for m e e t i n g , c e le b r a -
t i o n , a n d m u t u a l o b s e r v a t i o n ; b y e x p o s i n g to s i g h t c i r c u la -
t i o n f l o w s or t h e b a s ic p u b l i c or p r o d u c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s ; b y p r o -
v i d i n g w a y s in w h i c h h u m a n a c t i o n c a n le a v e its t ra c e o n
the in o rg a n ic e n v ir o n m en t.
S p a c e s m u s t b e s iz e d to t h e e x p e c t e d i n t e n s i t y o f a c t i v -
ity . A s q u a r e in a c e n t r a l l o c a t i o n m a y s e e m o p p r e s s i v e b e-
Paul SprciregL’H 201

Figure 29 Each
event should an-
ticipate the next:
entrance to the
Piazza Grande ,
Arezzo.

c a u s e o f t h e c r o w d s o f p e o p l e u s i n g it, w h i l e it w o u l d a p p e a r
e m p t y , v a s t , a n d l o n e l y at t h e p e r i p h e r y , w h e r e p e d e s t r i a n s
are fe w . A f o o t p a t h a l o n g b a c k lo ts m a y s e e m e x c e s s i v e l y
l o n g , w h i l e if it w e r e b o r d e r e d b y v a r i e d a c t i v i t i e s a n d u s e d
b y m a n y p e o p l e , it w o u l d a p p e a r e x c i t i n g a n d r e l a t i v e l y
b rief. S p a c e s s h o u l d n o t m e r e l y s u p p o r t t h e a c t i v i t i e s th a t
o c c u r w i t h i n t h e m — t h e y s h o u l d visibly s u p p o r t t h e m . A c -
t io n c a n b e c la rifie d a n d e x p r e s s e d , its e m o t i o n a l m o o d a n d
p r o p e r c o n d u c t v i s i b l y r e in fo r c e d . I a m s p e a k i n g o f b e-
h a v io r s e t t i n g s a g a i n , e m p h a s i z i n g h o w t h e l o o k o f a p la c e
a n d its a c t i o n ca n s t a b i l i z e a n d h e i g h t e n th a t a c t i o n . O u t -
d o o r d i s t a n c e s a n d o u t d o o r l i g h t w ill d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r w e
ca n read fa ces. T h e s o u n d le v e l m a k e s c o n v e r s a t i o n e a s y or
d iffic u lt. T h e s h a p e o f t h e s p a c e a n d t h e l o c a t i o n o f its d e t a il
w ill h e lp or h in d e r us a s w e try to d e l i m i t b e h a v i o r a l t e r r ito -
ries. Part o f th e p l e a s u r e o f an o u t d o o r c o n c e r t is t h e s e n s e o f
b ein g o n e o f the a u d ien c e, and s o m e o u td o o r a ctiv itie s, su ch
as th e pasco or t h e h o t - r o d p a r a d e , are e s s e n t i a l l y c o n c e r n e d
w ith m utual visib ility.
O p e n n e s s , t r a n s p a r e n c y , a n d o v e r l o o k c a n b r in g w h a t
is h a p p e n i n g in to v i e w . T h e o b v i o u s d a n g e r is an i n t r u s io n
o n p r iv a c y , th e e x p o s u r e o f a c t i v i t i e s th a t s o m e o n e w o u l d
p refer to k e e p h i d d e n . T h e r e f o r e w e e x p o s e o n l y t h o s e f u n c -
 202 t i o n s a b o u t w h i c h b o t h v i e w e r a n d v i e w e d w i s h to c o m m u n i -
c a t e or in w h i c h t h e e x p o s e d f u n c t i o n is a n i m p e r s o n a l t ra c e
o f h u m a n a c t io n : t h e m o v e m e n t s o f ca r s a n d s h i p s , t h e h o i -
l o w e d s t e p , or h a n d w o r n rail. B y t h e s e m e a n s a p la c e s e e m s
w a r m a n d a liv e .
V iew p o in t A l a n d s c a p e is u s u a l l y s e e n f r o m a r a th e r li m i t e d se t o f
v i e w p o i n t s . T h e s e are t h e p a t h s a l o n g w h i c h t h e o b s e r v e r
m o v e s — a n d a l o n g w h i c h t h e f o r w a r d l o o k is d i s t i n c t f r o m
t h e b a c k w a r d o n e — a n d c e r t a in k e y s t a t i o n a r y v i e w s , as
f r o m w i n d o w s a n d p r i n c i p a l e n t r a n c e s . T h e li n e s o f s i g h t
f r o m t h e s e c r it ic a l f ix e d or m o v i n g p o i n t s s h o u l d b e c a r e f u l l y
a n a l y z e d . T h i s m a y b e d o n e b y q u i c k p e r s p e c t i v e s t u d i e s or
b y traces o f th e c o n e o f v is io n o n p la n and se ctio n . C o m p u te r
p r o g r a m s a re n o w a v a i l a b l e to p r o d u c e o u t l i n e p e r s p e c t i v e s ,
X g iv e n a p la n , se c tio n s , and th e lo c a tio n o f th e ob server. T h e
d e s i g n m a y b e s t u d i e d in m o d e l f o r m b y p l a c i n g t h e e y e
c l o s e t o t h e g r o u n d l e v e l o f t h e m o d e l . V a r i o u s d e v i c e s in -
c r e a s e t h e s e n s e o f r e a l i t y in a m o d e l : p i n h o l e v i e w e r s , m ir -
ro r s, or p e r i s c o p e s t h a t p r o j e c t t h e o b s e r v e r i n t o a n y p a rt o f
t h e m o d e l a n d a l l o w h i m to s e e it as t h o u g h h e w e r e w a l k i n g
t h r o u g h it.
S i g h t l i n e s m a y b e m a n i p u l a t e d b y s l i g h t s h i f t s in
g r o u n d lev el or th e p o s itio n o f o p a q u e e le m e n ts . T h e e y e m a y
b e d ir e c t e d b y f r a m i n g t h e v i e w or d r a w n a l o n g a r a n k o f re-
p e a t e d f o r m s . It m a y b e a t tr a c t e d to s o m e f o c a l o b je c t , t h u s
in e f f e c t b l o t t i n g o u t s u r r o u n d i n g d e t a il. A d i s t a n t v i e w c a n
be e n h a n c e d b y s o m e f o r e g r o u n d o b je c t to w h i c h it is c o n -
tr a s t e d . O f t e n it is i m p r o v e d w h e n s u b d i v i d e d b y a n e a r b y
s t r u c t u r e s o t h a t a t t e n t i o n is c o n c e n t r a t e d . T h u s t h e t o ta l
v i e w m a y b e o r g a n i z e d i n t o p a r t s , or p e r h a p s o n l y a h i n t o f
its fu ll s w e e p is g i v e n .
S i n c e t h e l a n d s c a p e is u s u a l l y e x p e r i e n c e d b y a m o v -
i n g o b s e r v e r , it is n o t t h e s i n g l e v i e w t h a t is i m p o r t a n t s o
m u c h as t h e c u m u l a t i v e e f f e c t o f a s e q u e n c e o f v i e w s . T h e
s e n s a tio n o f release w h e n th e o b ser v er c o m e s ou t from a nar-
r o w s lo t i n t o a b r o a d e x p a n s e is a p o w e r f u l e ffe c t. L a c k o f fo r-
m a l b a l a n c e at a n y o n e m o m e n t is o f l e s s c o n s e q u e n c e t h a n
c o m p e n s a t i o n s a n d b a l a n c e s o v e r t im e . T h i s is t h e r a d ic a l
:Ü ■ d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n l a n d s c a p e a n d p ic t o r i a l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d
W f f '
e x p l a i n s w h y it is i m p o s s i b l e to t a k e g o o d p h o t o g r a p h s o f
s o m e fin e e n v i r o n m e n t s .
T h e s e q u e n c e o f v i e w s or s p a c e s is c r u c ia l in a s it e d e -
s i g n . For e x a m p l e , a m a jo r v i e w m a y b e h i n t e d at, b e s u e -
c e e d e d b y a m o r e i n t i m a t e v i e w o f s o m e t h i n g e l s e , b e re-
p e a t e d w i t h a d o m i n a n t f o r e g r o u n d , d i s a p p e a r in a c o n f i n e d
P h oto Edwin S m ith , from : The English G arden , H yam s and Smith

Figure 3 0 The great English garden o f Stourhead is a rich succession o f space and
incident along a path that circles an irregular lake. Here we look from the Temple
o f Flora to the Temple o f the Sun.

sp a c e , a n d f in a lly r e a p p e a r in its full s w e e p . T h e e x p e c t e d

d i r e c t i o n a n d s p e e d o f t h e o b s e r v e r a r e c r itic a l s in c e s i g h t
b e c o m e s r e s t r i c t e d to a n a r r o w e r f o r w a r d q u a d r a n t as s p e e d
i n c r e a s e s a n d s in c e s p a t i a l e ffe c ts t h a t a r e p l e a s a n t a t a
w a l k i n g p a c e m a y b e i m p e r c e p t i b l e a t 6 0 m ile s a n h o u r ,
a n d v ic e v e r s a . A t t e n t i o n is f o c u s e d a t t h e p o i n t s o f d e c is io n .
E a c h ty p e o f m o t i o n h a s its a p p r o p r i a t e sc a le o f s p a t i a l t r e a t -
m ent.
Q u e s t io n s o f o rie n ta tio n b e c o m e sig n ifica n t: the ap par-
en t d irection to w a r d a g o a l, th e m a r k in g o f th e d ista n c e
traversed, the clarity o f e n tra n ce and exit, the e x p la n a tio n
o f t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e o b s e r v e r ' s p la c e in it. A s u e -
c e s s i o n o f a r r iv a ls , lik e t h e s e r ie s o f ru n s a n d l a n d i n g s o n a
stair, w i l l b e m o r e i n t e r e s t i n g t h a n a s i n g l e p r o t r a c t e d a p -
p r o a c h . E a c h e v e n t s h o u l d p r e p a r e for t h e n e x t o n e w i t h o u t
c o m p l e t e l y f o r e t e l l i n g it s o t h a t t h e o b s e r v e r r e c e iv e s e a c h
 Ma‫־״‬co

c. 1000 meters
 205

Figure 31 An episode in the walk from the Accademia Bridge to the Piazza
San M arco, Venice : a dramatic sequence o f space, activity, and texture.
4
 as a n e v e r - f r e s h b u t c o h e r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e e n v i r o n -
m e n t s h o u l d h a v e a f o r m t h a t is r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t to t h e d i s -
ta n t g l a n c e a n d y e t r e v e a l s n e w f e a t u r e s a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n s
w h e n in sp ected m ore clo sely . T h e form o f the m o tio n itself
nt' V V h a d e s t h e t i c m e a n i n g : it m a y b e d ir e c t or in d i r e c t , flu id or
f o r m a l, s m o o t h or er ra tic , d e l i c a t e or b r u ta l, d i v e r g e n t or c o n -
v e r g e n t , p u r p o s e f u l or w h i m s i c a l . F u r t h e r m o r e , o b j e c t s c a n
b e d i s p o s e d to c l a r if y or h e i g h t e n t h e v i s u a l s e n s e o f m o t i o n o f
- ‫׳ •׳‬V
se lf. T h e d a n c i n g o f t h e l a n d s c a p e as o n e m o v e s b y it c a n it-
Reference 28 se lf be a p leasu re. P o te n tia l m o tio n takes on im p o rta n ce: a
ro a d s u g g e s t s d i r e c t i o n , a n d t h e e y e f o l l o w s it as a c o n n e c t -
i n g t h r e a d . B r o a d , flat s t e p s w i l l s e e m e a s y a n d i n v i t i n g .
T h o s e th a t are n a r r o w , s t e e p , a n d c u r v i n g a p p e a r d r a m a t i c
a n d e x c i t i n g , s e e m i n g to le a d to s o m e h i d d e n p r o m i s e .
A s it e s h o u l d b e a c o h e r e n t s u c c e s s i o n o f s p a c e s or t e x -
t u r es o r o b j e c t s , in w h i c h e a c h p a rt r e la t e s to t h e n e x t b u t in
w h i c h th e r e is a c o n s t a n t p l a y o f v a r i a t i o n o n t h e b a s ic
t h e m e . A c h a i n o f s p a c e s s h o u l d s e e m to b e p art o f o n e e x -
t e n d e d w h o l e , e v e n w h i l e a l t e r n a t i n g fr o m o p e n to c l o s e d ,
f r o m s i m p l e to i n t r ic a t e , f r o m b r i l l i a n t to s u b d u e d . A n e a r ly
s t e p in s i t e p l a n n i n g is to a n a l y z e t h e v i s u a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f
t h e s p a t i a l f o r m w h e n s e e n as a s e q u e n c e . It is o f t e n u s e f u l
to o u t l i n e t h e s p a c e l y i n g b e t w e e n o p a q u e o b j e c t s , e m p h a -
s i z i n g t h is p r i m a r y v i s u a l s e n s a t i o n . T h e s p a c e s s h o u l d n o t
b e s e e n f l a t w i s e b u t as a p r o g r e s s i o n t h r o u g h w h i c h o n e
m oves.
In a n u r b a n area , s p a c e m a y b e d e f i n e d b y m a n - m a d e
s t r u c t u r e s , in le s s d e n s e d e v e l o p m e n t b y t h e b a s i c n a t u r a l
m a t e r ia l s : e a r t h , r o c k , w a t e r , a n d p l a n t c o v e r . In e i th e r
G r o u n d F o rm c a s e , t h e s u r f a c e u n d e r f o o t is t h e o n l y c o n t i n u o u s o n e , a n d it
p l a y s a d o m i n a n t ro le. T h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e flo o r is d e t e r -
m in e d b y the p r e e x istin g to p o g r a p h y , w h o s e m o d e lin g m u st
b e t h o r o u g h l y u n d e r s t o o d b e f o r e w o r k b e g i n s . I n s p e c t i o n w ill
r e v e a l c e r t a in k e y p o i n t s in t h e s h a p e o f t h e la n d , s u c h as
t h e p la c e w h e r e g r a d i e n t s c h a n g e a b r u p t l y o r f r o m w h i c h
c o m m a n d i n g v i e w s m a y b e e n j o y e d . T h e la n d m a y b e d i v i s -
ib le i n t o s m a l l r e g i o n s , e a c h o f h o m o g e n e o u s c h a r a c t e r a n d
w i t h c e r t a in s t r a t e g i c l i n k a g e s o n e to t h e o t h e r . M o s t s i t e s
w i l l h a v e a d e c i d e d c h a r a c t e r or p i v o t a l f e a t u r e s to w h i c h
th e p la n c a n r e s p o n d . T h e s e a s p e c t s p o s e p r o b l e m s for th e
d e s i g n e r a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e p r e s e n t h i m w i t h s p e c i a l o p -
p o r t u n i t i e s . S i t e s o f s t r o n g t o p o g r a p h i c c h a r a c t e r w ill t e n d to
d i c t a t e t h e b a s i c o r g a n i z a t i o n o f a p la n a n d to ca ll for a s i m -
p ie , r e g u la r a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t w i l l c l a r if y t h e ter ra in . Flat
g r o u n d or s i t e s o f m o r e n e u tr a l c h a r a c t e r w i l l a l l o w a m u c h
freer, m o r e in t r ic a t e p a t t e r n i n g .

‫ יי‬I -
 T h e r e is a n e a s y v i s u a l r e la t io n b e t w e e n a m a n - m a d e 207
st r u c t u r e a n d t o p o g r a p h y w h e n t h e l o n g d i m e n s i o n o f t h e
s t r u c t u r e , w h e t h e r it is a r o a d or a b u i l d i n g , lie s a l o n g t h e
c o n t o u r lin e. T h e b u i l d i n g or ro a d c a n b e se t l o w to t h e
g r o u n d , a n d t h e n a tu r a l c o n t o u r s left a s u n d i s t u r b e d as p o s -
s ib le . T h i s o f t e n p r o v e s to b e t h e c h e a p e s t s o l u t i o n , as w e ll .
A t o t h e r t i m e s , t h e b e s t s o l u t i o n m a y b e ju st t h e o p p o s i t e : let
th e roa d or t h e a x is o f t h e b u i l d i n g p l u n g e d i r e c t l y a c r o s s t h e
c o n t o u r s . T h i s w ill d r a m a t i z e t h e t o p o g r a p h i c s t r u c t u r e .
W h e n t h e s t r u c t u r a l a x e s are d i a g o n a l to t h e c o n t o u r s , a
m o s t d iff ic u lt r e la t io n o c c u r s , o c c a s i o n a l l y s u c c e s s f u l in s k ill-
ful h a n d s b u t li a b l e to b e a w k w a r d .
T h e d e s i g n e r a r r a n g e s v i e w s a n d a p p r o a c h e s s o th a t
t h e b a s ic s t r u c t u r e o f t h e la n d c a n b e a p p r e c i a t e d . S o m e -
t i m e s h e u s e s " u n n a t u r a l ‫ ״‬d e s i g n s , p l a n t i n g t h e h ills a n d
c l e a r i n g t h e v a l l e y b o t t o m s to e m p h a s i z e t h e d r a i n a g e a n d
e x a g g e r a t e t h e h e i g h t s , or m a k i n g a d e e p cu t t h r o u g h a
cr es t to e x p o s e t h e e a r t h a n d m a k e a d r a m a t i c e n t r a n c e . S a n
F r a n c i s c o , w h o s e s t r e e t s s e e m to i g n o r e t h e c o n t o u r s , is in
fact v e r y e x p r e s s i v e o f its site. T h e ‫ ״‬n a t u r a l ‫ ״‬l a n d s c a p e
p a tt e r n , w i t h tall tr e e s o n t h e rich b o t t o m la n d , a n d d w a r f
p l a n t s o n t h e h ills , a c t u a l l y t e n d s to b lu r o u r s e n s e o f t h e u n -
d erly in g grou n d.
B u i l d i n g s o f u n i f o r m h e i g h t , w i t h t h e ir d i f f e r e n t i a t e d
p l a n e s o f r o o f a n d f a c a d e , m a y b e a r r a n g e d in s t e p f a s h i o n o n
a h ill, to g i v e t h e s e n s e o f ‫ ״‬p i l i n g u p . ‫ ״‬T a l l b u i l d i n g s m a y
b e p la c e d o n t h e h e i g h t s , a n d l o w s t r u c t u r e s in t h e v a l l e y s .
L o n g s la b s m a y s e t b a c k in e c h e l o n as t h e y c l i m b , or t h e y
m a y b e s t e p p e d in v e r t ic a l s e c t i o n . S p e c ia l v i e w s m a y b e
o p e n e d u p fr o m t h e l o w e s t to t h e h i g h e s t p o i n t s , a n d v i c e
v er sa .
In ev ita b ly , a n e w d e v e lo p m e n t c h a n g e s the co n to u rs.
T h e s e n e w g r o u n d s h a p e s s h o u l d fit h a r m o n i o u s l y i n t o t h e
o ld e r l a n d s c a p e or e l s e b e o b v i o u s a r tific ia l i n t r u s i o n s . If a
h a r m o n i o u s fit is d e s ir e d , t r a n s i t i o n s m u s t b e s m o o t h l y
m a d e ; n e w la n d f o r m s m u s t b e o f t h e s a m e f a m i l y a s t h e e x -
i s t i n g la n d f o r m s b o t h in s h a p e a n d s c a le ; t h e w h o l e s h o u l d
m a k e a c o n s i s t e n t p a tt e r n . In h u m i d t e m p e r a t e c l i m a t e s , for ..—
‫►ו‬
e x a m p l e , s l o p e s are u s u a l l y c o n t i n u o u s a n d f l o w i n g , c u r v e
ru n n in g in to curve w ith o u t in te r v e n in g breaks, slo p e s m ee t-
in g flat la n d w i t h a c o n c a v e p ro file . E v e ry l a n d s c a p e w ill
h a v e its o w n c o n s i s t e n t f a m i l y o f l a n d f o r m s c a u s e d b y th e
b a s e m a te r ia l a n d its s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s a n d a n g l e o f r e p o s e , th e
h i s t o r y o f v u l c a n i s m or g l a c i a t i o n , t h e e r o s i o n c y c le , t h e cli-
m a te , a n d t h e v e g e t a t i v e co v e r .
A t t i m e s , t h e g r o u n d fo rm m a y b e w i l l f u l l y s h a p e d to
 208 a d d i n t e r e s t , to m a s k u n w a n t e d f e a t u r e s , to g a i n p r iv a c y , to
i n c r e a s e a p p a r e n t s iz e , or to m a k e t h e f l o w o f r o a d s a n d
p a t h s s e e m p l e a s a n t a n d e a s y . S l o p e s a n d le v e l c a n b e m a n -
a g e d to g i v e a c a l c u l a t e d s u c c e s s i o n o f v i e w s , a l l o w i n g s e -
q u e n c e s o f r e v e a l i n g a n d c o n c e a l i n g , or a f f o r d i n g a s u d d e n
v i s u a l s u r p r is e . P a t h s a n d g r o u n d c a n b e m a n i p u l a t e d s o
t h a t t h e m o v e m e n t o f a ro a d is p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y e x p l a i n e d a n d
a f fo r d s a f in e e x p e r i e n c e o f m o v e m e n t in t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s .
A n o b t r u s i v e r o a d m a y b e m a d e to d i s a p p e a r b y d r o p p i n g it
in a s h a l l o w s t e e p - s i d e d cut.
W h e r e t h e t o p o g r a p h y is m o n o t o n o u s l y le v e l or s h a p e -
le s s , a s it o c c a s i o n a l l y is, or w h e r e it m u s t b e r a d i c a l l y d i s -
tu r b e d for o t h e r r e a s o n s , t h e n t h e d e s i g n e r w i l l r e so r t to a
n e w a n d t o t a l l y a rtific ia l t o p o g r a p h y . T h e w h o l e p r o b l e m o f
s u r f a c e m o d e l i n g s h i f t s f r o m t h e e x p r e s s i o n or m o d i f i c a t i o n o f
p r e e x i s t i n g s t r u c t u r e to t h a t o f a b s t r a c t s c u l p t u r e o n a v a s t
s c a le , a s c u l p t u r e t h a t w i l l u n f o l d as t h e o b s e r v e r p a s s e s
t h r o u g h it. T h i s h a s r a r e ly b e e n d o n e for e s t h e t i c m o t i v e s ,
b u t it is n o w t e c h n i c a l l y p o s s i b l e . R e s i d e n t i a l t e r r a c i n g in
t h e L o s A n g e l e s m o u n t a i n s h a s b e e n r o u n d l y c o n d e m n e d , for
v i s u a l r e a s o n s as w e l l as for fea r o f l a n d s l i d e s . B u t u n t i l t h e
p i p - s q u e a k h o u s e s a re a d d e d , t h e s e v a s t t e r r a c e s are a w e -
so m e , h a n d s o m e f o r m s — in d e ed m o re " m o u n ta in o u s " th an
t h e o r i g i n a l . T h e c r e a t i o n o f l a r g e - s c a l e t o p o g r a p h y in i m i t a -
t i o n o f n a t u r a l f o r m is q u i t e d iff ic u lt , h o w e v e r s i m p l e it m a y
s e e m , a n d t o t a l l y n e w t o p o g r a p h y is p e r h a p s m o r e s a f e l y
c o n f i n e d to o b v i o u s l y m a n - m a d e s h a p e s .
P r o b l e m s o f t o p o g r a p h i c f o r m are b e s t s t u d i e d in a
m o d e l , e v e n t h o u g h d e c i s i o n s a re m o r e a c c u r a t e l y c o n v e y e d
to t h e c o n t r a c t o r b y a c o n t o u r m a p . T h e w o r k is s c u lp t u r a l;
t h u s t h e r e is n o s u b s t i t u t e for p u r s u i n g it in a s c u lp t u r a l
m e d i u m . S i m p l e c a r d b o a r d c o n t o u r la y e r m o d e l s m a y b e
u s e d , w h i c h are cu t a n d p a t c h e d to s h o w n e w d i s p o s i t i o n s .
In a m o r e c o m p l e x m o d i f i c a t i o n o f th e g r o u n d , it m a y b e b e s t
to u s e a p l a s t i c m a t e r ia l . T h e m o d e l w i l l b e g i n w i t h t h e e x -
i s t i n g g r o u n d s u r f a c e , a n d r e s h a p i n g it w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n or
s u b t r a c t i o n o f m o d e l i n g m a t e r ia l i n d i c a t e s a s o l u t i o n in
w h i c h c u t a n d fill w i l l r o u g h l y b a l a n c e . D e c i s i o n s w i l l la ter
b e t r a n s p o s e d f r o m t h e m o d e l to m o r e a c c u r a t e d r a w i n g s , or
e v e n d i r e c t l y to t h e field .
Ground texture T h e t e x t u r a l f in i s h o f t h e g r o u n d c a n b e a s o u r c e o f d e -
l i g h t in its e lf. It c a n a l s o s e t a g e n e r a l v i s u a l c h a r a c t e r a n d
s c a le . It m a y b e a h a r m o n i o u s b a c k g r o u n d t h a t u n if ie s a n d
s e t s o f f t h e w h o l e s c e n e , o r it m a y b e a d o m i n a n t s u r f a c e th a t
c o m m u n i c a t e s t h e p r i n c ip a l p a t t e r n s a n d d i r e c t i o n s o f t h e
p la n . T h e t e x t u r e o f t h e flo o r im p a r t s s e n s a t i o n s o f t o u c h as 209
w e ll as s i g h t . T h e p a t t e r n o f s u r f a c e a c t i v i t y c a n b e e x -
p r e s s e d in t h e te x t u r a l p a tt e r n , a n d s u c h d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s
t h e n p l a y a ro le in g u i d i n g or c o n t r o l l i n g t h e a c t iv i t y : d i s t i n -
g u i s h i n g r o a d s a n d f o o t p a t h s , b i c y c l e a n d car s t a lls , d r a in -
a g e r u n n e l s , p l a y a re a s, or s p o t s for s t a n d i n g a n d s i t t i n g .
F in e g r o u n d t e x t u r e s — m o s s , m o n o l i t h i c p a v e m e n t , or
close-cropp ed g r a s s — ten d to e m p h a s i z e t h e s h a p e a n d
m a s s o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g g r o u n d a n d to i n c r e a s e its a p p a r e n t
siz e . T h e y act as a b a c k g r o u n d for t h e o b j e c t s t h a t rise fr o m
t h e m . C o a r s e t e x t u r e s — r o u g h g r a s s , c o b b l e , b r ic k s , or
b l o c k s — w o r k in t h e o p p o s i t e w a y , c a l l i n g a t t e n t i o n to t h e
su r f a c e itself, r a th er t h a n to t h e u n d e r l y i n g m a s s or t h e o b -
j ec ts a b o v e it. A c e n t r a l l y d i s h e d flo o r g i v e s u s a s t a ti c s e n -
s a t i o n ; a v a l l e y g u i d e s o u r v i s i o n a l o n g its c o u r s e . C h a n g e s o f
le v e l act as s p a c e d e f in e r s , or t h e y c a n b e u s e d to v a r y t h e
p o i n t o f v i e w or to s e p a r a t e a c t i v i t y a re a s, as w h e n r a is e d
b e d s p r o t e c t p l a n t i n g f r o m i n t e n s i v e traffic. T h e s u r f a c e
m a y b e le ft r o u g h or in n a tu r a l g r o w t h , as a r e g i o n for i m a g i -
n a t i v e p la y .
S in ce the ground has such v isu a l im p o rta n ce, we
s h o u l d c o n s i d e r its e n r i c h m e n t , a n d n o t l e a v e it to t h e c a s u a l
a t t e n t i o n s o f t h e p a v e m e n t or l a n d s c a p i n g c o n t r a c t o r . W e
u s e a v e r y s c a n t y p a le t te : little m o r e t h a n m o w e d g r a s s , b i-
t u m i n o u s m a c a d a m , or m o n o l i t h i c c o n c r e t e . T h e i r a n t e c e d -
e n t s a re t h e g e n t l e m a n ' s p a r k a n d t h e drill g r o u n d . R e l i -
a n c e o n t h e s e m a t e r i a l s r e s u lt s in g r o u n d th a t is m o n o t o n o u s ,
s o m e t i m e s u g l y , a n d o f t e n q u it e u n s u i t a b l e . C o n c r e t e is p o o r
for r u n n i n g gam es; grass cannot b ea r i n t e n s i v e traffic.
G r o u n d is u s u a l l y e i t h e r s k i n n e d c l e a n o r p u t u n d e r tr e e s
a n d b u i l d i n g s . B u t t h e r a n g e o f s u r f a c i n g a v a i l a b l e is in
fact far w id e r . It i n c l u d e s c u l t i v a t e d or s t a b i l i z e d ea r t h ; l o w
s h r u b s a n d g r o u n d c o v e r s ; o v e r h e a d p l a n t i n g a n d n a tu r a l
t h ic k e t s ; ta n b a r k ; m a c a d a m ; s a n d or g r a v e l; a s p h a l t or c o n -
cr e te w i t h fillers, j o i n t i n g s , or s u r f a c e a g g r e g a t e s ; w o o d
b l o c k or d e c k i n g ; t e r r a z z o s or m o s a i c s ; a n d p a v e m e n t s o f
b r ic k s , t ile s, c o b b l e s , s t o n e b l o c k s or s la b s . T h e s e m a t e r i a l s
m a y b e u s e d in m a n y c o m b i n a t i o n s . It is w i s e to r e m e m b e r
h o w t h e y w ill b e m a i n t a i n e d , w h e t h e r m o w e d or s w e p t or
w a s h e d or w e e d e d . S m a l l c u r b s a n d g u t t e r s at t h e e d g e s o f
b e d s or p a v e m e n t s , or b e t w e e n s t e p s a n d a w a l l , w ill b e
very useful.
R o c k a n d e a r t h are t h e p r im a r y s it e m a t e r i a l s , o u r e n - R ock and earth
v i r o n m e n t a l b a s e . C u t s a n d fills, p its a n d o u t c r o p s , cliffs,
c a v e s , a n d h ills c o m m u n i c a t e a s e n s e o f m a s s , a f e e l i n g o f
 A llyn Baum
Figure 3 2 Stone walls and natural rock at Machu Picchu: expressive strength
and rich texture.

s p a c e , a n i n t u i t i o n o f t h e p l a n e t w h o s e s u r f a c e w e in h a b i t .
R o c k is a n e s p e c i a l l y h a n d s o m e m a t e r ia l . W e k e e p it h i d d e n
w i t h t o p s o i l or p r e t t i f y it in r o c k g a r d e n s . B u t it e x p r e s s e s
stre n g th and p erm a n e n c e , the w o r k in g o f p o w e r fu l forces
o v e r l o n g s p a n s o f t im e . It is h i g h l y v a r i e d in f o r m , c o l o r ,
grain, and surface texture, e x p ec ia lly w hen w eathered.
T h o u g h o f t e n e x p e n s i v e , it m a y b e u s e d to g r e a t e f f e c t in
w a lls, p a v in g , an d step s, or as o u tc ro p s an d iso la te d ob jects.
Chinese stones
from the S to n e H e r e a g a i n , in a s c e n e i n t e n d e d to b e c o n t i n u o u s w i t h s o m e
C a ta lo g u e o f th e n a tu r a l l a n d s c a p e , t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h lo c a l r o c k is e x -
P lain G a rd en (11th p o s e d m u s t b e o b s e r v e d a n d im it a t e d : as le d g e , as t a lu s , or
century)
as s c a t t e r e d b o u l d e r s .
W ater W a t e r is e q u a l l y e l e m e n t a l — s i m p l e in n a t u r e b u t
e x t r e m e l y v a r i e d in e f f e c t. T h e v e r y n u m b e r o f d e s c r i p t i v e
t e r m s in t h e c o m m o n l a n g u a g e i n d i c a t e s its p o t e n t i a l r ic h -
n e s s in d e s i g n : o c e a n , p o o l , s h e e t , jet, to r r e n t, rill, d r o p ,
s p r a y , c a s c a d e , film ( p lu s a n e q u a l n u m b e r o f w o r d s for liq -
u id m o t i o n : tr ic k le , s p l a s h , f o a m , f l o o d , p o u r , s p u r t, r i p p le ,
s u r g e , r u n ). T h e r a n g e o f fo r m , t h e c h a n g e a b l e n e s s a n d y e t
the u n ity , the in t r ic a t e rep etitiv e flu id m ovem en t, and
s u g g e s t io n o f c o o ln e s s and d elig h t, the p la y o f lig h t and
s o u n d , as w e l l as t h e i n t i m a t e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h life ( a n d its
a t t r a c t i o n for b ir d s a n d a n i m a l s ) , all m a k e w a t e r a s u p e r b
 m a t e r ia l for o u t d o o r u se. It ca n e v o k e m o o d s o f g a i e t y , s e r e n - 211
ity , s o r r o w , m y s t e r y , m a j e s t y , c o n t e n t m e n t , or s h e e r v o l u p -
t u o u s n e s s . It is as a t t r a c t iv e for p l a y as it is for c o n t e m p l a -
tio n ; it a f fe c t s s o u n d , s m e ll , a n d t o u c h a s w e l l as s i g h t . U n -
f o r t u n a t e l y , it a l s o e n t a i l s p r o b l e m s o f m a i n t e n a n c e a n d
s a f e t y as w e ll: it m a y g e t d ir t y , b r e e d i n s e c t s or w e e d s ,
f lo o d , or e r o d e its b a n k s . If th e w a t e r w i l l lie in a p o o l , t h e n it
m u s t e i th e r b e o r g a n i c a l l y b a l a n c e d , w i t h a m u d b o t t o m a n d
a c o m p l e t e s y s t e m o f p la n t s , i n s e c t s , fish , a m p h i b i a n s , a n d
m icr o o rg a n ism s, or be s t e r iliz e d , em p tied , and clean ed
r e g u la r ly .
M o v i n g w a te r g i v e s a s e n s e o f life. S till w a t e r c o n v e y s
u n i t y a n d rest a n d m a y b e u s e d to c l a r if y a p la n . U s u a l l y it
is w i s e to p l a c e still w a t e r at t h e l o w e s t p o i n t in its i m m e d i -
a te s u r r o u n d i n g s . It m u s t a p p e a r to lie n a t u r a l l y w i t h i n t h e
la n d , for if t h e la n d s h o u l d s l o p e in a n y w a y b u t d o w n in t o
t h e w a t e r su r fa c e , th a t s u r f a c e m a y i t s e l f a p p e a r tilte d a n d
u nstable.
W a t e r p l a y s w i t h lig h t a n d a cts as a m irr o r. It c a n re-
fleet t h e c h a n g i n g s k y , in w h i c h c a s e it s h o u l d lie s t ill a n d
b r im fu l in its c o n t a i n e r , w i t h o p e n b o r d e r s . If t h e w a t e r is in
s h a d e , it w i l l c a t c h t h e i m a g e s o f s u n l i t o b j e c t s n e a r or a b o v e
it. It m a y b e m a d e to reflect g r o u n d o b j e c t s if t h e o p t i c s o f re-
f le c t i o n are k e p t in m i n d ( th e a n g l e o f r e f le c t i o n e q u a l s t h e
a n g l e o f i n c i d e n c e ) a n d if t h e w a t e r s u r f a c e is n o t d is t u r b e d
w i t h p l a n t s or m o v e m e n t . If t h e p o o l is s h a l l o w , a d a rk b o t -
t o m s u r f a c e w i l l i m p r o v e its r e f le c t i v it y .

Figure 33 A water pavement in the Miyajima Temple , Japan.

Philip Thiel
212

Run I Rua
Figure 34 Law-
rcncc Halprin s
magnificent foun-
tain in Portland,
Oregon, allows
people to sense
ana use the wa-
ter directly.

T he sou nd a n d m o v e m e n t o f r u n n i n g w a t e r is e n -
h a n c e d b y th e f o r m o f its c o n t a i n e r . C h a n n e l s m a y b e d e -
s i g n e d to t h r o w w a t e r in t h e air, to st r ik e it a g a i n s t o b s t a -
c le s , or to in c r e a s e its t u r b u le n c e . A t i n y d rip w i l l s t r ik e a
m u s i c a l n o t e . If t h e lip o f a fall is u n d e r c u t , all t h e v o l u m e
w ill b e v is i b le ; o t h e r w i s e , m u c h o f t h e w a t e r w i l l f l o w i n v i s -
ib ly a n d n o i s e l e s s l y d o w n th e fa ce o f t h e fall.
T h e e d g e o f a w a t e r b o d y is a f o c u s o f a t t e n t i o n . A w a t e r
e d g e o f s i m p l e s h a p e c o n v e y s c l a r it y a n d s t a b i l i t y ; if it is
c o m p l e x a n d p a r t l y h i d d e n , as a l o n g a w o o d e d a n d ir re g u la r
s h o r e , it c a n e v o k e a s e n s e o f e x p e c t a n c y a n d e x t e n d e d
s p a c e . A f e w la r g e s t o n e s set ju st b e l o w t h e w a t e r su r f a c e
w ill c o n v e y a s e n se o f d ep th . T h e ed ge m a y be m a d e abrupt
a n d d e f i n i t e or l o w , s h e l v i n g , a n d o b s c u r e . B u t if th e r e are
m a n y p e o p l e a b o u t , it w i l l n o t t a k e h e a v y w e a r , a n d it is
o f t e n w i s e to p a v e it. In n a tu r e , t h e w a t e r e d g e s t a k e o n v e r y
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r m s d u e to w a v e s , c u r r e n t s , a n d t h e u n d e r -
l y i n g g e o l o g y . T h e a l t e r a t i o n o f u n d e r c u t b a n k an d g r a v e l
bar, for e x a m p l e , a n d t h e s t r e a m l i n e d s h a p e o f i s l a n d s an d 213
p r o j e c t i o n s are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e m e a n d e r i n g s tr e a m .
W a t e r is a c e n t e r o f in te r e s t in a la n d s c a p e , n ear or d is -
tan t. It is n o t ju st to be s e e n a n d h ea rd b u t to be felt d ir e c t ly
o n t h e s k in . P e r h a p s w e m i g h t r e c o n s i d e r o u r a b a n d o n m e n t
o f th e p u b lic f o u n t a i n , o u r ru sh to fill s m a ll p o n d s , a n d to
p u t s t r e a m s in t o c u lv e r t s .
N e x t in i m p o r t a n c e is t h e l i v i n g p la n t m a te r ia l — P la n t M aterial
tre es, shrubs, and h e r b s — t h e m a te r ia l p o p u l a r l y a s s o -
c ia te d w i t h l a n d s c a p e w o r k . S i t e p l a n n i n g is t h o u g h t to b e
th e s p o t t i n g o f t re es o n a p la n a fter h o u s e s a n d ro a d s h a v e
b e e n lo c a te d th e re . B u t in o u r t e r m s it is t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
o u t d o o r s p a c e , in w h i c h t h e p l a n t c o v e r is o n l y o n e e l e m e n t .
M a n y g r e a t l a n d s c a p e s a re t r e e le s s ; t h e r e are h a n d s o m e
s q u a r e s th a t d o n o t i n c l u d e a p la n t o f a n y d e s c r i p t i o n . T o
c o v e r e v e r y t h i n g w i t h tr e e s, g r a s s , a n d v i n e s is n o t a n e te r-
n a l p r i n c i p l e o f d e s i g n . T h e o u t d o o r w o r l d is n o t d i v i s i b l e i n to
w o o d s , p a r k s , a n d fa rm er s' fie ld s. E v e n t h e b e s t t r a d it i o n a l
u s e o f g r a s s , fo r e s t tr e e s, a n d f lo w e r b o r d e r s is l u d i c r o u s
w hen im p o r t e d in t o u n su ita b le clim a tes. N ev erth eless,
p l a n t s are o n e o f t h e f u n d a m e n t a l l a n d s c a p e m a t e r ia l s , a n d
if in p u b l i c w e w o r s h i p t h e tree, in p r i v a t e w e o f t e n d e s t r o y
it. P l a n t i n g is c o n s i d e r e d t h e " e x tr a " in s it e d e v e l o p m e n t ,
th e first it e m to be cu t w h e n t h e b u d g e t p i n c h e s .

Figure 3 5 A spar-
ing use o f vegeta-
tion may enhance
its visual power.
A street in the
Cyclades, Greece.
 214 A t t h e s i t e - p l a n n i n g scale, o n e t h i n k s o f g r o u p s o f
p la n ts a n d th e g en eral c h a ra c ter of p la n te d areas ra th e r
R efer en ces 22, 24, t h a n i n d i v i d u a l s p e c i m e n s . T r e e s , s h r u b s , a n d g r o u n d co v -
27, 28 e rs a r e th e b a s ic m a t e r i a l s ; t h e i r g r o w t h h a b i t s , fo rm , a n d
t e x t u r e a r e t h e i r m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g f e a tu r e s . S p e c ie s a re first
s c r e e n e d fo r t h o s e w h i c h a r e h a r d y fo r th e g iv e n c lim a te ,
m i c r o c l i m a t e , a n d soil c o n d i t i o n . T h e y m u s t s t a n d u p to th e
w e a r o f e x p e c te d tra ffic a n d d e m a n d n o m o r e c a r e t h a n c a n
be f u r n i s h e d a t t h e e x p e c te d level o f m a i n t e n a n c e . T h e s e
S e e p a g es 84—90 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w e r e d e t a i l e d in C h a p t e r 4, e s p e c ia lly for
s o m e o f t h e tre e s p e c ie s t h a t a r e e s p e c ia lly u s e fu l for u r b a n
d e v e l o p m e n t in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s c lim a te .
E v e n a fte r s c r e e n i n g , t h e r e is a g r e a t r a n g e o f e f f e c t s
availab le; co lo rs, textu res, and o u tlin e s can be p la y ed o n e
a g a in st th e other. T h e v isib le su rface o f the p la n t m a y h a v e
a t e x t u r e t h a t is f in e o r c o a r s e , d u ll or s h i n y , c l o s e d or o p e n ,
s t i f f or t r e m b l i n g , c l u s t e r e d or e v e n , s m o o t h or m o d e l e d in
d e p t h . Its h a b i t o f g r o w t h m a y b e p r o s t r a t e or u p r i g h t , its
s h a p e r o u n d e d or a n g u l a r , p y r a m i d a l or f a s t i g ia t e , v a s i f o r m
or c y l i n d r i c a l , or o n e o f m a n y o t h e r t y p e s . O f c o u r s e , f o r m s
w ill va ry w ith the se a s o n and b e tw e e n y o u th an d m atu rity.
E a ch s p e c i e s h a s its o w n p a t t e r n , its o w n p e c u lia r w a y in
w h ic h leaves, b u d s, and s te m s arrange th e m s e lv e s , a p at-
ter n d i s t o r t e d in t h e i n d i v i d u a l o n l y b y t h e a c c i d e n t s o f a g e
a n d e x p o s u r e . S o m e f o r m s , lik e t h e l i n d e n , are r e g u l a r a n d
s y m m e tr ic a l and can be co u n te d u p o n , barring s o m e stro n g
e n v i r o n m e n t a l p r e s s u r e . O t h e r p l a n t s react u n p r e d i c t a b l y
to m o r e s u b t l e i n f l u e n c e s .
P lant S p e c i e s c a n b e s it e d to c r e a t e a g e n e r a l e f f e c t or to c o n -
arrangem ent tra st w i t h o n e a n o t h e r . P l a n t s o f s i m i l a r fo rm b u t d r a m a t i -
c a l l y d iff e r e n t t e x t u r e m a y b e j u x t a p o s e d , or s h a p e s m a y b e
contrasted : a n a n g u la r , d y n a m i c tree b e s i d e a r o u n d e d ,
s t a ti c s h r u b , or a n a r r a n g e m e n t o f u p r i g h t , r e c u m b e n t , a n d
p r o s t r a t e f o r m s . A d e l i c a t e fer n m a y b r i n g o u t t h e c h a r a c t e r
o f a m a s s i v e ro c k . S i n c e it is e a s ie r to p r e d ic t t h e t e x t u r e o f a
p l a n t t h a n its p a r t ic u la r f o r m a n d s i n c e t h a t t e x t u r e d o e s
n o t v a r y f r o m d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s o f v i e w as m u c h as d o e s t h e in -
d iv i d u a l s h a p e , it is a d v i s a b l e to d i s p o s e p l a n t s p r i n c i p a l l y
a c c o r d i n g to t h e ir t e x t u r e s a n d a c c o r d i n g to t h e m a s s e s th a t
w i l l b e p r o d u c e d b y la r g e n u m b e r s o f p l a n t s . A n u m b e r o f
s p e c i m e n s o f o n e s p e c i e s are o f t e n c o n c e n t r a t e d to g i v e t h e
e f f e c t o f t h a t t y p e . E v e n in m i x e d g r o u p s , o n l y t w o or t h r e e
s p e c i e s are u s e d , a n d t h e s e are n o t i n t e r m i x e d e v e n l y b u t
l o c a t e d in c l u s t e r s t h a t t h in o u t i n t o c l u s t e r s o f a n o t h e r ty p e .
T h e p l a n t list is c o n s c i o u s l y li m i t e d t o a f e w d o m i n a n t a n d
s u b o r d i n a t e s p e c ie s, all r e la te d in t h e i r e c o lo g y a n d te x tu r e . 215
H o w e v e r , it is u n w i s e to p l a n t o n l y a s in g le sp e c ie s, s in c e a
fa ta l d is e a s e m a y s n u f f it o u t, as h a s h a p p e n e d to th e c h e s t-
n u t a n d th e elm .
T h e c h o ic e o f p l a n t s is i n f lu e n c e d b y t h e i r fit w i t h th e
s e t t i n g : th e r e l a t i o n o f t h e ir s h a p e s to th e s h a p e s o f b u ild -
in g s a n d g r o u n d , t h e i r a p p a r e n t h a r m o n y w i t h c l im a te a n d
n a t i v e v e g e t a t i o n . M a n y l a n d s c a p e d e s i g n e r s feel t h a t Use o f exotics
p l a n t s e x o tic to a n a r e a s h o u l d n e v e r b e u s e d e x c e p t in g a r -
d e n s t h a t a r e o b v i o u s l y a rtific ia l. T h i s is c e r t a i n l y a safe
p r i n c i p l e s in c e it g u a r a n t e e s m a t e r i a l t h a t is h a r d y to a n
a re a a n d a ls o c u s t o m a r i l y a s s o c ia te d w i t h it. I n te l l e c t u a l l y ,
t h e p r i n c i p l e is m o r e d iffic u lt to d e f e n d sin c e m a n y self-
m a i n t a i n i n g " n a t u r a l " s p e c ie s a re in t r u t h fa ir ly r e c e n t ex-
otic s, a n d th e a p p a r e n t v is u a l h a r m o n i e s t h a t d e p e n d o n fa-
m ilia r a s s o c i a t i o n s m a y be s u p e r s e d e d b y n e w e x p e r ie n c e s .
O b j e c t i v e r e q u i r e m e n t s for h a r d i n e s s a n d m a i n t e n a n c e ,
p lu s t h e s u b je c tiv e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f v is u a l fit, a re b e t t e r
g u i d i n g p r in c ip le s . T r a d i t i o n a l r e g i o n a l s p e c ie s a r e a te s te d
s o u r c e for t h e s e q u a l i t i e s , b u t e v e n t h e s e m a y ja r o n e 's s e n -
s ib ilitie s. E x c lu d in g e x o tic s m a y b e a u s e f u l ru le in sp e c ia l
c ases w h e r e o n e is p r e s e r v i n g t h e h is to r ic o r e c o lo g ic a l fea-
tu r e s o f a g i v e n l a n d s c a p e . C e r t a i n l y w e s h o u l d a t t e n d to
th e w a y in w h i c h a n e x i s t i n g l a n d s c a p e m a i n t a i n s its e lf or
is c h a n g i n g : t h e n a t u r e o f t h e f o r e s t c lim a x , th e c o n d i t i o n at
th e w o o d e d g e , s u c c e s s io n in a n o ld m e a d o w or a w e e d y v a -
c a n t lot. M a n y k i n d s o f d e s i g n e d a r r a n g e m e n t s , w h ile p e r -
fectly fe a sib le a n d h a r d y , w ill la te r e x a c t a toll o f m a i n t e -
n a n c e , o r r e s t r i c t i o n o f use, t h a t w e a r e n o t p r e p a r e d to p a y .
C o n v e r s e l y , n e w m e t h o d s o f w e e d c o n t r o l o r o f c u t t i n g , fenc-
ing, a n d s e e d i n g m a y c r e a te s t a b l e p l a n t s y s t e m s t h a t w e r e
p r e v i o u s l y t h o u g h t to be c o m p l e t e l y " u n n a t u r a l . "
T h e a p p e a r a n c e o f a p l a n t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t m u s t be Evolution o f
i m a g i n e d a t its b e g i n n i n g as w ell as its m a t u r i t y , in w i n t e r the planted
as w e ll as in s u m m e r . A t p l a n t i n g , tr e e s s h o u l d b e set far setting
e n o u g h a p a r t f r o m e a c h o t h e r a n d fr o m s t r u c t u r e s to p r e v e n t
i n te r f e r e n c e u n le s s a d i s t o r t e d s h a p e o r a so lid m a s s is d e -
sired. L a rg e fo re s t tre e s, for e x a m p le , if m e a n t to c o m e to
full size, m u s t b e 50 to 60 feet a p a r t a n d 20 feet f r o m b u ild -
ings. T r e e s t a k e tim e to m a t u r e : " f i n a l " effects m a y n o t be
se e n for 3 0 o r e v e n 50 y e a r s , a n d w h a t s e e m s to be p l e a s a n t
in th e b e g i n n i n g m a y la te r be d e s p e r a t e o v e r c r o w d i n g .
T h i s p r o b l e m o f m a t u r i t y is a p e r e n n i a l o n e in l a n d -
s c a p in g . N e w site s a r e t y p ic a lly b a r r e n , a n d old o n e s o v e r-
g r o w n . T o s o m e e x t e n t b a r r e n n e s s c a n be a v o id e d b y th e p re s-
216 e r v a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g tr e e s , b u t in d e n s e d e v e l o p m e n t th is is
u s u a l l y p o s s i b l e o n l y fo r a v e n u e s o r c l u m p s in s t r a t e g i c lo c a -
t i o n s o r fo r o c c a s i o n a l fine s p e c im e n s . T h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e is
■ c fy i d i s t u r b e d to o m u c h fo r a n y g e n e r a l r e t e n t i o n o f e x i s t i n g
c o v e r. M a t u r e tr e e s w ill n o t s u r v i v e a v i o l e n t c h a n g e o f h a b i -
ta t. S a v i n g la r g e a n c i e n t tr e e s , p a s t t h e p r i m e fo r t h a t sp e -
cies, is q u e s t i o n a b l e , s in c e t h e i r r e m o v a l a f te r d e v e l o p m e n t
is c o m p l e t e w ill b e m o r e difficu lt.
F o r i m m e d i a t e effect, m a t u r e s p e c i m e n s m a y b e p u t
in. T h i s is a n e x p e n s i v e p r a c t i c e , to b e r e s e r v e d for k e y
p la c e s . If l a r g e tr e e s a r e u s e d , t h e y s h o u l d b e p l a c e d c a r e -
fu lly : t u r n e d a n d s h i f t e d o n t h e site w h i l e still b a lle d , ju s t
as t h e fin a l p o s i t i o n o f a p ie c e o f s c u l p t u r e m i g h t b e a r -
r a n g e d . A n o t h e r s o l u t i o n is to u s e s u c c e s s io n p l a n t i n g , in
w h i c h q u i c k - g r o w i n g a n d s l o w - g r o w i n g sp e c ie s a r e p l a n t e d
t o g e t h e r , t h e q u i c k p l a n t s b e i n g c u t o u t as t h e o t h e r s m a -
tu r e . O r p l a n t s m a y in it i a l l y b e p u t in a t clo se s p a c i n g s , to
b e t h i n n e d o u t la te r . B o t h o f t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s r e q u i r e s t e r n
m a i n t e n a n c e — s t e r n e n o u g h to c u t d e s p i t e t h e p r o t e s t s o f
tr e e lo v e rs. L a n d s c a p i n g is n o t d o n e o n c e a n d t h e n f o r g o t t e n .
A n a r e a s h o u l d b e g r o w i n g s u c c e s s iv e g e n e r a t i o n s o f tre e s,
a c c o r d i n g to a r e g u l a r p r o g r a m .
P lanting If l a n d c a n b e h e ld in r e s e r v e , it m i g h t b e p o s s i b l e to
fram ew orks p r e p l a n t lin e s a n d m a s s e s o f tr e e s in a p a t t e r n s u i t a b l e for
f u t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e in i t i a l i n v e s t m e n t w o u l d b e s m a ll,
a n d w h e n d e v e l o p m e n t o c c u r r e d , it w o u l d b e n e f it f r o m a
m a t u r e p l a n t e d s e t t i n g . W h e r e th is h a s h a p p e n e d a c c i d e n -
ta lly , as in t h e r e s u m p t i o n o f d e v e l o p m e n t in a n a b a n d o n e d
s u b d i v i s i o n , t h e effect h a s o f t e n b e e n q u i t e h a n d s o m e .
In a n y c a se , p l a n t i n g is n o t a frill to be left to th e fu-
tu r e . T h e m a i n f r a m e w o r k s h o u l d b e c o m p l e t e d b e f o r e o c c u -
p a n c y . N o r is l a n d s c a p i n g a g r e e n s tu f f in g to b e p a c k e d b e -
t w e e n b u i l d i n g s , n o r a se rie s o f s m a ll s e t t i n g s fo r i n d i v i d u a l
s t r u c t u r e s . It m u s t b e c o n c e iv e d as a to t a l p a t t e r n , c o n t i n -
u o u s t h r o u g h o u t t h e site. L in e s o f tall tr e e s , v is ib le f r o m a
d is t a n c e , m a y m a r k m a j o r a x e s in t h e p l a n , m a s s e s m a y d e -
fin e m a j o r s p a c e s , a n d sp e c ia l te x t u r e s m a y b e u s e d for im -
p o r ta n t areas.
It h a s b e e n c u s t o m a r y , in h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s , to
p l a n t o n l y t h e p u b l i c a r e a s , l e a v i n g p r i v a t e lo ts to b e l a n d -
s c a p e d b y t h e t e n a n t . A l o n g t h e s tr e e ts , w e u s e a s in g le so-
l u t i o n w i t h m o n o t o n o u s r e g u l a r i t y : t h e d o u b l e lin e o f s tr e e t
tre e s. W h i l e t h e p l a n t e d a v e n u e c a n b e h a n d s o m e , p a r t i c u -
l a r l y w h e n it is b r o a d , set w i t h h i g h a r c h i n g tr e e s , arid
w h e n it le a d s to s o m e i m p o r t a n t d e s t i n a t i o n , it is n o t o u r o n l y
a v a ila b le style. T h e a v e n u e m a y be all t h e m o r e d r a m a t i c if 217
its u se is c o n f in e d to th e m a j o r w a y s . M i n o r s t r e e t s c a n be
p l a n t e d as s p a tia l c o m p a r t m e n t s o r w i t h o c c a s io n a l tre e
m a s s e s o r s p e c im e n s , o r o n l y o n o n e sid e , o r in o t h e r w a y s .
S m a ll tr e e s m a y o f te n be in b e t t e r sc a le w i t h n a r r o w s tr e e ts
o r lo w s t r u c t u r e s . T h e d e s i g n e r n e e d n o t c o n f in e h i m s e l f to
th e s t r e e t o r to a s in g le s o l u t i o n o n t h a t str e e t.
A site in c lu d e s m a n y m a n - m a d e d e ta ils . T h e i r n u m - D e ta il
b e r b e c o m e s a p p a r e n t w h e n w e t r y to c a t a l o g th e f u r n i t u r e
o f s o m e e x i s t i n g a r e a : fences, se a ts , s ig n a l b o x e s, s ig n s , u til-
ity p o le s, lig h t p o le s, m e t e r s , t r a s h c a n s , fire p lu g s , m a n -
h o le s, w ire s , lig h ts , a n d so o n . It is c u r i o u s t h a t th e m e r e list
c o n v e y s a s e n s e o f c l u t t e r a n d d i s h a r m o n y , a fe e lin g q u ite
o p p o s i t e fr o m t h a t e v o k e d b y m e n t i o n i n g h o u s e s , tre e s,
w a te r . T h e n e a r w o r l d o f d e ta il a ffe c ts t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f th e
w h o le , p a r t i c u l a r l y for t h e h a b i t u a l u s e r o f a n a r e a . T h e tex-
t u r e o f t h e floor, th e s h a p e o f t h e c u r b s o r t h e s te p s , a n d th e
d e s i g n o f a b e n c h a r e t h i n g s clo se to th e p e r s o n a n d h is p u r -
po se s. T h e y p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s d i r e c t l y to h is eye. A t th e
s a m e tim e , if n o t d i r e c t l y u s e d b y h i m , t h e y w ill o f t e n es-
c a p e h is c o n s c io u s a t t e n t i o n . D e s i g n e r s p u t m u c h s tr e s s o n
h a r m o n i z i n g all t h e s t r e e t f u r n i t u r e , y e t m o s t o b s e r v e r s will
h a r d l y b e a w a r e o f t h e i r effects. D e t a i l s r e q u i r e a s u b s t a n -
tial i n v e s t m e n t o f d e s i g n a n d s u p e r v i s i o n if t h e y a r e to be
fin e ly s h a p e d . D o e s t h e real v is u a l e ffect j u s tif y t h a t i n v e s t-
m e n t ? T h e fo rm o f a l i g h t p o le o r a f ir e p lu g m a y b e o f little
c o n s e q u e n c e to a u s e r, w h i l e h e is s h a r p l y a w a r e o f a b e n c h
or trash c o n tain er.
D e s i g n a n d p l a c e m e n t o f d e ta il a r e n o r m a l l y left to
h a z a r d , w h i c h m a y be s u c c e s s f u l w h e r e a d e s i g n t r a d i t i o n
is in c o n t r o l b u t d a n g e r o u s w h e n t e c h n o l o g y is e v o l v i n g r a p -
idly. T h e r e f o r e th e d e s i g n e r m u s t c o n s i d e r t h e c r itic a l d e -
ta ils, t h i n k i n g n o t s i m p l y o f t h e i r h a r m o n y b u t o f h o w t h e y
a re u s e d . T h i s b r i n g s h i m to p l a c i n g t e l e p h o n e s , a la r m s ,
a n d m a i l b o x e s w h e r e , t h e y c a n b e q u i c k l y f o u n d ; it m a k e s
h im t h i n k a b o u t t h e r o u t e o v e r w h i c h t h e t r a s h c a n m u s t be
m o v e d ; it r e m i n d s h im to p r o v i d e p u b lic s e a ts a n d p u b lic
to ilets.
I n s t e a d o f p a y i n g to h id e t h e p o w e r lines, w e m i g h t d o
b e t t e r to m a k e t h e m h a n d s o m e , as h i g h - v o l t a g e lin e s al-
r e a d y are . It c o u ld b e c o n f u s i n g if all th e te c h n i c a l a p p a r a -
tus o f a s ite w e r e a p p a r e n t to t h e eye, b u t t h e r e a ls o c o u ld be
w a y s o f e x p r e s s i n g t h e m as a g r o u p o r o f e m p h a s i z i n g th e
le g ib ility o f se le c te d e le m e n ts .
F e n c e s a n d w a lls a re of p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e in th e Fencing
 218 s i t e — f u n c t i o n a l l y , as t h e y lim it t e r r i t o r i e s a n d c o n f e r p ri-
v a c y , a n d v is u a lly , as t h e y f o r m s p a c e s a n d p r o v i d e v e r tic a l
t e x tu r e . F e n c in g s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g to
a c c o m p l i s h t h e s e o b je c tiv e s . T o o o f te n , f e n c in g is a d d e d l a te r
in a h a p h a z a r d w a y , o r th e a l t e r n a t i v e s c o n v e r g e o n t h a t
u n i q u e s o l u t i o n , t h e c h a i n - l i n k fence. L in k fe n c e h a s th e
e m o t i o n a l m e a n i n g o f b a r b e d w ire . A l o n g w i t h a s p h a l t p a v -
in g , it is o n e o f o u r le ss t h a n h a p p y c o n t r i b u t i o n s to th e
b e a u t y o f t h e w o r l d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , it is a c h e a p a n d effec-
tiv e b a r r i e r . T o r e d u c e its v is ib ility , if it m u s t b e u s e d , it
s h o u l d b e d a r k in c o lo r, b u r i e d in a h e d g e , o r k e p t f r o m be-
in g s e e n in s i l h o u e t t e .
T h e r e are, h o w e v e r , m a n y o t h e r f e n c in g m a t e r i a l s .
W o o d e n ra ils, p ic k e ts , s t a k e s o r la ttic e , w o o d e n b o a r d s o r
s h e e ts , w o v e n s a p l i n g s o r r e e d s , s t r e t c h e d o r w o v e n w ire ,
i r o n ra ils , p la s tic s , c a n v a s , w o o d y p l a n t s , b r ic k , s t o n e , e a r t h ,
‫ן‬ p o u r e d c o n c r e t e , a n d c o n c r e t e b lo c k a r e all a m e n a b l e to in -
v e n t i v e use. N u m e r o u s p a t t e r n s a re p a r t o f o u r o w n h i s t o r i -
‫—_נ‬L
cal t r a d i t i o n — p i c k e t fe n c e s, ra il fe n c e s, s e r p e n t i n e b r ic k ,
fie ld s to n e s , w r o u g h t ir o n , a n d h i g h h e d g e s — a n d t h e i r s y m -
IU J1

b o lic c o n n o t a t i o n s a r e s t r o n g . T h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r ld , g a r -
d e n s — J a p a n e s e g a r d e n s in p a r t i c u l a r — a r e r ic h s o u r c e s
o f fe n c e p a t t e r n s , a n d m a n y n e w f o r m s a r e b e i n g i n v e n t e d
to d a y by A m e ric a n la n d sc a p e designers.
T h e h e i g h t o f a fe n c e in r e l a t i o n to t h e e y e d e fin e s its
m e a n i n g . It c a n be s o lid o r p e r f o r a t e d , b u t e v e n a p e r f o r a t e d
fe n c e w ill s e e m o p a q u e if it is lig h t in c o lo r. T o m a k e a fen ce
s e e m t r a n s p a r e n t , k e e p its m e m b e r s t h i n a n d b la c k . A
fe n c e c a n b e lo st in a h e d g e o r u n d e r a v in e , o r it m a y c a r r y
p l a n t i n g c o n t a i n e r s . It is i n v is ib le if se t a t t h e b o t t o m o f a
s w a le ; th e t r a d i t i o n a l E n g lis h " h a - h a / ' A s fe n c e s a r e s u b -
ject to s e v e r e e x p o s u r e , t h e y m u s t b e w e ll m a d e . I n d e e d , th e
tr a c e s o f ti m e a n d w e a t h e r o n a n o ld f e n c e a re its g r e a t e s t
charm .
Signs A n o t h e r site d e t a i l m e r i t s a s e p a r a t e d i s c u s s i o n : th e
s ig n s t h a t h a v e b e c o m e s u c h a d o m i n a n t , a n d g e n e r a l l y
s u c h a n u g l y a n d c h a o tic , p a r t o f o u r la n d s c a p e . D e s i g n e r s
t r y to s u p p r e s s t h e m as s o m e t h i n g i n t r i n s i c a l l y b a d . Y et
t h e y a re n e c e s s a r y to e x p l a i n a n d d ir e c t a c tiv ity , a n d t h e y
c a n a d d to t h e i n t e r e s t o f t h e sc e n e . A l a n d s c a p e m u s t c o m -
m u n i c a t e to its u s e r s , w h e t h e r b y c o n v e n t i o n a l s ig n s o r b y
t h e o b s e r v e r 's k n o w l e d g e o f th e m e a n i n g o f v is ib le s h a p e s
a n d m o t i o n s . In a n i n c r e a s i n g l y c o m p le x w o r l d t h e m e s s a g e s
c a r r ie d b y a l a n d s c a p e m u s t i n c r e a s i n g l y b e e m b o d i e d
s y m b o l i c a l l y . S i g n s a r e u g l y a n d c h a o tic , n o t b y t h e i r n a -
tu r e , b u t b e c a u s e th e y a re t h o u g h t l e s s l y u s e d , a m b i g u o u s , 219
r e d u n d a n t , a n d fie rc e ly c o m p e t i t i v e . A b o v e all, t h e y a re
u g l y w h e n t h e y a r e i n t e n d e d to d e c e iv e o r e x p lo it th e
v ie w e r. T h e d e s i g n e r 's t a s k is n o t to s u p p r e s s b u t to c la r if y
a n d r e g u l a t e t h e flow o f i n f o r m a t i o n so t h a t p r i o r i t y s ig n s
c a n n o t b e m is s e d a n d a ls o so t h a t m o r e a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n
is t r a n s m i t t e d m o r e e a s ily a n d e x p r e s s iv e ly .
S ig n s a n d s y m b o l s e x p a n d w h a t a m a n c a n l e a r n n o t
o n l y a b o u t g o o d s a n d s e r v ic e s b u t a ls o a b o u t h i s t o r y , e c o lo g y ,
th e p r e s e n c e o f p e o p le a n d t h e i r a c tiv itie s , th e flow o f traffic
o r i n f o r m a t i o n , w e a t h e r , tim e , p o litic s , e v e n t s to c o m e . In
s o m e lo c a t i o n s a s p e c t a c u l a r s ig n c a n b e a p ie c e o f d a z z l i n g
a n d jo y o u s s c e n e r y ; in o t h e r s s ig n s s h o u l d be s u b t l e a n d
m u t e d . T h e e l e m e n t s o f a n y l a n d s c a p e s h o u l d be e x p r e s s i v e
o f th e i r f u n c t i o n , as w ell as t h e h u m a n v a lu e s a t t a c h e d to
t h e m . M e a n i n g f u l n e s s a r is e s a u t o m a t i c a l l y in a s e ttle d
l a n d s c a p e , lo n g o c c u p ie d b y t h e s a m e g r o u p , w h o a r e e n -
g a g e d in th e s a m e a c tiv itie s a n d h o ld t h e s a m e v a lu e s a n d
a s p i r a t i o n s . In a n e w e r , m o r e m o b i l e s i t u a t i o n t h e c o n -
s c io u s ly d e v is e d s ig n is m o r e i m p o r t a n t . O u r o b je c tiv e s
s h o u l d b e to e n h a n c e th e b e n e fic ia l p o w e r o f s ig n s a n d to
r e m o v e t h o s e t h a t a r e e x t r a n e o u s to th e s c e n e , as for e x a m p l e
th e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s o f p r o d u c t s p r o d u c e d a n d c o n s u m e d
e ls e w h e r e .
P e r c e i v i n g a n e n v i r o n m e n t is c r e a t i n g a v is u a l h y p o t h - V isu a l
esis, b u i l d i n g a n o r g a n i z e d m e n t a l im a g e t h a t is b a s e d o n S tru ctu re
t h e e x p e r i e n c e a n d p u r p o s e s o f th e o b s e r v e r a s w ell a s o n t h e
s tim u li r e a c h i n g h is eye. In b u i l d i n g h is o r g a n i z a t i o n h e
w ill seize o n c o n g e n i a l p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : c o n t i n u i t y
a n d c lo s u r e ; d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , d o m i n a n c e , o r c o n t r a s t o f a
fig u re o n a g r o u n d ; s y m m e t r y , o r d e r , r e p e t i t i o n , o r s im p lic -
ity o f fo rm . S t r u c t u r e a n d r e l a t e d n e s s c a n be fa c ilita te d
e v e n in a r e a s to o e x t e n s i v e to b e s e e n a t o n e g la n c e .
R h y t h m i c r e p e t i t i o n s m a y b e u s e d , s u c h as th e a p p e a r a n c e
o f o p e n s p a c e s o r d o m i n a n t m a s s e s a t r e g u l a r i n te r v a ls .
P a r t s m a y be r e la te d b y m a i n t a i n i n g a c o m m o n sc a le o f
sp a c e o r m a s s o r s i m p l y b y s i m i l a r i t i e s o f fo r m , m a t e r i a l ,
c o lo r, o r d e ta il, s u c h as c o m m o n b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s , a h o m o -
g e n e o u s g ro u n d surface, or u n ifo rm p la n tin g . T h e p a rts m a y
re v e a l a c o m m o n p u r p o s e o r th e i m p a c t o f a d o m i n a n t force
like a p o w e r f u l c l im a te o r a h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d c u ltu r e . In a
m o r e s u b t l e w a y , f e a tu r e s o f o n e p a r t m a y rec a ll th o s e o f a n -
o t h e r w i t h o u t d i r e c t l y i m i t a t i n g th e m , as w h e n f o u n t a i n s
recall th e sea.
P a r a d o x i c a l l y , s h a r p v a r i a t i o n s a re a ls o a w a y o f re-
 220 l a t i n g p a r t s if t h e r e is s o m e c o n t i n u i t y o f a c c e ss, f o r m , or
Contrast and c h a r a c t e r b e t w e e n t h e m . A d a r k a n d n a r r o w s t r e e t is re-
transition la te d to t h e b r o a d a v e n u e i n t o w h i c h it e m e r g e s , a n d a q u ie t
p a r k is tie d to t h e i n t e n s i v e s h o p p i n g a r e a f r o n t i n g o n it.
R e l a t e d c o n t r a s t s , s e e n in s e q u e n c e o r a t o n e g la n c e , b r i n g
o u t t h e e s s e n c e o f a f e a t u r e a n d p u t u s in t o u c h w i t h a w id e
r a n g e o f e x p e r ie n c e . N e a r m a y b e c o n t r a s t e d w i t h far, fluid
w i t h fixed, f a m i l i a r w i t h s t r a n g e , l i g h t w i t h d a r k , so lid w i t h
e m p ty , an c ie n t w ith new .
C o n tin u ity dep en d s on the im p o rta n t tran sitio n s —
th e jo in ts b e tw e e n h o u se a n d g r o u n d a n d b e tw e e n h o u se
a n d h o u s e , c o r n e r s , g a t e w a y s b e t w e e n s p a c e s , d e c is io n
p o i n t s o n a p a t h w a y , o r t h e u p p e r e d g e o f o b je c ts a t t h e
s k y lin e . T r a n s i t i o n s a r e o f t e n t h e m o s t n o t i c e a b l e f e a t u r e s a t
t h e o u t d o o r scale. T h e y m u s t b e a r t i c u l a t e if t h e s p a c e s a r e to
b e r e a d a b l e a n d c o h e r e n t l y j o i n e d . T h e c la s s ic a r c h i t e c t u r a l
e m p h a s i s o n c o r n ic e s , b a s e c o u r s e s , a n d d o o r m o l d i n g s c a n
b e s h i f t e d to t h e s i l h o u e t t e s , s te p s , a n d e n t r a n c e s o f t h e site
plan.
A s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e g r e a t n u m b e r o f o b je c ts in t h e
e x t e r i o r sc e n e , g r o u p i n g a n d c o n t r a s t m u s t b e u s e d to b r i n g
th e co m p lex u n d e r p e rc e p tu a l control. C lu ste rs of stru c tu re s
m a y b e se t o f f b y o p e n s p a c e , o r a l a r g e s p a c e m a y b e s u r -
ro u n d e d b y d e n se o ccu p a n c y . H o u s e s of a sim ila r k in d are
g r o u p e d in v is u a l u n i t s , o r tr e e s o f o n e s p e c ie s p l a n t e d to -
g e t h e r , to g iv e t h e s e n s e o f " s t r e e t " a n d " b i r c h w o o d " r a t h e r
th a n " h o u s e " a n d " b irc h tre e ." P a rts m a y be in te rre la te d
b y r e f e r r i n g t h e m all to t h e s a m e d o m i n a n t f e a t u r e , s u c h as
a c h u r c h s te e p le o r a c e n t r a l sp a c e .
T h e s o u g h t - f o r effe c t is u s u a l l y b r o a d a n d s i m p l e
r a t h e r t h a n p r e c i s e a n d in t r i c a t e . R i c h n e s s is i n h e r e n t in
t h e m a t e r i a l , a n d a n i n t r i c a t e p l a n m a y e n d in c o n f u s i o n .
N o t o n l y is t h e m a t e r i a l c o m p le x , b u t it is in m o t i o n , s e e n in
d i f f e r e n t l i g h t s a n d a t d i f f e r e n t s ta g e s . T h e s c e n e m u s t b e
a b le to a c c e p t all t h i s v a r i a t i o n w i t h o u t l o s in g its fo r m . T h i s
does n o t req u ire th e use of form al g e o m e try b u t o n ly th a t
b r e a d t h o f t r e a t m e n t w h i c h is in c o n s o n a n c e w i t h t h e sc a le
o f th e w o r k b e i n g d o n e . A g o o d s ite p l a n is s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d .
W h i l e it m a y b e h i g h l y r e f in e d a t c r itic a l p o i n t s , it is o f te n
a l m o s t c o a r s e o v e ra ll.
H ierarchy and T h e m a i n s t r u c t u r e o f a s ite d e s i g n is m o s t o f t e n s o m e
other m odels o f so rt of h ie ra rc h y , d o m in a n c e , or cen tra lity . T h u s th e re m a y
structure b e a c e n t r a l s p a c e to w h i c h all o t h e r s p a c e s a r e s u b o r d i n a t e
a n d related or a d o m in a n t p a th lin k in g m a n y m in o r p a th s
t o g e t h e r . S im ila r ly , in s e q u e n c e s , it is c u s t o m a r y to o r g a n i z e 221
a p rin cip al a p p ro a c h th a t has a g a te w a y or p o in t of b egin-
n i n g a n d is d e v e l o p e d to a c l im a c tic p o i n t o f a r r iv a l, w h e r e
t h e r e is a s t r o n g s e n s e o f p la c e a n d o f b e i n g a t t h e h e a r t o f
th in g s. S u c h a rra n g e m e n ts are te ste d s tru c tu ra l m e th o d s,
w h i c h u n d e r l i e m o s t o f t h e s u c c e s s f u l site d e s i g n s o f th e
p a s t.
T h e p a t t e r n j u s t d e s c r i b e d is, o f c o u r s e , n o t t h e o n l y
p o s s ib le s t r u c t u r a l p la n , e s p e c ia lly in la r g e , c o m p l e x c h a n g -
in g l a n d s c a p e s . T h e d e s i g n e r m a y u s e m a n y - c e n t e r e d fo r m s ,
in terlin k in g n etw o rk s of p ath s, c o n tin u o u sly v a ry in g ch ar-
a c te r is tic s o f a c t i v i t y a n d s p a c e , o r m u l t i p l e s e q u e n c e s t h a t
h av e n o d e te rm in a te b e g in n in g or end. S u c h fo rm s are co m -
p le x a n d m o r e d iffic u lt to e m p l o y w i t h o u t a la p s e i n t o d i s o r -
d e r. M o r e o v e r , t h e y still re ly o n v a r i a t i o n s s e q u e n t i a l l y o r -
ganized, on em p h a sis, a n d on g ro u p in g .
S p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e is a n o b v i o u s a i m in s ite p l a n n i n g . Tem poral
T e m p o r a l s t r u c t u r e is r a r e l y c o n s i d e r e d b u t e q u a l l y i m p o r - order
t a n t , s in c e t i m e a n d s p a c e a r e t h e g r e a t d i m e n s i o n s w i t h i n
w h i c h w e act. T h e l a n d s c a p e c a n s t r e n g t h e n o u r s e n s e o f
th e p a s s a g e a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n o f tim e . T h e c y c le s o f t h e s u n
a n d of h u m a n a c tiv ity can be celebrated, a n d o u r o r ie n ta tio n
to t h e p a s t c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d . E v e n s o m e f e a t u r e s o f t h e p o s -
s ib le f u t u r e c a n b e m a d e v is ib le . M o r e o v e r , c u r r e n t t r a n s i -
t i o n s c a n b e e x p l a i n e d a n d e a s e d . W e s c a r c e ly t h i n k o f s u c h
t h i n g s , b u t w e lik e to i m a g i n e t h a t a site d e s i g n is i s o la te d
in tim e , a p p e a r i n g s u d d e n l y , its e lf c h a n g e l e s s a n d e n d u r -
in g . T r u e e n o u g h , w e d o s a v e a f e w h i s t o r i c s c r a p s b u t n e v e r
t r y to e x p r e s s t h e s t r e a m o f t i m e t h a t a p l a c e h a s e n d u r e d o r
s h o w h o w it w ill r e s p o n d to t h e r e c u r r e n t r h y t h m s o f l i g h t
a n d a c tiv ity . Y et it is t h i s v e r y r o o t e d n e s s in t i m e t h a t a t-
ta c h e s u s e m o t i o n a l l y to a p la c e .
A g o o d d e s i g n s a v e s e v id e n c e o f t h e p r e v i o u s o c c u p a t i o n
o f a p la c e , e s p e c ia lly t h a t w h i c h c o n v e y s a s e n s e o f i n t i m a t e
h u m a n use or of p ro fo u n d sy m b o lism . By c o n tra stin g n e w
w i t h o ld , w e feel t h e d e p t h o f tim e . R o o m is left for c o m i n g
i n h a b i t a n t s to m a k e t h e i r o w n m a r k o r to e x p r e s s w h a t t h e y
w i s h for t h e f u t u r e o f th e p la c e . M a t e r i a l s a r e c h o s e n b e -
c a u s e t h e y w ill w e a t h e r h a n d s o m e l y . S t r u c t u r e s a re p l a n n e d
to be d e s t r o y e d a n d r e p la c e d . H o w a p l a n t i n g w ill g r o w ,
m a t u r e , a n d d e c a y is p a r t o f th e s c h e m e . P la c e s a r e p l a n n e d
for e v o c a tiv e c o n t r a s t s in d i f f e r e n t lig h ts a n d s e a s o n s : d a y
and nig h t, w in ter and su m m er, h oliday and w o rk ad ay . T he
p l a n n e r p r o v i d e s for th e c e l e b r a t i o n o f p r e s e n t t i m e — th e
222

M m /in H ih li m m w
Figures 36 and 3 7 777c expression o f site: the towering Potiala at Lhasa
and Frank Lloyd Wright's magical Taliesin East in Wisconsin.

/!)/‫ו‬MAmiinintiilc■;

g r e a t a n n i v e r s a r i e s a n d e v e n ts . H e a lso a r r a n g e s s ta b le ,
p e r m a n e n t f e a tu r e s to giv e c o n t i n u i t y to t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a l
flux.
Congruence P e r c e p t u a l s t r u c t u r e m u s t a lso be c o n g r u e n t w i t h ac-
tu a l u se a n d e c o lo g y . V is u a l c lim a x e s m u s t c o r r e s p o n d to th e
m o s t in t e n s i v e o r m e a n i n g f u l a c t i v i t y lo c a t i o n s ; th e p r i n c i -
pa l s e q u e n c e s s h o u l d be a l o n g th e i m p o r t a n t lin e s o f c ir c u la -
tio n . P e r c e p t u a l te r r i t o r i e s s h o u l d fit so c ia l t e r r i t o r i e s , a n d
v is ib le t r a c e s o f tim e s h o u l d rec a ll c ritic a l h is to r ie s . T h e
b a sic a s p e c ts o f site o r g a n i z a t i o n — a c ti v i t y l o c a tio n , c irc u - 223
la tio n , a n d s e n s u o u s f o r m — s h o u l d f u n c t i o n t o g e t h e r in d e-
tail a n d a lso h a v e a s i m i l a r f o r m a l s t r u c t u r e .
I n t e r r e l a t i o n is f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e d b y t h e n e c e s s i t y o f B uilding an d
c o o r d i n a t i n g th e d e s i g n o f in d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r e s w i t h t h a t o f site
t h e site p l a n as a w h o le . T h e s e s t r u c t u r e s h a v e a p a t t e r n o f
use, c i r c u l a t i o n , a n d v is u a l f o r m t h a t s h o u l d m e s h w i t h t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g p a t t e r n s o f th e s ite p l a n . T h e i n t e r n a l c irc u -
l a t i o n o f th e b u i l d i n g is a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e e x t e r n a l site cir-
c u la tio n . I n t e r i o r a r c h i t e c t u r a l s p a c e is p a r t o f t h e to t a l site
sp a c e . V is u a l s e q u e n c e s b e g i n in t h e h a l l w a y s o f h o u s e s ;
v ie w s f r o m w i n d o w s a re s ig n i f i c a n t ; b u i l d i n g s h a p e s a re
fu n d a m e n ta l ele m e n ts of th e e x te rn a l spatial form . In sid e
fo r m s h o u l d fit o u t s i d e f o r m , b u t all w a lls n e e d n o t be g la s s ,
n o r m u s t r o c k s a n d tr e e s i n v a d e e v e r y r o o m . T h e r e l a t i o n o f
floor level to g r o u n d level a n d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e o p e n i n g s
in t h e b u i l d i n g e n v e l o p e a r e o f s p e c ia l i m p o r t a n c e . F o r th is
re a s o n , a r c h i t e c t u r a l a n d s ite d e s i g n a re id e a lly d o n e s i m u l -
t a n e o u s l y , e i t h e r b y a s in g le i n d i v i d u a l o r b y a c o o p e r a t i n g
te a m . T h e ca se s w h e r e s ite d e s i g n m u s t b e s e p a r a t e d f r o m S e e p a g es 229—237
s t r u c t u r e d e s ig n , a l o n g w i t h t h e s p e c ia l p r o b l e m s t h a t th is
e n ta ils , a re d is c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 10.
T h e d e s i g n e r u se s a s t r a t e g y o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n . In D esign strategy
a c h i e v i n g his effects, h e is a l w a y s c o n f r o n t e d b y a s h o r t a g e
of resources, w h e th e r of m o n e y , of public o p e n spaces, of
s t r u c t u r e , o f m o v e m e n t , o r o f a c tiv ity . S o h e c o n c e n t r a t e s
his r e s o u r c e s : c o n s e r v e s his v ie w s a n d d i s p l a y s t h e m a t
t h e i r b e s t, b r i n g s t h i n g s t o g e t h e r at focal p o i n t s a n d a l o n g
m a i n lin e s, e c o n o m i z e s h e r e to a f f o r d s o m e l u x u r y th e r e ,
a v o id s o p e n s p a c e s o r p e d e s t r i a n w a y s t h a t a r e b e y o n d h is
p o w e r to e q u ip o r m a i n t a i n . O n e o f his c r u c ia l d e c is io n s is
h o w m u c h a r e a o r a c t i v i t y o r v i s u a l e x p e r i e n c e he is a b le to
o r g a n iz e . C a n h e c o n t r o l a l a r g e l a n d s c a p e b y m e a n s o f a x e s
a n d d i s p e r s e d e le m e n t s , o r m u s t he b e c o n t e n t to s t r u c t u r e
one strategic p o in t?
In s o m e c a se s, t h e d e s i g n e r w ill n o t be in c o m p l e t e c o n - Sensuous
trol o f th e s e n s u o u s f o r m o f a site, o r he m a y b e m a k i n g o n l y a program s
l o n g - r a n g e s k e l e t o n p la n . H e m a y t h e n s p e c ify o n l y a s e n -
s u o u s f r a m e w o r k : th e c h a r a c t e r o f th e m a j o r p a t h s a n d t h e
r h y t h m o f v ie w s f r o m t h e m , th e l a n d m a r k s , th e c o n c e n t r a -
tio n s o f v isib le a c tiv ity , th e d is t r i c t s o f c o n s i s t e n t v is u a l
c h a r a c t e r , d o m i n a n t s p a c e s , th e la n d a n d b u i l d i n g m a s s e s .
T h e s e m a j o r e l e m e n t s c a n b e l o c a te d , a n d for e a c h o f t h e m a
s e n s u o u s p r o g r a m c a n be spe c ifie d , w h i c h specifies t h e ir
c h a r a c t e r w i t h o u t fixing t h e ir e x a c t fo rm . T h u s in s e t t i n g
 224 t h e l o c a t i o n o f a m a j o r l a n d m a r k , h e w ill r e q u i r e t h a t c e r t a i n
a s p e c ts o f its a c t i v i t y b e v is ib le f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r p la c e , t h a t
it c o m m u n i c a t e t h e n a t u r e o f t h e f o r m e r b u i l d i n g o n its site,
t h a t it b e e a s ily id e n t i f i a b l e a n d d i s t i n c t f r o m its s u r r o u n d -
i n g s , t h a t it b e s e e n f r o m a m ile o ff o n a n y a p p r o a c h , a n d
t h a t its f o r m s e r v e to d i s t i n g u i s h e a c h a p p r o a c h f r o m a n y
o t h e r . M a n y p a r t i c u l a r s o l u t i o n s c o u ld s a t i s f y th e s e v is u a l
p e rfo rm a n c e c h aracteristics.
The repre- T h e a c c e p te d l a n g u a g e s o f s ite p l a n n i n g — p l a n s , sec-
sentation o f t i o n s , d e ta ils , w r i t t e n s p e c if ic a tio n s , i l l u s t r a t i v e p e r s p e c -
sensuous form tiv e s — are w ays of c o m m u n ic a tin g m a n y of th e sen su o u s
e l e m e n t s o f a site, b u t n o t all o f th e m . T h e y fail to c o n v e y th e
q u a l i t y o f t h e v is ib le a c tiv ity , fo r e x a m p l e , n o r d o t h e y c o m -
m u n i c a t e m u c h a b o u t t h e a m b i e n c e (lig h t, s o u n d , c lim a te ,
s m e ll) , th e s e q u e n t i a l e x p e r ie n c e , t h e cy c lic a l c h a n g e s , o r
t h e p r e d i c t e d d e v e l o p m e n t . A d d i t i o n a l d r a w i n g s , s u c h as
s e q u e n t i a l i l l u s t r a t i o n s o f t h e s t a g e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t o r o f cy-
cles o r o f t h e m o v i n g v ie w , c a n b e m a d e , w h i l e a c ti v i t y c a n
s o m e t i m e s b e s y m b o l i z e d a b s t r a c t l y . N e w n o t a t i o n s fo r vis-
u a l s e q u e n c e s a re b e i n g d e v e l o p e d , a n d t h e r e a r e m o v i e o r
c o m p u t e r c a p a b i l i t i e s fo r t h e s a m e p u r p o s e . It r e m a i n s tr u e ,
h o w e v e r , t h a t w e h a v e n o e ffe c tiv e g r a p h i c w a y o f r e p r e -
s e n t i n g s o m e o f th e s e i m p o r t a n t s e n s u o u s d i m e n s i o n s .
Sensuous T h e p r e c e d i n g d i s c u s s i o n ta k e s it fo r g r a n t e d t h a t w e
C r ite r ia k n o w w h y w e a r e m a n i p u l a t i n g th e s e n s u o u s f o r m . O u r re c -
o m m e n d a tio n s im p ly th e re a so n s, a n d m o s t d e sig n e rs are
c o n t e n t to le a v e t h e m im p lic it. B u t if w e w i s h to a d v a n c e o u r
sk ill, to e v a l u a t e a l t e r n a t i v e site p o s s ib ilitie s , o r to a r g u e th e
i m p o r t a n c e o f s e n s u o u s f o r m , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y if w e w a n t to
deal ra tio n a lly w ith the v a ry in g needs of th e g reat d iv ersity
o f site u s e r s , it is n e c e s s a r y to m a k e o u r r e a s o n s e x p lic it — to
b r i n g t h e m i n t o t h e l i g h t o f d a y , w h e r e t h e y c a n be u s e d ,
t e s te d , r e je c te d , o r m o d if ie d . W h i l e specific c r i t e r i a w ill al-
w a y s d e p e n d o n c lie n t a n d s i t u a t i o n , it m a y b e u s e f u l to c o n -
e lu d e w i t h a list o f t y p i c a l s e n s u o u s c r ite r ia fo r p l a n n i n g t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t . M o r e p r e c is e s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e s e c r i t e r i a w ill
d e p e n d o n o u r p u r p o s e s , a n d e s p e c ia lly o n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e
site u s e r , as r e v e a le d in t h e k i n d s o f a n a l y s e s d e s c r i b e d in
C h a p t e r 5.
C om fort 1. S e n s a t i o n s s h o u l d b e w i t h i n t h e r a n g e o f c o m f o r t:
n o t t o o h o t, t o o n o i s y , to o b r i g h t , to o c o ld , to o s ile n t, to o
l o a d e d o r e m p t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n , to o s te e p , to o d i r t y , to o
c le a n . C l i m a t e , n o is e , p o l l u t i o n , a n d v i s u a l i n p u t a r e p e r -
h a p s t h e m o s t c r itic a l f a c to r s . T h e a c c e p t a b l e r a n g e h a s a
p a r t l y b io lo g ic a l, p a r t l y c u l t u r a l b a s is , a n d w ill v a r y for
d if f e r e n t p e o p le e n g a g e d in d if f e r e n t ta s k s . B u t in a n y o n e 225
g r o u p t h e r e w ill b e la r g e a r e a s o f a g r e e m e n t as to w h a t is
u n p l e a s a n t o r i n t o le r a b le .
2. A n a d e q u a t e d i v e r s i t y o f s e n s a t i o n s a n d e n v i r o n - Diversity
m e n t s s h o u l d be a v a ila b le . T h i s is a p r e r e q u i s i t e for g iv in g
th e i n h a b i t a n t a c h o ic e o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t h e p r e f e r s a t a n y
tim e , a n d c o r r e s p o n d s to a w i d e l y felt p l e a s u r e in v a r i e t y
a n d c h a n g e . It is a n i m p o r t a n t s u p p o r t for h u m a n c o g n itiv e
d e v e l o p m e n t a n d , in d e e d , for t h e v e r y m a i n t e n a n c e o f th e
p e r c e p t u a l a n d c o g n itiv e s y s t e m . It is m u c h m o r e d iffic u lt to
d e fin e w h a t is a n " a d e q u a t e " d iv e r s ity , as w ell as w h a t a re
th e c ritic a l e l e m e n t s t h a t s h o u l d b e d iv e rsifie d . T h e y w ill
d e p en d very heavily on the in terests a n d p a st ex perience of
th e c lie n t. W e lo o k to m a r k e t b e h a v i o r , a n d th e e x p r e s s i o n o f
p r e f e r e n c e , to find t h e k i n d s o f d i v e r s i t y p e o p le a r e p r e s -
e n t l y s e e k in g . B u t p r e s e n t c h o ic e s a r e c o n s t r a i n e d b y p a s t
e x p e r ie n c e a n d p e r c e iv e d p o s s i b i l i t y , a n d a g o o d d e s i g n e r
a lso se e k s to o p e n u p n e w ch o ic e s. D i v e r s i t y is n o t a m a t t e r o f
m i x i n g t o g e t h e r a la r g e n u m b e r o f v a r ie d s e n s a t i o n s b u t
r a t h e r o f c o n s t r u c t i n g c o n s i s t e n t , a c c e s s ib le s u b e n v i r o n -
m e n ts of distinct a n d c o n tra stin g character.
3. T h e s e n s u o u s e n v i r o n m e n t s h o u l d s u p p o r t t h e a c t i o n Behavioral
t h a t p e o p le w a n t to e n g a g e in th e r e . T h i s is p a r t o f th e support
l a r g e r f u n c t i o n a l c r i t e r i o n , s e e m i n g l y o b v i o u s b u t to o o f te n
n e g le c te d . S o u n d a n d lig h t levels m u s t p e r m i t c o m m u n i c a -
tio n . H o w to m o v e , h o w to a ct, a n d h o w to fin d s o m e t h i n g
s h o u l d b e clear. T e r r i t o r i e s m u s t be v isible. It s h o u l d b e p o s -
s ib le to s e n s e a n d e n jo y th e a c tiv e p r e s e n c e o f o t h e r p e o p le .
B e h a v io r a l c o n flic ts m a y be m o d e r a t e d b y v isu a l a n d a u r a l
a n d s p a t i a l s e p a r a t i o n s . O n e c h e c k s for th e c r i t e r i o n b y
m e n t a l l y e n a c t i n g th e b e h a v i o r t h a t w ill o c c u r in a p la c e .
T h e p r i n c i p a l d if f ic u lty is to re a liz e h o w m a n y v a r ie tie s o f
p e r s o n s u s e m o s t o u t d o o r s p a c e s a n d h o w d iv e r s e t h e i r n e e d s
a n d w i s h e s are.
4. P la c e s s h o u l d h a v e a c le a r p e r c e p t u a l id e n t i t y : rec- Identity
o g n iz a b le , m e m o r a b l e , viv id , e n g a g i n g of a t t e n t i o n , dif-
f e r e n t i a t e d f r o m o t h e r lo c a tio n s . T h e " s e n s e o f p l a c e " is t h e
c o rn ersto n e of a h a n d so m e an d m ean in g fu l e n v iro n m e n t.
W i t h o u t it, a n o b s e r v e r c a n n o t m a k e s e n s e o f h is w o r ld ,
s in c e h e c a n n o t d i s t i n g u i s h o r r e m e m b e r its p a r t s . I d e n t i t y
d e p e n d s o n th e k n o w l e d g e o f th e o b s e r v e r a n d c a n be t r a n s -
m i t t e d i n d i r e c t l y b y v e r b a l s y m b o l s . B u t a u n i q u e set o f p e r -
c e p tu a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s is a p o w e r f u l , c o n c r e t e r e in f o r c e -
m e n t o f it.
5. T h e s e id e n tif ia b le p a r t s s h o u l d b e so a r r a n g e d t h a t
 226 a n o r m a l o b s e r v e r c a n r e la te t h e m to e a c h o t h e r a n d c a n u n -
Tem poral and d e r s t a n d t h e i r p a t t e r n in tim e a n d sp a c e . T h i s is n o t a u n i -
spatial v e r s a l ru le , s in c e t h e r e a r e o c c a s i o n s w h e n it is d e s i r a b l e
legibility t h a t p a r t s o f th e e n v i r o n m e n t b e h i d d e n , m y s t e r i o u s , o r a m -
b i g u o u s . B u t a t le a s t t h e g e n e r a l f r a m e w o r k o f a liv in g
s p a c e , a s w e ll as t h e l i n k a g e o f its p u b l i c p la c e s , m u s t b e le g -
i b l e — n o t o n l y in t h e s t r e e t b u t a ls o in m e m o r y . L e g ib le
s t r u c t u r e h a s a n o b v i o u s v a l u e in f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e p r a c tic a l
t a s k s o f w a y - f i n d i n g a n d c o g n i t i o n . It c a n b e a s o u r c e o f e m o -
t i o n a l s e c u r i t y a n d a b a s is for a s e n s e o f s e l f - i d e n t i t y a n d o f
r e l a t i o n to so c ie ty . It c a n s u p p o r t so c ia l c o h e s i o n a n d b e a
m e a n s o f e x t e n d i n g o n e 's k n o w l e d g e o f t h e w o r l d . It c o n f e r s
t h e e s t h e t i c p l e a s u r e o f s e n s i n g th e r e l a t e d n e s s o f a c o m -
p le x t h i n g . It m u s t b e fle x ib le e n o u g h to fa c ilita te t h e se v -
e r a l d if f e r e n t p r e f e r e n c e s for e n v i r o n m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n
(m a p o rg a n iz a tio n , se q u en ce o rg a n iz a tio n , a n d sc h e m a tic or-
g a n i z a t i o n , in p a r t i c u l a r ) . It m u s t w o r k for th e a n x i o u s to u r -
ist, th e o ld i n h a b i t a n t i n t e n t o n h is p r a c t i c a l t a s k , a n d th e
r e la x e d a n d c a s u a l s tr o lle r . Y et c e r t a i n e l e m e n t s w ill b e
c r u c ia l to all: t h e m a i n s y s t e m o f c ir c u l a t i o n , t h e b a s ic f u n c -
t i o n a l a n d so c ia l a r e a s , t h e p r i n c i p a l c e n t e r s o f a c t i v i t y a n d
o f s y m b o l i c v a lu e , t h e h i s t o r i c p o i n t s , t h e n a t u r a l site, th e
m a j o r o p e n s p a c e s . S p a t i a l le g ib ility is th e m o r e o b v i o u s a s-
p e c t, b u t t e m p o r a l l e g ib ility is e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t . T h e s e n -
s u o u s e n v i r o n m e n t m a y b e u s e d to o r i e n t its i n h a b i t a n t s to
th e p a s t , to t h e p r e s e n t w i t h its c y c lic a l r h y t h m s , a n d e v e n
to th e f u t u r e , w i t h its h o p e s a n d d a n g e r s .
M eaning 6. T h e e n v i r o n m e n t s h o u l d be p e r c e iv e d as m e a n i n g -
ful, its v is ib le p a r t s n o t o n l y r e l a t e d to e a c h o t h e r in tim e
a n d s p a c e b u t r e l a t e d to o t h e r a s p e c t s o f life: f u n c t i o n a l ac-
tiv ity , so c ia l s t r u c t u r e , e c o n o m i c a n d p o litic a l p a t t e r n s ,
h u m a n v a lu e s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s , e v e n i n d i v i d u a l i d i o s y n c r a -
sies a n d c h a r a c t e r . T h e e n v i r o n m e n t is a n e n o r m o u s c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n s d e v i c e — p e o p l e r e a d it, t h e y s e e k p r a c t i c a l in -
f o r m a t i o n , t h e y a r e c u r i o u s , t h e y a re m o v e d b y w h a t t h e y
see. C o n g r u e n c e o f t h e v is ib le a n d t h e so c ia l w o r l d w ill facil-
ita t e a c t i o n a n d m a k e b o t h t h o s e w o r l d s m o r e c o m p r e h e n s i -
ble. S i g n s a n d s y m b o l s c a n s p e a k to u s, a n d b a s ic e c o n o m i c
a n d so c ia l p r o c e s s e s c a n b e left o p e n to v ie w . U n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
t h e s y m b o l i c ro le o f t h e l a n d s c a p e is little u n d e r s t o o d , a n d to
d e a l w i t h m e a n i n g a t th e l a r g e r c o m m u n i t y s c a le is diffi-
cu lt sin c e s i g n if ic a n t m e a n i n g s a n d v a lu e s d iffe r w i d e ly
a m o n g v a r i o u s g r o u p s in o u r so c ie ty . F o r m a l le g ib i l i t y is at
le a st t h e c o m m o n v is ib le b a s e o n w h i c h all g r o u p s c a n e r e c t
th eir o w n m e a n in g fu l stru c tu re s.
 7. F in a lly , th e e n v i r o n m e n t h a s a p a r t to p l a y in th e 227
in te lle c tu a l, e m o t i o n a l , a n d p h y s ic a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e in - Individual
d iv id u a l, p a r t i c u l a r l y in c h i l d h o o d , b u t p e r h a p s a ls o in la t e r d e v e lo p m e n t
y e a rs. T h e n e g a t i v e effects o f h i g h l y i m p o v e r i s h e d e n v i r o n -
m e n t s c a n be s h o w n . W e c a n s p e c u l a t e o n th e s e n s u o u s
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f cities t h a t m i g h t f a c ilita te h u m a n d e v e l-
o p m e n t . S o m e o f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ju s t n o t e d a r e v a l u a b l e
for d e v e l o p m e n t : s u r e ly p e r c e p t u a l d i v e r s i t y , as w ell as leg-
ib ility a n d m e a n i n g — p a r t i c u l a r l y if t h e l a t t e r a r e n o t
i m m e d i a t e l y o b v i o u s b u t c o m m u n i c a t e a s im p le m e a n i n g
t h a t b e c o m e s m o r e c o m p le x a n d s u b t l e as th e o b je c t is o b -
s e r v e d m o r e c lo se ly . A n e d u c a t i v e e n v i r o n m e n t w o u l d visi-
b ly e n c o u r a g e a t t e n t i o n a n d e x p l o r a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n
th e o b s e r v e r is n o t t a s k - o r i e n t e d — w h e n h e is a t p la y , t r a v -
e lin g , o r j u s t w a i t i n g . It w o u l d p r o v i d e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for
c h i l d r e n to m a n i p u l a t e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t d ir e c tly , w h e t h e r
by b u ild in g , re sh a p in g , or even d e stro y in g . A n in dividual
s h o u l d b e a b le to a l t e r n a t e b e t w e e n h i g h s t i m u l u s a n d q u ie t
p r iv a c y . S u c h a w o r l d m i g h t e v e n p r e s e n t v is u a l s h o c k s ,
p u z z le s , a n d a m b i g u i t i e s — c h a l l e n g i n g t h e o b s e r v e r to
find a s a t i s f a c t o r y o r g a n i z a t i o n fo r h im s e lf.
T h e r e is m o r e to a fine v is u a l e n v i r o n m e n t t h a n th e
c r ite r ia j u s t lis te d , b u t it b e c o m e s p r o g r e s s i v e l y m o r e diffi-

F ig u r e 3 8 Children m ake their own worlds.

228 c u lt to d e fin e . M o r e o v e r , if w e c o u ld a c h ie v e a c o m f o r t a b le ,
d iv e r s e , s u p p o r t iv e , le g ib le , m e a n in g f u l, d e v e lo p m e n t a l
la n d s c a p e , th e n w e h a v e th e b a s is , a n d in d e e d m u c h o f th e
e s s e n c e , o f a b e a u tifu l la n d s c a p e .
For a n y p a r tic u la r a p p lic a t io n , t h e s e g e n e r a l c r ite r ia
m u s t b e tu r n e d in to s p e c ific s t a t e m e n t s or q u e s tio n s . T h e
n a tu r e o f t h e s e q u e s t io n s a n d th e ir im p o r ta n c e w ill v a r y
fr o m p la c e to p la c e , in r e la tio n to th e e n v ir o n m e n t it s e lf, th e
n e e d s a n d v a lu e s o f th e p e o p le s e r v e d , a n d th e p u r p o s e s o f
th e p la n n in g . T h e s e n s u o u s c r ite r ia w ill in te r lo c k w it h o th e r
c r ite r ia at m a n y p o in t s a n d m u s t b e m a d e c o n s is t e n t w it h
th e m . V is u a l le g ib i lit y m a y b e e m p h a s iz e d , for e x a m p le , in
o r d e r to in c r e a s e c ir c u la t io n e f f ic ie n c y or to d e v e lo p a s e n s e
o f c iv ic c o h e s io n .
C hapter

Problem s o f C ontrol

S o m e t i m e s a s ite p l a n n e r w ill e x e r c is e o n l y p a r t i a l
c o n t r o l o v e r a n e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s o c c u r s in t h e l a y o u t o t s u b -
d iv i s i o n s , in t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f l o n g - r a n g e s ite p l a n s , o r in
" u r b a n d e s ig n " s itu a tio n s w h e re th e re are m a n y d evelop-
ers. A l t h o u g h t h e s e t h r e e a c tiv itie s a r e q u i t e d i s t i n c t , t h e y
sh a re th e sam e q ualities of in c o m p le te n e ss a n d in d e te rm i-
n acy, a n d are w o rth d iscu ssin g a n d co m p a rin g .
S u b d i v i s i o n is t h e p r o c e s s w h e r e b y v a c a n t l a n d is di- Subdivision
v id e d i n t o lo ts a n d p u b l i c r i g h t s - o f - w a y , p r o v i d i n g site s for
f u t u r e i n d i v i d u a l b u i l d i n g s t h a t w ill o c c u p y t h o s e lo ts w h e n
t h e y h a v e b e e n t r a n s f e r r e d to o t h e r d e v e l o p e r s . T h i s p r o c e s s
m a y or m a y n o t be a c c o m p a n ie d b y the ac tu a l p ro v isio n of
r o a d s , p a t h s , u til i t i e s , a n d l a n d s c a p i n g . S u b d i v i s i o n is a
c o m m o n m e t h o d o f p u t t i n g l a n d to u s e for l o w - d e n s i t y r e s i-
d e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t ; •it is u s e d o c c a s i o n a l l y for o t h e r p u r -
p o s e s , s u c h as i n d u s t r y , a g r i c u l t u r e , o r e v e n c o m m e r c e . It is
a t e c h n i q u e w i t h a lo n g h i s t o r y , w h i c h h a s b e e n t h e b a s i s o f
u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r ld .
In p l a n n i n g a s u b d i v i s i o n , t h e d e s i g n e r c o n t r o l s t h e p o -
s itio n o f r o a d s , p a t h s , a n d u tilitie s , t h e l o c a t i o n o f p u b l i c fa-
cilitie s a n d p u b l i c o p e n s p a c e , t h e s h a p e a n d p o s i t i o n o f lots,
a n d p e r h a p s a lso s u c h f e a t u r e s as l a n d s c a p i n g , g r a d i n g ,
a n d d e ta il. B u t h e c a n i n f lu e n c e th e s i t i n g a n d p l a n n i n g o f
b u i l d i n g s o n l y i n d ir e c tly . H is p l a n m u s t b e m a d e w i t h o u t
sim u lta n e o u s c o n sid e ra tio n of the a rch itectu re.
230 S in c e in a n u r b a n s e t t i n g t h e b u i l d i n g s a r e c r u c ia l,
t h e s u b d i v i d e r c a n o n l y s p e c u l a t e a b o u t h o w s ite a n d s t r u c ‫־‬
t u r e w ill fit i n t o e a c h o t h e r . T h e d i v i s i o n o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
m a y b e c o m p a r e d to a s k i n g o n e m a n to se t c a n v a s size, th e
fram e, a n d a b stra c t sh a p e s of a p a in tin g , w hile a sk in g an-
o t h e r to p a i n t t h e p ic t u r e . T h e r e s u l t s w o u l d lik e ly b e u n d i s -
tin g u ish e d an d p e rh a p s d isastro u s.
S u b d i v i s i o n m a y o p e r a t e f a ir ly w e ll w h e r e t h e c h a r a c -
te r a n d s i t i n g o f b u i l d i n g s is p r e s c r i b e d b y c u s t o m , b u t it is
m u c h m o re d a n g e ro u s w h e n desig n tra d itio n s are w e a k an d
te c h n i c a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s n u m e r o u s . T h e r e s u l t is t h a t c ir c u la -
t io n a n d p r o p e r t y b o u n d a r i e s a r e e m p h a s i z e d , s p a t i a l e ffect
is n e g le c te d , a n d i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l d e s i g n is n o t c o o r-
d i n a t e d . In r e v i e w i n g s u b d i v i s i o n p l a n s , it is p o s s i b l e to
p i c k o u t t h o s e t h a t w ill r e s u lt in d i s o r d e r o r p o o r l iv in g c o n d i -
ti o n s , b u t it is q u i t e d iffic u lt to s e p a r a t e t h e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
f r o m th e in d i f f e r e n t .
N e v e rth e le ss, th e re are re a s o n s w h y d e v e lo p m e n t by
s u b d i v i s i o n c o n t i n u e s to b e e m p l o y e d . F irst, a n d m o s t i m p o r -
t a n t , s u b d i v i s i o n d o e s n o t r e q u i r e a la r g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
c a p ita l. T h e s u b d i v i d e r n e e d o n l y in v e s t in t h e l a n d , its s u r -
vey, a n d its le g a l d i v is io n . H e m a y a ls o p u t in r o a d s a n d
u t ilitie s a n d p e r f o r m t h e g r a d i n g a n d l a n d s c a p i n g . In ei-
t h e r c a se , s u b d i v i s i o n is t y p i c a l l y t h e d e v ic e o f a m o d e s t
e c o n o m y . S e c o n d , s u b d i v i s i o n d e c e n t r a l i z e s d e c i s i o n , re lie v -
in g t h e d e v e l o p e r o f a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s i g n a n d a l l o w i n g l a te r
o w n e r s to e x e r c is e s o m e c h o ic e a b o u t t h e i r s t r u c t u r e s . T h i r d ,
it is w e ll s u i t e d to a s l o w t e m p o , a l l o w i n g l a n d to be p u t to
u s e p ie c e m e a l as d e m a n d d e v e l o p s a n d p e r m i t t i n g g o v e r n -
m e n t a l a g e n c ie s to e x e r c is e c o n t r o l o v e r g e n e r a l d e v e l o p m e n t
w i t h o u t b e i n g a s k e d to m a k e s i m i l a r d e l i b e r a t i o n s e a c h tim e
a b u i l d i n g is p r o p o s e d .
For all t h e s e r e a s o n s s u b d i v i s i o n h a s so c ia l a d v a n t a g e s
d e s p i t e its a d v e r s e effect o n s i t e - p l a n n i n g q u a l i t y . T h e r e -
fore it is i m p o r t a n t to k n o w w h a t c a n b e d o n e in s u c h s i t u a -
tio n s . It is o f t e n a s t r a t e g i c j u n c t u r e a t w h i c h a s ite d e s i g n e r
c a n e a s ily a c h ie v e p e r m a n e n t effect.
Subdivision G o o d s u b d i v i s i o n d e s i g n c a n p r e v e n t t h e w o r s t. It c a n
layout e n s u r e g o o d c i r c u l a t i o n , a d e q u a t e fa c ilitie s, s u f f ic ie n t o p e n
s p a c e , a n d b a s ic o r d e r . S in c e t h e c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m a t le a s t
is c o n c r e t e l y p r o v i d e d for, it m a y b e d e s i g n e d a n d te s t e d b y
Reference 36 all t h e c r i t e r i a d is c u s s e d in C h a p t e r s 6 a n d 7: p r i n c i p l e s o f
flow , so c ia l c o m m u n i c a t i o n , a n d v is u a l effect, p lu s te c h n ic a l
s t a n d a r d s fo r h o r i z o n t a l a n d v e r tic a l a l i g n m e n t a n d for in -
t e r s e c tio n s , t u r n a r o u n d s , b lo c k l e n g t h , r i g h t s - o f - w a y p a v e - 231
m e n t w i d t h s , a n d so o n . T h e r o a d p a t t e r n s h o u l d c o n f o r m to
th e g e n e r a l c i r c u l a t i o n p l a n for th e a r e a a n d p r o v i d e for fu-
tu r e r o a d s a n d c o n n e c t i o n s . T h e first b a s ic te s t for a n y s u b -
d iv is io n p l a n is to m o v e in i m a g i n a t i o n t h r o u g h its s t r e e t s ,
c h e c k in g th e ir te c h n ic a l, soc ia l, a n d e s t h e t i c q u a lity .
T h e s e c o n d f u n d a m e n t a l te s t is to a r r a n g e a ty p ic a l
b u i l d i n g o n e a c h lot, m a k i n g s u r e t h a t e a c h lot h a s a t le a s t
o n e g o o d l o c a t i o n for a s t r u c t u r e . R u le s a b o u t t h e w i d t h s ,
d e p t h s , o r p r o p o r t i o n s o f lo ts a r e o f t e n g iv e n , b u t t h e p la c e -
m e n t o f a b u i l d i n g is th e te st. If s u f f ic ie n t a c c e ss, o u t d o o r
sp a c e , g o o d v ie w s , p r i v a c y , a n d e a s e o f m a i n t e n a n c e c a n be
a c h ie v e d w i t h a n o r m a l b u i l d i n g , t h e n t h e s h a p e a n d size of
a lot a re u p to s t a n d a r d . T h e m i n i m u m lo t f r o n t a g e s c o m -
m o n l y u s e d in c o n t e m p o r a r y s u b d i v i s i o n r e g u l a t i o n s i m p o s e
u n eco n o m ic a n d m o n o to n o u s designs. T h e use of p e rfo rm a n c e
s t a n d a r d s r e f e r r i n g to a c c e ss, s p a c e , p r i v a c y , m a i n t e n a n c e ,
a n d v ie w w o u l d p e r m i t us to a b a n d o n t h o s e r u le s w i t h o u t
r is k in g s u b s t a n d a r d a r r a n g e m e n t s .
L ots n e a r l y r e c t a n g u l a r in s h a p e t h a t a v o id a c u te -
a n g le d c o r n e r s a r e e a s ie s t to d e v e lo p . A c o m m o n ru le p r e -
‫ם‬
s c rib e s t h a t s id e - lo t lin e s s h o u l d be p e r p e n d i c u l a r to t h e
s tr e e t lin e s, to a v o id t h e w a s t e o f la n d t h a t a s a w t o o t h a r -
r a n g e m e n t o f f a c a d e s w o u l d c r e a te a l o n g t h e b lo c k . Y et s u c h
ru le s a ls o d e p e n d o n th e b u i l d i n g a r r a n g e m e n t a n d m a y b e
s u p e r f lu o u s . S p e c ia l lot s h a p e s , s u c h a s circ le s, h e x a g o n s , o r
i n t e r l o c k i n g L 's o r T 's , m a y h a v e a d v a n t a g e s in s o m e s i t u a -
tio n s . N o r e a s o n a b l e r u le w ill r e q u i r e all lo ts to b e o f u n i f o r m
size.
B u i ld in g lin e s, o r lim its w i t h i n t h e lot lin e s b e y o n d
w h ich a stru c tu re m a y n o t p ro tru d e , are o ften m a d e p a rt of a
su b d iv isio n plan. T h e se m a y be p riv a te c o n tra c tu a l restric-
tio n s , o r t h e y m a y refle c t c o n t r o l s p r e s c r i b e d b y la w . T h e y
f u r t h e r r e s t r i c t t h e site a n d m u s t b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t in
c h e c k i n g th e //b u i l d a b i l i t y ,/ o f a lot. T h e i r p r i m a r y p u r p o s e
is to e n s u r e p r i v a c y , a c c e ss, a n d s u f f ic ie n t l i g h t a n d air.
O n c e m o r e , t h e y n e e d n o t be u n i f o r m , n o r n e e d t h e y b e u s e d
at all. S q u e e z i n g lo ts w i t h a m e c h a n i c a l se t o f f r o n t , sid e ,
a n d r e a r s e t b a c k lin e s w a s t e s l a n d a n d r e s u l t s in a u n i f o r m
b u i l d i n g l o c a t i o n o n e a c h lot. T h i s u n i f o r m i t y g iv e s a m o n o t o -
n o u s " d e n t e l a t e d " effect as it is r e p e a t e d d o w n t h e s tr e e t.
T h e final te s t t h a t m a y be a p p l i e d to t h e d e s i g n o f a
s u b d i v i s i o n is to see t h a t a d e q u a t e r e s e r v a t i o n h a s b e e n
m a d e for s u c h c o m m u n i t y a r e a s a n d fa c ilitie s as s c h o o ls ,
 232 p ark s, p la y g ro u n d s, ch u rch es, an d sh o p p in g . T h ese areas
s h o u l d b e a c c e s s ib le , a d e q u a t e in size, a n d lo c a te d o n g r o u n d
s u i t e d to t h e i r p u r p o s e .
Subdivision B y g i v i n g t h o u g h t to t h e s t r e e t p a t t e r n , to t h e u s e f u l-
character n e s s o f lo ts, a n d to t h e p r o v i s i o n o f s ite s fo r c o m m u n i t y u se,
the d e sig n e r of a su b d iv isio n can e n su re basic fu n ctio n a l ad-
e q u a c y . H e c a n a ls o d o a little to g iv e t h e a r e a a p o s i t i v e vis-
u a l c h a r a c t e r . H i s s t r o n g e s t r e s o u r c e is t h e s t r e e t a n d p a t h
s y s t e m , s in c e it is w h i l e p e o p le m o v e a l o n g t h e s e w a y s t h a t
t h e y w ill see h is d e v e l o p m e n t . T h u s t h e s e q u e n c e a n d d y -
n a m i c s h a p e o f t h e r o a d s , t h e i r fit to t h e g r o u n d , th e w a y
t h e y p o i n t o r le a d to t h e m o r e i n t e n s i v e u s e s , a n d t h e i r re la -
t i o n to t h e b u i l d i n g lin e s a l o n g t h e i r c o u r s e c a n h a v e a v is u a l
im p act on the observer.
T h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f i n t e n s i v e u s e s a n d p u b lic l a n d s c a n
I____ I ____l c r e a t e focal p o i n t s a n d o p e n r e a c h e s , as w e ll as e m p h a s i z i n g
In i ¾1 t h e b a s ic s t r u c t u r e o f t h e la n d . L o t a n d b u i l d i n g lin e s m a y
i ¥ ‫ ־‬r !?‫׳‬ w i t h i n lim its b e e m p l o y e d to v a r y s e t b a c k s a n d to c r e a te
‫ — ר י‬¥‫ ־‬m \ b u i l d i n g c lu s te r s . L o t l o c a t i o n a n d s h a p e m a y b e u s e d to e n -
1_---- i___
c o u r a g e b u i l d i n g s a t d e s i r e d p o i n t s , s u c h as a t t h e h e a d o f a
c u l - d e - s a c for v i s u a l c l o s u r e o r o n t h e e n d o f a n a r r o w b l o c k to
p r e v e n t t h e v ie w d o w n b a c k y a r d fe n c e s. T h e l a n d s c a p i n g
m a y co n v ey a g en e ra l c h a ra c te r or even, by g o in g b e y o n d
1 L .J ___■ j t h e c u s t o m a r y o b s e s s i o n w i t h s t r e e t tr e e s , c r e a t e a g e n e r a l
I I ■
Í. 1 ÍL 5 J v is u a l s t r u c t u r e .
It r e m a i n s t r u e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e s u b d i v i s i o n m e t h o d
is a n u n n a t u r a l d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s a n d t h a t
la c k o f c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n s ite a n d a r c h i t e c t u r a l d e s i g n
i n e v i t a b l y b l u r s a n d c o a r s e n s t h e fin a l p r o d u c t . T o a v o i d t h i s
d iv is io n , it m i g h t b e p o s s i b l e fo r a s u b d i v i s i o n p l a n to d e a l
o n ly w ith m a jo r streets, g en eral use locations, a n d p rin c ip a l
l a n d s c a p i n g , l e a v i n g m i n o r p a t h s , lo ts, a n d d e t a i l s to b e
p l a n n e d in s m a ll a r e a s a s a c t u a l b u i l d i n g s a r e d e m a n d e d
a n d d e s i g n e d in a c c o r d a n c e w i t h s t a t e d p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d -
a r d s . T h i s is t h e p r o c e d u r e g e n e r a l l y f o llo w e d in i n d u s t r i a l
l a n d s u b d i v i s i o n , w h e r e lo ts a r e r a r e l y fixed b e f o r e a b u y e r
a n d h is b u i l d i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e k n o w n .
L ong-range S o m e w h a t s i m i l a r to t h e p r o b l e m o f s u b d i v i s i o n is t h e
S ite P l a n n i n g p r o c e s s o f l o n g - r a n g e site p l a n n i n g : t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f p l a n s
fo r g r o w t h t w e n t y y e a r s o r e v e n f u r t h e r i n t o t h e f u tu r e . S u c h
p l a n n i n g is p o s s i b l e for a l a r g e a n d s t a b l e o r g a n i z a t i o n , o c c u -
p y i n g a p e r m a n e n t site , s u b j e c t e d to p r o t r a c t e d g r o w t h , a n d
a b le to e x e r c is e l o n g - t e r m c o n t r o l a n d d i r e c t i o n . A u n i v e r -
s ity , a h o s p i t a l , a n d a la r g e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p l a n t a r e e x a m -
p ie s o f t h i s t y p e o f c lie n t.
 T h e p r o b l e m o f l o n g - r a n g e site p l a n n i n g is like s u b d i - 233
v is io n in t h a t t h e f u t u r e u s e s a n d th e s h a p e o f t h e v o l u m e s
th e y w ill o c c u p y a re n o t p r e c is e ly k n o w n , a l t h o u g h a g e n -
era l p l a n for la n d i m p r o v e m e n t , c i r c u l a t i o n , a n d u s e lo c a t i o n
is r e q u ir e d . It d iffe rs f r o m s u b d i v i s i o n in t h a t t h e a g e n c y for
w h o m th e p l a n is b e i n g m a d e w ill a ls o e v e n t u a l l y c o n t r o l
th e b u i l d i n g d e s ig n . T h e a g e n c y c a n t h e r e f o r e d e v e lo p lo n g -
r a n g e p o lic y a n d w ill b e a b le to r e v is e its g e n e r a l p l a n in
th e fu tu r e . H o w e v e r a b s t r a c t it m a y be, l o n g - r a n g e site
p l a n n i n g is a l e g i t i m a t e ex e rc ise . It o c c u p ie s a n a t u r a l div i-
s io n in t h e d e s i g n sc a le o f i n c r e a s i n g a r e a a n d tim e a n d is
n o t, like s u b d i v i s i o n , a n a rtific ia l s e p a r a t i o n o f w h a t s h o u l d
be a u n i t a r y d e s i g n p r o c e s s .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e d if f ic u lty o f l o n g - r a n g e site p l a n n i n g
c a n n o t b e d e n ie d . N o t o n l y is b u i l d i n g s h a p e u n k n o w n b u t
so is a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n g e n e r a l i z e d f u t u r e u se. S u c h a d e -
s ig n m u s t n o r m a l l y b e p r e c e d e d b y p l a n n i n g s t u d i e s o f fu-
tu r e g r o w t h a n d f u n c t i o n a n d f u t u r e t r e n d s in t h e e n v i r o n s ,
w h i c h lie b e y o n d th e s c o p e o f t h is te x t. L o n g - r a n g e site
p l a n n i n g is, in d e e d , a h a l f w a y h o u s e b e t w e e n s ite a n d c ity
p lanning.
O n c e future g ro w th a n d fu n c tio n hav e been p red icted
an d preferred d e n sity an d land re q u ire m e n ts d ete rm in e d ,
a g e n e r a l i z e d site p l a n is p r e p a r e d . T h i s w ill c o n s i s t a t le a s t
o f a l a n d - u s e a n d m a j o r c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n . S in c e s o m e
g u id e to f u t u r e p h y s i c a l f o r m is a lso d e s i r a b l e , it h a s b e e n Future building
c u s t o m a r y to p r e p a r e a site p l a n s h o w i n g b u i l d i n g s h a p e s shapes
fixed for t h e e n s u i n g t w e n t y y e a r s . M a s s e s a r e s im p lif ie d ,
a n d p r e c is e d e s i g n a t i o n s a r e left o ff t h e s t r u c t u r e s . D e t a i l e d
a d j u s t m e n t is re lie d u p o n to m e e t f u t u r e n e e d s .
L o n g - r a n g e site p l a n s s h o w i n g f u t u r e b u i l d i n g s h a p e s
h a v e b e e n u n i v e r s a l fa ilu re s. S o m e t i m e s t h e y a r e a b a n -
d o n e d q u i c k ly ; a t o t h e r t im e s t h e y a re m a i n t a i n e d for a
w h ile , g r a d u a l l y s l u r r e d o v e r , a n d f in a lly f o r g o t t e n in t h e
c o u r s e o f tim e . O c c a s i o n a l l y t h e y h a v e b e e n s t o u t l y d e -
fe n d e d u n t i l t h e s t r a i n o f m i s p l a c e d f u n c t i o n b e c o m e s in -
t o le r a b le a n d t h e p l a n is a b r u p t l y if r e g r e t f u l l y d is c a r d e d .
In m o s t la r g e i n s t i t u t i o n s th e p a c e o f f u n c t i o n a l c h a n g e is to o
r a p id to a llo w fix in g t h e f o r m o f t h e b u i l d i n g s far i n t o t h e fu-
ture.
W h a t c a n b e p r o j e c t e d , b e y o n d g e n e r a l u se , d e n s i t y ,
a n d th e c i r c u l a t i o n p a t t e r n ? W h i l e th e s e e l e m e n t s e n s u r e
o rderly fu n ctio n al d e v e lo p m e n t, th e y h ave o n ly a se c o n d a ry
e ffo rt o n th e q u a l i t y o f t h e f u t u r e c o m p le x . S k illf u l d e s i g n e r s
o f i n d iv id u a l b u i l d i n g s w ill a t b e s t p r o d u c e i n t e r e s t i n g
 234 s t r u c t u r e s in h a r m o n y w i t h t h e i r i m m e d i a t e n e i g h b o r s .
O n l y b y c h a n c e o r t r a d i t i o n w ill a f o r m o r c h a r a c t e r d e v e lo p
w h i c h is a p p a r e n t a t t h e sc a le o f t h e w h o le . F o r m a t t h i s la r g e r
sc a le , c r e a t e d in a d v a n c e o f a spe c ific p r o g r a m , h a s r a r e l y
b e e n su c c e s s f u l.
F uture A s in s u b d i v i s i o n d e s i g n , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e p a t h s y s -
circulation tern m a y be s e t in a d v a n c e . T h e s e q u e n c e o f v ie w s a s t h e o b -
s e r v e r e n t e r s a n d p a s s e s t h r o u g h m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d , th e
p a t h s a n d t h e i r d i r e c t i o n s m a d e id e n t i f i a b l e b y l a n d s c a p -
i n g a n d d e t a i l , a n d t h e w h o l e n e t w o r k s h a p e d i n t o a c le a r ly
v is ib le s t r u c t u r e . It is p o s s i b l e a t t i m e s to m a k e t h e p a t h
sy ste m the d o m in a n t im p re ssio n , w ith in d iv id u a l stru c tu re s
s t r u n g a l o n g it as i n c i d e n t s .
Future sp atial It is a ls o p o s s i b l e to d e t e r m i n e t h e m a j o r s p a t i a l f o r m in
form and a d v a n c e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h i s is m o s t s i m p l y a n d c o m m o n l y
character d o n e b y t h e r e s e r v a t i o n o f o p e n a r e a s , s u c h as p l a z a s a n d
p a r k s . S t r e e t s p a c e s o r e d g e s o f d e v e l o p m e n t m a y a ls o be d e -
fin e d b y s e t t i n g b u i l d i n g a n d h e i g h t lin e s t h a t w ill h a v e
v is u a l e ffect r e g a r d l e s s o f d e t a i l e d d e s i g n . L a r g e p l a n t s o r
p la n t m asses m a y create spaces in d e p e n d e n t of th e build-
in g s. S p a c e s so c r e a t e d m a y t h e n b e lin k e d to th e p a t h
stru c tu re .
I n s t e a d o f d e f i n i n g t h e e x a c t s p a t i a l f o r m , it m a y be
p o s s i b l e to p r e s c r i b e s p a t i a l c h a r a c t e r , s u c h a s r e c o m m e n d -
in g a c o n t i n u o u s n e t w o r k o f s m a l l c o u r t s lin k e d b y s h o r t t u n -

Figure 39 Plan
fo r the U n iver-
sity of California
c a m p u s at Berke-
ley, officially
a d o p t e d in 1 9 1 4 ,
and the actu al
developm ent in
1956 (Source:
L ong-R ange De-
v elopm ent P lan
for the Berkeley
C a m p u s, U n i v e r -
s ity o f California,
A u g u s t 1956).
Ai’rofilms Ltii.

Figure 40 Coherent spatial character in an extended district: an aerial view o f

Trinity College , Cambridge.

nels, h a v i n g c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f u se a n d p e r f o r m a n c e .
I n s te a d o f p r e c is e ly m a p p i n g th e l o c a tio n o f t h e s e f u t u r e
c o u r ts a n d t u n n e l s , n e w c o n s t r u c t i o n w o u l d s i m p l y b e te s t e d
for c o n f o r m i t y to th is g e n e r a l b u t e x p lic it p a t t e r n . H a r m o n i -
o u s s p a t i a l c o n t i n u i t i e s o f th is k i n d , w h i c h giv e a s t r o n g
c h a r a c t e r to th e w h o le , a re i l l u s t r a t e d in m a n y o ld t o w n s
w h e r e t r a d i t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n e x p lic it p la n , w a s t h e g u id e .
T h e s t r u c t u r e a n d c h a r a c t e r o f s p a c e s a n d p a t h s is O ther long-
p r o b a b l y t h e p r i n c i p a l to o l b y w h i c h th e l o n g - r a n g e site range controls
p l a n n e r c a n s h a p e f u t u r e fo rm . B u t th e r e a r e o t h e r s : h e c a n
lay o u t th e m a jo r l a n d s c a p i n g , u s i n g d o m i n a n t p l a n t ty p e s
 236 to g iv e a r e a s p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r o r u s i n g la r g e s p e c i m e n s
o r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s to m a r k o u t t h e k e y p a t h s a n d n o d a l p o in ts .
T r e e s m a y be set o u t lo n g b e f o r e a n a r e a is to be u s e d , so t h a t
u s e r s c a n e n j o y t h e m in t h e i r m a t u r e f o rm . T h e p l a n n e r c a n
s p e c if y t h e m ix o f o u t d o o r u s e a n d e q u i p m e n t , o r d e s i g n sy s-
te rn s o f o b je c ts ( s u c h as s ig n s , l ig h ts , o r v e h ic le s ) t h a t w ill
l a te r b e e m p l o y e d a n d l o c a te d a c c o r d i n g to n e e d . H e m a y
p r e s c r i b e t h e s k y l i n e p ro file o r t h e p o i n t s a t w h i c h m a j o r a r-
c h i t e c t u r a l a c c e n ts w ill be a llo w e d . In a d d i t i o n , he m a y
s u g g e s t m a t e r i a l s , c o lo r s , t e x t u r e s , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f f e n e s t r a -
ti o n , o r e v e n th e n a t u r e o f m a s s i n g o r d e ta il. H e w ill u se j u s t
t h a t level o f c o n t r o l w h i c h w ill c o n f e r c h a r a c t e r a n d c o n t i n u -
ity w h i l e i m p o s i n g a m i n i m u m o f r e s t r i c t i o n o n th e s h a p e
a n d fu n c tio n of future stru ctu res.

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la n d m a r k \ p e d o t n ^ a v
I ‫ ׳‬VCKJ

Figure 41 F r a g m e n t o f an i m a g i n a r y d i a g r a m p r e s c r i b i n g the f u tu r e v is u a l f o r m
o f a p la ce , w h i c h w i l l d e v e l o p o v e r a p e r i o d o f tim e. Lik e a l a n d - u s e p la n , this d i a g r a m
sets g en eral character b u t n o t exact fo rm , a lth o u g h the d egree o f regulation varies
a t d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s . In t h e c o n t r o l d i s t r i c t , f o r e x a m p l e , b u i l d i n g s w o u l d b e r e g u l a t e d
b y their height, coverage, w a ll texture, ana the general character o f their open s p a c e s ,
w h i l e a r o u n d the s q u a r e the b u i l d i n g lines, c o r n i c e h e i g h t s , a n d f a c a d e s w o u l d be ex-
a c t l y de fin ed . A t y p i c a l cr o s s se c ti o n w o u l d be p r e s c r i b e d f o r the p e d e s t r i a n w a y s , as
w ell as their land sca p in g , lighting, signing, a n d furnishin g. L a n d m a r k s are required
t o b e t al l , v i s u a l l y d i s t i n c t i v e s t r u c t u r e s , a n d a c t i v i t y f o c u s e s a r e m e a n t t o i n d i c a t e
the l o c a t i o n o f v is ib l e , i n t e r e s t i n g p u b l i c a c t i v i t y a t g r o u n d level. S u c h a d i a g r a m
w o u l d b e s u p p o r t e d b y a se ri es o f rules, s p e c if i ca t i o n s , s k e t c h e s , a n d il l u s tr a t iv e v i e w s
a n d details.
 H is p la n , th e r e f o r e , i n s t e a d o f b e i n g a n a b s t r a c t site 237
d r a w i n g , will c o n s is t o f a d i a g r a m o f la n d u se, c i r c u l a t i o n ,
a n d m a jo r sp a c e s , s u p p l e m e n t e d b y d i a g r a m s , s t a t e m e n t s ,
a n d i l lu s tr a tiv e d e ta ils to g u i d e th e c h a r a c t e r o f f u tu r e
g r o w t h . Like a n y la r g e - s c a le , l o n g - r a n g e p la n , th is w ill n o t
be fixed for all tim e b u t be s u b je c t to c o n s t a n t r e v is io n a n d
d e v e lo p m e n t.
‫ ״‬U r b a n d e s i g n ‫ ״‬is a v a g u e t e r m u s u a l l y a p p lie d to N 4 u ltip le
t h a t k in d o f r e la tiv e ly d e n s e site d e v e l o p m e n t w h i c h is a D evelopers
sin g le, c o n t i n u o u s , a n d r e a s o n a b l y s h o r t - t e r m t r a n s a c t i o n
b u t w h i c h is c a r r ie d t h r o u g h b y m a n y i n d e p e n d e n t a g e n t s ,
te m p o rarily b o u n d to g e th e r by co n tract. T h is p a tte rn of de-
v e l o p m e n t o c c u r s in u r b a n r e n e w a l , in th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f
m a n y c o m m e r c i a l a r e a s , in w o r l d 's fairs, a n d in s o m e ‫ ״‬n e w
t o w n s " o r o t h e r la r g e r e s i d e n t i a l p r o je c ts . T h e c lie n t for
w h o m th e site p l a n n e r is w o r k i n g m a y b e e i t h e r p u b l i c or
p r iv a te , a c lie n t w h o in f u n c t i o n is a s u p e r d e v e l o p e r o r p a c k -
a ger, a s s e m b l i n g th e l a n d , t h e f in a n c i n g , t h e m a r k e t , a n d
th e s u b d e v e l o p e r s ( w h o m a y th e m s e l v e s b e e i t h e r p u b l i c o r
p r iv a te a g e n c ie s ) , a n d w h o p r o v i d e s a g e n e r a l p l a n a n d a n
i n f r a s t r u c t u r e b y w h i c h th o s e s u b d e v e l o p e r s c a n c o o r d i n a t e
th e ir effo rts.
A s in s u b d i v i s i o n o r l o n g - r a n g e site p l a n n i n g , a f r a m e -
w o r k site p l a n is r e q u i r e d w i t h o u t firm k n o w l e d g e o f u se o r
d e ta ile d b u i l d i n g d e s ig n . U n l i k e p l a n n i n g for a s t a b l e in s ti-
tu t i o n , l o n g - r a n g e p r e d i c t i o n s m a y n o t be n e c e s s a r y , b u t at
th e s a m e tim e th e site p l a n n e r is n o t in d ir e c t c o n t r o l of, a n d
s o m e t i m e s n o t e v e n in d ir e c t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h , th e d e -
sig n o f a c tu a l s t r u c t u r e s . C o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n p a r t i e s r e g a r d -
in g th e s c h e m e a r e in e v ita b le , a n d p u r p o s e s , c lie n ts , a n d
p r o g r a m s ty p i c a l l y s h if t r a p i d l y as th e p a c k a g e is g r a d u a l l y
p u t t o g e th e r .
M u l t i p l e - d e v e l o p e r d e s i g n is f r a c t i o n a t e d , like s u b d i -
v is io n d e s ig n , b u t n o t n e c e s s a r i l y so h o p e le s s ly , sin c e th e d e -
v e l o p m e n t p e r i o d is r e la tiv e ly s h o r t , th e c o n t r a c t u a l r e l a t i o n
is close, a n d g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n is p o s s ib le , t h o u g h less
o f te n a c h ie v e d . I n d e e d , ‫ ״‬r a p i d a n d a c c u r a t e i n t e r c o m m u n i -
c a tio n — o f c o n s t r a i n t s , c r ite r ia , a n d p o s s ib le s o l u t i o n s — is
e s s e n tia l to a s a t i s f a c t o r y p r o d u c t . T h e site d e s i g n e r m u s t be Site plans as
ab le to r e s p o n d c o n t i n u a l l y a n d to p r e p a r e a w h o l e s e q u e n c e coordinating
o f p o s s ib le l a y o u ts , w h i c h g r a d u a l l y se rv e to e x p l o r e a n d d e - devices
fine t h e p r o b l e m a n d th e a c to r s , a n d to d e v e lo p a n d fix a c o o r-
d i n a t e d a c tio n . T h i s c o o r d i n a t i n g site p l a n is s im ila r to th e
l o n g - r a n g e site p l a n b u t m o r e fluid, s e r v i n g as a n o b je c t of
 238 b a r g a i n i n g , r i c h e r in i l l u s t r a t i v e d e ta il a n d a l t e r n a t i v e p o s -
s ib ilitie s . C o n t r a c t u a l c o n t r o l s w ill e v e n t u a l l y b e d e v e l o p e d
f r o m th e c o o r d i n a t i n g s c h e m e .
T h e su p e rd e v e lo p e r m u st a n tic ip a te th e su b d e v e lo p ‫־‬
e r 's c a p a b i l i t i e s a n d d e v is e c o n t r o l s t h a t w ill c a r r y o u t its
o w n i n t e n t a n d y e t a l l o w fo r t h e l a t t e r 's m o t i v e s a n d fo r t h e
u n f o r e s e e n . T h e s u b d e v e l o p e r m u s t m a k e a d e t a i l e d p l a n in
th e s p ir it o f t h e g e n e r a l o n e a n d y e t k n o w w h e n to b r e a k o u t,
to r e e x a m i n e t h e g e n e r a l p l a n b e c a u s e o f a n e w id e a o r a
n e w s i t u a t i o n . I d e a lly , b o t h t r y to p e n e t r a t e e a c h o t h e r 's
f u n c t i o n , t h e s u b d e v e l o p e r h e l p i n g to s h a p e t h e g e n e r a l p r o -
g r a m , a n d t h e s u p e r d e v e l o p e r m a k i n g d e t a i l e d ill u s t r a t i v e
p l a n s to c o n v e y o r te s t h is g e n e r a l p r in c ip le s . A n a l y s e s o f
s ite, m a r k e t , a n d so c ia l n e e d a n d t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f c o n c r e t e
p e r f o r m a n c e c r i t e r i a a n d i l l u s t r a t i v e s o l u t i o n s g iv e s u b -
s t a n c e to t h i s i n t e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n . In s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n is b l o c k e d , as in m a n y c a s e s o f u r b a n r e n e w a l ,
o r w h e r e t h e r e a re ti m e la g s, f i n a n c ia l a n d h u m a n d i s a s t e r s
are c o m m o n p la c e .
Loss o f contact C o n t a c t w i t h th e u l t i m a t e u s e r is e s p e c ia lly difficu lt.
with the T h e s h if ts a n d c o n f lic ts a m o n g p o t e n t i a l b u i l d e r s a b s o r b all
ultimate user t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e n e r g y . M a n y u l t i m a t e u s e r s a re t r a n -
s i e n t o r v o ic e le ss, a n d e v e n t h e m o r e p e r m a n e n t o n e s a re
o n ly very indirectly represented. W ere subdevelopers con-
tr o l l e d b y , a n d t h e r e f o r e d i r e c t l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of, th e
n e e d s o f u s e r s ( r e s i d e n t s , t r a n s i t r id e r s , s h o p p e r s , s tu -
d e n t s ) , t h e b u i l t r e s u l t w o u l d s e r v e felt n e e d d ir e c tly . A s it
is, t h e site d e s i g n e r n e a r t h e t o p o f t h e p y r a m i d m a y b e u n -
a w a r e o f h is r e m o t e n e s s , o r if h e is a w a r e , his a t t e m p t s to
c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h t h e u l t i m a t e c lie n ts a r e a b o r t i v e . H e m a y
o b ta in useful in fo rm a tio n from form al stu d ies o f th e b e h a v io r
a n d a t t i t u d e s o f p o t e n t i a l u s e r s . B u t his b e s t s t r a t e g y is th e
c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c r ite r ia to t h o s e c lie n ts in
a f o r m t h a t c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a n d t h a t m a y p r o v o k e a re a c -
t io n u p w a r d f r o m t h e b o t t o m o f th e p y r a m i d .
S i t e C o n tro ls S u b d iv isio n , lo n g -ra n g e plans, a n d m u ltip le -d e v e lo p e r
s i t u a t i o n s all in v o lv e t h e q u e s t i o n o f c o n t r o l : t h e a c h i e v e m e n t
o f c o n t i n u i t y a n d th e p r e v e n t i o n o f in f e r i o r w o r k b y m e a n s o f
r e g u l a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n d e s ig n . C o n t r o l s , i m p o s e d e i t h e r b y
o r d i n a n c e o r b y c o v e n a n t , a re c le a r ly n e c e s s a r y in o r d e r to
a v o id v e r y p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e .
C o n t r o l s a r e w i d e l y a c c e p te d if t h e y a r e l i m i t a t i o n s o n
u se , d e n s i t y , a n d th e l a y o u t o f c i r c u l a t i o n — e v e n if t h e y
s h o u l d n o t be. T h e y a r e v ie w e d w i t h g r e a t e r s u s p i c i o n w h e n
a p p l i e d to v is u a l f o rm . C o n t r o l s a r e n e g a t i v e a n d p a s s iv e
m e a s u r e s , as o p p o s e d to th e p o s itiv e t e c h n i q u e o f d e s ig n . 239
T h e y stifle i n n o v a t i o n a n d r e s tr ic t in d i v i d u a l f r e e d o m ; in a
w o rld o f skill a n d g o o d w ill t h e y w o u l d be u n n e c e s s a r y . If n o t
used w i t h r e s t r a i n t , t h e y p r o d u c e a n e n v i r o n m e n t o f c o m p e -
te n t m e d io c r ity .
T h e tr ic k is to u se c o n t r o l s as s p a r i n g l y as w ill a c h ie v e
th e e n d in v ie w a n d to p r e v e n t u n w a n t e d sid e effects ( s u c h
as th e e x c lu s io n o f lo w - c o s t h o u s i n g o r t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f n e w
m o n o t o n i e s ) . C e r t a i n p r o v e d k i n d s o f c o n t r o l le a v e m a n y di-
m e n s i o n s o f f r e e d o m to th e i n d i v i d u a l . D e n s i t y c o n t r o l s , for
e x a m p le , h a v e a f u n d a m e n t a l t e c h n ic a l, so cial, e c o n o m i c ,
a n d e v e n v is u a l i m p a c t a n d y e t w h e n fixed still a l l o w a
g r e a t v a r i e t y o f b u i l d i n g f o rm s. C o n t r o l o v e r t h e s t r e e t sy s-
tern is a n o t h e r u s e f u l r e g u l a t i o n . L i m i t a t i o n o n la n d u s e is
a lso w i d e ly p r a c tic e d a n d m a k e s s e n s e if t h e e x c l u s i o n s a re
b a s e d o n r e a l, a n d n o t i m a g i n a r y , c o n flic ts . B u t t h e im p o s i -
tio n o f p r e c is e u s e c o n t r o l s a n d th e s t r i c t a v o i d a n c e o f u se
m ix tu r e s o v e r s h o o t th e m a r k . W h e r e v e r p o s s ib le , it is
p r e f e r a b le to c o n t r o l u s e b y s e t t i n g u p p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n -
d a r d s for n u i s a n c e effects a n d b y p r e s c r i b i n g t h e i n t e n s i t y o f
use r a t h e r t h a n t h e ty p e .
B u ild in g lin e s a r e o f te n a p p l i e d b o t h v e r t i c a l l y a n d Building lines
h o r i z o n t a l l y . If t h e o b je c tiv e is to c o n t r o l d e n s i t y o r to e n s u r e
lig h t a n d air, t h e n t h e r e a r e o t h e r m o r e flexible w a y s o f a t-
t a i n i n g th e s a m e e n d s . T h e p r i n c i p a l v a l u e o f t h e b u i l d i n g
line is e i t h e r to a c h ie v e a v is u a l effect o r to r e s e r v e a c e r t a i n
access o r a re a o f g r o u n d . It is n o t n e c e s s a r y to set u n i f o r m
lin e s; t h e y m a y b e fle x ib ly d r a w n to p r o d u c e s p a t i a l c o h e r -
e n c e a n d v a r i e g a t e d c h a r a c t e r . O c c a s i o n a l l y , in k e y l o c a t i o n s
it m a y b e d e s i r a b l e to set m i n i m u m as w e ll as m a x i m u m
lines.
P e r f o r m a n c e c r ite r ia a re t h e p r e f e r r e d m e a n s o f c o n t r o l Perform ance
w h e r e t h e y c a n b e c a p a b l y a d m i n i s t e r e d . T h e y m a y se t re - standards
q u i r e m e n t s for n o r m a l o r e m e r g e n c y a c c e ss, for v is u a l o r
a c o u s tic p r iv a c y , for th e e m i s s i o n o f lig h t, n o is e , o r p o llu -
t a n t s , for v ie w s , for t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f l a n d , w a t e r , o r v e g e -
t a t i o n , for t h e m a i n t e n a p c e a n d u s a b i l i t y o f o u t d o o r sp a c e s ,
a n d for l i g h t i n g , v is u a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , a n d te x t u r e s . T h u s
o n e m a y r e q u i r e t h a t all s t r u c t u r e s b e r e a c h a b l e b y fire a p -
p a r a t u s a n d b e n o f a r t h e r t h a n s o m e g iv e n d i s t a n c e fr o m
p a r k i n g a n d a n o t h e r g iv e n d i s t a n c e f r o m tr a n s i t . P r o h i b i t e d
n o ise levels c a n b e sp e c ifie d b y d e c ib e ls ; u n a c c e p t a b l e lev-
els b y l i g h t i n g c a n b e sp e c ifie d b y l u m e n s a n d th e v is ib il-
ity o f t h e s o u r c e , c o u p le d w i t h m i n i m u m l i g h t i n g r e q u i r e -
m e n t s for p u b lic w a y s . T h e b l o c k i n g o f c e r t a i n v ie w s , as
 240 w ell as w i n d o w s t h a t c lo s e ly o v e r l o o k o t h e r w i n d o w s o r p r i-
v a te o p e n s p a c e s , c a n be p r e v e n t e d . T h e c u t t i n g o f tre e s
m a y be r e s t r i c t e d , n e w p l a n t i n g s e n c o u r a g e d , t h e fillin g o f
w e t l a n d s o r s t r i p p i n g o f to p s o i l o u t l a w e d . B u t if t h e p r o v i -
s io n s a r e c o m p l e x o r d iffic u lt to m o n i t o r in t h e field, t h e i r im -
p l e m e n t a t i o n w ill d e f e a t itself.
O t h e r c o n t r o l s m a y r e fe r to t h e d e t a i l e d q u a l i t y a n d
d e s i g n o f c o m p o n e n t s , s u c h a s s p e c i f i c a t i o n s for r o a d s o r u tili-
ties. S o m e t i m e s c o n t r o l s d e a l w i t h b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l s o r
w i t h s ig n s , p l a n t i n g , a n d fen ces. O c c a s i o n a l l y , a n d e v e n
m o r e d a n g e r o u s l y , t h e y w ill re f e r to d e s i g n o r s ty le . A ll o f
t h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s m a y h a v e u n f o r e s e e n r e s u lts . T h e r e m u s t
b e s o m e m e c h a n i s m for f u t u r e m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n t r o l s
w h e t h e r b y a c t i o n o f a c e n t r a l a g e n c y , s u c h as a b o a r d o f
t r u s t e e s o r a g o v e r n m e n t , o r b y p r o v i s i o n t h a t th e c o n t r o l s
w ill la p s e a t a s p e c ifie d tim e a n d m u s t t h e n be r e n e w e d , o r
b y t h e i r d e v o l u t i o n i n t o lo cal h a n d s .
Costs and side C o n t r o l s h a v e o f t e n b e e n d e s i g n e d for t h e i r s e c o n d a r y
effects o f effe c ts, a p r a c t i c e t h a t is a l w a y s d e v i o u s a n d u s u a l l y w a s t e -
controls ful a n d h a z a r d o u s . D e v e l o p e r s a r e r e q u i r e d to in s t a l l e x p e n -
sive i m p r o v e m e n t s , for e x a m p l e , in o r d e r to b lo c k o r s lo w
d o w n t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s , o r m i n i m u m h o u s e sizes a r e se t to ex-
e lu d e p e o p l e w i t h l o w e r in c o m e levels. D i r e c t e x c l u s i o n o f
ra c e o r cla ss h a s f o r t u n a t e l y b e e n d e c l a r e d illegal, b u t m a n y
s e e m i n g l y i n n o c e n t d e v ic e s c o n t i n u e to c a r r y o u t t h a t a im .
By en fo rc in g s ta n d a rd s , lim itin g o p tio n s, a n d im p o sin g de-
la y s , c o n t r o l s a ls o i n e v i t a b l y a d d to t h e c o s t o f d e v e l o p m e n t .
T h e s e c o s ts m u s t b e b a l a n c e d a g a i n s t t h e e n d s to be
a c h ie v e d . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e d e l a y i n g e ffe c ts o f c o m p le x c o n -
tr o ls d o n o t u s u a l l y c o n f e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g b e n e f its .
S p e c ia l p o w e r s o f e x c e p t i o n a l l o w c o n t r o l b o d i e s to re-
le a se d e v e l o p e r s f r o m r e s t r i c t i o n s in r e t u r n for s o m e d e s i r a -
b le s p a c e , d e n s i t y , o r d e s i g n e x c e lle n c e . D e s i g n e r s m a y be
a b le to e x c e e d d e n s i t y m a x i m u m s a t c e r t a i n s p o t s w h ile
k e e p i n g g r o s s d e n s i t y lo w , o r t h e y m a y m ix b u i l d i n g t y p e s
o r u se s w h ile m a i n t a i n i n g th e g e n e r a l o b je c tiv e s o f z o n i n g
c a te g o r ie s .
The pow er o f O n e u se fu l t e c h n i q u e o f flexible c o n t r o l is t h e es-
review t a b l i s h m e n t o f a b o a r d o f r e v ie w , to w h i c h all d e s i g n s m u s t
b e s u b m i t t e d b u t w h i c h h a s o n l y p e r s u a s i v e p o w e r . If it is
n o t to be a r b i t r a r y , s u c h a b o a r d r e q u i r e s s o m e g u id e lin e s .
P e r f o r m a n c e c r ite r ia c a n f u r n i s h th e m . It m a y a ls o b e a p -
p r o p r i a t e to se t u p a local a s s o c i a t i o n o f o w n e r s to e x e r c is e a n d
m o d i f y s o m e o f t h e c o n t r o l s as w e ll as to m a i n t a i n a n d o p e r -
ate c o m m o n fac ilitie s s u c h as p a r k s , p o o ls , p l a n t i n g , w a l k -
w a y s , s tr e e ts , s e w a g e d i s p o s a l o r w a t e r s u p p l y p l a n t s . B u t 241
m u n i c i p a l a g e n c ie s m a y b e je a l o u s o f s u c h local p o w e r o r b e
c o n c e r n e d t h a t a s s o c i a t i o n s m a y n o t h a v e th e p e r m a n e n c e
n e c e s s a r y to c a r r y o u t t h e i r f u n c t i o n s o v e r a lo n g p e r i o d o f
tim e.
C o n tro ls are b ased on s t a n d a r d s — form al s ta te m e n ts Standards
a b o u t th e s t a b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l f e a tu r e s
t h a t a re p r e s u m e d to m a k e t h e m u n i v e r s a l l y d e s i r a b l e o r
a c c e p ta b le . T h u s w e h a v e n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s for p a v e m e n t Reference 4ó
w i d t h s , p ip e siz e s, s t r e e t l i g h t i n g , fire e g r e s s , b u i l d i n g
s p a c in g , g r o u n d s lo p e , p l a y g r o u n d size, t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f
uses, th e r e q u i r e d d r a w i n g s for s u b d i v i s i o n a p p r o v a l , a n d
m a n y m o r e . S o m e re f e r to fo r m , s o m e to t h e p r o c e s s o f c r e a t -
in g it, s o m e to its s u b s e q u e n t p e r f o r m a n c e . S o m e a r e legal
m i n i m u m s ; o t h e r s a re d e s i r a b l e o p t i m u m s u s e d as g u i d e s in
d e s ig n ; s o m e r e fe r to e s t a b l i s h e d w a y s o f d o i n g t h i n g s
( " c u r r e n t g o o d p r a c t i c e " ) ; s o m e a r e p r e d i c t i o n s ( t h a t is, if so
m a n y s q u a r e feet o f re ta il s p a c e a r e p r o v i d e d , t h e n a s t o r e
will h a v e s u f f ic ie n t b u s i n e s s ) ; o t h e r s a re s i m p l y a r b i t r a r y
s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n s t h a t lim it u n w a n t e d v a r i a t i o n in f o r m
(s c re w t h r e a d s , for e x a m p le ) . P l a n n i n g m a n u a l s , r e p o r t s ,
a n d o r d i n a n c e s a r e full o f s u c h s t a n d a r d s . T h i s b o o k is n o ex-
c e p tio n , a l t h o u g h e v e r y o p p o r t u n i t y h a s b e e n t a k e n to c a u -
tio n t h e r e a d e r .
S t a n d a r d s a r e a n e c e s s i t y in o r d e r to s i m p l i f y t h e la r g e
a n d s h i f t i n g b o d y o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t site p e r f o r m a n c e so
t h a t d e c is io n s a r e n o t lo st in d e ta il a n d u n c e r t a i n t y . M o r e -
o v e r, s u b s i d i a r y q u e s t i o n s c a n b e h a n d l e d s u m m a r i l y , a n d
i n e x p e r ie n c e d p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e e n a b l e d to a v o id m a j o r er-
ro rs. S t a n d a r d s p r o v i d e a n e q u i t a b l e b a s is for legal c o n t r o l
a n d a w a y of r e g u l a r i z i n g p r o d u c t i o n . In c o n flic t o r d o u b t , it
is c o m f o r t i n g to h a v e a n e s t a b l i s h e d w a y o f s e p a r a t i n g r i g h t
fr o m w r o n g .
T h e d a n g e r lies in t h i s v e r y w a y o f s h a r p l y d i s t i n -
g u i s h i n g g o o d a n d evil, s in c e th e c o n t e x t o f a d e c is io n w ill be
i g n o r e d a n d sid e effects n e g le c te d . R e q u i r i n g t w o m e a n s o f
fire e g r e s s f r o m a p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g s n o t o n l y ra is e s c o s ts
( w h ic h w a s fo r e s e e n ) b u t m a k e s it d iffic u lt for p o lic e to p a -
tro l in t e r i o r h a l l w a y s ( w h i c h w a s n o t fo r e s e e n ) . S e t t i n g a
5 0 - f o o t m i n i m u m for t h e r i g h t - o f - w a y o f m i n o r r o a d s is ex-
p e n s iv e a n d g iv e s m a n y s u b d i v i s i o n s a b a r r e n lo o k . B o th
ru le s, r e a s o n a b l e e n o u g h in t h e i r i n t e n t , a r e n o w n a t i o n w i d e
a n d h a v e h a d a n i m m e n s e effect o n th e f o r m o f th e w o r l d w e
live in.
S t a n d a r d s a r e o f te n set a r b i t r a r i l y . T h e y m a y b e th e
242 expressed o p in io n of som e professio n al, re p eated by som e
o t h e r s , a c c e p t e d as t h e b e s t r e a d i l y a v a ila b le s t a t e m e n t for
s o m e legal r e q u i r e m e n t , a n d e v e n t u a l l y c o d ifie d a c r o s s th e
n a t i o n . T h e c o n n e c t i o n to o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e is o f te n g lo s s e d
o v e r, e v e n f o r g o t t e n . T h e r e l a t i o n o f s t a n d a r d b u i l d i n g se t-
b a c k s o r s t a n d a r d lot f r o n t a g e s to h e a l t h a n d w e lf a r e is q u ite
o b s c u r e . S k ille d s ite p l a n n e r s w ill o f t e n v io la te a c c e p te d
s t a n d a r d s a n d p r o d u c e b e t t e r e n v i r o n m e n t s w h ile d o i n g so.
U n fo rtu n a te ly , we c a n n o t jettiso n the w h o le stru c tu re
o f s t a n d a r d s . T h e y a r e d a n g e r o u s n e c e s s itie s , to b e t r e a t e d
w i t h s u s p i c i o n o r a v o i d e d w h e r e t h a t w ill n o t c a s t to o h e a v y a
Perform ance lo a d o n d e c is io n m a k e r s . T h e y a r e b e s t s t a t e d as a d e s ir e d
standards p e r f o r m a n c e r a t h e r t h a n th e m e a n s to a t t a i n t h a t p e r f o r m -
a n c e : d e s i r e d d a y l i g h t i n g r a t h e r t h a n d e s ir e d b u i l d i n g e n -
v e lo p s o r s p a c i n g s . In t h e s a m e s p ir it, I h a v e r e c o m -
m e n d e d p r o g r a m s t h a t s p e c ify t h e b e h a v i o r s e t t i n g r a t h e r
t h a n th e p h y s i c a l f o r m itself.
U n fo rtu n a te ly , p e rfo rm a n c e s ta n d a rd s h ave their o w n
d iffic u ltie s. T h e y m a y force t h e r e p e a t e d t e s t i n g o u t o f a lo n g
c h a i n o f c o n s e q u e n c e s f r o m p r o p o s e d f o r m to p r e d i c t e d p e r -
f o r m a n c e . It m a y a ls o b e d iffic u lt to s p e c if y d e s i r e d p e r f o r m -
a n c e in a n y c le a r w a y . S a y i n g t h a t m a n y n e w tr e e s s h o u l d
b e p l a n t e d in r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s is m u c h e a s ie r t h a n s p e c ify -
in g t h e v is u a l o r c lim a tic v a lu e s to b e g a i n e d t h e r e b y , e v e n
if t h e r e is n o d o u b t t h a t s u c h a g a i n w ill o c c u r . F in a lly , th e
p e r f o r m a n c e to b e te s te d for m a y o c c u r o n l y la te r , a f te r o c c u -
p a t i o n , w h i l e th e lik e ly p o i n t o f c o n t r o l is e a r lie r , d u r i n g d e -
s ig n o r c o n s t r u c t i o n . A m a x i m u m n o i s e level c a n b e m e a -
s u r e d e a s ily e n o u g h , b u t n o t u n t i l th e f a c t o r y is in o p e r a t i o n .
It is e a s ie r ( t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s w is e r ) to r e c o m m e n d e x c lu d -
in g th e f a c t o r y f r o m t h e s t a r t .
T h u s, w h ile p re fe rrin g p e rfo rm a n c e sta te m e n ts, we
m a y u s e f o r m c r ite r ia w h e n p e r f o r m a n c e is d iffic u lt to p r e -
d ie t o r s p e c if y o r t e s t for a n d w h e n fix in g th e f o r m a l o n e is n o t
lik e ly to h a v e s e r i o u s sid e effects. B e c a u se o f t h e i r s im p lic -
ity, f o r m s t a n d a r d s m a y a lso b e b e s t w h e n p e r f o r m a n c e is
e a s y to p r e d i c t a n d is lik e ly to b e s i m i l a r in all k i n d s o f cir-
c u m s t a n c e s . W e s t a t e a m i n i m u m g r a d e for p a r k i n g lots,
ra th e r th a n citin g th e speed w ith w h ic h surface w ater
s h o u l d flow o r t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h a lot m a y be
p e r m i t t e d to b e flo o d e d . ( A n d y et, in a n a r id c lim a te , a n
i n f r e q u e n t l y u s e d lo t m i g h t i n d e e d b e b u ilt d e a d flat!)
E ls e w h e r e , o n e re lie s o n p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d a r d s o r a t le a s t
h a b i t u a l l y q u e s t i o n s t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f fo r m to p e r f o r m a n c e
a n d t h e r e le v a n c e o f p e r f o r m a n c e to t h e s i t u a t i o n .
 M a n y s t a n d a r d s a r e t h o u g h t u n i v e r s a l a n d in fa c t d e - 243
p e n d o n t h e so c ia l s i t u a t i o n o r t h e c lie n t. T h e y w o u l d b e
m o r e u s e f u l ( a n d u n h a p p i l y b u lk ie r ) if t h e y s t a t e d t h e c lie n t
a n d c o n t e x t to w h i c h t h e y w e r e r e l e v a n t , as w e ll as t h e p u r -
p o s e t o w a r d w h i c h t h e y w e r e a im e d . S t a n d a r d s s h o u l d b e
u n d e r c o n s t a n t te s t a n d r e v is io n , a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e i r u n d e r -
ly in g h y p o t h e s e s s h o u l d a l w a y s b e e x p lic it s o m e w h e r e . A
little u n e a s i n e s s a b o u t t h e p e r v a s i v e in f lu e n c e o f th e s e d e c -
larations m ig h t be salutary.
 C h ap ter 11

D e sig n an d M a n a g em en t
o f the Site

/ \ s a p r e l u d e to d i s c u s s i n g t h e s i t e - p l a n n i n g role, it is
n e c e s s a r y first to d e s c r i b e t h e t y p i c a l t e c h n i c a l p r o c e s s in
c u r r e n t p r a c t i c e . T h i s w ill a ls o e x p l a i n h o w m u l t i p l e is s u e s
a re n o r m a l l y w o v e n t o g e t h e r . I n t h e u s u a l c a s e a s in g le
c li e n t i n t e n d s to c o n s t r u c t a p r o j e c t o n a spe c ific p ie c e o f la n d
in a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t ti m e fo r s o m e o b v i o u s p u r p o s e .
Site analysis T h e d e s i g n b e g i n s w i t h t h e a n a l y s i s o f s ite a n d p u r -
p o s e . S ite a n a l y s i s , w h i c h m a y b e p r e c e d e d b y site selec-
tio n , sta rts w ith a g en e ra l u n o rie n te d re c o n n a issa n c e, con-
t i n u e s t h r o u g h a s p o t c h e c k o f c u s t o m a r y d a t a to te s t for
its r e le v a n c e , a n d t h e n to a s y s t e m a t i c i n v e n t o r y o f th e
i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t s e e m s , a t t h i s b e g i n n i n g s ta g e , to b e s ig n if -
ic a n t. E m p h a s i s is p u t o n i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t f r o m e x p e r i e n c e
is lik e ly to h a v e c o n t i n u e d u s e f u l n e s s t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o c -
e sse s o f d e s i g n a n d i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o r is lia b le to c h a n g e
t h e c o u r s e o f t h o s e p r o c e s s e s in s o m e m a r k e d w a y : a t o p o -
g r a p h i c m a p , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e e c o lo g y , c e n s u s d a t a . B u t
e a c h p r o b l e m h a s its o w n se t o f p e c u l i a r l y r e l e v a n t d a t a ,
w h i c h w ill n o t b e c o m p l e t e l y r e v e a le d u n t i l t h e d e s i g n is
c o m p l e t e . T h e in itia l s ite a n a l y s i s e n d s w i t h a c o n c is e s t a t e -
m e n t o f t h e s ite 's e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r , h o w it m a i n t a i n s its e lf
a n d is lik e ly to r e s p o n d to d e v e l o p m e n t , as w e ll a s its m a j o r
p r o b l e m s a n d p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . I n p a r a lle l, a s t a t e m e n t o f o b -
je c tiv e s a n d p e r f o r m a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s is a ls o p r e p a r e d .
T h e s e o b je c tiv e s a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s s h o u l d b e s t a t e d as c o n -
cretely as possible without dictating any particular physical 245
solution. An acceptable budget and schedule, consistent
with site and purpose, must also be defined at this time.
Site and objectives cannot be studied independently Site , pu rpose ,
but only in relation to each oth er— the purposes indicating and budget
what aspects of the site are relevant, the site analysis in-
fluencing the goals that are possible or desirable, and the
budget defining what can be done. The statement of these
three factors will be modified throughout the development of
the design, since the design process is itself an exploration of
site and goal possibilities. Despite this circularity the first-
round analysis of situation and purpose is the beginning
step.
Site and purpose are always specific and particular,
never standard. There are, however, certain general site S e e C h a p t er 2
factors that are almost always important, including such
elements as subsurface condition, topography, climate, ecol-
ogy, and the existing patterns of land use and circulation.
Similarly, there are some basic human goals that very often
appear in any statement of objectives: accessibility, ade- S e e p a g e s 3 7—44
quacy, diversity, cost, health and safety, adaptability and
stability, legibility. They will be supplemented by the di-
rect technical objectives inherent in the original problem.
These aims are stated as a total system for each significant
group of users, since most goals and users are in some conflict
with other goals and users.
Next a detailed program is prepared, springing from Program
aims and resources and a knowledge of the actions and pur-
poses of users, as influenced by the site and the technical S e e p a g es 28—33
possibilities. The program furnishes a quantitative schedule
of behavior settings to be provided, their linkages, their de-
sired qualitative characteristics, and the resources to be de-
voted to them. It is prepared with the client and reviewed
by him. It will be modified as design proceeds. In fact, de-
sign has already begun. The resulting activity diagram,
while not yet referring to any spatial distribution, has al-
ready taken spatial possibilities into account. It is the first
bare, misarranged bones of a plan.
It is customary at this point to review other site plans
with similar objectives, not only in publications but espe-
d ally in reality, to see how they have fitted plan to purpose
and with what success. This is not done in the spirit of imi-
tation, although there is no reason why good forms should not
be imitated, but to prepare the mind for the work to come.
W hen both site and purpose are understood and the
 246 preliminary program is in hand, the site planner then pro-
ceeds to the heart of the matter, the design itself. Like any
The design creative process, this is difficult to describe. It becomes par-
process ticularly difficult in site planning, where the factors to be
dealt with are so numerous.
The site plan deals in its essence with three funda-
mental patterns of location in space and time: the pattern of
S e e C h a p ters 3, 6, activity, the pattern of circulation, and the physical forms.
and 9 These are the subject matter of first sketches and remain
dominant themes throughout the work. Their nature has
been explored in the preceding chapters. A site planner's
stock-in-trade is his knowledge of a broad range of alterna-
tives for these three patterns.
The planner is faced with a multitude of interlocking
possibilities. The difficulty lies in treating as an interde-
pendent whole a set of decisions that seem too numerous to
grasp. So it is often useful to begin with a piecemeal attack,
Trial designs o f reserving final judgment until the problem can be seen as a
subsystems whole. The planner may first study some possible alterna-
tives of the activity pattern. Then he will drop these studies
and go on to the analysis of circulation and then of form. He
may look for suggestions in the site, defining focal points or
areas difficult or easy to develop or key features to preserve.
By alternating between these factors, he gains an insight
into their possibilities and can begin to pick up points of con-
flict and support, until at last he is dealing, even if only in a
very loose way, with the three elem ents sim ultaneously.
Alternatively, the planner will work with a single ob-
jective at a time: the cheapest plan possible or the most flexi-
ble, regardless of their implications for other valued ends.
Here again, a partial analysis lays the groundwork for si-
multaneous study. Still another useful breakdown between
part and whole is on an areal basis. The designer begins by
making quick sketches for overall patterns of the whole, al-
ternating with other sketches for the development of small
units of the development. The alternating sketches at first
proceed independently of each other and are gradually built
into total systems.
These common approaches— unit analysis; plans for
single objectives; isolated studies of use, form, site, or circu-
lation — are design techniques leading up to the study of
complex wholes. The alternation of attention from part to
part, while judgment is reserved, prepares the mind for
studies in which the significance of each partial decision is
quickly understood in every important dim ension. This si-
Figure 42 An early study by John R . Myer for the Government Center, Boston.
Building mass, o p e n spaces, grades, circulation, paving, and detail are being devel-
oped together in the context o f the existing city.

m u l t a n e o u s m a s t e r y o f t h e w h o le , w h i c h is e s s e n t i a l to a n
i n t e g r a t e d p l a n , t a k e s tim e to a c h ie v e . W h e n it is a t t a i n e d ,
it w ill s e e m t h a t e a c h tr ia l m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e d e v e l o p i n g
p l a n i m m e d i a t e l y r e a c t s o n t h e r e m a i n d e r o f th e d e s i g n in
all its a s p e c ts . T h e d e s i g n e r w ill b e g i n to i m a g i n e t o ta l s y s -
terns, s h a r p a n d p r e c is e a t th e c r itic a l p o i n t s , lo o s e a n d u n -
r e s o lv e d w h e r e d e c i s i o n s h a v e le ss s ig n if ic a n c e for t h e
w h o le . H e w ill b e g i n to w e i g h t o ta l s y s t e m s a g a i n s t e a c h
oth er, ra th e r th a n c o m p a rin g fractio n al a ltern ativ es.
T h e s t u d i e s t h e m s e l v e s a r e c a r r i e d o u t in v a r i o u s
fo r m s . P l a n s a n d s e c t i o n s a re e s s e n t i a l , a n d so a r e d i a g r a m s
of b e h a v io r settin g s a n d circulation. P erspective sk etch es
are h e lp f u l. A l m o s t a l w a y s it is a d v i s a b l e to m a k e m o d e l
s tu d ie s sin c e t h e d e s i g n e r is d e a l i n g w i t h d e c is io n s in
th r e e d i m e n s i o n s . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m o d e l s a r e n o t su ffic ie n t
in th e m s e l v e s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e im p r e c is e , t h e y fa lsify de-
tail, t h e y o v e r e m p h a s i z e s ta tic fo r m , a n d t h e y ta k e tim e to
b u ild .
S tu d ie s p r o c e e d in th e s c h i z o p h r e n i c m a n n e r c o m m o n Reason and
to all d e s ig n : th e p l a n n e r is at tim e s r e la x e d a n d u n c r i t i c a l , unreason
a l l o w i n g h is s u b c o n s c i o u s m i n d to s u g g e s t n e w f o r m s a n d
connections, m o st of th e m c o m p letely fa n tastic a n d u n w o rk -
248 a b le . A t o t h e r tim e s h e lo o k s s h a r p l y a t t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s ,
c o n s c i o u s l y t e s t i n g t h e m for t h e w a y in w h i c h t h e y a p p l y to
h is p u r p o s e s . T h u s h e is in v o lv e d in a n o t h e r a l t e r n a t i n g
p r o c e s s : a s w i n g f r o m a l m o s t a u t o m a t i c d o o d l i n g , in w h i c h
id e a s a n d f o r m s s e e m to d e v e l o p ,'o f t h e m s e l v e s , ‫ ״‬to a s t e r n l y
c r itic a l r e v ie w o f e a c h n e w s u g g e s t i o n . P a r t o f t h e skill o f a
d e s i g n e r lies in m a n a g i n g th e s e t w o s t a t e s o f m i n d so t h a t
h is c r itic a l p o w e r s d o n o t i n h i b i t c r e a tiv e s u g g e s t i o n , w h ile
h is i r r a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s d o n o t p r e v e n t a d e q u a t e a n a ly s is .
L a rg e n u m b e r s o f f o r m p o s s ib ilitie s m u s t b e p r o d u c e d
in a s t a t e o f m i n d free f r o m p r e j u d i c e a n d p r a c t i c a l i t y .
W h e n o n e o r t w o s u g g e s t i o n s s e e m to h a v e s o m e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
u se , t h e y a r e t h e n fu lly d e v e l o p e d in s k e t c h f o r m . T h e s e
s k e t c h e s m a y b e d e v e l o p e d q u i c k l y in a lo o s e free sty le , b u t
t h e y s h o u l d b e c o m p l e t e , fix in g all m a j o r a s p e c ts . A l t e r n a -
tiv e s s h o u l d n o t b e ‫ ״‬w o r k e d o v e r ‫ ״‬b y c o n s t a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n
a n d e r a s u r e : t h e y s h o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d , se t a s id e , a n d re-
d r a w n as co m p le te sy stem s. O th e rw is e , p o te n tia lly v alu -
a b le p o s s i b i l i t i e s w ill b e b u r i e d u n d e r la y e r s o f p a r t i a l
c h a n g e s . A g o o d d e s i g n e r k n o w s w h e r e h is s k e t c h c a n b e
v a g u e a n d w h e r e it m u s t b e p r e c i s e — t h a t is, w h e r e h e
c a n r e s e r v e j u d g m e n t a n d n e g l e c t d e ta il a n d w h e r e h e
m u s t t e s t t h e k e y d e c is io n s .
In t h is w a y a w i d e r a n g e o f a l t e r n a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s is

Irpl _Jqq.
F ig u r e 43 A n e a r -

ly sketch b y Sven
M arkelius for
the Lincoln C en -
ter, New York
C i t y , in w h i c h h e
faces the build-
ings on an inter-
nal s q u a r e , o n e
level a b o v e the
s u r r o u n d i n g
streets. Rapid
and free, the
sk etch deals w i th
t h e e s s e n t i a l s in
plan a n d section.
developed. Certain alternatives will be rejected, others re- 249
ta i n e d for f u r t h e r tr ia l a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d n e w o n e s s u g -
g e s te d in th e p r o c e s s . C r i t e r i a w ill b e r e t h o u g h t , t h e site
r e a n a l y z e d , t h e p r o g r a m m o d if ie d , as th e s e a l t e r n a t i v e s
o p e n u p t h e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s . T h e d e s i g n e r w ill r e d r a w feasi-
ble a l t e r n a t i v e s s e v e r a l tim e s , m o d i f y i n g t h e m to m e e t v a r -
ious o b je c tio n s . B u t h e m u s t k n o w w h e n to a b a n d o n t h e m a n d
w h e n to re je c t s o m e s c h e m e t h a t h a s b e e n so o v e r l a i d w i t h
c o m p r o m i s e s as to lo se all its o r i g i n a l force. H e w ill a lso be
a le rt to c a t c h a h i n t o f s o m e t o t a l l y n e w a r r a n g e m e n t a p -
p e a r i n g m o m e n t a r i l y in t h i s t r o u b l e d s h i f t i n g o f f o r m s , a le r t
to e x t r a c t it a n d s t a r t a f r e s h . F in a l d e c is io n s o n t h e b a s ic
s c h e m e w ill b e m a d e as t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d c r ite r ia n a r r o w
d o w n , a n d as t h e d e s i g n e r b e g i n s to see t h e w h o l e c o m p l e x
in all its s i g n i f i c a n t d i m e n s i o n s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y .
T h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s s h o u l d b e k e p t as o p e n a n d fluid as F luidity
p o s s ib le u n t i l a w id e r a n g e o f a l t e r n a t i v e s h a s b e e n d e v e l-
o p e d a n d te s te d . A ll to o o f t e n t h i s p r o c e s s is c u t s h o r t b y a
s ta te o f m i n d t h a t is n a r r o w a n d c r itic a l f r o m th e b e g i n n i n g ,
as t h o u g h d e s i g n w e r e a lo g ic a l p r o c e s s t h a t p r o c e e d e d f r o m
in itia l a s s u m p t i o n s b y r a t i o n a l s te p s to a u n i q u e s o l u t i o n . O n
th e c o n t r a r y , d e s i g n is a n i r r a t i o n a l s e a r c h , c o n d u c t e d o v e r a
g r o u n d p r e v i o u s l y p r e p a r e d b y e x p e r ie n c e , t h e s t u d y o f
p r in c ip le s , a n d t h e a n a l y s i s o f site a n d p u r p o s e . It is a f te r
th is s e a r c h h a s p r o d u c e d p o s s ib ilitie s t h a t r a t i o n a l c r itic is m
is b r o u g h t to b e a r. E v e ry p l a n s h o u l d be p r e c e d e d b y g r e a t
n u m b e r s o f d i s c a r d e d s k e t c h a l t e r n a t i v e s . E v e ry d e s i g n e r
s h o u l d b e h a u n t e d b y t h e fe a r t h a t h e h a s left s o m e t h i n g
u n t r i e d . E ven w h e n a final a l t e r n a t i v e h a s b e e n s e le c te d , it
is w ise to a l l o w s o m e tim e to e la p s e b e f o r e c o n f i r m i n g t h e
choice. A d e s i g n e r h a s a n e m o t i o n a l a t t a c h m e n t to p l a n s
t h a t a r is e in t h e h e a t o f c r e a t i o n . L a te r, s u c h p l a n s m a y a p -
pear su rp risin g ly w eak.
C h a p t e r 12 w ill d e s c r ib e v a r i o u s d e s i g n m e t h o d s in
d e ta il a n d i n d i c a t e t h e n e w p o s s ib ilitie s t h a t a re a r is in g .
W e have h ere o u tlin e d th e u su a l process to d a y : a large n u m -
b e r o f s k e t c h s tu d ie s , w h i c h p r o c e e d g r a d u a l l y f r o m p a r t i a l
a s p e c ts to a s i m u l t a n e o u s t r e a t m e n t o f th e w h o l e p a t t e r n in
all its m a j o r d i m e n s i o n s a n d w h i c h t y p i c a l l y a l t e r n a t e b e -
tw e e n b u r s t s o f u n c o n s c i o u s s u g g e s t i o n a n d t h e r a t i o n a l d e -
v e l o p m e n t a n d c r itic is m o f fe a s ib le a l t e r n a t i v e s . T h e s e
s tu d ie s fin a lly r e s u l t in a p r e l i m i n a r y g e n e r a l p l a n , d e a l i n g The prelim inary
p r i m a r i l y w i t h th e p a t t e r n s o f a c tiv ity , c ir c u l a t i o n , a n d t h e plan
p h y s ic a l e n v i r o n m e n t . N o r m a l l y , t h is s k e t c h w ill s h o w
b u i l d i n g lo c a t i o n a n d f o r m , t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o n th e s u r f a c e ,
th e e x p e c te d a c tiv itie s in all o u t d o o r a n d a s s o c i a t e d i n d o o r
 F ig u r e 4 4 Frank L lo y d W r ig h t's sk e tch fo r the C o o n l e y house. Inside
a n d o u t s i d e , as w e l l as b u i l d in g a n d site , are d e a lt w i t h as one. From
F r a n k L l o y d W r i g h t , D ra w in g s for a Living A rchitecture, p u b l i s h e d f o r
t h e B e a r R u n F o u n d a t i o n I n c . a n d t h e E d g a r J. K a u f m a n C h a r i t a b l e
F o u n d a tio n b y H o rizo n P re ss, 1959.

areas, th e g en eral sh a p e an d tre a tm e n t of th e g ro u n d , the

m a j o r l a n d s c a p i n g , a n d a n y a d d i t i o n a l f e a t u r e s t h a t w ill af-
feet t h e o u t d o o r sp a c e . T h i s d e c i s i o n w ill b e e x p r e s s e d in
p l a n , in s e c t i o n , in a c t i v i t y d i a g r a m s , in a s k e t c h m o d e l ,
a n d o f t e n in p e r s p e c t i v e o r i s o m e t r i c v ie w s . T h e p l a n m a y
s h o w o n l y u l t i m a t e d e v e l o p m e n t , o r it m a y i n d i c a t e a se rie s
o f s t a g e s b y w h i c h t h i s g o a l is to b e r e a c h e d , e a c h s ta g e
b e i n g v i a b le in its e lf a n d c a p a b l e o f e n d u r i n g fo r s o m e tim e .
T h i s s c h e m a t i c p l a n is u s u a l l y a c c o m p a n i e d b y a d u l y re-
v is e d p r o g r a m a n d b u d g e t . P la n , p r o g r a m , a n d b u d g e t a re
n o w f o r m a l l y r e v ie w e d w i t h t h e clie n t.
Its te c h n ic a l T h i s p r e l i m i n a r y p l a n is t h e n d e v e l o p e d in its t e c h n i -
developm en t cal d i m e n s i o n a n d in its d e ta ils . T h e s k e t c h w ill h a v e left
s o m e a s p e c ts u n r e s o l v e d , a n d t h e r e w ill b e m a n y d e ta ils to
c o n s id e r . S u b s t a n t i a l t e c h n i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t m u s t a ls o b e
c a r r ie d f o r w a r d . Its p r i n c i p a l e l e m e n t s a r e t h e p r e c is e
S ee C h a p ters 7 and 8 a l i g n m e n t a n d s p e c if ic a tio n o f t h e r o a d a n d w a l k s y s t e m ,
t h e l o c a t i o n a n d d e s i g n o f u tilitie s , a n d t h e g r a d i n g p la n . It
is o n l y th e d e t a i l e d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e f e a t u r e s t h a t is p u t 251
off u n t i l th is la te p e r io d . In s k e t c h i n g t h e r o a d s y s t e m , th e
d e s i g n e r h a s a l r e a d y c o n s i d e r e d its te c h n i c a l d e m a n d s . H e
h a s b e e n a w a r e o f s p e c ia l p r o b l e m s h e m a y h a v e c r e a t e d in
r e g a r d to u tilitie s . H e m u s t a l r e a d y h a v e e v o lv e d a g e n e r a l
g r a d i n g p l a n , s in c e t h e s h a p e o f t h e g r o u n d is a k e y to t h e
a r e a 's u s e f u l n e s s a n d a p p e a r a n c e . It is u n l i k e l y t h a t d e -
ta ile d t e c h n i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t w ill c a u s e a n y r a d i c a l r e v i s i o n
o f th e p l a n s o f a n e x p e r i e n c e d d e s i g n e r . B u t t e c h n i c a l d e v e l-
o p m e n t is c e r t a i n to c a u s e s o m e m o d i f i c a t i o n s .
P r a c t i c e d iffe rs in t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h t e c h n i c a l d e v e l- The professional
o p m e n t is c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e site p l a n n e r . I d e a lly , t h e e n t i r e division
d e s ig n p r o c e s s , d o w n to t h e d e t a i l i n g o f c u r b s a n d m a n h o l e s , o f labor
is p u s h e d to c o m p l e t i o n in o n e office, w h i c h m u s t t h e n in -
e lu d e a t r a i n e d civil e n g i n e e r . A t t h e o p p o s i t e e x t r e m e , th e
site p l a n n e r m a y g o n o f u r t h e r t h a n t h e s c h e m a t i c p l a n ,
le a v in g to a n i n d e p e n d e n t e n g i n e e r t h e r o a d a n d u t i l i t y la y -
o u t a n d t h e g r a d i n g p l a n . B u t s in c e t h e s e te c h n i c a l d r a w -
in g s a r e a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e w h o l e s c h e m e , t h e site
p l a n n e r a n d t h e e n g i n e e r m u s t c o n t i n u e to m a k e m u t u a l a d -
j u s t m e n t s ; o t h e r w i s e , t h e i n t e n t o f t h e p l a n w ill b e t h w a r t e d ,
a n d t h e e n g i n e e r w ill b e f o rc e d i n t o a w k w a r d s o lu t i o n s .
A h a l f w a y p o s i t i o n is f a ir ly c o m m o n : t h e s ite p l a n n e r
p r e p a r e s t h e s c h e m a t i c p l a n , t h e o v e r a ll r o a d a n d u t i l i t y
la y o u t, a n d t h e g r a d i n g a n d l a n d s c a p e p l a n s , l e a v i n g to t h e
e n g i n e e r t h e p r e c is e a l i g n m e n t s for t h e s u r v e y o r , t h e u t i l i t y
s y s t e m s in d e ta il, t h e r o a d a n d w a l k c r o s s s e c t i o n s a n d s p e c -
if ic a tio n s, a n d t h e c o m p u t a t i o n s o f e a r t h b a l a n c e . W h a t e v e r
d iv is io n o f d u t i e s is a g r e e d u p o n , th e site p l a n n e r s h o u l d
p r e p a r e as a m i n i m u m t h e s c h e m a t i c p l a n , t h e l a n d s c a p e
p la n , a n d a f r e e h a n d v e r s i o n o f t h e g r a d i n g p la n .
T e c h n i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t u s u a l l y b e g i n s w i t h a p r e c is e Precise layou ts
layout of th e stru c tu re s a n d p a th s s h o w n on th e sch em atic
p la n , to t h e d e g r e e o f a c c u r a c y r e q u i r e d for t h e i r l o c a t i o n o n
th e site. T h i s d r a w i n g in v o lv e s r e d u c i n g s t r e e t l a y o u t s to
c ir c u la r c u r v e s a n d t a n g e n t s a n d s p e c if y in g t h e g e o m e t r y o f
b u i l d i n g s a n d p r o p e r t y lin e s w i t h r e l a t i o n to b e n c h m a r k s
a n d c o m p a s s d i r e c t i o n s . A c c e p t e d s t a n d a r d s fo r t h e h o r i z o n - S ee p a g es 141—145
tal a l i g n m e n t o f r o a d s a re g iv e n in C h a p t e r 7. T h e f r e e h a n d
s k e t c h o f t h e r o a d c e n t e r lin e is a p p r o x i m a t e d as c lo s e ly as
p o s s ib le b y a s u c c e s s io n o f c u r v e s a n d t a n g e n t s c o n f o r m i n g
to th e s e s t a n d a r d s , o r m i n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s a r e m a d e . S t a t i o n
p o i n t s a re m a r k e d o n t h i s p r e c is e c e n t e r line.
T h e v e r tic a l d i m e n s i o n o f t h e p l a n is t h e n d e ta i l e d .
T h is t a s k u s u a l l y b e g i n s w i t h t h e d e s i g n o f t h e r o a d p ro file , R o a d profiles
 252 a su ccessio n of s tra ig h t g ra d e s a n d vertical curves, con-
s t r u c t e d o v e r a p l o t o f t h e e x i s t i n g s u r f a c e , f o l l o w i n g th e
S ee p a g es 151—154 s t a n d a r d s g iv e n in C h a p t e r 7. O n a s e p a r a t e s h e e t o f
c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l p a p e r , a c o n t i n u o u s s e c t i o n t h r o u g h th e
g r o u n d a t t h e c e n t e r lin e is d r a w n a l o n g e a c h r o a d o r c o n s e c -
u tiv e r u n o f s t a t i o n p o i n t s . T h e h o r i z o n t a l s c a le is t h a t o f t h e
r o a d l a y o u t ; t h e v e r tic a l s c a le is u s u a l l y e x a g g e r a t e d te n
tim e s . T h e d e s i g n e r p l o t s th e e x i s t i n g s u r f a c e a l o n g th is
lin e, as if t h is s i n u o u s v e r tic a l s e c t i o n h a d b e e n f la t t e n e d o u t
to a s in g le p l a n e . A n e w r o a d p r o f ile is t h e n a p p r o x i m a t e d in
s e v e r a l tr ia ls b y d r a w i n g a s e r ie s o f s t r a i g h t t a n g e n t s o v e r
t h e e x i s t i n g p ro file , u s u a l l y a d h e r i n g r a t h e r c lo s e ly to it.
T h e d e s i g n e r s e a r c h e s for a lin e w i t h g r a d e s n e i t h e r to o
s t e e p n o r to o flat, w i t h p o s i t i v e d r a i n a g e (n o s a g c u r v e s a t
p o i n t s d iffic u lt to d r a i n in th e p l a n ) , a n d o n e t h a t m i n i m i z e s
a n d b a l a n c e s t h e c u t a n d fill. O n c e h e h a s f o u n d s u c h a n
a r r a n g e m e n t , h e d r a w s t h e n e c e s s a r y v e r tic a l c u r v e s a t t h e
i n t e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e t a n g e n t s a n d r e a d j u s t s t h e lin e w h e r e
d iffic u ltie s d e v e lo p . H e a ls o c h e c k s t h e p ro file in r e l a t i o n to
t h e h o r i z o n t a l l a y o u t to j u d g e t h e s h a p e o f t h e r o a d in t h r e e
d i m e n s i o n s . T h e d e s i g n e r s h o u l d b e s u r e t h a t t h e p ro file is
s e l f - c l o s i n g — in o t h e r w o r d s , t h a t e l e v a t i o n s a r e t h e s a m e
o n d i f f e r e n t p ro file s w h e r e t h e y i n t e r s e c t w i t h e a c h o t h e r .
T h e r e l a t i o n o f t h e p r o f ile to t h e g r a d i n g p l a n is m o r e
d iffic u lt. T h e b a l a n c e o f c u t a n d fill a l o n g t h e p ro file is s o m e -
ti m e s a m i s l e a d i n g i n d i c a t i o n o f t o t a l e a r t h w o r k . S in c e t h e
p r o f ile t e n d s to g e n e r a t e t h e d e t a i l e d g r a d i n g p l a n , t h i s p r o -
file m u s t p e r m i t a g o o d s h a p e for t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e as a
w h o l e . In d r a w i n g t h e p ro file , a s k ille d p l a n n e r w ill u s u a l l y
b e a w a r e o f h o w h e is in f l u e n c i n g th e g r a d i n g p l a n , b u t
s u b s e q u e n t d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e g r a d i n g p l a n w ill o f t e n fo rc e
h i m to r e c o n s i d e r t h e p ro file .
S p o t e l e v a t i o n s a t o t h e r c r itic a l p o i n t s in t h e p l a n , s u c h
as th e e l e v a t i o n s o f f i n i s h e d flo o r in t h e p r i n c i p a l b u i l d i n g s
o r th o s e a t t h e b a s e o f e x i s t i n g tre e s to b e s a v e d , a r e set to
c o n fo rm w ith th e sk etch . T h e se sp o t e le v a tio n s are th e n
t r a n s f e r r e d to a p r e c is e l a y o u t o n w h i c h e x i s t i n g c o n t o u r s
h a v e a lso b e e n s h o w n . S in c e t h e p ro file o f th e r o a d c e n t e r
lin e h a s n o w b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d , tic k m a r k s s h o w i n g w h e r e
t h e n e w c o n t o u r s w ill c r o s s t h i s lin e in p l a n c a n a lso b e p u t
o n t h e l a y o u t. A n d s in c e t h e r o a d c ro s s s e c tio n is k n o w n , th e s e
n e w c o n t o u r s c a n b e d r a w n as fa r as th e t o p s o f c u r b s o r th e
edge of the ro ad sh o u ld er.
The grading T h e n e x t s t e p is t h e g r a d i n g p l a n , w h i c h w ill s p e c ify
plan th e n e w s h a p e t h a t t h e g r o u n d is to h a v e w h e n d e v e l o p m e n t
is c o m p le te . S t a n d a r d s for t h i s p l a n a r e o u t l i n e d in C h a p t e r 253
8, a n d it is s h o w n b y d r a w i n g th e c o n t o u r s o f t h e n e w S ee p a g es 1 6 0 -1 6 3
g r o u n d su r f a c e w h e r e it w ill d if f e r f r o m t h e e x i s t i n g s u r -
face. T h i s n e w su r f a c e , as a m i n i m u m , w ill m a k e t h e t r a n -
s itio n b e t w e e n a n y p r e d e t e r m i n e d n e w s u r f a c e s ( r o a d s , th e
sp a c e s clo se b y n e w b u i l d i n g s ) a n d t h e e x i s t i n g l a n d to be
left u n d i s t u r b e d . It r e s p e c t s a n y f e a t u r e s to b e r e t a i n e d ,
s u c h as tr e e s , o u t c r o p s , o r e x i s t i n g r o a d s a n d b u i l d i n g s .
W h i l e th e g r a d i n g p l a n , if it is a s i m p l e o n e , m a y be in d i-
c a te d in final c o n t r a c t d o c u m e n t s o n l y b y s p o t e l e v a t i o n s a t
k e y p o i n t s , it is e s s e n t i a l to d e v e l o p it as a c o n t o u r d r a w i n g
in o r d e r to c o n t r o l t h e l a n d f o r m as a w h o le . T h e g r a d i n g p l a n
is t h e m o s t d e lic a te a n d s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f t h e t e c h n i c a l
d e v e l o p m e n t . In fact, it m a y s o m e t i m e s c a u s e t h e b a s ic p l a n
itse lf to b e m o d if ie d . T h e skill w i t h w h i c h it is la id o u t w ill
h a v e m u c h to d o w i t h t h e t e c h n i c a l a d e q u a c y o f t h e p l a n
a n d a lso w i t h its v is u a l a n d f u n c t i o n a l su c c e ss. It t h e r e f o r e
r e q u ir e s c a r e a n d ti m e for p r o p e r d e v e l o p m e n t .
It is m o s t lik e ly t h a t t h e r o a d p r o f ile s a n d t h e s p o t ele-
v a t i o n s o f b u i l d i n g s w ill h a v e to b e r e v is e d to m a k e g o o d
t r a n s i t i o n s p o s s ib le . T h e m o s t c o m m o n d iffic u ltie s t h a t o c c u r
are e x c e s s iv e o r u n b a l a n c e d c u t a n d fill, w h i c h is c o s tly a n d
d a m a g i n g to t h e l a n d a n d its c o v e r ; d r a i n a g e p o c k e t s in th e
la n d , o n t h e r o a d s , o r a g a i n s t t h e s id e s of b u i l d i n g s ; t h e de-
s t r u c t i o n o f d e s i r a b l e s t a n d s o f tr e e s ; s te e p g r a d e s t h a t m a y
be d a n g e r o u s , c a u s e e r o s i o n , o r m a k e u se , m a i n t e n a n c e , or
access d iffic u lt; a p o o r v is u a l o r f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n a
b u i l d i n g o r a r o a d a n d its i m m e d i a t e s u r r o u n d i n g s ; a n d v is-
u a lly a w k w a r d t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n o n e g r o u n d s u r f a c e a n d
a n o t h e r . C h e c k i n g fo r th e s e p r o b l e m s a n d e l i m i n a t i n g t h e m
w ill b e s l o w w o r k u n t i l t h e d e s i g n e r h a s b e c o m e sk illfu l in
r e a d i n g c o n t o u r s o n p a p e r as if t h e y w e r e a c t u a l f o r m s in
sp a c e . T h e i r i n t e r s p a c i n g , l i n e a r q u a l i t y , d e g r e e o f p a r a l l e l -
ism , a n d g e n e r a l p a t t e r n all h a v e d i s t i n c t m e a n i n g s . C h a p -
te r 4 d is c u s s e s t h e n a t u r e o f c o n t o u r p a t t e r n s .
T h i s c o n c e p t o f th e g r a d i n g p l a n as s i m p l e a d j u s t m e n t
b e t w e e n r ig id s t r u c t u r e s a n d flu id g r o u n d is th e n o r m a l o n e ,
a n d it is ju s tif ia b le in m a n y c ir c u m s t a n c e s . O n o c c a s io n ,
th e d e s i g n e r m a y t a k e a m o r e a c tiv e a t t i t u d e , m o l d i n g t h e
g r o u n d i n t o a n a b s t r a c t s c u l p t u r e a n d a t t e m p t i n g to a c c o m -
p lis h m o r e t h a n j u s t h a r m o n i o u s , tr o u b l e - f r e e a d j u s t m e n t .
B ut in a n y c a se th e m o d e l i n g o f t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e s h o u l d
have b een an in te g ra l p a rt of the g en eral p la n from th e be-
ginning.
W h e n th e g ra d in g p la n has b een c o m p leted , the lay o u t U tility layouts
 254 o f u tilitie s is m a d e , u s u a l l y b e g i n n i n g w i t h s t o r m d r a i n a g e ,
w h i c h is t h e u t i l i t y m o s t lik e ly to b e s ig n if ic a n t. T h i s s te p
w ill i n c lu d e , as a m i n i m u m , t h e p l a n l a y o u t o f u t i l i t y lines.
A t t h is ti m e t h e d e s i g n e r s h o u l d c h e c k to see t h a t n o c ritic a l
p r o b l e m s o f e l e v a t i o n s o r s iz in g w ill o c c u r. T h e e n g i n e e r i n g
S ee p a g es 168—1 72 o f t h e s e u tilitie s is d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 8. If t h e d e s i g n e r
h a s b e e n a w a r e o f t h e i r g e n e r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , it is n o t lik e ly
t h a t m a j o r r e v i s i o n s o f t h e p l a n w ill be r e q u i r e d , a l t h o u g h
th e y m a y s o m e t i m e s b e n e c e s s a r y . B u t it is q u i t e p o s s ib le
t h a t u t i l i t y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w ill r e q u i r e c h a n g e s i n t h e p r e -
cise l a y o u t o r in t h e g r a d i n g p l a n o r w ill s u g g e s t e c o n o m i c o r
f u n c tio n a l m odifications.
T h e l a y o u t o f all u ti l i t i e s m a y b e s h o w n o n o n e s h e e t, o r
it m a y b e m o r e c o n v e n i e n t fo r t h e s t o r m d r a i n a g e to b e
s h o w n o n t h e g r a d i n g p l a n b e c a u s e it is so i n t i m a t e l y re -
la te d to t o p o g r a p h y . D e p e n d i n g o n t h e e x t e n t to w h i c h e n g i-
n e e r i n g c o n s u l t a n t s w ill p r e p a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n d r a w i n g s o f
t h e i r o w n , t h e u t i l i t y p l a n s w ill g o b e y o n d g e n e r a l l a y o u t s to
s h o w s u b s u r f a c e e l e v a t i o n s a n d t h e s iz in g o f c o n d u c t o r s .
L andscaping F in a lly , p r e c is e l a n d s c a p i n g a n d s ite d e t a i l s a r e s p e c i-
a n d details fied, i n c l u d i n g t h e u t i l i t y f ix tu r e s , p a v e m e n t c o n s t r u c t i o n
a n d f in is h , a n d s t r e e t f u r n i t u r e . U t i l i t y a n d r o a d c o n s t r u e -
t i o n d e t a i l s a n d s p e c if ic a tio n s , w h i c h a r e n e c e s s a r y c o n t r a c t
d o c u m e n t s , a re lik e ly to a p p e a r o n t h e d r a w i n g s o f c o n s u l t -
a n t s , b u t t h e y m a y b e p a r t o f a n i n t e g r a t e d set o f s ite d r a w -
in g s . E n g i n e e r i n g s e r v ic e s a r e u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d to p r e p a r e
t h e m e x c e p t in t h e s i m p l e s t c ases.
T h e l a n d s c a p i n g s p e c if ic a tio n s , th e f i n i s h o f t h e
S ee p a g es 209—219 g r o u n d p l a n e , a n d t h e s t r e e t f u r n i t u r e a re t o o o f t e n i g n o r e d
o r g iv e n o n l y c u r s o r y n o tic e . ,'T r e e s t a m p s " a r e f r e q u e n t l y
a p p l i e d to t h e d r a w i n g s , in lin e s a l o n g t h e s tr e e ts , o r in r a n -
d o m c lu m p s , o r to o b s c u r e t h e p a r k i n g lo ts a n d s e r v ic e y a r d s .
D e c i s i o n s a s to p l a n t m a t e r i a l s , s u r f a c e a n d w a ll t e x t u r e s ,
a n d t h e s h a p e o f m i n o r s t r u c t u r e s a n d o b je c ts d e m a n d t h e
c o n s c i o u s a t t e n t i o n o f t h e s ite d e s i g n e r . T h e y m a y b e s h o w n
o n a l a n d s c a p e p l a n , s u p p l e m e n t e d b y p a r t i a l s e c tio n s ,
p l a n t lists, a n d b y d e t a i l e d d r a w i n g s o f s p e c ia l o b je c ts , s u c h
as f e n c e s, s ig n s , u t i l i t y p o le s , s e a ts , s te p s , a n d f o u n t a i n s .
N o t e s s h o u l d a ls o b e m a d e as to t h e level o f m a i n t e n a n c e im -
p lie d b y t h e p la n .
W h e n te c h n i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t is c o m p l e t e , it m u s t b e
c h e c k e d fo r i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y a n d for c o m p l i a n c e w i t h
t h e b a s ic p l a n , t h e p r o g r a m , a n d t h e b u d g e t . T h e p l a n m a y
b e e v a l u a t e d o n c e m o r e in t h e li g h t o f t h e s e f i n d i n g s a n d
r e a d ju s te d . T h e d e v e lo p e d d e s i g n is n o w e x p r e s s e d in a se- 255
ries o f final te c h n i c a l d r a w i n g s , c o n s i s t i n g m o s t o f te n o f a
T echnical
p re c is e s u r v e y i n g l a y o u t , a se t o f r o a d p ro file s , a g r a d i n g
draw ings
p lan w ith sp o t elev atio n s at key p o in ts, a utility lay o u t,
a l a n d s c a p e p l a n , a n d a s h e e t o f d e ta ils , w h i c h a r e t h e
‫ ״‬w o r k i n g d r a w i n g s ‫ ״‬o f a s ite p l a n . T o g e t h e r w i t h a se t o f
s p e c if ic a tio n s fo r p a v e m e n t s , u tilitie s , g r a d i n g , l a n d s c a p -
in g , a n d site m a i n t e n a n c e , t h e y f o r m t h e c o n t r a c t d o c u -
m en ts on w h ic h e stim ates a n d w o rk can be based. T hese
a re t h e d r a w i n g s n e e d e d to g u i d e a c t u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , b u t
t h e y m a y n o t c o v e r all leg al a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e n e e d s . F or
th e latte r p u rp o se s, re q u ire m e n ts v a ry over the U n ite d
S ta te s a n d i n c l u d e s u c h i t e m s as p l a t s fo r le g a l r e c o r d ,
s k e t c h e s fo r a p p r o v a l b y p u b l i c a g e n c ie s , b i d d i n g p r o c e -
d u r e s , th e t i m i n g a n d i n t e r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e tr a d e s , a n d t h e
g e n e r a l a n d s p e c ia l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e w o r k . M a n y o f th e s e
d r a w i n g s a n d o t h e r d o c u m e n t s w ill s o o n b e d e v e l o p e d ,
s to r e d , a n d e x h i b i t e d b y c o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s r a t h e r t h a n b y
d r a f t s m e n a n d t y p is ts .
I m p o r t a n t as t h e s e te c h n i c a l d r a w i n g s are , t h e y a r e
n o t t h e e s s e n c e o f t h e s ite p la n . T h e e s s e n c e c a n b e f o u n d in
the sketch, w h ic h m a y be a d ra w in g or a m o d el a n d w h ic h
se ts f o r t h t h e p a t t e r n in t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s o f a c tiv ity , c ir c u -
l a tio n , a n d p h y s i c a l f o r m . T h e c o r r e c t n e s s o f th is e s s e n t i a l
p a t t e r n w ill b e t e s t e d b y t h e w a y it c o n f o r m s to p u r p o s e s , re -
s o u r c e s , a n d t h e s p i r i t o f t h e site.
P a r t i c u l a r l y in la r g e r p r o j e c t s t h e d r a w i n g s w ill v e r y W ords and
often be a c c o m p a n ied b y a w r itte n re p o rt th a t ex p lain s the pictures
r e a s o n i n g b e h i n d t h e p r o p o s a l s a n d d e s c r i b e s p o lic ie s a n d
f e a tu r e s t h a t a r e m o r e e a s i l y p u t in w o r d s . T h e w o r d s n e e d
n o t d e s c r i b e t h e d r a w i n g s , w h i c h s h o u l d s p e a k fo r t h e m -
selv es, o r b e a c o lo r f u l g lo s s o n t h e m . W o r d s a n d g r a p h i c s a r e
s e p a r a t e la n g u a g e s , b o t h a p p r o p r i a t e to c o n v e y d i f f e r e n t
k i n d s o f id e a s. D e s i g n e r s w ill o f t e n lo o k o n a r e p o r t as ‫ ״‬m e r e
w o r d s ‫ ״‬a d d e d a f te r t h e re a l w o r k is d o n e , w h i l e l a y m e n w ill
t h i n k o f th e d r a w i n g s as ‫ ״‬m e r e p i c t u r e s ‫ ״‬i l l u s t r a t i n g t h e
r e p o r t . E a c h g r o u p is p r e j u d i c e d b y its u n f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h
o n e o f t h e l a n g u a g e s . T h e w r i t t e n o r s p o k e n w o r d is as n e c e s -
s a r y as a d r a w i n g to c o n v e y a d e s i g n to c lie n t o r c o n t r a c t o r .
T h e p r o d u c t is n o t t h e r e p o r t a n d t h e d r a w i n g s b u t th e
r e a lity o n t h e g r o u n d . W o r d s a n d s k e t c h e s n e e d d o n o m o r e
t h a n e x p r e s s th e i n t e n t as a c c u r a t e l y as p o s s ib le . E x c e ssiv e
‫ ״‬f i n i s h ‫ ״‬w ill c o n f u s e t h e c lie n t, a n d e v e n t h e d e s i g n e r , as to ‫ ^ז ד‬% ~
w h a t t h e e n d r e s u l t w ill be. W i llf u l d i s t o r t i o n s o f p r e s e n t a -
 256 tio n , s u c h as s u p p r e s s i n g th e s u r r o u n d i n g s o r f a ls if y in g
l i g h t o r v i e w p o i n t o r u s i n g a s a l e s m a n 's la n g u a g e , a r e to o
e a sy .
Phases of the T h is n ecessarily le n g th y d e sc rip tio n of th e process of
site design site d e s i g n m a y b e s u m m a r i z e d as t h e f o l l o w i n g s e r ie s of
process s te p s in w h i c h p l a n s a r e c o m m o n l y p r e p a r e d t o d a y a n d b y
w h i c h t h e c lie n t m a i n t a i n s c o n t r o l o v e r t h e w h o l e p r o c e s s :
1. A p r o g r a m p h a s e , w h i c h c o n c l u d e s w i t h a n
a g re e d -u p o n p ro g ra m , a to ta l b u d g e t, a d esig n a n d co n stru e -
t i o n s c h e d u l e , a n d a s ite a n a l y s i s , all o f w h i c h a r e j u d g e d to
be c o n siste n t w ith on e a n o th e r.
2. A s c h e m a t i c p h a s e , w h i c h c o n c l u d e s w i t h a r e v is e d
p r o g r a m a n d s c h e d u l e , a s c h e m a t i c site p l a n a t 1 i n c h = 1 0 0
feet o r 4 0 feet, a n d a r o u g h c o s t e s t i m a t e . T h e g e n e r a l site
p l a n w ill s h o w s t r u c t u r e s , a c t i v i t y l o c a t i o n s , c i r c u l a t i o n ,
m a j o r o u t d o o r s p a c e s , c ritic a l u t i l i t y m a i n s , p l a n t m a s s i n g ,
o v e r a ll g r o u n d f o r m , a n d g e n e r a l level o f fin is h . R o u g h c o s ts
w ill b e e s t i m a t e d f r o m e x p e r i e n c e b y t h e l e n g t h o r a r e a o f
ty p i c a l f e a t u r e s at g iv e n levels o f fin is h . T h e e s s e n t i a l s ite
d e s i g n h a s n o w b e e n fixed.
3. A d e s i g n d e v e l o p m e n t p h a s e t h a t r e s u l t s in a c o m -
p le t e l a y o u t a n d a s p e c if ic a tio n o f d e t a i l s u f f ic ie n t to a s s u r e
t h e s o l u t i o n o f all p r o b l e m s a n d to a l l o w a d e t a i l e d c o s tin g .
T h i s w ill n o r m a l l y i n c l u d e o n e o r m o r e s ite p l a n s a t 1 i n c h =
4 0 feet, w h i c h s h o w b u i l d i n g s , all p a v e d s u r f a c e s , all
p l a n t e d a r e a s b y ty p e , o ld a n d n e w c o n t o u r s , t h e l o c a t i o n o f
all u t i litie s e x c e p t la t e r a l s , a n d t h e l o c a t i o n a n d n a t u r e o f
d e ta ils . T h e r e w ill b e s k e t c h s e c t i o n s a n d s t u d i e s o f k e y d e -
ta ile d a r e a s , a s w e ll as b r i e f o u t l i n e s p e c if ic a tio n s . C o s t s w ill
b e e s t i m a t e d b y e le m e n t s . P r o g r a m a n d s c h e d u l e r e v i s i o n s
w ill b e s t a t e d . T h e s e d r a w i n g s a n d c a l c u l a t i o n s m a y b e ac -
c o m p a n i e d b y a r e p o r t o u t l i n i n g th e g o v e r n i n g p o lic ie s a n d
assu m p tio n s.
4. A c o n t r a c t d o c u m e n t s p h a s e , w h i c h p r o d u c e s t h e
d r a w i n g s a n d v e r b a l d o c u m e n t s o n w h i c h t h e c o n t r a c t b id -
d i n g is b a s e d . T h e d r a w i n g s n o r m a l l y i n c l u d e a g r a d i n g
a n d l a y o u t p l a n a t 1 i n c h = 4 0 feet, to w h i c h t h e u t i l i t y la y -
o u t is e i t h e r a d d e d o r s h o w n as a s e p a r a t e s h e e t , a se t o f r o a d
a n d u t i l i t y p ro file s , a p l a n t i n g p l a n , a n d a s e t o f p l a n s a n d
s e c t i o n s o f d e ta ils (for e x a m p l e , w a lls , p a v i n g , p l a n t b o x e s ,
o u t d o o r f u r n i t u r e , l ig h ts , s ig n s , in le ts ) . T h e s e d e ta il d r a w -
in g s a r e k e y e d to t h e l a y o u t o r to t h e u t i l i t y s h e e t. D r a w i n g s
a re a c c o m p a n i e d b y b id p r o c e d u r e s , t h e g e n e r a l a n d sp e c ia l
c o n d i t i o n s o f w o r k , a n d t h e te c h n i c a l s p e c if ic a tio n s for th e
c o n s t r u c t i o n s to b e a c c o m p l i s h e d , u s u a l l y b r o k e n d o w n b y
s u b c o n t r a c t , s u c h as c le a r in g , g r u b b i n g , a n d d e m o l i t i o n , a n d 257
e a r t h w o r k , u tilitie s , p a v i n g , a n d p l a n t i n g a n d o t h e r l a n d -
s c a p e w o r k . B id s m a y b e a s k e d for c o n s t r u c t i o n w i t h a n d
w i t h o u t c e r t a i n m a r g i n a l f e a t u r e s in o r d e r to a l l o w la s t-
m i n u t e a d j u s t m e n t o f c o n t r a c t p r ic e to e s t i m a t e d b u d g e t .
5. T h e la s t s t e p is to s u p e r v i s e c o n s t r u c t i o n o n t h e site,
to e n s u r e c o m p l i a n c e b u t a ls o to m a k e d e ta i l e d a d j u s t m e n t s
as u n e x p e c t e d p r o b l e m s a n d o p p o r t u n i t i e s a rise . I d e a lly , o n e
s tu d ie s a n d m o d if ie s a l a y o u t a s it is s t a k e d o u t u p o n t h e
g r o u n d o r as it is u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n or, e v e n b e t t e r , w h e n it
is in use. T h i s m a y b e a r a r e o p p o r t u n i t y b u t s h o u l d c e r-
t a i n l y b e p r a c t i c e d w h e r e p o s s ib le . W h e n u s e r s b e g i n to d e -
sig n t h e i r o w n s e t t i n g s , it m a y b e c o m e m o r e c o m m o n . S u p e r -
i n t e n d e n c e s h o u l d b e c o n t i n u o u s w h e n e v e r a d e v e l o p m e n t is
l o n g - r a n g e o r ta k e s ti m e to m a t u r e . A s a n ir r e d u c i b l e m i n i -
m u m , t h e d e s i g n e r is r e s p o n s i b l e for h e l p i n g to m a k e a
s m o o t h t r a n s i t i o n b e t w e e n site d e v e l o p m e n t a n d o n g o i n g site
m a n a g e m e n t . B e tte r , h e c o n t i n u e s to c o n s u l t w i t h t h e site
m a n a g e r s , w h o w e r e t h e m s e l v e s in v o lv e d in t h e s ite d e s ig n .
T h e c o n t i n u i n g e ffect in r e a l i t y is t h e a r b i t e r o f t h e p l a n .
S ite p l a n n e r s n o r m a l l y d e a l w i t h p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s o f T y p i c a l S ite-
p r o b l e m s : m e d i u m - to l a r g e - s c a le r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s u n d e r P lan n in g T asks
o n e m a n a g e m e n t , u n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s e s , la r g e m e d i c a l c e n -
ters, r e g i o n a l s h o p p i n g c e n t e r s , u r b a n r e n e w a l p r o je c ts ,
la rg e r e s o r t s , w o r l d 's fa irs, la r g e p a r k s , a n d , m u c h less fre-
q u e n t l y , t h e s i t i n g o f s m a ll g r o u p s o f h o u s e s . E x c e p t for t h e
la st, t h e s e a re s i t u a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g c o m p le x d e c i s i o n s , in
w h i c h it is n e c e s s a r y to a r r i v e a t s o m e d e f in ite a l l o c a t i o n o f
site a n d c i r c u l a t i o n s i m p l y in o r d e r to c o o r d i n a t e i n v e s t m e n t
a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n . S o m e s ite p l a n s a r e j u s t t h a t : w o r k a b l e a r -
r a n g e m e n t s o f b u i l d i n g s , s tr e e ts , a n d te r r i t o r i e s , w h i c h re-
so lv e o b v i o u s c o n flic ts a n d a llo w c o n s t r u c t i o n to p r o c e e d .
O t h e r p l a n s s e r v e b r o a d e r i n te r e s ts .
W e c a n i m a g i n e o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s — l a r g e - s c a le c o m -
p l e te ly c e n t r a l i z e d site d e s i g n o r its o p p o s i t e : s ite p l a n n i n g
in w h i c h u l t i m a t e u s e r s d e s i g n t h e s e t t i n g for t h e i r o w n
p u r p o s e s . A l t e r n a t i v e l y , w e c a n i m a g i n e th e d e s i g n o f s ite s
o f c o n s t a n t l y v a r y i n g f u n c t i o n , w h e r e th e e m p h a s i s w o u l d
be o n r a p i d r e s p o n s e , t e m p o r a r y s i t u a t i o n , a n d c o n t i n u o u s
m a n a g e m e n t ; o r " i n t e r i o r " sites, w h e r e all s p a c e is in s i d e
sp a c e ; o r o t h e r is o la te d o r e x o tic e n v i r o n m e n t s . B u t t h e n o r -
m a l c o n d i t i o n s i l l u s t r a t e t h e m e t h o d s a n d n a t u r e o f s ite
p l a n n i n g a n d r a is e th e issu e s i n h e r e n t in its p r o c e s s e s .
S ite d e s i g n is a n e p i s o d e in t h e c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s o f
d e c is io n a b o u t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a n d its use a n d is s u b j e c t to
258 th e f o r m o f t h a t d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s . It is lo c k e d in w i t h all t h e
o t h e r f a c to r s o f d e c is io n : c lie n ts , v a lu e s , i n s t i t u t i o n s , p o litic a l
an d econom ic c o n stra in ts, available in fo rm a tio n , predictions,
a c t i o n s , lin e s o f in f lu e n c e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n . S ite p r o b l e m s
a re o f t h e c la ss o f " o p e n " p r o b l e m s , n o t e a s ily b o u n d e d a n d
n e v e r d e f in e d u n t i l th e s o l u t i o n itself, w i t h its r e l e v a n t
c r ite r ia a n d a n a l y s e s , h a s b e e n c r e a te d . S ite d e s i g n is n o t
h e r m e t i c o r t h e m o n o p o l y o f s p e c ia lly g ifte d i n d i v i d u a l s o r
V alues c o n c e r n e d s o le ly w i t h a p p e a r a n c e o r w i t h " h i g h e r v a l u e s . "
It is c e r t a i n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h v a lu e s , b u t w h a t v a lu e s o r
w h o s e v a l u e s is ju s t w h a t is m e a n t b y d e f i n i n g a p r o b l e m . It
is f o r m - p r o v i d i n g , n o t f o r m - i m p o s i n g . If site p l a n n i n g h a s
a n y i n t e r n a l v a lu e s o f its o w n — o t h e r t h a n th e w a y o f lo o k -
i n g at p r o b l e m s i n h e r e n t in its c h o ic e o f m e t h o d s a n d s u b je c t
m a t t e r — t h e y a r e t h o s e o f s u s t a i n i n g life, f a c i l i t a t i n g in d i-
v id u a l d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d e x p r e s s i n g c o n c e r n for th e v o ic e -
less c lie n t a n d t h e f u t u r e s ta te .
C lients T h e r e l a t i o n to t h e c lie n t is o n e p e r v a s i v e p r o b l e m . T h e
u l t i m a t e u s e r u s u a l l y p l a y s n o a c tiv e p a r t in site d e s ig n .
H is n e e d s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y v a g u e i n t e n t i o n s , b y g e n e r a l
r e s t r a i n i n g ru le s a n d s t a n d a r d s , o r b y t h e i n d i r e c t s ig n a ls o f
a m a r k e t o r i e n t e d to e ffe c tiv e e c o n o m i c d e m a n d . S ite p l a n s
se r v e th e i n t e r e s t o f d e v e l o p e r s f i r s t — a n d t h e in t e r e s t s o f
t h o s e a b le to p a y for t h e i r u s e s e c o n d . G i v e n t h e n a t u r e o f th e
d e c is io n p r o c e s s to d a y , t h i s fact is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g .
T h e good in te n tio n s of th e d esig n e r can so m etim es am e-
l io r a te th e s i t u a t i o n o r s u b s t i t u t e o t h e r v a lu e s in d i m e n s i o n s
o f th e p l a n n o t c ritic a l to t h e in t e r e s t s o f t h e d o m i n a n t p a r -
ties. B u t e v e n in th e s e a r e a s o f f r e e d o m t h e d e s i g n e r will
ju s t as o f te n s i m p l y in je c t h is o w n v a lu e s . T h e m y s t i q u e o f
th e d e s i g n p r o c e s s r e in f o r c e s th is. S o m e t i m e s , in d e e d , e v e n
th e i n t e r e s t s o f a d e v e l o p e r m a y b e c o m p r o m i s e d as h e w r e s -
ties w i t h a d e s i g n e r 's c o m p le x a n d a p p a r e n t l y m o n o l i t h i c
p r o p o s a l . D if f ic u ltie s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l a r e m a g -
nified in th e m u l t i p l e - d e v e l o p e r s i t u a t i o n , w h e r e th e u lti-
m a t e u s e r s a re d iv e r s e , to s o m e d e g r e e t r a n s i e n t , m o s t l y
w i t h o u t e ffe c tiv e e c o n o m i c o r p o litic a l le v e ra g e , a n d a l w a y s
far f r o m t h e d r a f t i n g b o a r d . S e t t i n g t h e p r o b l e m — w h i c h
m e a n s d e c i d i n g o n t h e c r ite r ia , t h e a c tiv e c lie n ts , t h e ac-
c e p te d r e s t r a i n t s a n d b o u n d s , t h e a v a ila b le i n f o r m a t i o n ,
a n d th e c lass o f s o l u t i o n s to b e s o u g h t — d e p e n d s o n t h e in i-
t i a t o r s o f t h e d e c is io n p r o c e s s , t h e ty p e o f p r o f e s s i o n a l s t h e y
call in, a n d t h e i r c u s t o m a r y w a y s o f l o o k i n g a t t h e w o r ld . R e-
d e f i n i n g th e p r o b l e m o r c h a n g i n g t h e c lie n t is t r a u m a t i c .
T h e s e a re p e r v a s i v e issu e s o f so c ia l d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , a n d
th e ir r e s o l u t i o n w ill n o t d e p e n d la r g e ly o n th e a c t i o n s o f site 259
p l a n n e r s . B ut h o w c o u ld site p l a n n e r s w o r k if t h o s e is s u e s
w e re r e s o lv e d ?
In th e id e a l ca se t h e u s e r o f a p ie c e o f g r o u n d w o u l d d e - Self-design
s ig n it for h im s e lf , o r it w o u l d be d e s i g n e d b y a d e v e l o p e r
w h o w a s d i r e c t l y a c c o u n t a b l e to a s m a ll g r o u p h o l d i n g th e
s a m e v a lu e s , c le a r ly d e fin e d . In t h a t c a s e t h e site d e s i g n e r
b e c o m e s a t e a c h e r , s o m e o n e w h o h e lp s th e u s e r to a n a l y z e
his o w n n e e d s a n d c r e a t e h is o w n p o s s ib ilitie s . In t h a t s e n s e
o n e f u n c t i o n o f th is a n d s i m i l a r b o o k s s h o u l d b e as s o u r c e s o f
i n f o r m a t i o n for p e o p l e w h o w a n t to b u ild t h e i r o w n p la c e s .
T h e site d e s i g n e r still a c ts as a s p e c ia lis t in c r e a t i n g f o r m
p o s s ib ilitie s , p r e d i c t i n g t h e i r effe c ts, a n d e x p l a i n i n g h o w
th e y c a n b e te c h n i c a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d , b u t h is b a s ic ro le is to
d i s e n g a g e h i m s e l f b y c o m m u n i c a t i n g th e n e c e s s a r y te c h -
n i q u e s o f d e s i g n a n d a n a l y s i s a n d t h u s a l l o w i n g th e c lie n t to
in v e n t a n d b u i l d h is o w n w o r ld . A n o n g o i n g p r o c e s s o f u s e r
m a n a g e m e n t is s u b s t i t u t e d for s p o r a d i c p r o f e s s i o n a l i n t e r -
v e n t i o n . T h i s id e a l ro le d e p e n d s o n a r a d i c a l d e c e n t r a l i z a -
tio n o f p o w e r , o n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t e r r i t o r i e s b e l o n g i n g to
v e r y s m a ll g r o u p s , a n d o n a free c h o ic e o f c lie n t a n d p r o f e s -
sio n a l b a s e d o n a m u t u a l fit o f id e a s. B ut e v e n h e r e t h e p r o f e s -
sio n a l is n o t se lf-e ffa c in g . H e w o r k s to re v e a l h i d d e n n e e d s
a n d p o s s ib ilitie s . H e s p e a k s for t h e f u t u r e a n d for c lie n ts
n o t y e t p r e s e n t , sin c e all s ite s h a v e l o n g h is to r ie s .
A l t h o u g h th is r o le is r a r e t o d a y a n d a p p e a r s o n l y in th e
o c c a s io n a l p l a n n i n g o f a g a r d e n o r h o u s e for a n a f f lu e n t a n d
i n t e r e s t e d c lie n t, it m a y s o m e d a y b e c o m e m u c h m o r e c o m -
m o n if e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n t r o l e v e r is p la c e d la r g e l y in th e
h a n d s o f u s e rs . B u t e v e n in a b e t t e r s o c ie ty t h e r e w ill be The professional
m a n y ca se s w h e r e th e d e s i g n e r c a n n o t p l a y t h e id e a l ro le role
b u t m u s t r e m a i n a p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n c e r n e d fo r c lie n ts w h o a r e
at s o m e d i s t a n c e f r o m h im s e lf . T h i s w ill a l w a y s b e so w h e r e
s y s t e m s o f la rg e scale, b r o a d u se, o r lo n g life a r e b e i n g d e -
s i g n e d — la r g e p a r k s o r c e n t r a l c ity p l a z a s — w h e r e t h e
c lie n ts a r e n e c e s s a r i l y n u m e r o u s a n d o f c o n f lic tin g v a lu e s , or
t r a n s i e n t , o r n o t y e t p r e s e n t to b e c o n s u l t e d . It a ls o h a p p e n s
w h e n t h e d e s i g n e r is p l a n n i n g sites a n d f a c ilitie s t h a t m a y
be fre e ly c h o s e n b y t h e i r u s e r s — t h a t is, w h e n s ite s a r e
r e la tiv e ly s m a ll in r e l a t i o n to th e t o ta l s u p p l y o f a r e a s a n d
a re b e i n g d e v e lo p e d in a d v a n c e o f d e m a n d to a t t r a c t a c lie n -
tele to s o m e n e w w a y o f life. It a lso a p p e a r s in c a r e t a k i n g
s i t u a t i o n s — e i t h e r v o l u n t a r y , w h e r e n e e d s a re fa irly c le a r
b u t n o t c ru c ia l a n d t h e c lie n t is g la d to le a v e d e c is io n s to a
p r o f e s s io n a l (for e x a m p le , th e d e s i g n o f a p a r k i n g lot o r a n
 260 o u t d o o r a m p h i t h e a t e r ) , o r t h e e t h i c a l l y m o r e d iffic u lt c ases of
i n v o l u n t a r y c a r e t a k i n g (for e x a m p l e , p r i s o n s , h o s p i t a l s , o r
p l a y g r o u n d s fo r v e r y s m a ll c h i l d r e n ) . In all th e s e c a s e s th e
p r o f e s s i o n a l n e c e s s a r i l y u se s m o r e f o r m a l m e t h o d s o f c o r n m u -
n ication, of b e h av io ral an aly sis, a n d of e v alu atio n . H e hopes
t h a t h is d ir e c t c lie n t w ill b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e u l t i m a t e
u s e r , w h e t h e r b y i n t i m a t e i n v o l v e m e n t , b y p o litic a l i n f lu ‫־‬
e n c e , b y s e n s i t i v i t y to t h e m a r k e t , o r f r o m a c c u r a t e f o r m a l
k n o w l e d g e o f t h e g r o u p to b e s e rv e d .
O p e n i n g up the A l t h o u g h m o s t o f t h e n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e s in so c ia l d e c i-
site d esign s io n m a k i n g lie b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f a s i t e - p l a n n i n g te x t, th e
process p r o f e s s i o n a l c a n d o a n u m b e r o f t h i n g s to e x p a n d t h e fre-
q u e n c y o f d ir e c t u s e r c o n t r o l o r to i m p r o v e t h e p r o c e s s e s o f in -
d ir e c t r e s p o n s e . H e w ill, w h e r e v e r p o s s ib le , t r y to r e a c h o u t
to t h e u s e r a n d to t e a c h h i m t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f s ite d e s i g n
a n d a n a ly s is . S i m ila r ly , h e w ill t r y to see t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l
site d e s i g n e r s o f d iv e r s e so c ia l b a c k g r o u n d a r e t r a i n e d in
l a r g e n u m b e r s so t h a t t h e r e is a b e t t e r c h a n c e o f t h e r e b e i n g
a p r o f e s s i o n a l w o r k i n g d i r e c t l y for a g r o u p w h o s e v a lu e s h e
s h a r e s . H e w ill a t t e m p t to p u s h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t a p r o b l e m
o u t to a w i d e r a u d ie n c e , in p r e p a r a t i o n fo r p u b l i c d is c u s s i o n
a n d for c h a n g e s in th e d ir e c t c lie n ts to m a k e t h e m m o r e r e p -
r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e u s e r s . M a k i n g t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s e x p lic it,
o p e n , a n d p e n e t r a b l e to n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l s is o n e m e a n s o f
a c h i e v i n g t h is e n d . F r e p a r i n g e x p lic it a n d d e t a i l e d p r o -
See page 28 g r a m s , w h i c h r e fe r to t h e e x p e c te d a c t i o n s a n d p u r p o s e s o f
u s e r s , is a n o t h e r .
T h e site d e s i g n e r w ill b u i l d b e h a v i o r a l a n d a t t i t u d i n a l
r e s e a r c h i n t o h is d e s i g n p r o c e s s , in th e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t it
w ill re v e a l d iv e r s e a n d o t h e r w i s e h i d d e n r e q u i r e m e n t s . H e
w ill lo o k for w a y s to d iv id e h is site (in s p a c e o r in tim e ) in to
sp e c ia l t e r r i t o r i e s t h a t m i g h t b e c o n t r o l l e d b y s m a ll g r o u p s .
W h e n e v e r p o s s ib le , h e w ill s u p p o r t p a r t i c i p a t o r y a c tio n . In
a d d i t i o n , h e w ill a d v o c a t e a flexible p l a n ( w h i c h is e a s ie r to
s a y t h a n to d o ), as w e ll as a d a p t i v e m a n a g e m e n t , w h i c h c a n
l e a r n a n d c a n c h a n g e its c lie n te le . F in a lly , h e w ill p r o m o t e
a n d m o n i t o r specific e n v i r o n m e n t a l e x p e r i m e n t s so t h a t n e w
p o s s ib ilitie s a r e o p e n e d u p fo r t h e u s e r , w h o c a n t h e n , b y h is
r e s p o n s e to t h e e x p e r i m e n t , c la r if y h is r e q u i r e m e n t s b o t h to
h i m s e l f a n d to o t h e r s .
P rogram m in g O n e n e g le c te d a v e n u e for i m p r o v i n g t h e r e s p o n s e to
n e e d is t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f a d e q u a t e p r o g r a m s . T h e n o r m a l
p r o g r a m s i m p l y g iv e s t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f s p a c e to b e p r o v i d e d ,
b y b r o a d c a te g o r ie s o f s t a n d a r d f u n c t i o n ( " p l a y g r o u n d s , ‫״‬
" c o m m e r c i a l u s e " ) , a n d specifies t h e i r s p a t i a l l i n k a g e s a n d
th e ir a l l o w a b l e c o sts. T h e q u a l i t y o f t h o s e s p a c e s , t h e b e h a v - 261
ior e x p e c te d to o c c u r in t h e m , a n d t h e p u r p o s e s a n d a t t i t u d e s
o f th e ir u s e r s g e t v e r y little a t t e n t i o n . M o r e o v e r , t h e p r o g r a m
is m o s t o f te n fixed b e f o r e d e s i g n b e g in s , a n d t h u s t h e e n v i-
r o n m e n t is u n w i t t i n g l y p r e d e s i g n e d b y f in a n c ia l a n d a d -
m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t h a v e u n f o r e s e e a b l e sid e ef-
fects a n d a re lim ite d to r o u t i n e c a t e g o r i e s o f fo rm . S m a ll
w o n d e r t h a t w e c a n fulfill a n a p p r o v e d p r o g r a m a n d y e t e n -
r a g e t h e u se r!
If a p r o g r a m is p r o p e r l y m a d e , it c a n o v e r c o m e m a n y o f
th e s e d iffic u ltie s. R a t h e r t h a n g i v i n g r o o m c o u n t s o r s q u a r e
feet o f la b e le d sp a c e , it s h o u l d b e g i n b y s p e c i f y i n g w h a t ac-
tio n s a re e x p e c te d to t a k e p la c e , b y w h o m , a n d w i t h w h a t
p u r p o s e s . T h e s e a c t i o n s p e c if ic a tio n s s p r i n g f r o m th e a n a l y -
sis o f o b je c tiv e s , c lie n ts , site, a n d c o n t e x t . B e h a v i o r s e t t i n g s
for c lu s te r s o f th e s e a c t i o n s a re t h e n p r o p o s e d , w i t h t h e i r re -
q u i r e d q u a litie s , l i n k a g e s , e q u i p m e n t , a n d q u a n t i t i e s . E sti-
m a t e d c o s ts for th e s e p r o v i s i o n s a r e b u d g e t e d , a n d t h e m a n -
a g e m e n t a n d s e rv ic e s u p p o r t o f t h e d e s i r e d b e h a v i o r a r e a lso
g iv e n . T h e fo c u s is o n c l u s t e r s o f b e h a v i o r a n d t h e i r a p -
p ro p riate settings a n d s u p p o rt ra th e r th a n on c u sto m a ry
p h y s i c a l fo rm . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is a n e x p lic it l i n k a g e
t h r o u g h o b je c tiv e s , r e s o u r c e s , a n d c o n s t r a i n t s , all t h e w a y to
d e ta ile d s e t t i n g s w i t h t h e i r c o s ts a n d m a n a g e m e n t . P l a n s
can be e v alu ated directly a g a in st th is p ro g ra m , a n d actual
u se c a n b e m o n i t o r e d to l e a r n if t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o r t h e p r o -
g r a m m u s t la te r b e m o d if ie d .
S u c h a p r o g r a m is o n e t h a t c a n b e r e a d i l y u n d e r s t o o d
b y th e c lie n t. H e c a n e v a l u a t e it a n d i n f lu e n c e it b e f o r e d e -
s ig n b e g in s . R e s o u r c e s c a n b e a llo c a te d m o r e e f f ic ie n tly , a n d
th e g e n e r a l f i n d i n g s o f so c ia l s c ie n c e o r a p a r t i c u l a r a n a l y s i s
o f c lie n t b e h a v i o r c a n b e a p p l i e d a t a s t r a t e g i c p o i n t . T h e d e -
s ig n e r h i m s e l f is g u i d e d m o r e a c c u r a t e l y a n d y e t fre e d f r o m
u n n e c e s s a r y p r e s c r i p t i o n s o f f o rm . A ll p a r t i c i p a n t s a re n o w
a b le to le a r n f r o m s u b s e q u e n t e x p e r ie n c e . T h e p r o g r a m it-
self m u s t b e o p e n - e n d e d , lo o s e - le a f , s in c e it w ill h a v e to b e
m o d if ie d c o n t i n u o u s l y , first as d e s i g n p r o c e e d s a n d n e w p o s -
sib ilitie s, n e w d a t a , a n d n e w c lie n ts a c c r u e , a n d s e c o n d as
th e site g o e s in t o u s e a n d e r r o r s a p p e a r in c o s t e s t i m a t e s , in
b e h a v i o r a l a n d f o r m p r e d i c t i o n s , o r e v e n in b a s ic c r ite r ia .
P r o g r a m s o f t h is k i n d c o s t tim e a n d m o n e y . T h e y a r e
a p p r o p r i a t e w h e r e c lie n t c o n t r o l is i n d i r e c t , w h e r e site d e -
v e l o p m e n t in v o lv e s a l a r g e i n v e s t m e n t a n d l e n g t h y m a i n t e -
nance, or w h e re th e d e v elo p in g ag ency can gen eralize over
se v e ra l p r o je c ts o r m u s t l e a r n to i m p r o v e its f u tu r e p e r f o r -
 262 m a n c e . Yet e v e n in s i m p l e r ca se s a p r o g r a m o f t h is ty p e , if
n o t o f t h i s p r e c i s i o n , m a y b e fa r p r e f e r a b l e to t h e u s u a l " 2
a c r e s o f p a r k s , 2 0 a c r e s o f s i n g l e - f a m i l y r e s i d e n c e . " It is
t r u e e n o u g h t h a t a p e r f o r m a n c e p r o g r a m m a y b e r e s is te d for
o t h e r r e a s o n s t h a n its c o s t — b e c a u s e its e x p lic it l i n k a g e
o f p u r p o s e a n d f o r m e x p o s e s a d e v e l o p e r to v is ib le i n s t e a d
o f o n l y h i d d e n fa ilu re .
E nvironm ental W e a r e b e g i n n i n g to lo o k a t site s as p r o b l e m s o f c o n t i n -
m anagement u i n g m a n a g e m e n t , w h e r e f o r m , a c tiv ity , se rv ic e s, a n d a d -
m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r o l s a r e m o d if ie d c o n t i n u o u s l y a n d i n t e r d e -
p e n d e n t l y in o r d e r to m a i n t a i n s o m e level o f p e r f o r m a n c e o r
e v e n to a c h ie v e c h a n g i n g lev els o f p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e p e r -
f o r m a n c e o f a p a r k i n g lot, to t a k e a s i m p l e e x a m p l e , w ill d e -
p e n d n o t o n l y o n its s p a t i a l f o r m b u t a ls o o n th e n u m b e r a n d
t u r n o v e r o f u s e r s , t h e i r d r i v i n g sk ill a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e
reg u la tio n s a n d c h arg es im p o sed , a n d th e m a in te n a n c e a n d
p o l i c i n g o f t h e lot. C h a n g i n g a n y o n e f a c to r w ill a ffect t h e
o t h e r s as w e ll as g e n e r a l p e r f o r m a n c e . A p a r k i n g lo t d e s i g n
m u s t ta k e t h e m all i n t o a c c o u n t , w h e t h e r b y p r e d i c t i o n o r
p r e s c r i p t i o n . M o s t d e s i g n s m a k e c a r e le s s a n d h i d d e n as-
s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e s e f a c to r s , e x p o s i n g p e r f o r m a n c e to u n -
a c c o u n ta b le fluctuations.
A o n c e - a n d - f o r - a l l p r e s c r i p t i o n fo r t h e s p a t i a l f o r m o f a
p la c e m a y s o m e t i m e s b e o f little c o n s e q u e n c e r e la tiv e to t h e
im p act of d aily m a n a g e m e n t. A n o n - th e -s p o t m a n a g e r, w h o
is in clo se c o n t r o l a n d c o m m a n d s a h i g h f lo w o f c u r r e n t i n f o r -
m a t i o n , c a n r e s p o n d to c h a n g e a n d m a i n t a i n p e r f o r m a n c e in
a r a p i d , e ffe c tiv e w a y . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , h e is lim i t e d to
i n c r e m e n t a l c h a n g e s a n d c a n n o t e a s ily b r e a k o u t o f a w o r s -
e n i n g s i t u a t i o n b y a n y r a d i c a l c h a n g e in t r e a t m e n t . M o r e -
o v e r , p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s e t t i n g m a y g r a d u a l l y " d r i f t " in
u n d e sira b le d irectio n s, w ith o u t p a rtic ip a n ts b e in g directly
a w a r e o f it.
S ite d e s i g n e r s h a v e m u c h to l e a r n f r o m o b s e r v i n g t h e
o n g o i n g m a n a g e m e n t o f a p la c e . T h e i r d e s i g n s a n d p r o -
g r a m s s h o u l d i n c l u d e e x p lic it m a n a g e m e n t a c t i o n s as w e ll
as s p a t i a l p a t t e r n s . T h e y m u s t c o m e to see t h e i r o w n i n t e r -
v e n t i o n as o n l y o n e e p i s o d e in a c o n t i n u o u s h i s t o r y o f s ite d e -
v e l o p m e n t a n d m a n a g e m e n t . T h e y m a y fin d a n e w r o le for
t h e m s e l v e s in t h e c o n t i n u o u s s u p p o r t o f m a n a g e m e n t : d e -
s i g n i n g t e m p o r a r y p a t t e r n s in r e s p o n s e to n e w l y a p p a r e n t
needs or m a k in g o n g o in g e x p erim en ts from w h ic h m a n a g e -
m e n t c a n le a r n . T h e y w ill b e g i n to see t h e i r d e s i g n as a n o r-
g a n i z a t i o n o f e v e n t s in t i m e a s w e ll as in sp a c e . It w ill t h e n
e x p r e s s t h e f l u c t u a t i o n o f f u n c t i o n , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f te r-
r ito r ie s b o u n d e d b y tim e , a n d t h e w a y e v e n t s i n t e r a c t be- 263
cause th e y succeed or are c o n te m p o ra ry w ith o n e a n o th e r.
S i t e - f o r m c o n t r o l s n e e d n o t b e p e r m a n e n t fix tu r e s .
G e n e r a l p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d a r d s li n k e d d i r e c t l y to d e s i r e d
o u t c o m e s a llo w m a n y k i n d s o f r e s p o n s e a c c o r d i n g to a s h i f t -
in g s i t u a t i o n . For e x a m p le , if o n e p u r p o s e in a p a r k i n g lot is
s a fe ty , a n i n c r e a s e in i l l u m i n a t i o n m a y d o m o r e t h a n a n in -
c re a s e in t u r n i n g r a d i u s if t h e lo t b e g i n s to b e u s e d a t n i g h t .
I n d i r e c t i n c e n tiv e s o r t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f d e s i g n i n f o r m a -
tio n o r m a k i n g d e s i g n sk ills a v a i l a b l e to o t h e r a g e n t s m a y
b e m o r e e ffe c tiv e t h a n n e g a t i v e c o n t r o l s . Z o n i n g o r d i n a n c e s ,
as o n e e x a m p le , a r e t u r n i n g m o r e a n d m o r e to , 'u n i f i e d d e -
v e l o p m e n t " p r o v i s i o n s , w h e r e e x a c t lo c a t i o n s a r e n o t fixed as
lo n g as o v e r a ll b a l a n c e s a n d c e ilin g s a r e o b s e r v e d . L o n g -
r a n g e s ite p l a n n i n g b y s t a b l e i n s t i t u t i o n s c a n go e v e n fu r-
t h e r t o w a r d g e n e r a l p e r f o r m a n c e s t a t e m e n t s , to b e a p p l i e d
la te r a c c o r d i n g to c u r r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
B ehavior m a y fluctuate rap id ly , a n d m a n a g e m e n t E nvironm ents
m u s t b e a b le to r e s p o n d to t h o s e f l u c t u a t i o n s . T h e r e a r e t w o and
fa c to r s t h a t a r e m o r e p e r m a n e n t in t h e i r f o r m a n d e ffect a n d institutions
th u s t e n d to a c t as o r g a n i z e r s a n d s ta b i l i z e r s o f b e h a v i o r .
O n e is t h e s p a t i a l a n d t e m p o r a l e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t h a s al-
r e a d y b e e n d is c u s s e d . T h e o t h e r is t h e set o f i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t
regularizes the re la tio n s b e tw e e n perso n s.
T h e s e t w o p a t t e r n s , s i m i l a r in t h e i r l o n g e v i t y a n d in
s o m e o f t h e i r f u n c t i o n a l effect, a re , n o t s u r p r i s i n g l y , o f t e n in -
te r r e l a t e d . T h e r e l a t i o n is o b v i o u s w h e n w e c o n s i d e r t h o s e
in stitu tio n s directly co n c e rn e d w ith th e d e v e lo p m e n t or
m a n a g e m e n t o f e n v i r o n m e n t : p l a n n i n g a g e n c ie s , p r i v a t e d e -
v e lo p e r s , c o m m u n i t y a s s o c i a t i o n s , s c h o o l b o a r d s , h i g h w a y
a u t h o r i t i e s , a n d t h e like. H e r e t h e fin a l q u a l i t y o f t h e se t-
t in g m a y b e d u e as m u c h to t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e d e c i s i o n
p r o c e s s as to t h e p a t t e r n o f s p a tia l f o rm : to t h e t i m i n g a n d
c la r ity o f d e c is io n , w h o p a r t i c i p a t e s in it, h o w c r ite r ia a r e
e v o k e d , h o w d e c is io n s a r e c o m m u n i c a t e d a n d r e v is e d , o r t h e
c o n t i n u i t y a n d r e s p o n s iV e n e s s o f m a n a g e m e n t . E n v i r o n -
m e n t s c h a n g e in r e s p o n s e to c h a n g e s in u n d e r l y i n g i n s t i t u -
tio n s , a n d t h e i r e f f e c tiv e n e s s c h a n g e s e v e n m o r e m a r k e d l y .
E n v i r o n m e n t a l c h a n g e , for its p a r t , w ill o f t e n h a v e i n s t i t u -
t i o n a l sid e effe c ts: s t i m u l a t i n g t h e c r e a t i o n o f n e w m a n a g e -
m e n t f o r m s o r h a s t e n i n g t h e d e c a y o f o ld fo r m s o f a s s o c i a t i o n .
T h e c o u p l i n g is lo o s e b u t s o m e t i m e s s u b s t a n t i a l .
T h e site d e s i g n e r is n o t o f t e n a b le (or t r a i n e d ) to r e c o m -
m en d in stitu tio n a l changes, bu t he m ust be a w a re of h o w
th e p e r f o r m a n c e o f h is d e s i g n s w ill b e a f fe c te d b y p r o b a b l e
 264 i n s t i t u t i o n a l f o r m s a n d w h a t c h a n g e s in m a n a g e m e n t o r-
g a n i z a t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d b y h is p r o p o s a l s . H e s h o u l d r e c o g -
n iz e t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s for n e w i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t o c c u r in
creatin g a n e w en v iro n m e n t. H o u ses or g ro u n d s can be coop-
e r a t i v e l y o w n e d o r m a i n t a i n e d , s c h o o ls c a n b e c o m e p a r t o f
c o m m u n i t y life, g o v e r n m e n t c a n b e d e c e n t r a l i z e d , o r h e a l t h
c a re c a n b e p u t o n a g r o u p b a s is . T h e s e is s u e s a r e fa r b e y o n d
t h e s c o p e o f t h i s b o o k , b u t it is fa ir to p o i n t o u t t h a t e n v i r o n -
m e n t a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s , b o t h o f t h e m p a t t e r n s o f l o n g life,
h a v e s t r a t e g i c effe c ts o n t h e w h o l e q u a l i t y o f h u m a n life a n d
t h a t th e s e effects a r e m a g n i f i e d if t h e y a r e c o o r d i n a t e d .
P l a n n i n g for t h e c o n c u r r e n t m o d i f i c a t i o n o f th e s e t w o p a t -
t e r n s is a p o w e r f u l so c ia l lever.
Managing T h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s its e lf p o s e s p r o b l e m s o f m a n a g e -
Designers m e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n it is lo n g , c o m p le x , a n d d o n e b y 1
t e a m . S ite p l a n n i n g fo r a n y b u t t h e s m a l l e s t o f p r o j e c t s is
n o w c a r r i e d o n in l a r g e offices. A p r o j e c t m a n a g e r is as-
s i g n e d to th e p a r t i c u l a r d e s i g n w h ile it is in t h e office, a n d
h e d r a w s o n t h e se r v ic e s o f a p o o l o f s p e c ia lis ts w h o a r e a lso
p a r t o f t h e firm : l a n d s c a p e a r c h i t e c t s , a r c h i t e c t s , e n g i n e e r s ,
p e rh a p s even law yers, econom ists, or c o n stru c tio n or m a n -
a g e m e n t s p e c ia lis ts . I n a d d i t i o n , o u t s i d e c o n s u l t a n t s w ill be
d r a w n in , to p r o v i d e e i t h e r g e n e r a l a d v ic e o r specific in f o r -
m a t i o n . O n o c c a s i o n , t h e n e c e s s a r y t e a m c a n n o t b e f o u n d in
a n y o n e f irm b u t is p u t t o g e t h e r as a c o n s o r t i u m o f f irm s, o r -
g a n i z e d s o le ly fo r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r t a s k a n d u s u a l l y u n d e r th e
le a d o f t h e office t h a t i n i t i a t e d it.
M a n a g i n g t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s m e a n s m a i n t a i n i n g th e
flo w o f i n f o r m a t i o n , c o o r d i n a t i n g t h e w o r k o f all t h e a c to r s ,
k e e p i n g t h e d e s i g n o p e n to all w h o a r e v i t a l l y c o n c e r n e d ,
c h o o s i n g t h e b e s t d e s i g n s t r a t e g y , a n d e n c o u r a g i n g a cyclic
r e t u r n to t h e o r i g i n a l p r o b l e m w i t h o u t a l l o w i n g t h e c y c lin g
to b e c o m e a c lo s e d t r a p f r o m w h i c h r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s n e v e r
e m e r g e . A ll o f t h e s e o b je c tiv e s r e q u i r e t h e d e s i g n m a n a g e r
to e v a l u a t e p r o c e s s a n d p r o d u c t t o g e t h e r — to e s t i m a t e h o w
m u c h b e t t e r a d e s i g n w ill be p r o d u c e d b y t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
h o w m u c h m o re tim e a n d m a n p o w e r a n d in fo rm a tio n . W e
h a v e n o r a t i o n a l m e a n s fo r m a k i n g s u c h e v a l u a t i o n s , a n d th e
o p e n - e n d e d n e s s o f d e s i g n m a y e v e n p r e c l u d e it. D e s i g n
m a n a g e m e n t d e c i s i o n s a re m a d e i n t u i t i v e l y a n d a r e b a s e d
o n p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d f r o m m a n y p r e v i o u s trie s,
w i t h i n t h e c o n s t r a i n t o f a d e s i g n in t e r v a l t h a t is u s u a l l y set
C on ven tion al b y c u s to m .
schedules and F or e x a m p le , d e s i g n i n g a c o m p le x s ite m a y be ex-
organizations p e c t e d to r e q u i r e 1 8 m o n t h s to r e a c h t h e s t a g e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n
d r a w i n g s . T h i s p e r i o d is a llo c a te d to a s t a n d a r d s e q u e n c e 265
i n c l u d i n g s u c h p r o c e s s e s a s s u r v e y , c r ite r ia f o r m a t i o n , p r o -
g r a m , p r e l i m i n a r i e s , r e v ie w , d e v e l o p e d d e s ig n , r e v ie w , a n d
c o n s t r u c t i o n d r a w i n g s . I n t o t h i s c o n v e n t i o n a l i n t e r v a l th e
d e s ig n m a n a g e r w ill p a c k t h e m a n p o w e r h e e s t i m a t e s to b e
n e e d e d a n d w ill p r o m i s e t h e o u t s i d e r e v ie w s a n d c o n s u l t a -
tio n s h e t h i n k s h e c a n m a n a g e . S o m e t i m e s t h e b e g i n n i n g
of t h i s s e q u e n c e — t h r o u g h p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n a n d re-
v i e w — is t r e a t e d a s b e i n g u n p r e d i c t a b l e , s i m p l y g o i n g o n
u n t i l a n a c c e p t a b l e s k e t c h d e s i g n c a n b e f o u n d . F or t h is
t im e , t h e m a n a g e r m a k e s n o p r o m i s e s a n d a s k s fo r p a y m e n t
o n a c o s t - p l u s b a s is . O n c e a n a c c e p t a b l e g e n e r a l d e s i g n is
a g r e e d u p o n , h o w e v e r , t h e p r o c e s s is c o n s i d e r e d to b e d e t e r -
m in ate, p ro d u c in g d etailed c o n stru c tio n d o c u m e n ts at the
e n d o f a p r e d i c t a b l e t i m e a t a p r e d i c t a b l e c ost.
T e a m c o m p o s i t i o n a n d h i e r a r c h y a r e se t b y r u le ; p r o b -
le m s a re d e f in e d t h e w a y t h e y h a v e a l w a y s b e e n d e f in e d b y
the pro fessio n als con cern ed . T h e stre n g th of p e rs o n a lity of
t h e v a r i o u s t e a m m e m b e r s d e t e r m i n e s m a n y o f th e c r itic a l
ch o ices. T h u s , in m o s t c a se s, u n c e r t a i n t y a n d p r o b l e m s h if t
a re b a n i s h e d ; b u t w h e n t h e y a r e n o t , t h e s ite d e s i g n p r o c e s s
m a y b r e a k d o w n i n t e r n a l l y u n d e r a n o v e r l o a d o f f a c to r s a n d
in t e r e s t s to b e re s o lv e d . T h e d e s i g n e r t h e n falls b a c k o n a r -
b i t r a r y a l l o c a t i o n , u s i n g s t a n d a r d lo ts a n d s t r e e t p l a n s to re -
so lv e t h e c o n f u s i o n . T h u s h e e n d s w i t h n o c le a r id e a o f th e
p u r p o s e s to b e s e r v e d , w h o s e p u r p o s e s t h e y a re , o r h o w h is
p r o p o s a l s a d d r e s s th e m . C o n s t r u c t i o n c a n p r o c e e d , o f c o u r s e .
D e f i n i n g t h e p r o b l e m is t h e c r u c ia l a n d in itia l s te p , D e f i n i n g the
t h a t is, d e c i d i n g w h o t h e c lie n t is, w h a t t h e c r ite r ia a re , problem
w h a t r e s o u r c e s c a n b e u s e d , w h a t lim its m u s t b e im p o s e d ,
w h a t t y p e o f s o l u t i o n is e x p e c te d , a n d t h e r e f o r e w h o s h o u l d
d e v e lo p it. I d e a lly , t h is q u e s t i o n w o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a f r e s h
a n d c o m p l e t e l y b e f o r e a n y d e s i g n b e g in s . I n fact, p r o b l e m s
c a n n o t b e c o m p l e t e l y r e d e f i n e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g s in c e all
fa c to r s a re i n t e r r e l a t e d a n d t h e i r c o m p r e h e n s i v e r e d e f in i-
t i o n w o u l d r e q u i r e in f in ite tim e . M o r e o v e r , all p r o b l e m s h a v e
a p r e v i o u s h i s t o r y o f s p e c u l a t i o n , e x p e r ie n c e , i n s t i t u t i o n a l
i n v o l v e m e n t , a n d c lie n te le , a n d a r e th u s p r e d e f i n e d b y a
lo n g p r o c e s s o f a c c u m u l a t i o n .
T h e d e s i g n m a n a g e r c a n a t le a s t r e q u i r e t h a t t h e p r o b -
le m b e e x p lic itly set, so t h a t its d i m e n s i o n s a r e n o w h e r e
h i d d e n . H e w ill a ls o s e e k to b e in v o lv e d as e a r l y as p o s s i b l e
in t h a t d e f in itio n , so t h a t h is d e s i g n is n o t l a te r h e d g e d a b o u t
b y u n f o r e s e e n r e s t r i c t i o n s . O c c a s i o n a l l y , h e w ill p l a y a d e c i-
sive ro le in p r o b l e m s e t t i n g , b y p r o p o s i n g n e w c r i t e r i a a n d
 266 r e s o u r c e s , b y a d v o c a t i n g t h e i n c l u s i o n o f a h i d d e n c lie n t, b y
r e v e a l i n g u n a n t i c i p a t e d s o l u t i o n ty p e s , o r e v e n b y c r e a t i n g
a c lie n t to s u it h is p r o p o s a l s .
In a n y c ase, h e w ill a l w a y s a s k if t h e p r o b l e m is c o r-
re c tly s ta t e d : Is a s ite p l a n r e a lly r e q u i r e d ? W h o w ill b e t h e
a c tu a l u s e r s , a n d w h a t c r i t e r i a a re r e l e v a n t to t h e m ? H a s
t h e c lie n t th e r e s o u r c e s to c a r r y o u t w h a t is p r o p o s e d ? M o s t
i m p o r t a n t , t h e d e s i g n m a n a g e r w ill in s is t o n a m e a n s for re-
d e f i n i n g t h e p r o b l e m in t h e c o u r s e o f its s o l u t i o n , w h e t h e r
t h a t r e d e f i n i t i o n is c a lle d fo r b y i n f o r m a t i o n g e n e r a t e d in t h e
d e s i g n p r o c e s s i ts e lf (as w h e n a n e w p o s s i b i l i t y for s ite ex-
p l o i t a t i o n a p p e a r s ) o r is r e q u i r e d b y e x t e r n a l c h a n g e s ( n e w
c lie n ts e n t e r t h e p r o c e s s o r a n e w c r i t e r i o n s u r f a c e s ) . H e c o n -
s c i o u s l y d ir e c ts t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s a n d t h e first s t e p s o f im -
p le m e n ta tio n to g e n e ra te th e k in d of in fo rm a tio n th a t stim u -
la te s r e d e f i n i t i o n . E a r ly d e s i g n s a r e s p e c u l a t i v e te s ts , a n d
s ite e x p e r i m e n t s a r e e m p l o y e d w h e r e v e r p o s s ib le .
W e are a lo n g d ista n c e from a n y sy stem atic w a y of
m a k i n g a m e t a d e s i g n , o r d e s i g n for d e s i g n i n g . W e c a n ,
h o w e v e r , a t le a s t set o u t t h e w h o l e p r o c e d u r e e x p lic itly
t h o u g h i n t u i t i v e l y : d e s i g n m e t h o d , tim e , m a n p o w e r , c lie n t,
w a y s o f s e t t i n g g o a ls , g a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , a n d p r e d i c t i n g
r e s u lts , t h e l im its o n r e c y c lin g o r o n t h e e n t r a n c e o f n e w ac-
to r s , t h e u se o f e x t e r n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s . If t h e s y s t e m is o p e n l y
c o n s i d e r e d as a w h o l e , t h e n tr a d e - o f f s c a n b e m a d e b e t w e e n
its e l e m e n t s , a n d w e c a n l e a r n s o m e t h i n g for n e x t tim e .
C ritical p a th a n a ly se s m a y u n c o v e r th e b o ttle n e c k s, b u t
o n l y to t h e e x t e n t t h a t tim e r e q u i r e m e n t s a re p r e d i c t a b l e .
B e tte r r e c o r d k e e p i n g a n d g o o d c a se s t u d i e s o f t h e a c t u a l d e -
s ig n p r o c e s s a r e i n v a l u a b l e fo r d e v e l o p i n g o u r d e s i g n m a n -
a g e m e n t capability.
C o m b i n i n g t h e i n i t i a t i o n , d e s ig n , b u i l d i n g , a n d m a n -
a g e m e n t o f a site in o n e s in g le o r g a n i z a t i o n is t h e r e f o r e a d -
v a n t a g e o u s , sin c e i n f o r m a t i o n flow s m o r e e a s ily w i t h i n a
s in g le a g e n c y , a n d tr a d e - o f f s c a n b e a r r a n g e d . T h e de-
s i g n e r le a r n s f r o m t h e t r o u b l e s o f t h e m a n w h o i n s ta lls th e
s e w e r s , a n d h e is s t i m u l a t e d to s u g g e s t n e w p o s s ib ilitie s for
m a n a g e m e n t as w e ll as fo r fo rm . T h e o r g a n i z a t i o n c a n c o n -
s id e r l e n g t h e n i n g t h e d e s i g n p e r i o d to a l l o w a b e t t e r fit b e -
t w e e n site a n d u s e r o r c a n g a i n t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f v e r y r a p i d
d e c is io n b y a p p l y i n g m o r e sk ille d m a n p o w e r a n d a m o r e
c o m p r e s s e d m e t h o d . T h i s fluid s ty le a ffe c ts t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n
D esign team s o f t h e d e s i g n t e a m itself. R a t h e r t h a n a s tr ic t h i e r a r c h y ,
w i t h e x p lic it ro le s a n d a c h a i n o f c o m m a n d , th e t e a m m u s t
o p e r a t e as a g r o u p o f e q u a ls . E a c h m e m b e r h a s s o m e s p e c ia l
skill b u t is a b le a n d e x p e c te d to p l a y t h e ro le s o f o t h e r t e a m 267
m e m b e r s to s o m e e x te n t. T h e fo c u s o f d e c i s i o n s h if ts as th e
p r o b l e m s h ifts , s m a ll s u b t e a m s a r e f o r m e d a n d d is s o lv e d to
p e r f o r m p a r t i c u l a r ta s k s , c o n flic ts a r e e x p e c te d a n d o p e n l y
re s o lv e d . M o s t o f te n t h e y w ill b e r e s o lv e d b y c o n s e n s u s , al-
t h o u g h a f o r m a l a r b i t e r w ill b e r e q u i r e d to b r e a k d e a d l o c k s
a n d m a i n t a i n t h e s c h e d u le .
T h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s m u s t b e p e n e t r a b l e to c lie n ts a n d
o t h e r p a r t i c i p a n t s . It s h o u l d n o t b e a r c a n e — a b a c k - r o o m
m a g ic t h a t b l o s s o m s i n t o m a r v e l o u s u n t o u c h a b l e p ic tu r e s .
T h e r e l a t i o n to o u t s i d e p r o f e s s i o n a l c o n s u l t a n t s , w i t h t h e i r
set t a s k s a n d set i n t e r v a l s for r e p o r t i n g , m a y b e as d iffic u lt
as m a n a g i n g c lie n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n . T e a m s m a y th e r e f o r e t r y
to i n c o r p o r a t e s p e c ia l sk ills w i t h i n t h e i r o w n b o u n d a r i e s o r
p u t o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s o n a flex ib le r e t a i n e r b a sis. C o n s u l -
t a n t s m a y be u s e d for p u r p o s e s o t h e r t h a n i n f o r m a t i o n , o f
c o u rse . T h e y m a y b e w a n t e d to le n d p r e s t i g e to a p r o c e s s or
to r e s o lv e c o n flic ts. T h e f o r m a l r e p o r t o f c a r e f u lly l im ite d
sc o p e m a y t h e r e f o r e b e p r e f e r r e d . I n t h a t ca se t h e t i m i n g o f
th o s e r e p o r t s a n d t h e t a s k s t h e y a r e g iv e n to a c c o m p l i s h c a n
be as c r itic a l as t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e r e p o r t itself.
A ll o f t h e s e a r e p r o b l e m s o f i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n w h i c h m u s t b e s o lv e d d u r i n g t h e d e lic a te p r o c -
ess o f s e a r c h a n d e v a l u a t i o n . M a k i n g t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s vi-
a b le a n d e x p lic it b y t h e u s e o f s y s t e m a t i c m e t h o d s is o n e
w ay of im p ro v in g th a t c o m m u n icatio n .
T h e c h o ic e o f t e c h n i c a l l a n g u a g e — t h e s y s t e m o f Technical
grap h ic sym bols, n u m b e rs, a n d w o r d s — plays a n eglected language
b u t n o t tr iv ia l ro le h e r e . I d e a lly , d e s i g n , d a t a , p r e d i c t i o n s ,
e v a l u a t i o n s , a n d c o n t r o l s w o u l d all b e e x p r e s s e d in t h e s a m e
la n g u a g e , a n d th is l a n g u a g e w o u l d b e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e n o t
o n l y to o n e s e l f (as in t h a t s k e t c h s ta g e o f d e s i g n w h i c h is es-
s e n t i a l l y s e l f - c o m m u n i c a t i o n ) b u t a ls o to o t h e r p r o f e s s i o n a l s
a n d to c lie n ts , u s e r s , a n d b u ild e r s . S u c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n re -
q u ir e s s im p lic ity , a n d y e t t h e l a n g u a g e m u s t b e r ic h
e n o u g h to d e a l w i t h t h e n u a n c e s o f t h e s p a t i a l a n d t e m p o r a l
p a t t e r n o f b e h a v i o r a n d fo r m . It m u s t a ls o b e m a n i p u l a b l e ,
r a p id , a n d c o h e r e n t.
N o o n e w ill b e s u r p r i s e d t h a t w e d o n o t p o s s e s s s u c h a
m a s t e r l y l a n g u a g e , a n d it is e v e n d o u b t f u l t h a t w e s h a ll
ev e r fin d o n e t h a t w ill p e r f o r m all th e s e feats. B u t o u r c u s -
t o m a r y la n g u a g e s a re so d e f ic ie n t t h a t w e a re fo rc e d to
s e a r c h for s o m e t h i n g b e tte r . P l a n s , s e c tio n s , e l e v a tio n s , a n d
m o d e ls p e r f o r m r e la tiv e ly w ell as d e s c r i p t i o n s a n d c o n t r o l s o f
p h y s ic a l fo rm . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y d o n o t e x p r e s s p a t t e r n o r
 268 d e v e l o p m e n t in t im e ; t h e y fail to r e c o r d b e h a v i o r , i n s t i t u -
tio n s , o r m a n a g e m e n t ; t h e y a r e s l o w a n d c o s tly to m a n i p u ‫־‬
la te ; t h e y d o n o t d i r e c t l y c o n v e y t h e s e n s u o u s e x p e r i e n c e o f a
pla c e . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y a re d iffic u lt fo r l a y m e n , a n d m a n y
p r o f e s s i o n a l s , to r e a d . T h e y a r e i n a c c u r a t e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s
a n d e a s y to falsify . E v a l u a t i o n is d iffic u lt, s h o r t o f e x p e r ie n c -
i n g t h e c o m p l e t e d r e a lity . S u r p r i s i n g l y f e w site d e s i g n e r s
r e a liz e w h a t t h e y a r e p r o p o s i n g u n t i l it is d o n e .
T h e t e c h n i c a l o b s t a c l e o f l a n g u a g e m u s t be o v e r c o m e
S ee p a g es 2 8 6 -2 8 8 b y a w h o l e se r ie s o f i n n o v a t i o n s , u s i n g t h e e n t i r e r a n g e o f
ic o n ic , d i a g r a m m a t i c , v e r b a l , q u a n t i t a t i v e , a n d s i m u l a t i o n
m odes. L an g u a g e s expressive of process a n d d y n a m ic form
are p a rtic u la rly re q u ire d . T h e se are n o t h o p e le ss t a s k s — a
n u m b e r o f n e w l a n g u a g e s a r e p r e s e n t l y b e i n g d e v e lo p e d
a n d w ill b e d e s c r i b e d in t h e c h a p t e r to fo llo w .
R eq u ired T h e " c u r r e n t best p ra c tic e " describ ed at th e b eg in -
R e v is io n s n i n g o f th is c h a p t e r m u s t b e r e v is e d in a n u m b e r o f w a y s .
B y e n u m e r a t i n g t h e m , w e c a n s u m m a r i z e o u r d i s c u s s io n .
1. W h i l e c o n t i n u i n g to b e v a l u e - o r i e n t e d , t h e p u r p o s e s
o f a s u c c e s s f u l site d e s i g n a re p r o p e r l y t h o s e o f t h e u s e r , n o t
t h o s e o f t h e d e s i g n e r o r e v e n o f h is d ir e c t c lie n t. M o s t d e -
s i g n e r s w o u l d o b je c t t h a t t h e y h a v e a l w a y s b e e n c o n c e r n e d
a b o u t t h e u s e r. Y et if site s a r e to f a c ilita te u s e r p u r p o s e s ,
t h e r e m u s t b e m a j o r c h a n g e s in t h e p r o c e s s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l
d e v e l o p m e n t a n d in t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f site d e s i g n a n d a n a l y -
sis. T h e c h a n g e s i n c l u d e t h e d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f p o w e r a n d a
n e w ro le fo r t h e d e s i g n e r as t e a c h e r , s t u d e n t , a n d fa c ilita to r .
S ite d e s i g n s c a n n o t b e w h o l l y p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h p r e s e n t
v o c a l u s e r s , h o w e v e r , b u t m u s t b e p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n e d for
those a b se n t or h id d en .
2. C o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h e site
d e s i g n p r o c e s s , as w e ll a s b e t w e e n t h e m a n d c lie n ts , u s e r s ,
a n d b u i l d e r s m u s t b e g r e a t l y i m p r o v e d so t h a t t h e p r o c e s s is
p e n e t r a b l e to all p a r t i e s a n d so it c a n h a n d l e w i t h d i s p a t c h
the re q u ired q u a n tity of in fo rm a tio n . T o im p ro v e c o m m u n i-
c a t i o n t h e r e m u s t b e c h a n g e s in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e d e -
s i g n t e a m , a m o r e e x p lic it a n d s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e s s , t h e u s e o f
b e h a v io ra l p ro g ra m s, a n d th e c o n stru c tio n of n e w d esign
languages.
3. S ite d e s i g n m u s t b e c o m e a l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s , cycli-
c a lly r e t u r n i n g to e a r lie r p h a s e s , m o v i n g b a c k a n d f o r t h
f r o m in itia l p r o b l e m d e f i n i t i o n to site o c c u p a t i o n , m a n a g e -
m e n t , a n d t h e f e e d b a c k t h e r e f r o m . T h i s p r o c e s s is in c o n -
t r a s t to site p l a n n i n g c o n c e iv e d o f as a m o m e n t a r y ta s k ,
w h i c h t e r m i n a t e s a f te r a d e t a i l e d p l a n h a s b e e n m a d e to
m eet a p re d e te rm in e d p ro g ra m . In stitu tio n a liz in g feed b ack 269
in to t h e site d e s i g n p r o c e s s is y e t a n u n s o l v e d p r o b l e m , h o w -
ever.
4. I n a d d i t i o n to s p e c if y in g th e f o r m o f e x t e r i o r s p a c e s
a n d o b je c ts a n d t h e i r c o st, site p l a n s m u s t a ls o d e a l w i t h
perfo rm an ce, b eh av io r, a ttitu d e , m a n a g e m e n t, a n d e n v iro n -
m e n t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h i s a p p r o a c h is a n e w w a y o f l o o k i n g at
site d e s ig n .
5. W h i l e p r o p o s i n g t h e s p a t i a l p a t t e r n o f c e r t a i n ele-
m e n t s , site p l a n s m u s t a ls o c o n s i d e r t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t , o r
th e i r cyclic a l p a t t e r n , in tim e . P l a n s s h o u l d s p e c if y tern -
p o r a l r h y t h m a n d p r o c e s s fo rm . T h e y a r e i n t e r v e n t i o n s in a
very long te rm process, fu tu re o rien ted , directed to w a rd
c h a n g e , a n d c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e c lie n t n o t y e t p r e s e n t .
T o g e t h e r t h e s e c h a n g e s a d d u p to p r o f o u n d s h if ts in
t e c h n i q u e a n d role, s h if ts o f w h i c h all e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s i g n
s t a n d s in n e e d . S o m e e x p e r i m e n t s a n d n e w d e p a r t u r e s o f
th e s e k i n d s a r e a l r e a d y u n d e r w a y , b u t fo r t h e m o s t p a r t
t h e y lie in t h e f u tu r e .

i
 Chapter 12

Technique:
D e sig n M eth o d s

B y c o m m o n a c c o u n t , d e s i g n is a m y s t e r y , a l i g h t n i n g
flash. M e n o f g e n i u s re c e iv e th e s e fla sh e s, a n d th e y l e a r n to
M ysteries of
r e c e iv e t h e m b y f o l l o w i n g t h e e x a m p l e o f o t h e r m e n o f ge-
design
n iu s . A f t e r th e r e v e l a t i o n , t h e r e a re d e ta ils to d e v e lo p a n d th e
w o r k o f c a r r y i n g o u t t h e r e v e a le d s o lu tio n . B u t th e s e a r e se p -
a r a t e p r o b l e m s , w h e t h e r o n e t h i n k s o f t h e m as g r u b b y n u i-
s a n c e s o r as t h e o v e r r i d i n g is s u e s o f p r a c tic a lity .
C o m m o n a c c o u n t is c o r r e c t: t h e r e i s a m y s t e r y in d e-
sig n , as t h e r e is in all h u m a n t h o u g h t . B u t t h e a c c o u n t is
o t h e r w i s e w r o n g . D e s i g n is n o t r e s tr ic te d to g e n iu s , n o r is it
a u n i f o r m o r s i m p l e p r o c e s s , n o r is it d i s t i n c t f r o m p r a c tic a l-
ity o r d e ta il. P r a c t i c i n g d e s i g n e r s a re a w a r e o f its c o n v o l u -
tio n s , b u t t h e y a lso h a l f b e lie v e in th e l i g h t n i n g flash. T h e y
a re t r a i n e d to d e s i g n in o n e set w a y , w h i c h t h e y a p p l y to
e v e r y o c c a s io n . T h e o n e w a y is o f te n c l u m s y a n d w a s te f u l.
B ut m o s t o f th e n e w s y s t e m a t i c te c h n i q u e s n o w u se d for
p r o b l e m s o lv in g d o n o t s e e m v e r y u se fu l e ith e r , s in c e site
p l a n n i n g is so o p e n - e n d e d a p ro c e s s .
If d e s ig n is t h e i m a g i n a t i v e c r e a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e f o r m s
(of e n v i r o n m e n t in th is case), w h i c h a re c r e a te d to a c h ie v e
c e r t a i n p u r p o s e s a n d a re c o m p l e t e w i t h t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s for
m a k i n g t h e m , t h e n d e s i g n is p r a c t i c e d b y m a n y p e o p le a n d
Inventory of in m a n y d if f e r e n t w a y s . S o m e w a y s a re n e w , s o m e q u ite o ld,
design m eth o d s a n d e a c h is r e l e v a n t to a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . A ll o f th e m in -
e lu d e t h e g e n e r a t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f n e w p o s s ib ilitie s . Let
us b e g in w it h a d e s c r ip tiv e i n v e n t o r y o f th e k n o w n m e t h o d s 271
o f g e n e r a t i n g a n d s e le c tin g f o r m p o s s ib ilitie s :
I n c r e m e n t a l a d a p t a t i o n : T h e great m ajo rity of enviro n - Increm ental
m e n t a l d e s ig n s a re i n c r e m e n t a l a d a p t a t i o n s o f s o l u t i o n s p re - adaptation
v io u s ly u s e d , e s p e c ia lly th o s e t h a t h a v e b e e n u s e d o f te n
e n o u g h to b e c o m e s te r e o ty p e s . T h e r e a r e v a s t n u m b e r s o f
s u c h s t e r e o t y p e s — th e c u l- d e - s a c , th e b a c k y a r d , f o u n d a -
tio n p l a n t i n g , th e s tr e e t tree, th e p a r k o f tre e s a n d g r a s s , th e
axial v ista , th e p l a y g r o u n d , t h e s i d e w a l k café, to n a m e o n l y
a r a n d o m few in site p l a n n i n g . O u r h e a d s a re full o f s u c h
c u s t o m a r y fo rm s, as w ell as t h e s i t u a t i o n s , p u r p o s e s , a n d
ty p e s o f b e h a v i o r w i t h w h i c h t h e y a re c u s t o m a r i l y a s s o c i-
ate d . P e o p le w h o do n o t call th e m s e l v e s d e s i g n e r s u s e
t h e m r e p e a t e d l y to i m a g i n e a n d d e c id e o n e n v i r o n m e n t a l
fo rm , m a k i n g m i n o r a d a p t a t i o n s to fit t h e m to t h e c u r r e n t
s i tu a tio n .
A v o w e d d e s i g n e r s u se th e m e t h o d ju s t as f r e q u e n t l y :
th e y " r e v i e w th e l i t e r a t u r e " for p r e v i o u s s o l u t i o n s a n d fo llo w
t h e f a s h i o n s o f t h e d a y . P r o f e s s i o n a l s a n d l a y m e n a re n o t
w r o n g . C r e a t i n g a n e w f o r m p o s s i b i l i t y , c o m p l e t e w i t h its
d e ta il, its p u r p o s e , its m e t h o d o f p r o d u c t i o n , its fit w i t h be-
h a v io r , is a n e x h a u s t i v e u n d e r t a k i n g . R e p e a t e d tr ia ls w ill
be n e e d e d to te s t its u s e f u ln e s s a n d to a d a p t its d e ta ils . In
th e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f e n v i r o n m e n t a l d e s ig n , it is i m p o s s i b l e to
i n n o v a t e m o s t f e a tu r e s o r to d o so c o n t i n u o u s l y . W e m u s t fall
back o n previous achievem ents.
T h e fin e st site p l a n n i n g o f th e p a s t h a s b e e n a c u lm i- T he usefulness
n a t i o n o f a l o n g p r o c e s s o f th is k i n d — e a c h d e s i g n e r c o p ie d of increm ental
a p a s t s o l u t i o n b u t m a d e a fe w a d j u s t m e n t s to i m p r o v e t h e design
f u n c t i o n i n g , so t h a t la te p r o d u c t s a r e m ir a c le s o f w e ll- f itte d
f o rm . W h e r e a p p r o p r i a t e s t e r e o t y p e s a re w i d e l y d iffu s e d ,
m a g n if ic e n t r e g io n a l l a n d s c a p e s d e v e lo p — c r e a te d b y m a n y
m i n d s , y e t h a r m o n i o u s a n d v is ib lv m e s h e d w i t h a w a y of
life.
I n c r e m e n t a l a d a p t a t i o n is u s e fu l w h e n c h a n g e s in th e
e x t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n a r e s lo w r e la tiv e to th e p a c e o f e n v i r o n -
m e n t a l d e c i s i o n — w h e n o b je c tiv e s , b e h a v i o r , te c h n o l o g y ,
i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d p h y s i c a l s e t t i n g s a r e all s ta b le . I n a d d i -
tio n , t h e a v a ila b le s t e r e o t y p e s m u s t h a v e s o m e r e a s o n a b l e
r e l a t i o n to th e p r o b le m . It m u s t be p o s s ib le t h a t a c h a i n o f
s m a ll m o d i f i c a t i o n s c a n le a d to a g o o d s o l u t i o n . F o r m s t h a t a re
th e p r o d u c t o f r e c e n t f a s h i o n o r w e r e d e v e lo p e d in d i f f e r e n t
c ir c u m s t a n c e s m a y be r a d ic a lly i n a p p r o p r i a t e . T h e s h a l-
lo w - lo t w i d e - f r o n t " r a n c h h o u s e " o f c u r r e n t s u b u r b i a m a y
n o t b e w o r t h g r a d u a l m o d if ic a tio n , s in c e it is o n l y a m o m e n -
272 t a r y w a y o f p r o v i d i n g v is ib le s t a t u s — a w a y t h a t im p o s e s
se v e r e c o s ts in d e v e l o p m e n t a n d p r iv a c y . O n t h e c o n t r a r y ,
th e u n d e rly in g ste reo ty p e of a lo w -d en sity , tree-p lan ted
s u b u r b i a o f s in g le d w e l l i n g u n i t s , w h i c h h a s a lo n g h i s t o r y
a n d fits m a n y f e a t u r e s o f c u r r e n t l iv in g s ty le a n d d e s ire , is
t h e k i n d o f f o r m t h a t w e ll d e s e r v e s c a r e f u l t u n i n g .
E v e n t h e m o s t i n n o v a t i v e d e s i g n e r s u s e s t e r e o ty p e s .
I n o r d i n a r y w o r k , t h e y a p p e a r e v e r y w h e r e , a n d f a te f u l d e -
c is io n s a re u n c o n s c i o u s l y m a d e t h e r e b y . W h e n b i t t e r a r g u -
m e n t s a r is e o v e r t h e e x a c t a l i g n m e n t o f a n e x p r e s s w a y , n o
o n e s t o p s to w o n d e r a b o u t t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d m o d e l o f t h e
i n n e r c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l r o a d o n w h i c h t h a t e x a c t a l i g n m e n t is
b a s e d . T h e p l a n f o r a n e w t o w n in G h a n a l o o k s s t r a n g e l y
lik e t h e p r o d u c t o f a n A m e r i c a n s c h o o l o f p l a n n i n g . S te r e o -
ty p e s c a n n o t b e a v o i d e d — t h e d a n g e r lies in u s i n g t h e m
u n th in k in g ly .
T h i s a s s e r t i o n h a s s e v e r a l c o n s e q u e n c e s . F irst, a d e -
sig n e r m u s t be a w a re of th e u b iq u ity o f s te re o ty p e form s a n d
c o n s c i o u s l y r e v ie w t h o s e t h a t a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o h is o w n p r o b -
lem . S e c o n d , h e m u s t h a v e s o m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f th e p u r -
p o s e s a n d s i t u a t i o n s fo r w h i c h t h o s e t y p e s a r e u se fu l. T h i r d ,
h e m u s t b e a b le t o r e c o g n iz e t h e p r o b l e m s fo r w h i c h a n
a d a p t e d s o l u t i o n w ill d o a n d t h o s e w h i c h call fo r i n n o v a t i o n .
T h e l a t t e r j u d g m e n t is m o s t d i f f i c u l t — it r e q u i r e s a k n o w l -
e d g e o f p r e v i o u s p e r f o r m a n c e , a n a c c u r a t e e s t i m a t e o f th e
n a tu re of th e p ro b le m , a n d a rap id p rev iew of th e d esign
p r o c e s s to c o m e . T h e a u t o m a t i c u s e o f p r e v i o u s s o l u t i o n s a n d
t h e a u t o m a t i c w o r s h i p o f i n n o v a t i o n ( th e id e a l t h a t m o s t de-
s i g n e r s a r e t r a i n e d to a d m i r e ) a r e b o t h i r r a t i o n a l .
W e o u g h t to d e v e lo p l ib r a r ie s o f s t e r e o t y p e s — in v e n -
t o r y i n g f o r m s a n d t h e i r c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d c h a n g i n g th e s e
d a t a as e x p e r ie n c e a c c r u e s . T h e c r e a t i o n a n d e v a l u a t i o n o f
n e w s t e r e o t y p e s (o r p r o t o t y p e s , to u s e a m o r e g e n ia l w o r d )
b e c o m e s a t a s k o f in f lu e n c e a n d v a lu e , w o r t h y o f s u b s t a n -
tial p u b l i c i n v e s t m e n t .
I n c r e m e n t a l i m p r o v e m e n t is n o t tie d to t r a d i t i o n a l
Increm ental fo r m s . It m a y b e u s e d in s y s t e m a t i c o p t i m i z a t i o n . T h e r e a re
com puter co m p u ter p ro g ra m s th a t b egin w ith an y a rb itra ry d ia g ra m
program s o f r o o m lo c a t i o n s a n d a p r e c is e w a y o f e v a l u a t i n g t h e l in k -
a g e s b e t w e e n t h e m in t e r m s o f w e i g h t e d a c c e s s o r conflict.
R a n d o m i n c r e m e n t a l c h a n g e s in s in g le r o o m l o c a t i o n s a re
th e n m a d e a n d re ta in e d w h e n e v e r th e " g o o d n e s s " of the
t o t a l s y s t e m i n c r e a s e s in a n y d e g re e . T h e p a t t e r n th e r e f o r e
g r a d u a l l y " i m p r o v e s , " u n t i l s o m e s ta b l e p a t t e r n is a c h ie v e d
b e y o n d w h i c h r a n d o m m o d i f i c a t i o n s p r o d u c e n o f u r t h e r im -
p r o v e m e n t . T h i s is a n o p t i m u m s o l u t i o n a l o n g t h a t p a r t i c u - 273
la r b r a n c h o f d e v e l o p m e n t . O f c o u r s e , a b e t t e r s o l u t i o n m i g h t
h a v e b e e n f o u n d h a d a " j u m p " b e e n m a d e o r h a d t h e o r ig i-
n a l c la s s if ic a tio n o f r o o m s o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n p r o c e d u r e its e lf
b e e n r e v is e d . T h e t e c h n i q u e is li m i t e d to s i m p l e p r o b l e m s ,
c a p a b l e o f i n c r e m e n t a l s h if t a n d p r e c is e e v a l u a t i o n , a n d re -
q u ir e s a s o u r c e o f r a p i d c a l c u l a t i o n . N o h u m a n b e i n g w o u l d
w ork th a t w ay.
I n c r e m e n t a l a d a p t a t i o n is p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l w h e r e it
c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t in t h e field, m a k i n g r e a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s to
a n e n v i r o n m e n t in u se , o b s e r v i n g t h e r e s u l t s , a n d t h e n im -
p r o v i n g a g a in . T h e f e e d b a c k is r a p i d a n d a c c u r a t e , a n d a
c lose fit b e t w e e n f o r m a n d p u r p o s e c a n b e a c h ie v e d . A l -
t h o u g h t h is p r o c e d u r e is r a r e l y p o s s i b l e t o d a y b e c a u s e o f th e
c o s t a n d sc a le o f o u r o p e r a t i o n s , it m i g h t b e u s e d m o r e fre-
q u e n t l y w e r e d e c e n t r a l i z e d m a n a g e m e n t d e a l i n g w i t h se t-
tin g s o f s m a ll scale. W o r k i n g d i r e c t l y w i t h r e a l i t y , r a t h e r
t h a n w i t h s i m u l a t i o n s o f f o r m , is t h e p r i v i l e g e o f t h e d e s i g n -
e rs o f p a i n t i n g s a n d p o t t e r y . S ite p l a n n e r s m a n a g e m o r e u n -
w i e l d y m a t e r i a l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , lo c a t i o n s c a n b e t r a c e d o u t o n
t h e a c t u a l site, f u ll- s c a le m o c k - u p s c a n b e u s e d , o r d e c i s i o n s
be deferred u n til use has beg u n .
O ptim izing the essential function: W h ile u n c o n - O ptim izing
s c io u s ly r e l y i n g o n s t e r e o t y p e s , m o s t d e s i g n e r s a d v o c a t e
o th e r tech n iq u es. A c o m m o n o n e p roceeds from g en eral
s t r u c t u r e to d e ta ils : first a b s t r a c t i n g t h e " e s s e n t i a l " f u n c -
t i o n o f a n e n v i r o n m e n t , t h e n i m a g i n i n g a f o r m t h a t w ill s a t-
isfy t h is g e n e r a l f u n c t i o n as w e ll as p o s s ib le , a n d fin a lly
a d a p t i n g t h i s f o r m to s a t i s f y o t h e r f u n c t i o n s a n d c o n s t r a i n t s .
If, for e x a m p le , a n a r e a is to b e u s e d as a n o u t d o o r m a r k e t , it
w ill first b e d e c id e d t h a t t h e a c t o f p u r c h a s e is t h e e s s e n t i a l
b e h a v i o r , a n d t h a t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t m u s t m a k e t h a t a c t in -
v itin g . T h e d e s i g n e r — m o s t o f t e n b y i n t r o s p e c t i o n — c o n -
s id e r s h o w e n v i r o n m e n t c a n be m a d e i n v i t i n g for p u r c h a s -
in g , i m a g i n e s a n id e a l f o r m , a n d t h e n fin d s w a y s to a d a p t
t h e f o r m to m e e t o t h e r p r o b l e m s s u c h as co st, t h e d e liv e r y
a n d p r o t e c t i o n o f g o o d s , t h e a r r iv a l o f c u s t o m e r s , a n d t h e
f o r m o f t h e site. If h e c a n d o so w i t h o u t c o m p r o m i s i n g h is
id e a l t o o far, h e w in s .
T h e t e c h n i q u e is a n a l o g o u s to l i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g , t h e
o p t i m i z a t i o n o f a s in g le f u n c t i o n s u b je c t to c o n s t r a i n t s . L ike
li n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g , it is a p o w e r f u l w a y o f d e a l i n g w i t h
c o m p le x ity , b u t it h a s s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s . F irst, it m u s t b e
p o s s ib le to d is c o v e r a t r u l y d o m i n a n t f u n c t i o n , w h o s e s a t i s -
f a c tio n is fa r m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n a n y o t h e r f a c to r . D e s i g n -
274 e rs w ill o f t e n fa ls ify a m a n y - s i d e d p r o b l e m in o r d e r to d is-
c o v e r s u c h a f u n c t i o n . E v e n if t h e d o m i n a n c e is re a l, th e
‫ ״‬i d e a l " s o l u t i o n m a y b e so c o m p r o m i s e d in t h e p r o c e s s o f a d -
a p t a t i o n as to lose m o s t o f its fo rc e o r, o n t h e c o n t r a r y , m a y b e
so fiercely d e f e n d e d f r o m a s s a u l t as to i m p o s e v e r y diffic u lt
e x p e d i e n t s o n s e c o n d a r y f u n c t i o n s . T h e c o r r e c t b a l a n c e be-
t w e e n d o m i n a n t a n d s e c o n d a r y f u n c t i o n s is h a r d to m a i n -
ta in , a n d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e d o m i n a n t o n e m a y be v e r b a l
s l e i g h t o f h a n d . T h e d o m i n a n t f u n c t i o n o f a u n i v e r s i t y is
p r o n o u n c e d to b e ‫ ״‬l e a r n i n g , " a n d t h a t f u n c t i o n is t h e n s e e n
as a s t a n d a r d p r o c e s s r e q u i r i n g a s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n . A ll
t h e r ic h c o m p l e x i t y o f a r e a l u n i v e r s i t y is lo s t in t h e p r o c e s s .
C o n c e n t r a t i o n o n o n e k e y a s p e c t c a n le a d t o d r a m a t i c c o n -
f r o n t a t i o n s b e t w e e n d e s i g n e r s , c lie n ts , a n d o t h e r a c t o r s in
d e v e l o p m e n t . S o m e t i m e s d r a m a is w h a t is w a n t e d , b u t m o r e
o f t e n a fle x ib le a t t i t u d e , w i t h t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f m a k i n g
t r a d e - o f f s b e t w e e n m a n y is s u e s , is m o r e p r o d u c t i v e .
O ptim izing O p t i m i z i n g is a n e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l m e t h o d , h o w e v e r ,
particular w h e n it is u s e d as p a r t o f a m o r e g e n e r a l d e s i g n s t r a t e g y . In
functions e arly stages of p la n n in g , one can learn a b o u t th e require-
m e n t s o f a p a r t i c u l a r f u n c t i o n b y o p t i m i z i n g fo r it, w h ile
h o l d i n g o t h e r r e q u i r e m e n t s s u b o r d i n a t e . B y d o i n g th is in
t u r n fo r e a c h o f t h e m a j o r f u n c t i o n s , o n e g a i n s i n s i g h t i n to
th e c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e p r o b l e m a n d its h i d d e n c o n flic ts. N o n e
o f t h e " o p t i m a l " d e s i g n s is lik e ly to b e m o r e t h a n a n u n -
w o r k a b l e c a r i c a t u r e , b u t a m o n g th e s e d e s i g n s , a n d p a r t i c u -
la r ly a m o n g c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e m , w ill b e t h e s e e d s o f v ia b le
g e n e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s . T h e t e c h n i q u e is s u r e l y c o r r e c t in
p o i n t i n g t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f p u r p o s e o r f u n c t i o n . It is a p o w -
e rfu l w a y o f g e t t i n g at t h e h e a r t o f a c o m p l e x p r o b l e m w h e r -
e v e r t h e r e is a n o b v i o u s d o m i n a n t f u n c t i o n w h o s e f o r m re -
q u i r e m e n t s c a n be s t a t e d r a t h e r c le a r ly , a n d w h e n e v e r t h e
r e s t r a i n t s a re e q u a l l y c le a r b u t d o n o t lim it t h e p o s s i b l e f o r m
to o se v e re ly . T h i s s i t u a t i o n m a y o c c u r in t h e d e s i g n o f a s t o r -
a g e y a r d o r a b u s t e r m i n a l . E ls e w h e r e , w h e n u s e d as t h e
p r i n c i p a l d e s i g n a p p r o a c h , it c a n b e d a n g e r o u s l y m i s l e a d -
in g , r e s u l t i n g in fo r c e d a n d f o r m a l d e s i g n s a n d r e l i a n c e o n
v e r b a l o r g r a p h i c a b s t r a c t i o n . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , it is o f te n ef-
fectiv e in in f l u e n c i n g d e c is io n s s i m p l y b e c a u s e o f its a p p a r -
e n t c la r ity .
P roblem The structure o f the p roblem : A n o t h e r w a y o f a p -
structure p r o a c h i n g a d e s i g n is to l o o k fo r c lu e s in t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e
p r o b l e m itself. In s ite p l a n n i n g it is c o m m o n to b e g i n b y a n -
a l y z i n g t h e p o s s ib ilitie s i n h e r e n t in t h e e x is t i n g te r r a in .
T h e p l a n n e r m a y c o n s i d e r t h e g r o u n d p ie c e b y p ie c e , im a g -
in in g th e p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f e a c h lo c a tio n , o r h e m a y s e a r c h for 275
s o m e m o r e g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e l a t e n t in t h e l a n d : a m a j o r d iv i-
sio n , a k e y p a s s , a focal p o i n t . T h e t e c h n i q u e is n o t lim ite d to
th e a n a ly s is o f site, a l t h o u g h it is p e r h a p s m o s t f a m ilia r
th e re . T h e site p l a n n e r c a n b e g i n w i t h o t h e r a s p e c t s o f th e
p r o b l e m : t h e d iffic u ltie s a n d is s u e s t h a t h a v e led to t h e d e -
m a n d for a n e w s e t t i n g , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f p o litic a l p o w e r a n d
i n s t i t u t i o n s w h i c h s u r r o u n d s t h e d e c is io n p r o c e s s , t h e b e -
h a v i o r s e t t i n g s t h a t n o w i n a d e q u a t e l y fulfill t h e s t a t e d p u r -
p o ses.
By clo se a t t e n t i o n to e x i s t i n g re a lity , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y Use o f misfits
to th e d iffic u ltie s o r ‫ ״‬m i s f i t s ‫ ״‬t h a t r e a lity e x h i b i t s , t h e p l a n -
n e r o f te n fin d s t h a t s u g g e s t i o n s for d e s i g n s e e m to rise
im m e d i a t e l y o u t o f th e p r o b l e m . T h e d e s i g n is n o t a n a lie n
s o lu tio n . T h e r ic h d i v e r s i t y o f r e a lity c o m e s t h r o u g h . W e a r e
m u c h b e t t e r a t r e c o g n i z i n g p r o b l e m s a n d m is f its t h a n w e
a re a t i m a g i n i n g id e a l s o lu t i o n s . A h a b i t o f m i n d t h a t c o n -
v e r ts b e w i l d e r i n g d iffic u ltie s i n t o a s s e ts s h o u l d be e n c o u r -
ag ed .
T h i s m e t h o d is a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e n , w h e r e v e r t h e e x is t-
in g s i t u a t i o n is t h e c r u c ia l f a c to r a n d is e a s ily o b s e r v a b l e ,
w h e r e a n a d e q u a t e r e s p o n s e to a m isfit is t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t
a im , w h e r e a p a r t i a l s o l u t i o n is m o r e lik e ly to be a p p r o p r i a t e
t h a n a r a d ic a l r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f r e a lity , a n d w h e r e it is p o s -
sib le to d e c id e w h a t a s p e c t o f e x i s t i n g r e a l i t y is th e k e y —
w h e t h e r it is t h e site, th e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f so c ie ty , o r t h e n a -
tu r e o f b e h a v i o r .
D e s i g n s d o n o t a c t u a l l y ‫ ״‬ris e o u t o f p r o b l e m s , ‫ ״‬h o w -
ever. W h a t r e a lly h a p p e n s is t h a t t h e d e s i g n e r , o b s e r v i n g
r e a lity , t h i n k s o f a f o r m t h a t w ill s a tis f y a p e r c e iv e d m isfit.
O f t e n e n o u g h , t h e m isfit is p e r c e iv e d b e c a u s e a p o s s ib le so -
lu tio n is k n o w n . T h e c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f t e r r a i n s u g g e s t s
k n o w n w a y s o f r e s p o n s e to te r r a i n . T h e d e s i g n e r lo o k s for
c o n d i t i o n s h e r e m e m b e r s as b e i n g s u s c e p t i b l e o f s o l u t i o n
— s te e p g r a d e s , p o c k e ts , s w e e p i n g v i e w s — o r h e lo o k s
for r e s t r a i n t s t h a t m a y *help to d e t e r m i n e t h e s o l u t i o n for
h i m — a s h o r t a g e o f g o o d l a n d , a se v e re c lim a te .
T h e a n a l y s i s o f p r o b l e m s , w h i l e less r i s k y t h a n u t o p i a ,
te n d s to n e g le c t p o s s ib ilitie s t h a t c o u ld be a c h ie v e d b y r a d i -
cal i n n o v a t i o n s o r c o u ld d o m o r e t h a n so lv e p r e s e n t d ifficul-
ties. P e r h a p s th e t e r r a i n is n o t c ru c ia l o r c a n b e e x p lo ite d in
u n h e a rd -o f w ays, or p e rh a p s a n e w te rra in can be m a n u fa c -
tu re d . T o a n a l y z e th e p r o b l e m is s u r e ly a n e s s e n tia l p a r t o f
d e s ig n . O f t e n e n o u g h , t h e c o r r e c t ta c tic is to b e g i n w i t h th e
p r o b l e m s t r u c t u r e , if o n e c a n b e f o u n d . B u t w h a t m u s t b e
 276 k e p t in m i n d is t h a t s o l u t i o n s d o n o t ris e o u t o f p r o b l e m s a n d
i n d e e d t h a t r e c o g n i t i o n o f a p r o b l e m i n c lu d e s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n
o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y a n d th e n a t u r e o f a s o l u t i o n .
D isaggregation D isaggregation: T h e t w o p r e c e d i n g t e c h n i q u e s c o p e
w i t h c o m p l e x i t y b y c h o o s i n g s o m e o n e c ru c ia l a s p e c t o f a
p r o b l e m to m a n i p u l a t e first. M u l t i p l i c i t y c a n a lso b e m a n -
a g e d if it is d i v id e d in t o m a n y p a r t s . B y s o lv in g e a c h p a r t
s e p a r a t e l y a n d b y c o m b i n i n g th e r e s u l t s , o n e c a n fin d a so-
l u t i o n to t h e w h o l e w h i c h r e s p o n d s to all t h e m u l t i p l e as-
p e c ts . H o w to d iv id e t h e w h o l e a n d t h e n h o w to r e c o m b i n e
t h e d iv i s i o n s a r e n o w t h e c ritic a l o p e r a t i o n s .
O n e t r a d i t i o n a l w a y o f d i s a g g r e g a t i n g a s ite p l a n is to
d iv id e it i n t o s m a l l e r a r e a s , e a c h o n e s m a l l e n o u g h to b e d e -
v e lo p e d as a w h o l e w i t h o u t u n r e a s o n a b l e e f f o r t — p r e f e r -
a b ly a r e a u n i t s t h a t c a n be r e p e a t e d e ls e w h e r e in t h e p la n .
M odules T h e s e a re c a lle d m odu les . B u t t h e a r e a m u s t b e la r g e
e n o u g h to c o in c id e w i t h i m p o r t a n t is s u e s o f t h e p l a n : for ex-
a m p l e , s p a t i a l f o r m o r so c ia l g r o u p i n g . T h u s in a la r g e h o u s -
i n g d e v e l o p m e n t a m o d u l e o f o n e o r t w o h o u s e s m i g h t m is s
t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t is s u e s o f i n t e r r e l a t i o n , w h i l e a m o d u l e o f
5 0 0 h o u s e s w o u l d be i n c o n v e n i e n t for s t u d y i n g t h e w h o l e
a n d w o u l d b e to o la r g e to b e r e p e a t e d a n d a d a p t e d . I n lo w -
d e n sity h o u sin g te n or tw e n ty dw ellin g u n its often p ro v id e a
c o n v e n i e n t m o d u l e . T h e u n i t m u s t h a v e e n o u g h self-
su f f ic ie n c y so t h a t m a n y i n t e r n a l r e l a t i o n s c a n b e d e t e r -
m i n e d , i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e i r effect o n o u t s i d e p a t t e r n s .
M o d u l a r d e s i g n is c o n v e n i e n t if d i v i s i o n is p o s s ib le . It
s h o u l d n o t , h o w e v e r , b e e le v a te d f r o m a d e s i g n c o n v e n i e n c e
to a d e s i g n p r in c ip le . S o m e sites a r e b e s t p l a n n e d as a s e rie s
o f r e p e a t e d u n i t s b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e s im ila r f u n c t i o n s ; o t h -
ers a r e n o t . A r e a l d i v is io n s n e e d n o t b e m o d u l a r . T h e y c a n
re fe r to t e r r a i n c o m p a r t m e n t s o r to g r o u p s o f r e s i d e n t s o f di-
v e r s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . B u t t h e r e la tiv e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e
s p a t i a l u n i t s is e s s e n tia l.
Design by It m a y p r o v e u s e f u l to d iv id e t h e p l a n i n t o b e h a v i o r se t-
beh av ior t in g s — r e la tiv e ly i n d e p e n d e n t , s ta b l e p a t t e r n s o f c u s t o m -
settings a r y b e h a v i o r t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e p h y s i c a l set-
t i n g s — w h i c h a re u n i t s in tim e as w e ll as in sp a c e . T h e s e
a re m o r e lo gical d iv i s i o n s t h a n p u r e l y s p a t i a l o n e s sin c e t h e y
fo llo w t h e g r a i n o f th e w a y a p la c e is u s e d a n d a re o f te n r e la -
tiv e ly i n d e p e n d e n t o f e a c h o th e r . T h e y f o llo w f r o m t h e s tr u c -
t u r e o f a p r o p e r l y m a d e p r o g r a m . C o m b i n i n g th e i n d i v i d u a l
s e t t i n g s m a y still be a p u z z le . T h e p r i n c i p a l d a n g e r is t h a t
a s i n g l e - m i n d e d fo c u s o n t h e m w o u l d le a d to t h e n e g le c t o f
la r g e r r e la t i o n s : tim e o v e r la p s , m o v e m e n t p a t t e r n s , r e g io n a l
in flu e n c e s.
 T h e p l a n m a y be b r o k e n d o w n i n t o g e n e r a l a s p e c ts , 277
e a c h o f w h i c h c o v e r s t h e e n t i r e site. A c t i v i t y p a t t e r n , c ir c u -
la tio n , a n d v is ib le p h y s i c a l f o r m h a v e b e e n th e d iv i s i o n s
u se d in p r e s e n t i n g t h e m a t e r i a l in th is b o o k . H o w e v e r c o n -
v e n i e n t for p u r p o s e s o f a n a ly s is , th e s e a s p e c t s a re u n f o r t u -
n ately h ig h ly in te rd e p e n d e n t. S ep a ra te c o n sid e ra tio n of
s u c h g e n e r a l e n t i t i e s is s o m e t i m e s u s e f u l as a ta c tic for e n -
t e r i n g a p r o b l e m o r a s a w a y o f p r e s e n t i n g r e s u lts , b u t it w ill
c a u s e s e r io u s d iffic u ltie s if m a i n t a i n e d a s a c o m p l e t e d e s i g n
p r o c e ss.
T o c o n s i d e r s e p a r a t e c r ite r ia is a n o t h e r w a y o f m a k i n g B reakdow n by
n o n s p a t i a l d i v i s i o n s — p r e p a r i n g id e a l p l a n s for e a c h o f a criteria
n u m b e r o f m a j o r p u r p o s e s (access, d i v e r s i t y , c o st, m a i n t e -
n a n c e , a n d so o n ), w h i l e s a t i s f y i n g o t h e r c r ite r ia a t r e a s o n -
a b le levels. T h i s is t h e s a m e ta c tic u s e d in o p t i m i z i n g a s in -
gle f u n c t i o n , b u t h e r e a n u m b e r o f d i v e r s e o p t i m u m s a r e
p r e p a r e d for a d e e p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p r o b l e m . C o r r e s -
p o n d e n c e s a re s o u g h t a n d r e in f o r c e d , a n d c o n flic ts a r e
a v o id e d o r c o m p r o m i s e d o n s o m e i n t u i t i v e b a s is o f w e i g h t i n g
to giv e a s o l u t i o n t h a t r e s p o n d s to m a n y c r i t e r i a at o n c e . R e l-
a tiv e i n d e p e n d e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s o l u t i o n s for s u c h c r ite r ia is
n o t to b e e x p e c te d . T h e r e f o r e , t h i s is a lso o n l y a u s e f u l b e g i n -
n i n g tactic.
A c o m p l e t e m e t h o d for d i s a g g r e g a t e d d e s i g n , i n c lu s iv e
o f a s y s t e m a t i c m e a n s for r e s o l v i n g c o n flic ts , h a s b e e n p r o - Christopher,
p o s e d b y A l e x a n d e r . It also in v o lv e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f Alexander: N o t e s
on th e S y n t h e s i s of
f o r m s a p p r o p r i a t e to s e p a r a t e c r ite r ia , t h o u g h o n l y w h e n th e Form, Harvard
c r ite r ia a r e so fin e ly d iv id e d t h a t t h e y a r e n o l o n g e r v e r b a l University Press,
1964
g e n e r a litie s b u t a r e o p e r a t i o n a l s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t w h a t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f f o r m is n e e d e d in a p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m -
s ta n c e . R e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s t a t e d as t h r e s h o l d s . I n s t e a d o f " a
s u i t a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t for l e a r n i n g , " w e h a v e ,,all p u p i l s '
se a ts to b e m o v a b l e . "
O n c e th e s e s t a t e m e n t s (v e r b a l o r g r a p h i c ) h a v e b e e n
p r e p a r e d — a n d t h e r e w ill be h u n d r e d s o r t h o u s a n d s o f
t h e m for a n y n o r m a l p r o b l e m — th e p r o b a b l e m u t u a l in -
te r f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n e a c h p a i r o f s t a t e m e n t s a re c o m p a r e d .
T h e n a tr e e lik e p a t h o f d e s ig n is c o n s t r u c t e d in w h i c h e a c h
d e s ig n d e c is io n c o n s i d e r s th e c o n f lic tin g r e q u i r e m e n t s o f
o n l y t w o s u b d e s i g n s , t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t c o n flic ts b e i n g re-
so lv e d as e a r ly as p o s s ib le . T h e final r e s u lt is a s o l u t i o n t h a t
reflects th e w h o l e b r a n c h i n g c h a i n o f s u b o p t i m i z a t i o n s a n d
c o m p r o m is e s . M u l t i p l i c i t y is e x p lic itly d e a l t w ith .
I n p r a c tic e , th e m e t h o d b r e a k s d o w n b e c a u s e o f th e
tim e r e q u i r e d to m a k e all th e s e p a r a t e s t a t e m e n t s a n d to
c o n s id e r t h e i r s t e p w i s e r e s o l u t i o n . M o r e o v e r , it d o e s n o t e a s-
278 ily d e a l w i t h s y s t e m - w i d e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o r a llo w for r e c o n -
s i d e r i n g th e p r o b l e m in a n e w lig h t. Y et th e r e q u i r e m e n t s
are o n l y s im p le t h r e s h o l d s , w h i c h in t h e m s e l v e s a s s u m e
ty p e s o f s o lu tio n s . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e t e c h n i q u e is i n s t r u c t i v e
as a first a t t e m p t to r a t i o n a l i z e t h e m y s t e r i o u s p r o c e s s o f de-
sig n . It r e v e a ls h o w th e d i s a g g r e g a t e d m e t h o d d e p e n d s o n
o n e s y s t e m for d i v is io n a n d a n o t h e r for r e c o m b i n a t i o n . R e -
c o m b i n a t i o n m a y b e v e r y h a z a r d o u s , h o w e v e r , w i t h o u t ru le s
for th e d e s i g n o f t h e w h o le . A n a i r p l a n e m a d e o f c o r r e c t
p a r t s m i g h t n o t fly. T h e t e c h n i q u e m a k e s it c le a r w h y o p -
t i m iz in g , w h i c h is i m p o s s i b l e for m o r e t h a n o n e v a r i a b l e
e v e n in t h e o r y , is in p r a c t i c e n e v e r u se d . D e s i g n s a r e ac-
c e p te d w h e n e v e r t h e y s a tis f y a c c e p t a b l e levels o f v a r i o u s
c r ite r ia , a l t h o u g h d e s i g n e r s m a y set r a t h e r h i g h levels o f ac-
c e p t a n c e in t h e e a r l y s ta g e o f a d e s i g n a n d m a y r a is e o r
lo w e r t h e levels as th e d e s i g n p r o c e s s r e v e a ls m o r e o r less
r o o m for m a n e u v e r . T h e m e t h o d a ls o m a k e s e v i d e n t h o w
m a n y c r ite r ia a re a c t u a l l y in v o lv e d in d e s i g n a n d h o w
b a d l y t h e y a re s t a t e d — m o s t o f t h e m c o m m o n l y b e i n g u n -
c o n s c i o u s l y a s s u m e d , s t a t e d v a g u e ly , o r a c c e p te d as fixed
" s ta n d a r d s " in c a p a b le of a d ju stm e n t.
M eans F o c u s o n m e a n s : R a t h e r t h a n c o n c e n t r a t i n g o n o b je c -
orientation tiv es o r o n p r o b l e m s , d e s i g n m a y p r o c e e d f r o m t h e o p p o s i t e
e n d . In s u c h a c a se it w ill b e g i n b y a s s e m b l i n g o r i m a g i n -
in g p o s s ib le m e a n s to see w h a t t h e y a r e g o o d for. D e s i g n e r s
p l a y w i t h d i f f e r e n t f o r m s — lines, circles, a n d c h e c k e r -
b o a r d s — to see h o w t h e y fit a site. T h e y m a n i p u l a t e th e s e
fo r m s , w a t c h i n g t h e m g r o w a n d c h a n g e , a le r t for t h e a p -
p e a r a n c e o f s o m e t h i n g u se fu l. S im ila r ly , t h e y m i g h t im a g -
in e w h a t a n e w k i n d o f m a c h i n e r y , a s p e c ia l s t r u c t u r a l
te c h n i q u e , o r a n e w l a w o r a n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o g r a m w o u l d
a c c o m p l i s h . T h e s e a re m e a n s in s e a r c h o f e n d s . T h e p r o c e s s
m a y s e e m to e p i t o m i z e all th e w o r s t in o u r so c ie ty , t h e p r o -
li f e r a t i o n o f s e n s e le s s te c h n i q u e . B u t sin c e d e s i g n is a l i n k i n g
o f e n d s a n d m e a n s , it is j u s t as u se fu l to b e g i n o n e w a y as
a n o t h e r , as lo n g as t h e c o n n e c t i o n o f t h e t w o is fin a lly effec-
tiv e ly m a d e .
A n o p e n - m i n d e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e p o s s ib le u s e o f
t h i n g s is a g o o d w a y to in n o v a t e . O n e m a y b e led far fro m
t h e o r ig i n a l p r o b l e m , h o w e v e r . T h e t e c h n i q u e is b e s t s u ite d
to l o n g - t e r m , free s e a r c h a n d i n v e n t i o n o r to s u c h p r o b l e m s
as th e b e s t u s e o f a g iv e n p ie c e o f l a n d . E v e n in th e n o r m a l
c a se t h e m e t h o d is v a l u a b l e as a p r e l i m i n a r y w a r m - u p o r for
p r o d u c i n g " w e l l - s p a c e d " a l t e r n a t i v e s for c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
A m o r e f o r m a l a n d s y s t e m a t i c a p p l i c a t i o n , t h e so-
called " m o r p h o l o g i c a l " a p p r o a c h , lo o k s for o p t i m u m s o lu - 279
tio n s b y o u t l i n i n g all t h e p o s s i b l e c h a n g e s o f m a j o r f o r m
v a r ia b le s , l is tin g all th e c o m b i n a t i o n s th e r e o f , d i s c a r d i n g M orphological
th e im p o s s ib ilitie s , a n d t h e n s e le c tin g t h e b e s t o f t h e re- analysis
m a in d e r . A s a t e c h n i q u e for t h e o p e n - e n d e d , m u l t i v a r i a b l e
p r o c e s s o f site p l a n n i n g , th e m o r p h o l o g i c a l m e t h o d is a n
in fin ite w a s t e o f t i m e b e c a u s e t h e p o s s ib ilitie s a re so v a st.
B ut it m i g h t be o f u s e in m o r e lim ite d cases.
A s a n o t h e r v a r i a n t , t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f p o s s ib le im -
m e d i a t e a c t i o n s m a y be tr ie d o u t in s o m e k i n d of s im u l a t i o n ,
sin c e site p l a n n i n g is a s ta g e d p r o c e s s . T h e f u t u r e c o n s e -
q u e n c e s o f first m o v e s is p r o je c te d f o r w a r d n o t o n l y to e v a lu -
ate t h o s e m o v e s b u t a lso to d is c o v e r n e w f u t u r e p a t t e r n s so
t h a t o n e c a n c o n s i d e r w h a t t h e y m i g h t b e g o o d for. T h i s c a n
be d o n e i n t u i t i v e l y o r p r e f e r a b l y in s o m e s y s t e m a t i c m o d e l
t h a t a b s t r a c t l y s i m u l a t e s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a place. " I f I
p u t a r o a d h e re , w h a t h a p p e n s in te n y e a r s , a n d h o w d o I
like i t ? " A ll s u c h m e t h o d s a re r i s k y sin c e t h e y m a y p r o -
d u c e v e r y s m a ll c h a n g e s o r s u g g e s t a n s w e r s to s o m e o n e
e lse 's p r o b l e m . B u t t h e y a r e p a t h s to i n v e n t i o n a n d , if su e -
cessful, h a v e t h e i r m e a n s o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n b u i l t in.
Improving subconscious suggestion: T h e r e a r e g r o u p s o f Subconscious
m e t h o d s , b o t h n e w a n d t r a d i t i o n a l , w h i c h a im at f r e e in g th e suggestion
flow o f s u b c o n s c i o u s s u g g e s t i o n . T h e y m a y b e u s e d as c o m -
p le te m e t h o d s th e m s e l v e s o r as s u p p o r t i n g te c h n i q u e s . F o r m
p o s s ib ilitie s m a y b e s u g g e s t e d b y n a t u r a l f o r m s o r b y
c h a n c e h a p p e n i n g s in t h e h u m a n e n v i r o n m e n t . A v e r y fer-
tile s o u r c e is t h e s u r p r i s i n g a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t w ell u p f r o m
th e m e m o r y s t o r e o f t h e d e s ig n e r , t h e " f l a s h e s " t h a t h a v e
in v e s te d t h e d e s i g n p r o c e s s w i t h s u c h m y s t e r i o u s s p l e n d o r .
A c tu a lly , t h e s e f la s h e s a r e e x p e r i e n c e d b y e v e r y o n e , b u t
tra in in g can increase th e ir frequency a n d th eir novelty. W e
are t a u g h t e a r ly to s u p p r e s s " i n a p p r o p r i a t e " o r " i r r a t i o n a l "
id e a s, a n d c r e a tiv e t r a i n i n g is c o n c e r n e d l a r g e ly w i t h u n -
d o i n g th is p r e v i o u s e d u c a t i o n a n d f i n d i n g w a y s to o u t w i t o u r
b u ilt-in censor. •
O n e c lu s te r o f te c h n i q u e s re lie s o n th e s h if t o f c o n t e x t Shift o f context
to c o n f u s e t h e c e n s o r a n d s u g g e s t n e w c o n n e c t i o n s . T h u s th e
d e s i g n e r i m a g i n e s t h e w o r s t p o s s i b l e s e ttin g , w h i c h m a y be
d e v ilis h ly e a s y for h i m to d o , a n d f r o m t h i s he c a n s u g g e s t
n e w a c t i o n s in re v e rse . A j u m p in ti m e o r siz e scale c a n be
u se d , d e s i g n i n g t h e site in t h e p a l m o f t h e h a n d o r as if ac-
tio n s w e r e to ta k e c e n tu r ie s . T h e e x t e r n a l c o n t e x t c a n be
ja r r e d , b y i n q u i r i n g h o w th e site m i g h t b e d e s i g n e d u n d e r
s o c ia lis m o r at th e e q u a t o r o r u p s i d e - d o w n . S o l u t i o n s fr o m
 280 o t h e r c o n t e x t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e r ic h d i v e r s i t y o f f o r m s in
n a t u r e , c a n b e s e a r c h e d for i l l u m i n a t i n g a n a lo g ie s . T h e de-
s ig n e r c a n p r o je c t h i m s e l f in to t h e f o r m , p r e t e n d i n g t h a t he
is a p l a y g r o u n d a n d w o n d e r i n g h o w h e m i g h t h e l p th e ch il-
d r e n to p l a y o n h im . A m e t h o d o f g r a p h i c a n a l o g y h a s b e e n
d e v e lo p e d b y R o b e r t S c h w a r t z , in w h i c h a g r o u p c o n f r o n t s
a la r g e c o lle c tio n o f r a n d o m b u t i n t e r e s t i n g v is u a l im a g e s ,
a n d p a rtic ip a n ts " u n th in k in g ly " p o in t out th e pictures th a t
s e e m to t h e m to h a v e s o m e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e p r o b l e m .
W h e n t h e y g o o n to d e s c r ib e t h a t c o n n e c t i o n , t h e y b r i n g to
l i g h t u n s u s p e c t e d n e w a s s o c ia tio n s .
T h e s e a r e c h i l d r e n 's g a m e s . D e s i g n e r s m u s t s o m e -
ti m e s b e c h il d i s h . O n c e t h e m e n t a l c e n s o r is p r e v e n t e d f r o m
i n t e r f e r i n g , w e t a p n e w p o s s ib ilitie s . M o s t s u g g e s t i o n s a re
i n d e e d u n w o r k a b l e , b u t t h e r e is a b u n d a n t r a w m a t e r i a l for
c h o ic e . E x p e r ie n c e d d e s i g n e r s h a v e j u s t t h a t a b i l i t y for
c h ild lik e o b s e r v a t i o n a n d s u g g e s t i o n , free o f o b v i o u s o r
p r o p e r a s s o c ia tio n .
B rain storm in g G r o u p s o f p e o p l e m a y be u s e d to in c r e a s e t h e flow b y
and t h e w a y in w h i c h m e m b e r s s t i m u l a t e o n e a n o t h e r to d is r e -
com petitions g a r d c o n v e n t i o n s . T h i s is " b r a i n s t o r m i n g , " w h i c h relies o n a
set o f g r o u p ru le s to d i s c o u r a g e c r itic is m a n d s e lf - c e n s o r s h ip .
G r o u p s a re a ls o u s e d in a m o r e p u b l i c w a y in d e s i g n c o m p e -
tit i o n s , w h e r e t h e id e a s o f m a n y p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e h a r v e s t e d
a n d i n n o v a t i o n is sp e c ific a lly e n c o u r a g e d . D e s i g n t e a m s
w ill d o t h e s a m e , m o r e i n f o r m a l l y , b y a s k i n g t h e i r m e m b e r s
to p r o d u c e t h e i r o w n in itia l s u g g e s t i o n s for s o l u t i o n , as a w a y
o f b e g i n n i n g t e a m d e s ig n .
A ll o f t h e s e m e t h o d s a r e u s e fu l fo r e n c o u r a g i n g i n n o v a -
t i o n a n d a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l in t h e e a r ly s ta g e s . T h e y
c a n b e o n l y t e m p o r a r y s in c e a d e s i g n m u s t a ls o b e c a r e f u lly
e v a l u a t e d in t h e l i g h t o f c r ite r ia a n d r e s o u r c e s a n d m u s t b e
d e v e lo p e d in d e ta il. M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is a d a n g e r t h a t s u c h
t e c h n i q u e s w ill e n c o u r a g e i n n o v a t i o n for its o w n sa k e , w h i c h
is as i r r a t i o n a l as a n u n t h i n k i n g a t t a c h m e n t to c u s t o m . A
g o o d d e s i g n e r w ill k n o w h o w to s w i n g g r a c e f u lly b e t w e e n
i n v e n t i o n a n d c ritic is m .
D esign probes P r o b i n g : D e s i g n is a l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s t h a t g r a d u a l l y
u n c o v e r s lim its , p o s s ib ilitie s , a n d c r ite ria . O n e t e c h n i q u e o f
d e s i g n a t t e m p t s to d o t h i s e x p lic itly , r a p i d l y c r e a t i n g s o m e
first s o l u t i o n , to b e g i n th e le a r n i n g as s o o n as p o s s ib le . T h i s
m a y b e d o n e b e f o r e m u c h i n f o r m a t i o n is a v a i l a b l e a n d e v e n
b e f o r e t h e in itia l o b je c tiv e s a n d is s u e s a r e c le a r ly f o r m u -
la te d . By p r o p o s i n g a n a c tio n , th e d e s i g n e r is face to face
w i t h w h a t i n f o r m a t i o n is n e e d e d a n d w i t h w h a t th e issu e s
are. T h e d e s i g n is m a d e r a p i d l y b u t still w o r k e d o u t in s o m e 281
d e ta il to p r o b e th e v a r i o u s levels o f t h e issu e s. S u c h a d e s i g n
is m a d e to b e t h r o w n a w a y ; th e d e s i g n e r m u s t n o t b e c o m e
a t t a c h e d to it. T h e p r o b i n g d e s i g n is o f t e n a v a r i a n t o f s o m e
likely s t e r e o ty p e . It m a y a lso b e g iv e n c e r t a i n o u t r a g e o u s
fe a tu r e s in s o m e a r e a t h a t is g u e s s e d to b e s e n s itiv e : for ex-
a m p le , d e n s i t i e s w ill be d o u b l e d if it is ju d g e d t h a t th e lo a d
o n fac ilitie s m i g h t b e c o m e c ru c ia l, o r r e s i d e n t p o p u l a t i o n s
are m ix e d h a p h a z a r d l y if issu e s o f g r o u p con flic t a re su s-
p e c te d . T h e s o l u t i o n is m e a n t to b e r e v e a l i n g r a t h e r t h a n
r e a s o n a b l e . T h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e p r o b e u n c o v e r s n e w cri-
te ria ( " W h y d o w e d is lik e t h i s ? " ) , as w e ll as d a t a n e e d s
( " H o w w o u ld w e k n o w if th is w o r k s ? " ) . L ike m o s t o f t h e
c o n te x t re v e r s a ls d e s c r ib e d e a rlie r, t h is is a u se fu l e n t e r i n g
w e d g e r a t h e r t h a n a c o m p l e t e te c h n i q u e .
P r o b i n g m a y a lso be c a r r ie d o u t in r e a lity . I n i t i a l ac- Experiments
tio n s w ill b e t e m p o r a r y e x p e r i m e n t s , p l a n n e d to e x p lo r e th e
p r o b l e m : n o v e l h o u s e ty p e s , a n e w b ic y c le p a t h , a s m a ll
g a t h e r i n g p la c e b u i l t to see w h a t h a p p e n s th e r e . A s in a n y
e x p e r i m e n t , a c t i o n s m u s t be p r e c e d e d b y a p r e d i c t i o n of
w h a t t h e r e s p o n s e w ill b e a n d in c l u d e s o m e m e a n s for o b -
s e r v in g th e r e s u lts . S in c e t h e y a r e t r i a l s a f f e c tin g re a l
u s e r s , t h e y w ill b e m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e t h a n d e s i g n p r o b e s .
T h e r is k o f fa ilu r e w ill be m o r e s e r io u s ; y e t f a ilu r e is th e
w a y to le a r n . B o th u s e r a n d d e v e l o p e r m u s t be p r o t e c t e d
a g a i n s t t h e r i s k — b y p r i o r e x p l a n a t i o n , b y free c h o ic e , b y
m a k i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t r e la tiv e ly i n d e p e n d e n t o f o t h e r ac-
tio n s . O f t e n e n o u g h , a c t i o n s t h a t m u s t b e t a k e n e a r ly in a n y
case, s u c h as th e l o c a t i o n o f a b r i d g e o r o f a c o n s t r u c t i o n
c a m p , m a y a ls o b e d e s i g n e d so t h a t m o n i t o r i n g t h e i r u s e will
c la rify o t h e r a s p e c ts o f th e p r o b l e m .
A ll t h e p r e c e d i n g t e c h n i q u e s in v o lv e w a y s o f g e n e r a t - D e sig n
in g p o s s ib le s o l u t i o n s , a n d n o t t h e t o ta l s t r a t e g y o f a d e s ig n . S trategies
T h e r e a re a lso c h o ic e s b e t w e e n s tr a te g ie s . T h o s e m o s t c o m -
m o n in site p l a n n i n g a re th e s o - c a lle d " r a t i o n a l " o n e s ,
w h e r e t h e p r o b l e m is t h o u g h t to b e e x p lic it, p r e d i c t a b l e , a n d
c o n c e r n e d w i t h a s t a b l e p r o d u c t t h a t w ill a p p e a r a f te r a rel-
a tiv e ly b r i e f p e r i o d o f p l a n n i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h e su -
p r e m e l y r a t i o n a l m e t h o d w o u ld g e n e r a t e a n o p t i m u m s o lu -
tio n , g iv e n th e specific s i t u a t i o n a n d p re c ise , w e i g h t e d
c rite ria . I h a v e a r g u e d t h a t th is is im p o s s ib le . G e n e r a t i n g
a n d d e v e l o p i n g se v e r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d t h e n u s i n g c r ite r ia Generating a
to c h o o s e a m o n g t h e m a re m o r e o f te n a d v o c a t e d . T h e t r a d i - limited set o f
tio n a l s e q u e n c e is to g a t h e r th e n e c e s s a r y d a t a , c la r if y th e alternatives
issu e s a n d o b je c tiv e s , g e n e r a t e a n d d e v e lo p a n u m b e r o f so -
 282 l u tio n s b y a n y o f th e f o r e g o in g t e c h n i q u e s , e v a l u a t e th e m ,
c h o o s e o n e , fill o u t its te c h n i c a l d e ta il, a n d b u ild it. B e c a u se
o f o u r lim ite d a b i l i t y to g e n e r a t e a n d c h o o s e , o n l y t h r e e or
f o u r a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e c u s t o m a r i l y m a d e u p , a l t h o u g h use of
th e c o m p u t e r m a y i n c r e a s e th is n u m b e r . A n a t t e m p t is
m a d e to p r o d u c e a set o f r e a s o n a b l e a n d d e s i r a b l e p o s s ib ili-
ties, w h i c h a r e " w e l l s p a c e d " a l o n g th e m a j o r v a r i a b l e di-
m en sio n s.
T h e s y s t e m is o p e n to a b u s e . D e s i g n e r s w ill o f te n t r y to
m a n i p u l a t e th e i r c lie n ts b y g iv i n g t h e m a n i llu s o r y c h o ic e
b e tw e e n one favored d e sig n a n d tw o or th ree u n w o rk a b le
d u m m y s o l u t i o n s . E ven if t h e s y s t e m is u s e d h o n e s t l y , it is
o f te n d iffic u lt to c h o o s e a s o l u t i o n w i t h o u t s e e in g all its d e-
ta ile d i m p l i c a t i o n s , w h ile it is to o t i m e - c o n s u m i n g to d e -
v e lo p all th e a l t e r n a t i v e s in s u c h d e ta il.
Generating A c c o r d i n g to a d i f f e r e n t s t r a t e g y , w e d e v e l o p o n e re a -
sequential s o n a b l e p o s s i b i l i t y a t a tim e , b e g i n n i n g w i t h th e m o s t lik e ly
alternatives o n e . E a c h p o s s i b i l i t y is d e v e lo p e d far e n o u g h so t h a t it c a n
s a fe ly be a c c e p te d o r r e je c te d ; if r e je c te d , t h e p r o c e s s re c y -
cles to s e e k a n e w s o l u t i o n , c a r r y i n g w i t h it th e l e s s o n s p r e -
v io u s l y le a r n e d . T h e s in g le a l t e r n a t i v e m a y be d r a w n u p b y
a n y o f th e t e c h n i q u e s w e h a v e c ite d e a rlie r. T h e c h o ic e is
in f o r m e d b y its d e t a i l e d c o n s e q u e n c e s a n d b e c o m e s a s im p le
yes o r no . T h e p r o c e s s is e c o n o m i c a l if a g o o d first t r y h a s
b e e n m a d e a n d v e r y w a s t e f u l if n o t.
Typical A c t u a l d e s i g n p r a c t i c e t e n d s to c o m p r o m i s e th e s e t w o
com prom ises a p p r o a c h e s : first a b r o a d s e a r c h is m a d e to e x p o s e " w e l l -
s p a c e d " b a s ic a l t e r n a t i v e s , o f w h i c h o n e is t e n t a t i v e l y c h o -
se n for full d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e v a l u a t i o n , w i t h t h e o p t i o n of
f a llin g b a c k o n a n o t h e r s o l u t i o n in c a se o f fa ilu re . M a n y o f
t h e real c h o ic e s a r e m a d e n o t s i m p l y in c o n s i d e r i n g th e g e n -
e ra l a l t e r n a t i v e s b u t c o n t i n u o u s l y in t h e c o u r s e o f d e s i g n as
m o d i f i c a t i o n s o c c u r a n d a re c o n s i d e r e d . T h e c lie n t m a y p l a y
a ro le in th is s t r i n g o f c h o ic e s b u t m o r e o f te n is e x c lu d e d ,
h a v i n g o n l y th e p o w e r to s a y n o a t t h e e n d o f t h e p r o c e s s . For
th is r e a s o n th e first s y s t e m o f m u l t i p l e a l t e r n a t i v e s , p r o d u c -
in g a n a r r a y o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s for c lie n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n at s o m e
f o r m a l s ta g e , m a y b e p r e f e r a b le . B u t t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s m u s t
b e h o n e s t o n e s a n d s u f f ic ie n tly d e v e lo p e d to a l l o w a real
c h o ic e . T h i s s y s t e m is e x p e n s i v e in tim e a n d e ffo rt, a n d n o t
r e s p o n s i v e to t h e a c t u a l f lu id ity o f d e c is io n a n d e v e n ts . F a te -
ful c h o ic e s m a y b e m a d e o n s u p e r f ic ia l g r o u n d s . It m a y b e a
f o r m a l n e c e s s ity , h o w e v e r , o r b e u s e d to g iv e t h e c lie n t a
" s t a k e " in t h e o u t c o m e . It c a n b e w o r t h t h e c o st w h e n it is
n e c e s s a r y to m a k e d e c is io n s a b o u t l a r g e s y s t e m s w h o s e fea-
t u r e s a re n o t e x p e c te d to c h a n g e r a p id ly .
 It c a n be a r g u e d t h a t t h is " r a t i o n a l " s t r a t e g y s h o u l d 283
be a p p lie d o n l y to q u e s t i o n s o f g e n e r a l site p a t t e r n so t h a t
n e c e s s a r y l o n g - t e r m d e c i s i o n s c a n be m a d e ( s u c h a s for a
m a i n se w e r , a la r g e p a r k , o r a g e n e r a l d e n s i t y ) a n d so t h a t a
f r a m e w o r k is a v a i l a b l e to c o o r d i n a t e s m a l l - s c a l e d e c is io n s .
W i t h i n th is fixed f r a m e w o r k o f g e n e r a l a c t i v i t y a n d d e n s i t y
p a t t e r n o r o f m a j o r i n f r a s t r u c t u r e o r o f l a n d s c a p e , local site Incremental
p l a n s a re t r e a t e d as a n i n c r e m e n t a l s e q u e n c e , s p r e a d o u t strategies
o v e r tim e . P l a n s a re m a d e fo r e a c h p a r t as n e e d e d , a c c o r d i n g
to th e lim its a n d d e m a n d s o f t h e tim e . E a c h n e w d e c is io n
m u st take account of the fra m e w o rk a n d of a c c u m u la ted p a st
d e c is io n s . P l a n s a r e flexible, d iv e r s e , a n d a t t u n e d to a c t u a l
c ir c u m s ta n c e s .
M o r e r a d ic a lly , e v e n th e f r a m e w o r k m a y b e d i s p e n s e d
w i t h , a n d n o d e c i s i o n is m a d e u n t i l it m u s t be. T h e t o t a l site
p l a n is a n a c c u m u l a t i o n o f s m a ll c h o ic e s , w h i c h a r e r e s p o n -
sive to i m m e d i a t e re a l c o n d i t i o n s . T h u s t h e c lie n t c a n m o r e
e a s ily jo in in t h e m . T h i s m e t h o d w ill w o r k p a r t i c u l a r l y w ell
if t h e r e is a d o m i n a n t e x i s t i n g s i t u a t i o n (a p o w e r f u l la n d -
s c a p e o r a b u ilt r e g i o n b e i n g r e h a b i l i t a t e d ) , w h i c h w ill a u t o -
m a t i c a l l y f u r n i s h a c o n t e x t fo r t h e s m a ll d e c is io n s . It a ls o
w o r k s w ell w h e r e t h e c lie n t is th e d e s i g n e r , a c t i n g in h is
o w n d o m a i n for h is o w n i n a r t i c u l a t e p u r p o s e s . S o a fin e g a r -
d e n m a y g r o w , o r a s m a ll t r a d i t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y m a y arise .
T h e d a n g e r lies in b e i n g b o x e d in b y p r e v i o u s d e c is io n s ,
w h i c h m a y h a p p e n if c i r c u m s t a n c e s c h a n g e r a p i d l y o r if
e a r ly m o v e s a r e lik e ly to h a v e l o n g - r a n g e o r la r g e - s c a le ef-
fects.
R e a l s i t u a t i o n s a r e m i x t u r e s b e t w e e n lo cal a n d e x t e n -
sive d e c is io n s , b e t w e e n c a t a c l y s m i c p e r i o d s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n
a n d s t r e a m s o f c o n t i n u o u s m o d i f i c a t i o n . T h e c r itic a l ju d g -
m e n t is to d i s t i n g u i s h o n e s i t u a t i o n f r o m th e o t h e r a n d to
m odify design stra te g y accordingly. T h e stra te g y re q u ired Recycling
is u s u a l l y a r e c y c lin g o n e , w h i c h b e g i n s w i t h p r o b e s a n d
w i t h b r o a d s e a r c h e s o f p o s s ib ilitie s . It d i s t i n g u i s h e s lo n g -
t e r m a n d s h o r t - t e r m d e c is io n s , m a k i n g t h e f o r m e r w h e r e it
m u s t a n d r e s e r v i n g t h e l a t t e r w h e r e it c a n . It a ls o u s e s t h e
p r o c e s s o f d e s i g n a n d n e c e s s a r y in itia l a c t i o n s as e x p e r i-
m e n t s b y w h i c h to l e a r n a b o u t t h e p r o b l e m . I n f o r m a t i o n a n d
c r ite r ia a r e p e r i o d i c a l l y r e v is e d , a n d n e w p o s s i b i l i t i e s a r e
d e v e lo p e d as t h e s i t u a t i o n c h a n g e s . T h i s a p p r o a c h d o e s n o t
im p ly t h a t d e c is io n s a r e e n d l e s s l y d e f e r r e d . T h e c y c lin g
p r o c e s s r e s u lts in d e ta ile d r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s o n a s p e c t s o f
d e v e l o p m e n t as t h e y a re r e q u ir e d . B u t it d o e s m e a n t h a t d e -
s ig n a n d e v a l u a t i o n a re c o n t i n u o u s , a n d n o t s p o r a d i c , e v e n ts .
V e r y little site p l a n n i n g is d o n e as a r e c y c lin g p r o c e s s .
 284 O u r h a b its of co n stru ctio n , of in v e stm e n t m a n a g e m e n t, and
o f d e s i g n its e lf a r e all s h a p e d b y t h e a t t i t u d e o f " b u i l d a n d
p a s s o n . " O n l y t h e r e a l i t y o f site u se p o i n t s in t h e d i r e c t i o n
o f r e c y c lin g .
M e a n w h i l e , u n t i l w e a d j u s t to t h i s r e a lity , a c o n s c io u s
c h o ic e o f d e s i g n s t r a t e g y m u s t b e m a d e , a n d m ix o f d e s ig n
g e n e r a t i o n m e t h o d s m u s t a ls o b e c h o s e n . S t r a t e g y a n d
m e t h o d s w ill d e p e n d o n t h e t i m e a v a ila b le , th e t a l e n t s o f t h e
t e a m , th e lim its in t h e e x t e r n a l s i t u a t i o n , t h e c r ite r ia to b e
a c h ie v e d , a n d t h e r e s o u r c e s to b e u s e d . N o s in g le m e t h o d
s h o u l d b e fo llo w e d , a n y m o r e t h a n a s in g le f o r m c a n b e a p -
p lie d o n e v e r y o c c a s io n . B u t a n e x p lic it p l a n for th e d e s i g n
process sh o u ld be m a d e from the b e g in n in g .
N e w D irections S u b s t a n t i a l r e s e a r c h is u n d e r w a y o n t h e p r o c e s s o f d e -
for D e s i g n s ig n , s o m e o f it o r i g i n a l l y s t i m u l a t e d b y A l e x a n d e r 's m o n o -
g r a p h . L ittle o f t h is h a s y e t p r o v e d a p p l i c a b l e to s ite d e s ig n ,
a l t h o u g h it h a s b e e n u s e d in m o r e d e t e r m i n a t e p r o b l e m s
s u c h as t h e d e s i g n o f s t r u c t u r a l m e m b e r s a n d t h e a l l o t m e n t
o f s t a n d a r d offices w i t h i n a g iv e n b u i l d i n g e n v e lo p e . A t -
t e m p t s h a v e f o c u s e d o n s y s t e m a t i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n , f o l lo w in g
See reference on A l e x a n d e r 's o r i g i n a l s u g g e s t i o n , o r o n t h e g e n e r a t i o n o f r a n -
page 277 d o m c h a n g e s w i t h a v ie w t o w a r d i n c r e m e n t a l i m p r o v e m e n t ,
o r o n in c lu s iv e s e a r c h t h r o u g h all lo g ic a l c o m b i n a t i o n s as in
" m o r p h o l o g i c a l " d e s i g n , o r o n o p t i m i z a t i o n u n d e r r e s t r a i n t as
in l i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g . N o n e o f th e s e , h o w e v e r , h a s b e c o m e
an established site -p la n n in g m eth o d .
T h e o ld t e c h n i q u e o f a n a l y z i n g a l o c a lity b y o v e r l a y i n g
m a n y m ap s, ea c h of w h ic h sh o w s th e areas th a t are u n d e -
s i r a b l e b e c a u s e o f s o m e s in g le f a c to r, h a s b e e n s y s t e m a t i z e d
in a u s e f u l w a y . B u t t h e c u r r e n t n e w lo o k a t d e s i g n w ill
s u r e ly i m p r o v e w h a t h a s u p to n o w b e e n a h i d d e n , in t u i t i v e
p r o c e s s . D e c i s i o n t h e o r y h a s m u c h to s a y a b o u t t h e r a t i o n a l
e v a l u a t i o n o f c o m p l i c a t e d a l t e r n a t i v e s . S o m e o f its te c h -
n i q u e s , s u c h as l o o k i n g a t d e c i s i o n as a c o m p e t i t i v e g a m e or
q u a n t i f y i n g c o m p le x r e s u l t s b y a s in g le m e a s u r e t h a t ta k e s
a c c o u n t o f d iv e r s e v a l u e s a n d d iv e r s e c lie n ts , d o n o t h e l p us
v e r y m u c h . B u t it d o e s a d v is e u s a b o u t h o w th e s e a l t e r n a -
tiv e s s h o u l d b e p r e s e n t e d for e x p lic it, if u l t i m a t e l y i n tu itiv e ,
d e c is io n .
The generation O n e n e w e ffo rt t h a t s h o u l d p r o v e u s e f u l is t h e c o lle c tio n
and testing o f o f p r o t o t y p e e n v i r o n m e n t a l f o r m s , w i t h lu c id d e s c r i p t i o n s o f
prototypes th eir p ro p e r co n tex t a n d p urpose. D ev e lo p in g p ro to ty p e s
m i g h t i n d e e d b e c o m e t h e t a s k o f sp e c ia l te a m s , s u p p o r t e d
b y r e s e a r c h fu n d s . D e s i g n i n g a n d t e s t i n g w o u l d r u n to -
g e t h e r . O n c e a p r o b a b l e s o l u t i o n to s o m e p r o b l e m o r p o t e n -
tia lity , c o m p l e t e w i t h h y p o t h e s e s as to r e s u lts , h a d b e e n 285
g e n e r a t e d b y n o r m a l d e s i g n t e c h n i q u e s , it w o u l d b e tr ie d
o u t in r e a lity . S o m e o f t h e o r i g i n a l d e s i g n e r s m i g h t t h e m -
selves b e s u b j e c t s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t . A s p e r f o r m a n c e i n f o r -
m a t i o n a c c u m u l a t e d , t h e re a l f o r m a n d its a t t e n d a n t h y -
p o t h e s e s w o u l d b e m o d if ie d u n t i l a s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a t e w a s
r e a c h e d o r t h e r e w a s a c le a r f a ilu r e w i t h o u t a n a p p a r e n t es-
cape. T h i s is m o r e lik e d e s i g n m e t h o d o b je c tif ie d t h a n it is
like c la ssic r e s e a r c h . P r o o f s o f c a u s a t i o n w o u l d b e s h a k y , b u t
th is c o u ld b e a fe rtile w a y o f d i s c l o s i n g n e w a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d
t h e i r r e s u lts .
T h e c o m p u t e r is b e g i n n i n g to s h o w its p o w e r in t h e d e - Computer-
s ig n p r o c e s s . It is a l r e a d y u s e d for s t o r i n g d e s i g n i n f o r m a - aided design
t i o n — o n p r o g r a m , site, c lie n t, o r f i n a n c i n g — a n d fo r d is -
p l a y i n g t h o s e d a t a o n call, e i t h e r v e r b a l l y o r g r a p h i c a l l y .
C o m p u t e r m a p s o f s p a t i a l l y lo c a te d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e n o w
a u se fu l a d j u n c t in la r g e - s c a le site p l a n n i n g . T h e c o m p u t e r
c a n a ls o b e u s e d fo r p e r f o r m i n g s o m e r o u t i n e f u n c t i o n s :
c a l c u l a t i n g s t r e n g t h o r e a r t h w o r k o r c o st o r r e v e n u e ; e sti-
m a t i n g tra ffic flo w ; q u a n t i f y i n g t h e sp a c e , a c tiv ity , c o m -
p o sitio n , users, or p a rk in g d e m a n d s of a p la n ; c o m p o sin g
a c c u r a t e s e c tio n s , p l a n s , a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s f r o m a s k e t c h ; o r
e v e n o u t l i n i n g m o v ie s o f t h e v is u a l e x p e r ie n c e o f a n a p -
p r o a c h . A ll t h e s e p o s s ib ilitie s , for w h i c h p r o g r a m s n o w
e x ist, lib e r a t e c r e a tiv e d e s i g n b y e l i m i n a t i n g th e n e e d to
m a k e t h e r o u t i n e s tu d ie s t h a t a r e c o n s t a n t l y r e q u i r e d in
th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a p la n .
I n f o r m a t i o n s t o r a g e a n d t h e d iv e r s e r o u t i n e s fo r e v a lu -
a t i n g o r d e v e l o p i n g a p l a n m a y s o m e d a y b e b r o u g h t to -
g e t h e r in a g e n e r a l c a p a b i l i t y t h a t c o u ld be u s e d r a p i d l y a n d
flexibly. In t h a t c ase, a site d e s i g n m i g h t b e g e n e r a t e d b y a
c o p a r t n e r s h i p o f m a c h i n e a n d d e s i g n e r in c o m m u n i c a t i o n
w i t h e a c h o t h e r . T h e m a n w o u l d g e n e r a t e c r ite r ia a n d s o lu -
tio n s a n d s u p p l y i n f o r m a t i o n . T h e m a c h i n e w o u l d r e s p o n d
w i t h p r e c is e l a y o u t s a n d p r o g r a m s a n d d i s p l a y t h e d e t a i l e d
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a n y s o l u t i o n s u g g e s t e d (its c o st, its d e m a n d ,
its q u a n t i t i e s , its c a p a c ity , its t i m i n g , its a p p e a r a n c e ) , o r
p e r f o r m r o u t i n e e v a l u a t i o n s ( w a r n i n g o f c r ite r ia t h a t h a v e
b e e n d i s r e g a r d e d o r c o m p u t i n g t h e r e la tiv e a d v a n t a g e o f
v a r i o u s s o l u t i o n s ) . T h e i n t e r c h a n g e c o u ld b e c o n t i n u o u s
t h r o u g h o u t th e p e r i o d o f d e s i g n , as p o s s ib le s o l u t i o n s g r o w
and change. S u ch a p a rtn e rs h ip n o t on ly w o u ld p e rm it m o re
effective d e s i g n b u t s h o u l d a llo w a c r e a tiv e m a n to e x p l o r e
m a n y m o r e p o s s ib ilitie s t h a n h e n o w h a s t i m e for. G e n e r a l
p r o g r a m s o f th is k i n d a r e n o w b e i n g d e v e lo p e d . B u t t h e y
286 h a v e s o m e d i s t a n c e to g o b e f o r e t h e y w ill b e s u f f ic ie n tly c o m -
p r e h e n s i v e , flexible, a n d c le a r to b e o f g e n e r a l use.
A ll o f t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s u se t h e c o m p u t e r to s u p p o r t a n d
e x t e n d th e t r a d i t i o n a l d e s i g n o p e r a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e n e w
r e s o u r c e m i g h t a c t u a l l y c a u s e d e s i g n to b e d o n e d if f e r e n tly .
F or e x a m p le , c o m p u t e r d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e s h a v e b e e n d e v e l-
o p e d for r a t h e r d e t e r m i n a t e p r o b l e m s . T h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f
o n e a s p e c t o f a s o l u t i o n is o p t i m i z e d , s u b je c t to c o n s t r a i n t s
i m p o s e d o n all t h e o t h e r v a r ia b le s : c o s ts n o t to b e e x c e e d e d ,
m i n i m u m d e s i g n s t a n d a r d s t h a t a r e m a n d a t o r y , a t o t a l ca-
p a c i t y to b e m e t, a n d a t y p e o f s o l u t i o n to b e u s e d w i t h all its
a p p r o p r i a t e e l e m e n t s a n d f e a tu r e s . G i v e n t h e s e r e s t r a i n t s ,
t h e c o m p u t e r is a s k e d to in d ic a te , for e x a m p l e , a h i g h w a y
l a y o u t o f m i n i m u m l e n g t h , o r m i n i m u m c a p ita l c o st, o r h a v -
in g a m i n i m u m i m p a c t o n e x i s t i n g h o u s i n g . T h e p r o b l e m
m u s t be s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d , t h e c r ite r ia a n d s o l u t i o n ty p e w e ll
d e f in e d , a n d o n e c r i t e r i o n m u s t b e o f c o m p e l l i n g i n t e r e s t ,
r e la tiv e to t h e o t h e r s . T h e m e t h o d is th e r e f o r e o n l y m a r g i n -
a lly u s e f u l in site d e s ig n .
O t h e r n e w t e c h n i q u e s m a y d e v e l o p in tim e . F or o n e
t h i n g , t h e c o m p u t e r m a y a l l o w us to d e s i g n , d is p l a y , a n d
e v a l u a t e s t r e a m s o f e v e n t s r a t h e r t h a n a r e s t r i c t e d se t o f fro-
z e n ‫ ׳‬, s t a g e s . ,, T h e n w e c a n p r o p o s e s o l u t i o n s t h a t t a k e ac-
c o u n t o f t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , t h e d a i l y cyc le o f ac tiv -
ity, a n d t h e g r a d u a l s e c u la r d e v e l o p m e n t . A ll t h e s e a s p e c ts
la r g e ly e s c a p e u s t o d a y . T h a t t h e y d o so is n o t for la c k o f c o m -
p u t i n g a b i l i t y b u t for la c k o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . W o r k i n g o n
n e w c o m p u t e r t e c h n i q u e s m a y h e l p us to g a i n t h a t u n d e r -
stan d in g .
D esign D e v e l o p i n g a d e q u a t e d e s i g n l a n g u a g e s is a r e l a t e d te c h -
languages n ic a l ta s k . O u r i n h e r i t e d l a n g u a g e s a r e t h e a r c h i t e c t u r a l
o n e s o f m o d e l, p l a n , s e c tio n , e le v a tio n , a n d p e r s p e c tiv e ,
w h i c h s h o w th e s ta t i c p h y s i c a l f o r m , to w h i c h w e a d d v e r-
b a l s c h e d u le s o f s p e c if ic a tio n s a n d a q u a n t i t a t i v e p r o g r a m .
T h e s e m o d e s n e g le c t b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s as w ell a s tim e .
T h e y v a c illa te b e t w e e n v a g u e n e s s a n d e x t r e m e sp e c ific ity ,
a n d it is o f te n d iffic u lt to d e c id e w h e t h e r a s o l u t i o n ex-
p r e s s e d in th e i r t e r m s m e e ts t h e q u a l i t y d e s ir e d . N o n -
p r o f e s s i o n a l s a r e u s u a l l y q u i t e a t a lo ss to u n d e r s t a n d th e m .
T h e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l m o d e l is e a s ie r to r e a d , b u t it is a lso
t im e le s s a n d e m p t y o f p e o p le . Its m i n i a t u r e sc a le is d a n g e r -
o u s l y s e d u c tiv e , a n d its c o n s t r u c t i o n t i m e - c o n s u m i n g . It is
m o r e o f t e n u s e d for ‫ ״‬s e l l i n g ‫ ״‬t h a n for d e s ig n .
L a n g u a g e s m u s t b e d e v e lo p e d t h a t , o n t h e o n e h a n d ,
a re c o m p e l l i n g s i m u l t a t i o n s o f th e a c t u a l e x p e r i e n c e o f a
place, or, o n th e o t h e r h a n d , c o m p r e s s th e e s s e n c e o f a site, 287
i n c l u d i n g its b e h a v i o r a n d its g r o w t h o v e r tim e , i n to a s im -
pie s y m b o l i c d i a g r a m r a p i d l y m a d e a n d e a s ily m o d ifie d .
T h e s e r e q u i r e m e n t s p o i n t in t w o d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s : o n e to-
w ard c o m p u te r or m o tio n p ictu re sim u la tio n s, or g am es th a t
b r i n g all k i n d s o f o b s e r v e r s clo se to t h e re a l e x p e r i e n c e o f a
place, a n d th e o t h e r o n e t o w a r d s im p le g r a p h i c o r th r e e -
d i m e n s i o n a l d i a g r a m s o f b e h a v i o r , fo rm , a n d g r o w t h , de-
s ig n e d for p r o f e s s i o n a l m a n i p u l a t i o n . If th e s e l a n g u a g e s a r e
to b e u se fu l, it s h o u l d b e p o s s i b l e a c t u a l l y to d e s i g n w i t h
t h e m , so t h a t t h e y a re n o t r e s e r v e d m e r e l y for c a t c h y p r e -
sen tatio n s. T h e y m u st convey accu rate in fo rm a tio n ab o u t
c o n s e q u e n c e s , as m a n y o f o u r slick d r a w i n g s , g l i t t e r i n g
m o d e ls , a n d e n g a g i n g " w o r d p i c t u r e s " d o n o t. S u c h d e s i g n
la n g u a g e s a r e o n l y b e g i n n i n g to a p p e a r .
I n d e e d , w e find t h a t a l a r g e c o m p o n e n t o f e ffe c tiv e site Continuous
d e s ig n c o n s i s t s o f t h e c o n t i n u o u s c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f s o l u t i o n s , communication
c r ite r ia , site d a t a , a n d o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n b e t w e e n d e s i g n e r s , in the design
c lie n ts , c o n s u l t a n t s , u s e r s , a n d t h o s e w h o w ill c a r r y o u t t h e process
p la n . T h e t i m i n g , c o n t e n t , a n d a c c u r a c y o f t h a t c o m m u n i c a -
tio n a r e c ritic a l. T h e e a r l y p r e p a r a t i o n o f b e h a v i o r a l p r o - See pages 28—31
g r a m s , d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 3, is a k e y e l e m e n t in th is in-
t e r c h a n g e . P r o g r a m s c a n i n t e r r e l a t e b e h a v i o r , f o rm , p u r-
p o s e , q u a n t i t y , a n d c o st a n d a r e c o m p r e h e n s i b l e to m o s t o f
th e i n t e r e s t e d p a r tie s .
G o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n is e s s e n t i a l to r e l a t e p r e d i c t i v e Designs and
m o d e ls to d e s i g n s , a l t h o u g h t h is r e l a t i o n is a w k w a r d a n d predictive
p u n i s h i n g t o d a y . B o th m o d e l a n d d e s i g n m u s t u se th e s a m e models
d a t a , b e e x p r e s s e d in t h e s a m e l a n g u a g e , r e s p o n d to th e
s a m e c r ite r ia . O n l y t h e n c a n t h e y r e la te to e a c h o t h e r so
t h a t t h e t e n t a t i v e f i n d i n g s o f a lo c a t i o n o r a tra ffic m o d e l b e -
c o m e e a r ly g u id e s to t h e d e s i g n , a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f d e ‫־‬
s ig n as q u i c k l y b e c o m e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o f t h e m o d e l. M o s t
c o m m o n l y , d e s i g n s a n d t h e p r e d i c t i v e m o d e ls r u n d o w n s e p -
a r a t e tr a c k s , c o llid in g at s o m e u l t i m a t e s w i t c h i n g p o in t.
T w o n o rm a tiv e asse rtio n s can be m a d e a b o u t design
m e t h o d : first, t h a t it s h o u l d b e c o m e a cyclical p r o c e s s , al-
l o w i n g s u c c e s s iv e r e t u r n s to t h e o r i g i n a l p r o b l e m , w h i c h is
the in terrelated con cep t of situ a tio n , p u rp o se, a n d so lu tio n
ty p e ; s e c o n d , t h a t t h e d e s i g n s h o u l d b e p e n e t r a b l e b y n o n -
d e s ig n e r s . C l i e n t s a n d o t h e r a c to r s , w i t h t h e i r o w n i n f o r m a - Client
tio n a n d v a lu e s , m u s t b e a b le to w a t c h th e p r o c e s s a n d to in- communication
te r v e n e in it. P r o g r a m s t a t e m e n t s a n d d i a g r a m s a re m o d e s
t h a t m a k e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in d e s i g n p o s s ib le for n o n p r o f e s s i o n -
als. C o m p u t e r g r a p h i c s m a y b e a n o t h e r . I n t e r a c t i v e c o m -
288 p u t e r d is p l a y s c o u ld a llo w v a r i o u s p e o p l e to s t u d y a n d q u e s -
t i o n a l t e r n a t i v e s o l u t i o n s . T h e y c o u ld a s k , for e x a m p le , h o w
m u c h a c e r t a i n c h a n g e w o u l d c o s t o r h o w m a n y s te p s m u s t
b e c lim b e d b e t w e e n s u p e r m a r k e t a n d a p a r t m e n t d o o r . T h e y
m i g h t e v e n see w h a t w o u l d h a v e to b e d o n e to i m p r o v e s o m e
f e a t u r e t h e y c riticize.
M a n i p u l a b l e t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l p h y s i c a l m o d e l s a re
a n o t h e r , s o m e w h a t m o r e p r o v e d d evice. T h e y m u s t b e s im -
p ly m a d e so t h a t t h e y c a n b e t a k e n a p a r t w i t h o u t d is m a y .
M o d e l s o f th is k i n d c a n b e c a r r i e d d i r e c t l y to t h e site a n d to
its u s e r s . R e a r r a n g i n g t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e m o d e l c a n b e a
fo c u s for a liv e ly i n t e r c h a n g e o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d s o lu tio n s .
S u c c e s s iv e s t a t e s c a n b e i l l u s t r a t e d b y s u c c e s s iv e c h a n g e s
in t h e m o d e l, a n d a s e rie s o f p h o t o g r a p h s c a n b e t a k e n to re-
c o r d id e a s o r s e q u e n c e s o f site fo r m . T h e y w o u l d b e e v e n
m o r e u s e f u l if w e c o u ld s y m b o l i z e t y p e s o f b e h a v i o r , as w ell
as p h y s i c a l o b je c ts . P e r h a p s t h i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n c o u ld be
m a n a g e d w i t h s c a le f ig u r e s o r b y t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l s y m -
b o ls. T h e s t u d y m o d e l is a fa r m o r e i m p o r t a n t d e v ic e t h a n
t h e e x p e n s i v e p r e s e n t a t i o n s h o w p ie c e .
C hapter 13

Technique:
C o s ts

I t is d a n g e r o u s to g iv e c o s t d a t a , s in c e t h e y w ill b e
o u t of d a t e b e f o r e t h e y a r e p u b l i s h e d a n d e v e n a t b e s t a re
a p p lic a b le to o n l y o n e a re a . R e lia b le c o s t e s t i m a t e s r e q u i r e
d e ta ile d c a l c u l a t i o n s , b a s e d o n f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h c u r r e n t
c o sts in a g iv e n p la c e a n d t h e u se o f a g iv e n level o f t e c h n o l -
ogy. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t w o k i n d s o f k n o w l e d g e a b o u t c o s ts
c a n b e u s e f u l to a site p l a n n e r : a s e n s e o f w h a t t h e c ritic a l
e l e m e n t s a r e a n d t h e r o u g h f ig u re s t h a t h e l p h i m to m a k e
p r e l i m i n a r y e s t i m a t e s o r to ju d g e b e t w e e n a l t e r n a t i v e s .
V a r i a t i o n s in site c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s ts a re c a u s e d b y flue- Cost variations
t u a t i o n s in th e c o sts o f la b o r a n d m a t e r i a l s , in th e skill o f c o n -
s t r u c t i o n m a n a g e m e n t , a n d c h a n g e s in te c h n o l o g y . B u t
v a r i a t i o n s a r e a ls o c a u s e d b y t h e n a t u r e o f th e site a n d t h e
ty p e a n d skill o f t h e d e s ig n . U n f a v o r a b l e site c o n d i t i o n s m a y
i n c r e a s e t o ta l d e v e l o p m e n t c o s ts b y o v e r 1 0 0 p e r c e n t . V a r i a -
tio n s in d e s i g n m a y s h a v e u n i t c o s ts b y as m u c h as 2 0 p e r -
c e n t o r in f la te t h e m b y as m u c h as 3 0 p e r c e n t . T h e s e d iffe r-
e n c e s m a y d e p e n d o n sk ill o f t h e l a y o u t b u t e v e n m o r e o n t h e
i n t e n s i t y a n d level o f f in is h o f t h e s ite d e v e l o p m e n t . E x te n -
sive p a v i n g o r s t o r m d r a i n a g e , fine m a t e r i a l s , a n d t h e u s e o f
p a r k i n g s t r u c t u r e s a r e ty p ic a l c o s t b o o s t e r s .
T o i l l u s t r a t e th e s e effects, a s s u m e t h a t o n e w a s d e - Reducing first
s ig n i n g a h o u s i n g a re a a n d h a d n o o t h e r t h o u g h t in m i n d cost
t h a n to m a k e it as c h e a p as p o s s ib le , w i t h i n t h e lim its o f to l-
e ra n c e . H o w w o u l d it b e la id o u t? F irst, it w o u l d b e p u t o n a
290 site t h a t w a s n e i t h e r s te e p n o r d e a d level, a n d o n e t h a t w a s
free o f p e a t, n e w fill, o r r o c k c lo se to t h e s u rfa c e . It w o u l d
h a v e a c o m p a c t s h a p e , w i t h a d e q u a t e u tilitie s a t its b o r d e r s .
B u ild in g s w o u l d b e g r o u p e d c o m p a c t l y , u s i n g th e
h i g h e s t d e n s i t y a l l o w a b l e for t h e p a r t i c u l a r b u i l d i n g ty p e .
S t r u c t u r e s a n d s tr e e ts w o u l d b e r e g u l a r l y a r r a n g e d , so t h a t
t h e r e w e r e n o f r a g m e n t a r y o p e n o r w a s t e a r e a s . C o m m o n fa-
c ilities a n d p u b l i c o p e n s p a c e w o u l d b e o m i t t e d o r k e p t to t h e
a l l o w a b l e m i n i m u m . A ll o p e n s p a c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e
p u b l i c l y m a i n t a i n e d o n e s , w o u l d b e as c o n c e n t r a t e d a n d as
r e g u l a r l y s h a p e d as p o s s ib le . T h e r e w o u l d b e n o l a n d s c a p -
i n g o t h e r t h a n g r a s s , n o h a r d s u r f a c i n g e x c e p t o n th e r o a d s ,
a n d n o f e n c e s o r r e t a i n i n g w a lls.
T h e s t r e e t s w o u l d u se a r e g u l a r p a t t e r n w i t h a m i n i -
m u m n u m b e r o f i n t e r s e c t i o n s ; t h a t is, b l o c k s w o u l d b e re c -
t a n g u l a r a n d v e r y la rg e . B u i l d i n g s a n d s t r e e t s w o u l d b e a r-
r a n g e d to m i n i m i z e t h e s t r e e t l e n g t h p e r d w e l l i n g u n i t , b y
o c c u p y i n g all f r o n t a g e s s o li d l y a n d b y u s i n g s u c h d e v ic e s as
d o u b l e a n d tr i p l e b u i l d i n g lin e s o r r o w s e n d - o n to t h e s tr e e t.
T h e r o a d s w o u l d fo llo w t h e t o p o g r a p h y c lo se ly , h a v i n g
l o n g - r a d i u s c u r v e s a n d g e n t l e ( b u t n o t flat) g r a d i e n t s . T h e
d e s i g n w o u l d a llo w t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f r o a d s b y f u n c t i o n in t o
m a j o r , fe e d e r, a n d m i n o r s t r e e t s , a n d t h e p a v e m e n t s w o u l d
t h e n b e m a d e as n a r r o w a n d li g h t as p o s s ib le . T h e y w o u l d
be g r a v e l, o r s t a b iliz e d e a r t h , if s t a n d a r d s w o u l d a llo w it.
P a r k i n g s p a c e w o u l d be r e d u c e d a n d w o u l d b e p r o v i d e d in
d o u b l e - l o a d e d , p e r p e n d i c u l a r , o f f - s tr e e t b a y s . G a r a g e s o r
p a rk in g stru c tu re s w o u ld n o t be used. T h e re w o u ld be no
s t r e e t c u r b s , n o s i d e w a lk s .
U t i l i t y lin e s w o u l d h a v e a m i n i m u m l e n g t h p e r d w e ll-
in g u n it, a n d t h e r e w o u l d b e n o s t o r m s e w e r s y s t e m a n d n o
s t r e e t l i g h t i n g . T h e s a n i t a r y s e w e r s y s t e m w o u l d a lso be
o m i t t e d if d e n s itie s a l l o w e d t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f se p tic t a n k s .
E le c tr ic ity a n d t e l e p h o n e lin e s w o u l d b e c a r r ie d o n p o le s
o v e r h e a d o r s t r u n g f r o m b u i l d i n g to b u i l d i n g . U n d e r g r o u n d
u tilitie s w o u l d lie at m i n i m u m d e p t h . N o r o o f d r a i n s w o u l d
b e a t t a c h e d to t h e s e w e r s , a n d all u tilitie s w o u l d be siz e d
e x a c tly to p r e s e n t lo a d s . E le c tr ic ity a n d w a t e r w o u l d b e d is-
t r i b u t e d in a b r a n c h i n g r a t h e r t h a n in a l o o p p a t t e r n . T h e r e
w o u ld be a m in im u m n u m b e r of m a n h o le s, cleanouts,
v a lv e s, h y d r a n t s , p o le s, t r a n s f o r m e r s , a n d o t h e r s u c h fix-
tu r e s . C l e a n o u t s w o u l d b e u s e d in p la c e o f m a n h o l e s w h e r -
e v e r p o s s ib le .
D w e llin g units them selves w o u ld have a m in im u m
flo o r a re a . T h e y w o u ld o c c u p y n a r r o w , d e e p , t w o - s t o r y r o w
houses, or c o m p a c t th ree- a n d fo u r-sto ry w alk -u p s. T h e re 291
w o u ld b e a m i n i m u m n u m b e r o f b u i l d i n g ty p e s , a r r a n g e d in
a r e g u l a r p a t t e r n . B u ild in g s w o u l d b e s ite d clo se to e x i s t i n g
g r o u n d level a n d w o u l d n o t b e p la c e d o n fill. T h e y w o u l d
h a v e n o b r e a k s , o ffs e ts , o r p r o j e c t i o n s in p l a n o r s e c tio n . T h e y
w o u l d h a v e l o w c e ilin g h e i g h t s a n d b e s u r f a c e d in i n e x p e n -
sive m a te r ia ls . T h e y w o u l d b e set c lo se to e a c h o t h e r a n d to
th e s tr e e t, in lo n g , a t t a c h e d s t r u c t u r e s w i t h m i n i m u m se t-
b a c k s a n d e n d s p a c in g s . (In g e n e r a l , e a c h e x t r a fo o t t h a t a
h o u s e is set b a c k f r o m t h e s t r e e t c o s ts a l m o s t tw ic e as m u c h
as e a c h fo o t a d d e d to t h e d e p t h o f r e a r y a r d o r b l o c k i n t e r i o r ,
a n d e a c h e x t r a fo o t o f s t r e e t f r o n t a g e c o s ts a l m o s t five t im e s
as m u c h as t h a t s a m e e x t r a fo o t o f r e a r y a r d ) .
C o s t s a r e a ls o r e d u c e d if t h e l a y o u t p e r m i t s a n e ffic ie n t
site o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o c e s s . T h i s is p a r t i c u -
la rly t r u e at h i g h d e n s i t i e s w h e r e w o r k s p a c e is l im ite d , in
s t a g e d o r r e n e w a l w o r k , w h e r e n o r m a l site f u n c t i o n s m u s t g o
o n in t h e m i d s t o f c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h e r e h e a v y m a c h i n e r y w ill
be u s e d w i t h its s p e c ia l d e m a n d s , o r w h e r e s y s t e m s b u i l d -
in g is b e i n g e m p l o y e d . I n all t h e s e c a s e s t h e p r o c e s s o f c o n -
s t r u c t i o n m u s t b e s i m u l a t e d w h e n e v a l u a t i n g t h e p l a n — to
see t h a t p h a s i n g c a n p r o c e e d s m o o t h l y , t h a t t e m p o r a r y ac-
cess w ill w o r k , t h a t t h e r e is s p a c e to s t o c k p i l e m a t e r i a l a n d
to f a b r i c a t e p a r t s t h a t c r a n e s a n d o t h e r m a c h i n e s c a n m o v e
effic ie n tly .
O b v i o u s l y , t h i s is n o t t h e b e s t w a y to d e s i g n a r e s i d e n -
tial a r e a , b u t t h i s c a r i c a t u r e e x p o s e s m o s t o f t h e d e s i g n fac-
to r s a f f e c tin g th e first c ost. It is t h e first c o s t t h a t is m o s t Reducing
v is ib le w h e n a d e s i g n is r e v ie w e d , b u t m a i n t e n a n c e c o s ts maintenance
o v e r t h e life o f t h e p r o j e c t w ill o f t e n b e m o r e s i g n if ic a n t, e v e n cost
w h e n p ro p e rly d isc o u n te d . M a n y of th e features just recom -
m e n d e d — p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e t h a t call fo r i n e x p e n s i v e
m a t e r i a l s , l i g h t p a v e m e n t s , a n d c o n s e r v a t i v e l y siz e d u tili-
t i e s — a r e lik e ly to in f la te f u t u r e r u n n i n g co sts.
I n g e n e r a l, m a i n t e n a n c e c o s ts a r e a ls o m i n i m i z e d b y
c o m p a c t, r e g u l a r f o r m s , b y t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p u b l i c o p e n
sp a c e , a n d b y a s i m p l i c i t y , e v e n a b a r r e n n e s s , o f l a n d s c a p -
ing. B u t d u r a b l e m a t e r i a l is n o w c a lle d for: h e a v y r o a d
p a v e m e n ts, curbs, p av ed w alks, a m o re expensive su rfacin g
o f t h e h o u s e s . W h i l e c o m p a c t d e n s i t i e s a r e still d e s i r a b l e , to
k e e p d o w n t h e l e n g t h s o f r o a d a n d u tilitie s to b e r e p a i r e d ,
t h e r e s h o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s b e a m p l e r o o m fo r g r o w t h a n d
c h a n g e in t h e fo r m o f w id e s t r e e t r i g h t s - o f - w a y , o v e r s iz e d
u tilitie s , a n d s p a c e a b o u t t h e d w e l l i n g s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in
d e e p r e a r y a r d s . T h e n e w e c o lo g ic a l s y s t e m s h o u l d be a
 292 s e lf - m a in t a in in g o n e , a s far a s p o s s ib le , w h ic h r e q u ir e s
d e n s it ie s b e lo w th e c a r r y in g c a p a c ity o f th e la n d , ', r o u g h "
n a tu r a l la n d s c a p in g , g e n t le s lo p e s , a n d n o d is tu r b a n c e to
th e e x i s t i n g d r a in a g e s y s t e m . M o s t im p o r ta n t o f a ll, p e r -
h a p s , th e e n v ir o n m e n t a n d its a s s o c ia t e d in s t it u t io n s s h o u ld
e n c o u r a g e c a r e t a k in g b y lo c a l u s e r s a n d d is c o u r a g e v a n d a l-
ism . T o a c h ie v e t h is e n d , a la r g e p r o p o r tio n o f th e o p e n s p a c e
s h o u ld b e p r iv a te a n d a t ta c h e d to d w e llin g u n it s , a n d e v e n
p u b lic o p e n s p a c e s h o u ld b e d iv id e d in t o t e r r ito r ie s e a s ily
c o n t r o lle d b y g r o u p s o f d w e llin g s . T h e d w e llin g s t h e m s e lv e s
s h o u ld b e s in g le - f a m i ly h o u s e s , o r at le a s t so d e s ig n e d a s to
a p p e a r to b e s e p a r a te u n it s , a n d s h o u ld b e c a p a b le o f b e in g
r e p a ir e d b y s im p le m e a n s . T h e u s e r s s h o u ld h a v e a r e s p o n -
s ib le p a rt in c r e a tin g th e e n v ir o n m e n t a n d in m a in t a in in g it.
C o s t is a n a l l o c a t i n g d e v ic e , a n d it is h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g
t h a t t h e r e w o u l d b e c o n f lic ts b e t w e e n c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d
m a i n t e n a n c e c o s ts o r b e t w e e n t h e s e c o s ts a n d o t h e r , m o r e in -
t a n g i b l e c o m m u n i t y c o s ts . S o m e o f t h e p r o b l e m s in a l l o c a t i n g
th e s e c o s ts in o u r p r e s e n t s y s t e m h a v e b e e n m e n t i o n e d in
S e e p a g es 39- 43 C h a p t e r 3. I n a n y c a se , t h e s e e c o n o m i z i n g r u le s reflect c o s ts
o n l y in t h e U n i t e d S ta te s , w i t h p r e s e n t t e c h n o l o g y , s u b je c t
to o u r p r e s e n t c u s t o m a s to w h a t is t h e to l e r a b l e m i n i m u m .
I t e m C o s ts T o p r o v i d e a b a s is for m a k i n g r o u g h first c o s t c o m p a r i -
for C o s t so n s b e tw e e n a lte rn a tiv e p lan s, th e fo llow ing generalized
C o m p a r is o n s ite m c o s ts a r e g iv e n . T h e y d o n o t in c l u d e p r o f e s s i o n a l fees o r
th e g e n e r a l c o n t r a c t o r 's p r o f it a n d o v e r h e a d . T h e y d o in c lu d e
t h e s u b c o n t r a c t o r 's p r o f it a n d o v e r h e a d , h o w e v e r . T h e y a r e
M o d i f ie d fro m "Unit
Price R anges f o r b a s e d o n a v e r a g e N e w Y o r k S t a t e p r ic e s in 1 9 6 9 . T h e y w ill
B u dget Estimates: n e v e r b e a c c u r a t e fo r a n y p a r t i c u l a r jo b . T h e y m u s t a t le a s t
Site D e v e l o p m e n t
Item s" f o r State
b e i n f la te d b y t h e a v e r a g e rise in c o n s t r u c t i o n p r ic e s s in c e
University Construe- t h e b a s e d a te , a n d t h e y a r e n o t r e lia b le in a n a r e a w h o s e cli-
tion Fund, State o f m a t e o r b u i l d i n g i n d u s t r y is s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m
N ew York, by
C l a r k e and R a pua no
t h a t o f th e n o r t h e a s t e r n U n i t e d S ta te s . E v e n t h e n , t h e y a re
Inc., ]an. 1968 b e s t u s e d for c o m p a r i s o n s b e c a u s e t h e r e l a t i v e c o s t o f i te m s
is m o r e s t a b l e t h a n t h e i r a b s o l u t e cost. S u c h c o m p a r a t i v e
fig u re s w ill b e u s a b l e fo r a fe w y e a r s , u n t i l s ig n if ic a n t
c h a n g e s in b u i l d i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n o r t e c h n o l o g y u p s e t t h e
b a l a n c e b e t w e e n ite m s :

Site preparation and earthw ork

C le a rin g a n d g ru b b in g , p er acre $ 4 0 0 .0 0
D e m o l i t i o n o f s t r u c t u r e s , p e r c u b ic fo o t $ 0 .0 5
R e m o v in g p av e m e n t, per sq u are foot $ 0 .2 5
R e m o v i n g tr e e a n d s t u m p , p e r in c h o f d i a m e t e r $ 7 .0 0
 E x c a v a tin g a n d r e p l a c i n g e a r t h , 5 0 0 ‫ ־‬to 1 5 0 0 ‫־‬ 293
fo o t h a u l, p e r c u b ic y a r d $ 0 .8 0
E x c a v a tin g u n s u i t a b l e e a r t h a n d r e m o v i n g it
f r o m site, p e r c u b ic y a r d $ 1 .9 0
E x c a v a t i n g ro c k , d r i l l i n g a n d b l a s t i n g , p e r
c u b ic y a r d $ 5 .7 5
B o r r o w fill in p la c e , p e r c u b ic y a r d $ 1 .8 0
S t r i p p i n g , p ilin g , a n d r e p l a c i n g to p s o il,
p e r c u b ic y a r d $ 2 .7 0
T o p s o i l f u r n i s h e d a n d p l a c e d , p e r c u b ic y a r d $ 5 .7 5

Roads, walks, and p avin g

A s p h a l t p a r k i n g p a v e m e n t , li g h t d u t y , p e r
s q u a r e fo o t $ 0 .3 5
A s p h a l t r o a d , l i g h t d u t y , p e r s q u a r e fo o t $ 0 .4 0
A s p h a l t r o a d , h e a v y d u t y , p e r s q u a r e fo o t $ 0 .6 0
C o n c r e t e r o a d , lig h t d u t y , p e r s q u a r e fo o t $ 0 .7 5
C o n c r e t e r o a d , h e a v y d u t y , p e r s q u a r e fo o t $1 .1 0
C o n c r e t e c u r b a n d g u t t e r , p e r l i n e a r fo o t $ 4 .0 0
G r a v e l w a lk , p e r s q u a r e f o o t $ 0 .2 0
A s p h a l t w a lk , p e r s q u a r e fo o t $ 0 .3 0
C o n c r e t e w a lk , p e r s q u a r e fo o t $ 1 .0 0
L o o se g r a v e l o r c r u s h e d s t o n e s u r f a c e , 4
in c h e s d e e p , p e r s q u a r e f o o t $ 0 .1 0
B r ic k o r a s p h a l t b l o c k p a v e m e n t , p e r
s q u a r e foot $ 2 .0 0
G r a n i t e b lo c k p a v e m e n t , p e r s q u a r e fo o t $ 3 .0 0
S n o w - m e l t i n g s y s t e m , e le c tr ic m a t s , p e r
s q u a r e fo o t $ 3 .0 0
C o n c r e t e s te p s , 5 feet w id e , w i t h h a n d -
r a ils, p e r s q u a r e fo o t $ 2 0 .0 0

U tilities
C o n c r e t e s t o r m d r a i n s , in p la c e , all
f ittin g s , 6 ‫ ־‬fo o t a v e r a g e d e p t h , p e r
lin e a r fo o t o f m a i n :
1 2 -inch d ia m e te r $ 1 6 .0 0
1 8-inch d iam eter $ 1 9 .5 0
30-in ch d iam eter $ 2 9 .0 0
C l a y s a n i t a r y d r a i n s , in p la c e , all fit-
tin g s , 7 - f o o t a v e r a g e d e p t h , p e r
li n e a r fo o t o f m a i n :
8 -in ch d ia m e te r $ 1 5 .0 0
1 2 -in ch d ia m e te r $ 1 8 .0 0
294 U n d e r d r a i n lin e s, in p la c e , 6 - i n c h d i a m e t e r ,
3-foot averag e d e p th , per lin ear foot $ 6 .0 0
S i x - i n c h w a t e r p ip e , in p la c e , all fit-
tin g s, 5-foot av e ra g e d e p th , per
l i n e a r fo o t o f m a i n $ 1 2 .0 0
F o u r - i n c h g a s m a i n s , in p la c e , all f ittin g s ,
4 V2 ‫ ־‬fo o t a v e r a g e d e p t h , p e r l i n e a r fo o t
of m ain $ 1 2 .5 0
F or e a c h fo o t o f e x t r a d e p t h o f a u ti l i t y ,
a d d p e r li n e a r fo o t $ 2 .0 0
F or t r e n c h i n g in r o c k , 5 - f o o t a v e r a g e
d e p t h , a d d p e r l i n e a r fo o t $ 2 2 .0 0
O v e r h e a d e le c tric p o w e r , i n c l u d i n g p o le s
a n d t r a n s f o r m e r s , p e r l i n e a r fo o t o f
c a b le $ 5 .0 0
U n d e r g r o u n d e le c tr ic p o w e r in fib e r d u c t,
in c lu d in g a b o v e -g ro u n d tra n sfo rm e rs,
p e r l i n e a r f o o t o f c a b le $ 1 5 .0 0
L i g h t i n g r o a d s , p e r l i n e a r fo o t o f r o a d $ 1 2 .0 0
L i g h t i n g w a l k s , p e r l i n e a r fo o t o f w a l k $ 1 4 .5 0
L ig h tin g p a rk areas, per acre $ 6 0 0 0 .0 0

L a n d s c a p in g a n d site stru ctu res

H y d r o s e e d i n g o f s e c o n d a r y a r e a s , p e r a c re $ 5 0 0 .0 0
P la y f ie ld , s e e d i n g a n d fine g r a d i n g , u s i n g
o n - s i t e to p s o il, p e r s q u a r e fo o t $ 0 .1 0
N e w tr e e s , in p la c e , sta n d a r d v a r ie t ie s ,
in c lu d in g t w o - y e a r m a in t e n a n c e , p er in c h
o f c a lip e r s q u a r e d $ 1 0 .0 0
S o d d e d s w a le , 3 feet w id e , u n d e r 3 p e r -
c e n t s lo p e , p e r l i n e a r fo o t $ 1 .3 0
A s p h a l t g u t t e r , 4 feet w id e , p e r l i n e a r
fo o t $ 3 .5 0
C o n c r e t e g u t t e r , 3 feet w id e , p e r lin e a r
fo o t $ 5 .0 0
C o n c r e t e c u lv e r t, p e r l i n e a r foot tim e s
c le a r s p a n in feet $ 1 8 .0 0
C o n c r e t e r e t a i n i n g w a ll, p e r s q u a r e fo o t
o f w a ll face $ 1 4 .0 0
F r e e s t a n d i n g b r i c k s c r e e n w a ll, p e r
s q u a r e fo o t o f w a ll face $ 7 .5 0
C h a i n - l i n k fence, 6 feet h i g h , p e r
l i n e a r fo o t $ 6 .0 0
A ll-w e a th e r ten n is court, each $ 9 5 0 0 .0 0
All-weather basketball court, each $11,500.00
 O u t d o o r s w i m m i n g p o o l, i n c l u d i n g p e - 295
rim e te r w alks a n d e q u ip m e n t b u t no
b u i l d i n g , p e r s q u a r e fo o t o f p o o l $ 1 7 .5 0
E i g h t- f o o t w o o d e n b e n c h , c o n c r e t e s u p -
p o rts, each $ 1 0 0 .0 0

F or e x t r e m e l y r o u g h first g u e s s e s , n o t to b e u s e d for P relim in ary

c o m p a r i s o n s , c o s ts m a y b e s u m m a r i z e d as a c r e a g e c o s t s estim ates
( la n d p ric e , c l e a r i n g a n d g r u b b i n g , g e n e r a l e a r t h w o r k ,
l a n d s c a p i n g ) , p lu s l i n e a r c o s t s o f t h e r o a d s y s t e m (fine g r a d -
in g , p a v e m e n t a n d b a s e , w a l k s , c u r b s , s e w e r , w a t e r , elec-
tr ic ity , l ig h ts , tr e e s a n d c u lv e r ts ) , p l u s p e r c e n t a g e c o s t s
(p ro fit, c o n t i n g e n c y , o v e r h e a d , fees). F r o m e x p e r i e n c e , g e n -
e ra l fig u re s o f th is k i n d m a y b e k e p t in m i n d fo r w o r k o f a
c e r t a i n t y p e a n d q u a l i t y o f f in is h a t a g i v e n t i m e a n d p la c e ,
o r t h e y m a y b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m q u i c k l y s k e t c h e d t y p e la y -
o u t s for u n i t a r e a s . T h e s e r u le s o f t h u m b c a n t h e n b e r a p i d l y
a p p l i e d to p r e l i m i n a r y d e s i g n s o r p r o p o s a l s .
 C hapter 14

H ou sin g

O i n c e it is t h e m o s t c o m m o n a n d f u n d a m e n t a l k i n d
o f d e v e l o p m e n t , site p l a n n i n g for h o u s i n g w ill b e c o n s i d e r e d
in s o m e d e ta il. A s t h e d i s c u s s i o n b e c o m e s m o r e c o n c r e te , it
R e fer en c es 47,
49, 55 w ill a p p l y less a n d le ss g e n e r a l l y . M u c h o f t h e m a t e r i a l in
th is c h a p t e r is a r e f le c tio n o f A m e r i c a n p r a c tic e .
B a s e d o n t h e p a t t e r n n o r m a l to o u r c u l t u r e — t h e alio -
c a t i o n o f o n e f a m ily o r o n e p e r s o n to e a c h d w e l l i n g u n i t , o r in -
d e p e n d e n t l iv in g q u a r t e r s i n c l u d i n g c o o k i n g a n d b a t h i n g
C om m on fa c ilitie s— th ere are a n u m b e r of c o m m o n residential
housing types b u i l d i n g ty p e s . S h o u l d t h e n u c l e a r f a m ily lo se its d o m i n a n t
p o s i t i o n , t h i s c la s s if ic a tio n w o u l d n o l o n g e r b e r e l e v a n t , b u t
th e s e c o m m o n t y p e s t o d a y in c lu d e :
1. The single-family h o u s e : e a c h d w e l l i n g u n i t in its
o w n i s o la te d s t r u c t u r e , m o v a b l e o r fixed in pla c e .
2 . The two-family house: t w o u n i t s a t t a c h e d s id e b y
side.
3. The row h o u s e : t h r e e o r m o r e u n i t s a t t a c h e d s id e b y
s id e in a r o w . N o w o f t e n c a lle d a ‫ ״‬t o w n h o u s e ‫ ״‬fo r p r o m o -
t io n a l r e a s o n s .
4. The flat or walk-up apartment: s i n g l e - s t o r y u n i t s
s t a c k e d o n e a b o v e th e o t h e r to a h e i g h t o f tw o , t h r e e , or,
r a r e ly , fo u r o r m o r e s to r ie s , a n d a c c e s s ib le b y c o m m o n sta irs .
T h e a p a r t m e n t s m a y b e p a i r e d sid e b y side, w i t h s ta ir s b e -
t w e e n , o r b e g r o u p e d in t h r e e s , fo u rs, o r e v e n m o r e , a r o u n d a
c e n t r a l s ta ir . T h e s e p a ir s o r c lu s te r s m a y s t a n d a lo n e o r b e
c o n n e c te d in lin e s . A lt e r n a t iv e ly , th e a p a r tm e n ts m a y o p e n 297
o f f a c e n tr a l c o r r id o r or a n e x te r n a l g a lle r y .
5 . E l e v a t o r a p a r t m e n t s : u n i t s s t a c k e d to g r e a t e r
h e i g h t s a n d s e r v e d b y m e c h a n i c a l lifts, t y p i c a l l y e i t h e r o f
th e s l o w - s p e e d ty p e , r e s u l t i n g in h e i g h t s o f a b o u t six to
se v e n s to r ie s ; o r th e h i g h - s p e e d ty p e , a l l o w i n g h e i g h t s o f
tw e lv e o r m o r e s to r ie s . L ike w a l k - u p s , e l e v a t o r s t r u c t u r e s
a re m o s t o f te n e i t h e r in a t o w e r f o r m (,'p o i n t h o u s e s ‫) ״‬, w i t h
th r e e to six u n i t s c l u s t e r e d a b o u t a c e n t r a l e l e v a t o r s h a f t, or
in s la b fo rm , w i t h u n i t s d i s p o s e d a l o n g c o n t i n u o u s c e n t r a l or
e x t e r n a l c o r r id o r s . T h e s la b s m a y e i t h e r be in s t r a i g h t lin e s
o r be a r r a n g e d in X, L, Y, o r Z f o r m s . T h e t o w e r s m a y be
s q u a r e in p la n , o r f o r m X 's o r Y 's. T h e X 's o r Y ‫ ׳‬s c a n t h e m -
selves b e i n t e r l i n k e d to f o r m m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d s h a p e s .
T h e s e n o r m a l t y p e s h a v e b e e n lis te d in o r d e r o f in -
c r e a s i n g d e n s i t y a n d th e d e c r e a s i n g d i r e c t n e s s o f ac c e ss to
s t r e e t a n d g r o u n d . T h e first t h r e e a l l o w for i n d i v i d u a l y a r d s
a n d i n d e p e n d e n t a c c e ss to e a c h u n i t f r o m t h e o u ts id e . F a m i-
lies w i t h c h i l d r e n b e t w e e n t h e a g e s o f t w o a n d te n w ill
u s u a l l y p r e f e r th e m .
T h e a d v a n ta g e s of the c o n v e n tio n a l one- or tw o -sto ry Sin gle-fam ily
s i n g l e - f a m i l y h o u s e a r e w e ll k n o w n : it h a s a d e q u a t e lig h t houses
a n d a ir a n d r o o m for g a r d e n i n g , p la y , p a r k i n g , a n d o t h e r
o u t d o o r u se s. It e n jo y s d ir e c t a c c e s s to t h e s t r e e t a n d to its
o w n p r i v a t e g r o u n d ; it c a n b e s h i e l d e d f r o m n o i s e a n d v ie w .
It c a n be b u ilt, m a i n t a i n e d , r e m o d e l e d , b o u g h t , a n d so ld in-
d e p e n d e n t l y . It s y m b o l i z e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l fa m ily . It c a n b e
c o n s t r u c t e d a t r e a s o n a b l e c o st, a l t h o u g h it is n o t t h e le a s t ex-
p e n s iv e ty p e o f h o u s i n g . In m a n y p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d it is
p o p u l a r l y c o n s i d e r e d to b e t h e id e a l h o u s e . It im p o s e s lo w
d e n s itie s , w h i c h m a y e n t a i l p r o b l e m s o f c ity s p r a w l , p o o r
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , s p a r s e c o m m u n i t y s e rv ic e s, a n d th e loss o f
r u r a l la n d . O n l y w h e r e la n d c o s ts a r e lo w is it e c o n o m ic a l.
If s i n g l e - f a m i l y h o u s e s m u s t b e u s e d a t n e t d e n s i t i e s h i g h e r
t h a n 5 o r 6 fa m ilie s p e r acre , t h e n m a n y o f t h e i r a d v a n -
ta g e s o f sp a c e , p r iv a c y , i h d i v i d u a l i t y , a n d n o is e c o n t r o l b e -
g in to d is a p p e a r . It is m o r e d iffic u lt to a r r a n g e s m a ll h o u s e s
to m a k e a c o h e r e n t v is u a l sc e n e t h a n it is to g r o u p la r g e r
u n its . N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e l a r g e s t s h a r e o f n e w h o u s i n g in t h e
U n i t e d S t a t e s c o n t i n u e s to be o f th is ty p e , s in c e it c o r r e -
s p o n d s m o s t c lo se ly to p o p u l a r d e s ir e a n d to t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s
o f th e h o u s e - b u i l d i n g i n d u s t r y .
T h e p r e f a b r i c a t i o n o f h o u s e s as a s o l u t i o n to t h e h o u s i n g M obile hom es
p r o b l e m w a s lo n g h e r a l d e d b y e x p e r ts . It a r r i v e d , n o t f r o m
298 the q u a rte r to w a rd w h ic h m o st people w ere s tra in in g their
e y e s b u t b y w a y o f t h e little h o u s e tr a ile r , o r i g i n a l l y in -
t e n d e d fo r s u m m e r c a m p i n g o r fo r m i g r a t o r y w o r k m e n . F ree
of th e n o rm a l restric tio n s of codes a n d financing, th e trailer
i n d u s t r y h a s s h i f t e d f r o m 8 ‫־‬b y ‫ ־‬4 0 ‫ ־‬fo o t u n i t s to 1 2 - b y - 6 0 ‫ ־‬fo o t
u n i t s a n d to " e x p a n d a b l e s " a n d " d o u b l e - w i d e s . " O f t h e
n e w h o u s i n g u n i t s p r o d u c e d in t h i s c o u n t r y , 2 0 p e r c e n t a r e
n o w t h e s e " m o b i l e h o m e s . " T h e s e llin g p r ic e o f s u c h u n i t s ,
c o m p l e t e w i t h f u r n i t u r e a n d f ittin g s , h a s b e e n k e p t c lo se to
$ 1 0 p e r s q u a r e fo o t, a n d t h e y a r e a l m o s t t h e o n l y n e w d w e ll-
in g s a v a ila b le a t le ss t h a n $ 1 5 ,0 0 0 . T h e y h a v e s u b s t a n t i a l
a d v a n t a g e s fo r t h e s m a ll n e w f a m i l y o r t h e r e tir e e : t h e y a re
in e x p e n s i v e , t h e y a r e e a s y to b u y ( t h o u g h n o t so e a s y to re -
sell), t h e b u y e r k n o w s e x a c t l y w h a t h e is g e t t i n g , t h e y a r e
c o m p a c t a n d e a s y to m a i n t a i n , a n d t h e y a r e f u lly e q u i p p e d
a n d furn ish ed . T h e y have th e g la m o u r of n ew n ess, and
s o m e o f t h e so c ia l c a m a r a d e r i e o f c a m p i n g l in g e r s in th e
t r a i l e r p a r k s . A l t h o u g h fe w c a n n o w b e d r a w n b e h i n d t h e
f a m i l y c a r, a n d t h e m o b i l e h o m e f a m ily m o v e s n o m o r e fre-
q u e n t l y t h a n t h e a v e r a g e f a m ily , t h e u n i t s a r e m o b i l e b y
m e a n s o f sp e c ia l c a r r i e r s a n d c a n f o llo w t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s
o f a f a m i l y if t h e y a r e o f m o d e r a t e r a n g e . A s t h e w h e e ls
c o m e o f f a n d t h e sizes o f t h e u n i t s rise to 8 0 0 o r e v e n 1 5 0 0
s q u a r e feet, t h e o ld t r a i l e r h a s b e c o m e t h e l e a d i n g m o d e r -
a te l y p r ic e d p r e f a b r i c a t e d s i n g l e - f a m i l y h o u s e , a n d w e m u s t
face t h e p r o b l e m s o f s i t i n g a n d r e g u l a t i n g it.
Two-fam ily T h e t w o - f a m il y h o u s e , u s u a lly t w o s t o r ie s h ig h , is fre -
houses q u e n t ly u s e d in p a r ts o f th e e a s te r n U n ite d S ta t e s a n d in
E n g la n d . It is c h e a p e r t h a n th e s in g le h o u s e , c a n b e b u ilt at
h ig h e r d e n s it ie s , a n d p r o v id e s o p p o r tu n it ie s e ith e r fo r in d i-
v id u a l o w n e r s h ip o r fo r s m a ll- s c a le in v e s t m e n t a n d m a n -
a g e m e n t , o n e u n it b e in g o w n e r - o c c u p ie d a n d th e o th e r u n it
r e n te d o u t. M e a n w h ile , it r e ta in s m a n y o f th e a d v a n t a g e s o f
lig h t a n d a ir, a c c e s s , p r iv a c y , in d iv id u a l y a r d s , a n d e v e n
s o m e s e n s e o f in d iv id u a lit y . E s th e t ic a lly , it is n o e a s ie r to
h a n d le th a n t h e s in g le u n it a n d is lik e ly to p r o d u c e a s im i-
lar d e n te la te d e ffe c t at c lo s e d e n s it ie s . A n o t h e r v a r ia n t fo l-
lo w s th e p a tte r n th a t h a s d e v e lo p e d b y in d iv id u a l e ffo r t in
m a n y o ld e r a re a s: d e ta c h e d h o u s e s th a t c o n t a in a s m a ll s e p -
a r a te a p a r tm e n t. T h e a p a r tm e n t m a y b e r e n te d o u t fo r e x tr a
in c o m e o r m a y h o u s e o ld e r p a r e n ts o r o th e r m e m b e r s o f th e
e x t e n d e d f a m ily , w h ile p r e s e r v in g th e in d e p e n d e n c e o f th e
n u c le a r fa m ily .
Row houses T h e r o w h o u s e p r o v id e s th e m o s t s p a c e a t th e lo w e s t
c o s t a n d is th e c h e a p e s t to m a in t a in a n d h e a t. It w ill p r o v id e
g r e a t e r p r i v a c y t h a n t h e s in g le o r t w o - f a m i l y h o u s e o n s m a ll 299
lots a n d m a k e s m o r e e ffic ie n t u s e o f t h e la n d t h a t w o u l d o t h -
e r w is e b e lo s t in th e n a r r o w s id e y a r d s . E a c h u n i t g e n e r a l l y
o c c u p ie s a b o u t 25 to 35 feet o f f r o n t a g e a n d m a y b e o n e o r
m o r e , b u t u s u a l l y tw o , s to r ie s h ig h . It m a y b e p l a n n e d at
d e n s itie s a t w h i c h a d e q u a t e p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d c o m -
m u n i t y fa c ilitie s c a n b e p r o v i d e d . It is m u c h e a s i e r to
a c h ie v e c o h e r e n t v is u a l s p a c e s w i t h t h e s e c o n t i n u o u s u n i t s ,
a n d l o n g r o w s o f t h e m , p a r t i c u l a r l y if c u r v i n g o r b e n t to fol-
l o w t e r r a i n o r e n c lo s e a n a r e a , c a n b e v e r y d r a m a t i c .
A ll t h e s e b e n e f its a r e a c h ie v e d a t s o m e sa c rific e o f in -
d i v i d u a l i t y , a l t h o u g h i n d e p e n d e n t ac c e ss a n d t h e p r i v a t e
y a r d a re r e t a i n e d . N o i s e c o n t r o l m a y b e a p r o b l e m ; t h u s t h e
p a r t y w a lls m u s t b e a c o u s t i c a l l y i n s u l a t e d . A c c e s s to th e
r e a r y a r d s f r o m t h e s t r e e t is t r o u b l e s o m e a n d m u s t be p r o -
v id e d b y t h r o u g h p a s s a g e s ( p e r h a p s i n c o r p o r a t i n g c a r p o r t s )
o r b y r e a r a lle y s o r s h o r t f o o t w a y s c o m i n g f r o m t h e s t r e e t o r
se rv ic e y a r d s . F or t h is r e a s o n , it is n o w c u s t o m a r y to p u t t h e
k i t c h e n a n d s e rv ic e e n t r a n c e o n t h e s t r e e t s id e o f t h e u n i t ,
c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e p r i n c i p a l e n t r a n c e . A n e a t se rv ic e e n c lo -
s u r e m u s t t h e n be i n c o r p o r a t e d w i t h t h e f r o n t f a c a d e o r
w a s t e s t o r a g e a llo w e d for w i t h i n t h e h o u s e . F or e c o n o m y , a
r o w c o n t a i n s a n e v e n n u m b e r o f d w e l l i n g s — u s u a l l y fo u r,
six, o r e i g h t t o g e t h e r . G i v e n its a d v a n t a g e s , it is f o r t u n a t e
t h a t t h e r o w h o u s e is b e g i n n i n g to s h a k e o f f its u n d e s e r v e d l y
p oor rep u tatio n .
T he w a lk -u p a p a r tm e n t w as at one tim e th e c h eap est W alk-up
k i n d o f h o u s i n g a v a ila b le . It w o u l d still b e so t o d a y if t h e fire apartm en ts
la w s h a d n o t b a n n e d n o n f i r e p r o o f c o n s t r u c t i o n in a p a r t m e n t
b u i l d i n g s a n d if w a l k - u p d w e l l i n g s a b o v e t h e t h i r d flo o r
w ere n o t n o w c o n sid e re d u n d e sira b le . Even th e th re e -s to ry
w a l k - u p is n o t so o f t e n b u ilt t o d a y e x c e p t w h e r e t h e r e a r e
p r e s s u r e s for e c o n o m y o r h i g h d e n s i t y o r w h e r e a p u b lic
a g e n c y b e lie v e s t h a t s u b s i d i z e d u n i t s s h o u l d b e less t h a n
d e s i r a b l e so t h a t p o o r fa m ilie s w ill n o t lo ite r th e r e . B u t
w i t h i n t h e la s t d e c a d e t h é t w o - s t o r y w a l k - u p h a s b e e n b u i l t
m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n ev e r, s in c e it p r o v i d e s t h e c o n v e n i e n c e
a n d f r e e d o m o f a p a r t m e n t l iv in g a t lo w d e n s i t i e s a n d a n in -
t i m a t e v is u a l scale. It is a p p e a r i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e s u b u r b a n
r e g io n s a n d t h e i n n e r r i n g o f m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a s , c a t e r i n g to
th e n e e d s o f s m a ll fa m ilie s , s in g le p e o p le , a n d t r a n s i e n t s .
T h i r t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f all n e w h o u s i n g is n o w in a p a r t m e n t
d w e llin g s . S o m e u n i t s m a y still h a v e p r i v a t e y a r d s if de-
sire d . M o r e o v e r , p a r k i n g a n d a c c e ss a r e still m a n a g e a b l e .
U n i t s c a n b e g r o u p e d a b o u t th e s t a i r s so t h a t e a c h o n e h a s
300 g o o d lig h t a n d c r o s s v e n t ila t io n . B y in c r e a s in g th e g r o u n d
c o v e r a g e , r e la t iv e ly h ig h d e n s it ie s a n d a s p e c ia l in tim a t e
a n d in t e n s e ‫ ״‬u r b a n ‫ ״‬c h a r a c te r c a n b e a c h ie v e d .
E levator B u t th e e le v a t o r a p a r tm e n t, r a th e r th a n th e c r o w d e d
apartm en ts f o u r -s t o r y w a lk -u p , is n o w th e n o r m a l r e s p o n s e to th e p r e s -
s u r e fo r h ig h d e n s it ie s . T h e t o w e r b lo c k p r o v id e s b e tte r lig h t
/r
a n d air a n d is a v is u a lly h a n d s o m e r u n it; th e s la b o f te n h a s
u n p le a s a n t p r o p o r t io n s a n d m a y b lo c k th e v ie w , c a s t d e e p
s h a d o w s , o r a d ju st c lu m s ily to te r r a in . T h e c e n tr a l c o r r id o r
p r e v e n t s c r o s s v e n t ila t io n in th e u n it s o f a s la b b u ild in g ,
w h i le a s y s t e m o f e x te r io r g a lle r y a c c e s s r a is e s p r o b le m s o f
p r iv a c y , d a n g e r to c h ild r e n , a n d e x p o s u r e to w e a th e r . T h e
e le v a t o r a p a r tm e n t is th e m o s t c o s t ly ty p e o f h o u s in g to
b u ild , a n d th e t o w e r fo r m is m o r e c o s t ly t h a n th e s la b .
T h e ta ll a p a r tm e n t h a s a d v a n t a g e s b e s id e s its u s e f u l-
n e s s at h ig h d e n s it ie s . T e n a n t s a re n o t r e s p o n s ib le fo r m a in -
t a in in g b u ild in g s or g r o u n d s , t h e y a c q u ir e s o m e a n o n y m it y
a n d s o c ia l fr e e d o m ; a n d t h e y m a y b e lifte d u p h ig h e n o u g h
to e n jo y fin e v ie w s . T h e b u ild in g s t h e m s e lv e s p r o v id e d ra -
m a tic a c c e n ts at th e u r b a n sc a le : t h e y c a n c o m p o s e w e ll
w it h in la r g e s p a c e s a n d r e la te to s t r o n g n a tu r a l la n d s c a p e s .
M o r e o v e r , it is p o s s ib le to s u p p ly s p e c ia l s e r v ic e s at t h e s e
d e n s it ie s : c a te r in g , n u r s e r ie s , c o n v e n ie n c e s to r e s in th e
b u ild in g , s o c ia l r o o m s , a n d s p e c ia l r e c r e a tio n fa c ilitie s .

Figure 45 Apartment towers accent a rocky site at Danviksklip-

pan in S tockholm , Sw eden .
 T h u s fo r s o m e f a m i l i e s w i t h o u t s m a l l c h i l d r e n t h e t a ll 301
a p a r tm e n t m a y b e a p r e fe rre d liv in g s t y le a n d n e e d n o t b e
c o n fin e d to c e n t r a l a r e a s . I ts p r o b l e m s a r e t h e a c c e s s to
g r o u n d , a s w e ll a s th e g r o u n d - le v e l c o n g e s t io n o f c ir c u la tio n ,
p a r k in g , u n it s t o r a g e , a n d r e c r e a t io n . It is u s u a l l y p r e f e r a -
b le to f u r n i s h s o m e o u t d o o r s i t t i n g s p a c e c l o s e t o t h e u n i t b y
m e a n s o f p r iv a te b a lc o n ie s . P la y s p a c e c a n b e p r o v id e d o n
th e r o o f, or e v e n at in te r m e d ia te le v e ls , at a c o s t. S to r e s a n d
s p e c i a l f a c i l i t i e s m a y b e p u t o n u p p e r f l o o r s , b u t it is u s u a l to
h a v e th e se o n th e g ro u n d so th a t th e y ca n se r v e m o re th a n
o n e b u ild in g . G r o u n d - f lo o r d w e llin g u n it s a re a t a d is a d v a n -
t a g e b e c a u s e o f t h e a d j a c e n t a c t i v i t y , a n d it w i l l b e n e c e s -
s a r y to s c r e e n th e m o r e lim in a t e g r o u n d - le v e l u n it s e n t ir e ly .
It is f a s h i o n a b l e to lif t t h e e n t i r e b u i l d i n g o f f t h e g r o u n d o n
s t i l t s , b u t t h i s p r o c e d u r e is e x p e n s i v e a n d m a y c a u s e u n -
p l e a s a n t w i n d s u n d e r n e a t h . F u r t h e r m o r e , it n e g l e c t s m a n y
c o m m o n f u n c t io n s th a t a re lo g ic a lly lo c a te d at g r o u n d le v e l.
W i t h s la b a p a r t m e n t s , s p e c i a l c a r e m u s t b e t a k e n t o p r e -
v e n t u n c o m f o r t a b l e w i n d s , s h a d o w s , o r r e f l e c t i o n s o f r a d ia -
tio n or n o is e .
T h e s e p r e v a le n t b u ild in g ty p e s b y n o m e a n s e x h a u s t N e w H o u s in g
t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s . O t h e r t y p e s r e m a in t o b e d e v e l o p e d , o r to b e T ypes
tr ie d o u t o n a s i g n i f i c a n t s c a l e . O n e o f t h e m o s t im p o r t a n t
c o n t r i b u t i o n s t h a t b u i l d i n g d e s i g n e r s c a n m a k e is t o r e f in e
t h e k n o w n t y p e s a n d t o c r e a t e n e w o n e s , s i n c e t h e b u lk o f
r e s id e n tia l b u ild in g w ill f o llo w su c h t y p e p a tte r n s . S o m e o f
t h e s e n e w p o s s ib ilit ie s are:
The courtyard house: S in g le -fa m ily u n its can be
p a c k e d s i d e b y s i d e a n d b a c k to b a c k if t h e ir o p e n s p a c e is
w i t h i n t h e ir w a l l s r a t h e r t h a n o u t s i d e t h e m . T h i s d e r i v e s
f r o m a n o ld M e d i t e r r a n e a n p r o t o t y p e . It a l l o w s t h e p r i v a c y ,
c o n t r o l , a n d d ir e c t n e s s o f a c c e s s o f s i n g l e - f a m i l y h o u s e s t o b e
p r o v id e d a t m u c h h ig h e r d e n s it ie s .
The combination of row housing with walk-up flats:
" G a rd en a p a rtm e n t" is n o w a e u p h e m is m fo r a t w o - o r
t h r e e - s t o r y w a l k - u p , but* t h e t e r m o r i g i n a l l y a p p li e d t o t w o -
s t o r y r o w h o u s in g , o f w h ic h s o m e p o r t io n , p a r tic u la r ly o n
t h e e n d s , w a s d e v o t e d t o s m a l l f la t s , t h a t is , t o s i n g l e - s t o r y
u n i t s s t a c k e d o n e a b o v e a n o t h e r . It is a l s o p o s s i b l e , e s p e -
d a l l y o n s l o p i n g t e r r a in , t o p u t a t w o - s t o r y r o w h o u s e o v e r a
o n e - s t o r y fla t. O r t w o t w o - s t o r y r o w s m a y b e p la c e d o n e
a b o v e t h e o t h e r , to g i v e t h e e f f e c t o f a t h r e e - s t o r y w a l k - u p in
a f o u r -s to r y b u ild in g . T h e s e h y b r id s p r o v id e a v a r ie t y o f a c -
c o m m o d a t io n a n d a llo w h ig h e r d e n s it ie s w h ile s t ill p r o v id -
i n g in d i v i d u a l y a r d s a n d d ir e c t a c c e s s t o m a n y o r a ll u n i t s .
302 Elevator apartment variants: T w o - s t o r y u n its m a y b e
s ta c k e d v e r tic a lly , e a c h h a v in g a c c e s s to a c o m m o n b a lc o n y
t h a t o c c u r s e v e r y s e c o n d f lo o r . T h i s is m o r e e c o n o m i c a l t h a n
th e u su a l a p a r tm e n t ty p e , a llo w s c r o ss v e n t ila t io n w ith o u t
lo s s o f p r iv a c y , a n d g iv e s s o m e f e e lin g o f in d iv id u a lit y to th e
u n it . M a n y o t h e r v a r i a t i o n s m a y b e m a d e u p o n t h e s la b
a p a r tm e n t, in c lu d in g th e u s e o f a c c e s s b a lc o n ie s , s k ip -s to p
e l e v a t o r s w i t h c o r r i d o r s e v e r y t h ir d f lo o r a n d s t a ir s i n t e r n a l
to u n i t s , i n t e r l o c k i n g a n d t h r o u g h u n i t s , a n d s o o n . A l l t h e s e
a t te m p t to im p r o v e th e p r iv a c y , e c o n o m y , v e n t ila t io n , or
s e n s e o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y in t h e s t a n d a r d c e n t r a l - c o r r i d o r s la b .
A p a r t m e n t s a r e n o w b e i n g b u i l t o f p r e f a b r ic a t e d e l e m e n t s
or ev en p r e f a b r ic a t e d u n its . Such te c h n iq u e s have b een
m o r e f u l l y d e v e l o p e d in E u r o p e a n d in t h e S o v i e t U n i o n . A
few e x p e r im e n ts have b een m ade w ith m o b ile u n its ,
p lu g g e d in to m u lt is t o r y p e r m a n e n t fr a m e w o r k s .
"Habitats": T h i s c o m p l e x t y p e is n a m e d fo r t h e f a -
m o u s r e s id e n tia l d e m o n s t r a t io n a t th e M o n t r e a l E x p o s it io n ,
in w h i c h u n i t s w e r e s t a c k e d v e r t i c a l l y b u t t h e w h o l e w a s s o
in te r c o n n e c te d w ith b r id g in g fo o tw a y s a t a ll l e v e l s th a t
e a c h u n i t s e e m e d t o h a v e d ir e c t a c c e s s t o a n o p e n p u b l i c
s tr e e t. P r iv a te o u td o o r s p a c e w a s p r o v id e d o n b a lc o n ie s o r o n
t h e r o o f s o f u n i t s b e l o w . T h e t o t a l s t r u c t u r e h a d a n ir r e g u la r ,
p ile d -u p fo r m . S o m e o f th e v a lu e s o f s in g le -f a m ily u n its a n d
th e c o n v e n ie n c e s o f a p a r tm e n ts w e r e c o m b in e d w ith th e
q u a l i t i e s o f l i v i n g in a d e n s e a n d l i v e l y v i l l a g e . T h e t y p e is
e x p e n s i v e , b u t it d r e w t h e a p p l a u s e o f m a n y v i s i t o r s .
Patterns of tenure: M u c h o f th e liv in g q u a lity o f a r e s i-
d e n c e a r is e s fr o m th e n a tu r e o f its o w n e r s h ip . T h e p r e v io u s
d is c u s s io n h a s a ssu m e d o n e o f th e tw o sta n d a r d ty p e s o f te n -
u r e in t h i s c o u n t r y : i n d i v i d u a l o w n e r s h i p o f t h e u n i t in f e e
o r it s r e n t a l f r o m s o m e o t h e r o w n e r , p u b l i c o r p r iv a t e . B u t
o th e r p a tte r n s o f te n u r e a re p o s s ib le , in c lu d in g h o u s in g c o o p -
e r a t i v e s ( in w h i c h t e n a n t s b u y s h a r e s in t h e c o m p a n y t h a t
o w n s a n d m a i n t a i n s a g r o u p o f u n i t s , a n d in r e t u r n h a v e t h e
r i g h t t o o c c u p y a u n i t ) a n d c o n d o m i n i u m s ( in w h i c h t h e " i n -
s id e s " o f u n its a re o w n e d b y th e r e s id e n t, w h ile th e " o u t-
s id e s " a n d th e g r o u n d s a re o w n e d b y a c o o p e r a t iv e o r o th e r
a s s o c i a t i o n t h a t m a i n t a i n s t h e m fo r a f e e ) . S u c h p a t t e r n s o f
o w n e r s h ip a ffe c t n o t o n ly th e e c o n o m ic a n d s o c ia l a s p e c ts o f a
p la n b u t a l s o it s t e c h n i c a l a n d p h y s i c a l n a t u r e . U n d e r a
c o o p e r a t i v e a r r a n g e m e n t , fo r e x a m p l e , a ll u n i t s n e e d n o t
h a v e d ir e c t a c c e s s to a p u b l i c w a y , a n d v a r i o u s c o m m o n
s p a c e s a n d fa c ilitie s c a n b e p r o v id e d a n d m a in t a in e d .
T h e g r o u n d in a r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a m u s t p r o v i d e fo r m o r e
t h a n t h e c o v e r a g e o f b u i l d i n g s . T y p i c a l u s e s i n c l u d e c ir - 303
c u la tio n (fo o t and v e h ic le ) , p a r k in g , p la y , s ittin g areas,
g a r d e n in g , la u n d r y d r y in g , o u td o o r w o r k a re a s, d is p o s a l The space
fa c ilitie s , s to r a g e a r e a s, u tilitie s , la n d s c a p e s e ttin g s , a n d betw een
b a r r ie r s to s i g h t , s o u n d , s u n , o r w i n d . T h e s e u s e s m a y b e buildings
p r o v i d e d fo r i n d i v i d u a l l y , a s in p r i v a t e y a r d s , o r c o m m u -
n a l l y , a s in a l l o t m e n t g a r d e n s , p u b l i c p l a y g r o u n d s , o r g r o u p
d r y in g y a r d s. U n t il r e c e n t ly , c o m m u n a l p r o v is io n h a s b e e n References 35,
r e l a t i v e l y n e g l e c t e d in t h i s c o u n t r y in f a v o r e i t h e r o f t h e in - 53, 54
d i v i d u a l lo t o r o f s e r v i c e s fo r la r g e r a r e a s i n s t a l l e d b y l o c a l
g o v er n m e n t. But in tim a te c o m m u n ity m anagem ent and
o w n e r s h i p a r e p r o v i n g t o b e a n a t t r a c t i v e a n d e f f i c i e n t a l-
te r n a tiv e .
A s p a c e o f a b o u t 4 0 b y 4 0 f e e t is l i k e l y to b e t h e m i n i - Private outdoor
m u m i f it is t o b e u s a b l e fo r s i t t i n g , p l a y i n g , a n d r a i s i n g a space
f e w f l o w e r s . A s i m p l e " o u t d o o r r o o m ," u s e d o n l y fo r s i t t i n g ,
m i g h t b e a s s m a ll a s 2 0 b y 2 0 f e e t . I n a n y c a s e t h i s s p a c e
s h o u l d b e i n t i m a t e l y r e la t e d to th e u n it , w it h a s u ita b le
s l o p e a n d a g o o d o r i e n t a t i o n . O n s t e e p g r o u n d it m a y b e n e e -
e s s a r y t o b u il d o p e n d e c k s o r d o m a s s i v e g r a d i n g . T h e y a r d
s i z e c a n b e v a r ie d fo r d if f e r e n t u n i t s , a n d c l u s t e r s o f a l l o t -
m e n t g a r d e n s a l l o w fo r m o r e e x t e n s i v e c u l t i v a t i o n . I n l o w
a p a r t m e n t h o u s i n g a p r i v a t e y a r d fo r t h e g r o u n d f lo o r u n i t s
m a y o f t e n b e a r r a n g e d . A t a ll b u t t h e l o w e s t d e n s i t i e s a t
le a s t s o m e p a r t o f t h e y a r d s h o u l d b e g i v e n v i s u a l p r i v a c y b y
a fe n c e o r h e d g e s . F e n c e s a n d h e d g e s s h o u ld b e p r o v id e d
fro m th e sta rt.
T a l l b u i l d i n g s a t h i g h d e n s i t y d o n o t m i r a c u l o u s l y fr e e
t h e u n c o v e r e d g r o u n d s p a c e . T h e r e q u i r e m e n t s fo r u s e a t t h e
g r o u n d g o u p w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e in d e n s i t y , a n d a t t h e u p p e r
ra n g e o f d e n s ity th e " fre e" grou n d area is l i k e l y to b e
l a r g e l y p a v e d a n d d e v o t e d to c i r c u l a t i o n , p a r k in g , a n d in -
t e n s iv e ly u s e d p la y a r e a s. P r iv a te b a lc o n ie s c a n to s o m e e x -
t e n t s u b s t i t u t e fo r t h e p r i v a t e y a r d , h o w e v e r .
T h e s p a c i n g b e t w e e n b u i l d i n g s h a s a n i m p o r t a n t effect
n o t o n l y o n t h e g r o u n d left o v e r for o u t d o o r u s e b u t a lso o n
t h e l i v a b ility o f th e i n t e r i o r r o o m s . If s t r u c t u r e s a r e to o c lo se
to e a c h o t h e r , e s p e c ia lly if t h e y s u r r o u n d a sp a c e , n o is e s w ill
r e s o n a t e w i t h i n t h e m . E v e ry r o o m s h o u l d h a v e a d e q u a t e Daylight
lig h t a n d air: a s u b s t a n t i a l p ie c e o f s k y s h o u l d b e v is ib le
t h r o u g h t h e w i n d o w s f r o m n o r m a l s t a n d i n g p o s i t i o n s in th e
r o o m to e n s u r e g o o d d a y l i g h t a n d p r e v e n t c l a u s t r o p h o b i a . A
m i n i m u m s t a n d a r d m a y b e t h a t f r o m e a c h w i n d o w , in p r i n -
cipal r o o m s , t h e m a j o r p a r t o f th e f o r w a r d 6 0 - d e g r e e c o n e o f
v is io n s h o u l d b e u n o b s t r u c t e d b y a n y t h i n g t h a t is m o r e t h a n
 304 h a l f a s h i g h a b o v e t h e s i l l a s it s d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e w i n d o w .
T h is m in im u m is a ssu red by s p a c in g b u ild in g s at m o re
th a n tw ic e t h e ir h e ig h t, b u t o th e r , d e n s e r a r r a n g e m e n ts
w ill a ls o p a s s th is te s t.
Privacy and E v e n w h e r e t h i s r u le is o b s e r v e d , it is u n p l e a s a n t to
view lo o k d i r e c t l y i n t o f a c in g w i n d o w s t h a t a r e c lo se e n o u g h
to d e s t r o y v is u a l o r a c o u s tic p r iv a c y . T h e r e f o r e it is w e ll to
a v o id a n y la y o u t in w h i c h o n e e y e -le v e l w i n d o w faces a n -
o t h e r m o r e c lo s e ly t h a n 75 feet a w a y . U n i t s m a y h a v e b l a n k
w a lls o r h i g h w i n d o w s w h e r e t h e y face o n t h e p r i v a t e a r e a s
o r fa c a d e s o f o t h e r u n its . S i m ila r ly , n o p r i n c i p a l w i n d o w
s h o u l d b e c lo s e r t h a n 2 0 feet f r o m a n y p u b lic w a y , u n le s s
t h a t w a y is w e ll b e l o w t h e sill.
T h e r e a r e p r o p o s a l s fo r e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h w i n d o w l e s s
a p a r tm e n ts, w h ic h s e e m r e p u g n a n t b u t w o u ld h a v e a d v a n -
t a g e s o f c o s t , u p k e e p , s e c u r i t y , a n d d e n s i t y . I f fir e s a f e t y ,
h e a l t h , a n d v e n t i l a t i o n c a n b e p r o v i d e d fo r , it m a y in d e e d b e
p o s s i b l e fo r s o m e r o o m s t o b e w i n d o w l e s s , b u t fo r v i s u a l a n d
p s y c h o lo g ic a l r e lie f at le a s t s o m e w in d o w s o f a d w e llin g
s h o u l d c o m m a n d a l o n g , fr e e v i e w . A l l t h e v i e w s f r o m p r i n -
c i p a l r o o m s s h o u l d b e s t u d i e d in r e l a t i o n to t h e t i m e o f d a y in
w h ic h th e y are u se d . It is p r e f e r a b le th a t th e d iffe r e n t
r o o m s h a v e a v a r ie ty o f v ie w s .
Standards for H a n d b o o k s o n site d e s i g n a n d official s u b d i v i s i o n a n d
building b u i l d i n g r e g u l a t i o n s f r e q u e n t l y cite s t a n d a r d s fo r b u i l d i n g
spacing s p a c i n g s , s e t b a c k s , a n d lot sizes. T h e s t a n d a r d s a t t e m p t to
e n s u r e a d e q u a t e lig h t , p r iv a c y , fire s a f e ty , a n d " a m e n i t y / '
u s i n g m e c h a n i c a l r u le s t h a t c a n b e r e p e a t e d l y a p p lie d . B ut
t h e ru le s r e s u l t in in fle x ib le l a y o u t s a n d th e w a s t e o f la n d .
F or e x a m p le , in s i n g l e - f a m i l y a r e a s , a m i n i m u m lot w i d t h
a t th e s t r e e t o f 5 0 feet is u s u a l l y g iv e n . B u t t h is is b a s e d o n
t h e a v e r a g e s m a l l - h o u s e d e s i g n , w i t h 1 0 -f o o t sid e y a r d s . It is
in d e e d i m p o r t a n t to k e e p s e p a r a t e s t r u c t u r e s fa r e n o u g h
a p a r t t h a t fire e q u i p m e n t m a y b e b r o u g h t b e t w e e n th e m .
Y et if th e u n i t is d i f f e r e n t , o r if it is b u ilt to th e lot lin e w i t h
a f i r e p r o o f w a ll (as it c a n be, w i t h o u t lo ss o f s a f e t y o r a m e n -
ity ), 50 feet is to o m u c h . E ls e w h e r e , r e g u l a t i o n s w ill r e q u i r e
7 5 - f o o t, o r la r g e r , lo ts to a c c o m m o d a t e t h e o n e - s t o r y r a n c h
h o u s e w i t h g e n e r o u s sid e y a r d s . T h i s p u t s u p a g o o d s h o w
a l o n g th e s tr e e t, w h e r e b r e a d t h o f u n u s e d f r o n t l a w n is p r o -
p o r t i o n a l to a p p a r e n t social s t a t u s , b u t it a lso r a is e s th e p ric e
of the ho u se a n d b rin g s ab o u t a sh allo w back yard w ith o u t
a n y p r iv a c y . M i n i m u m lot sizes, m i n i m u m f r o n t, side, a n d
r e a r s e t b a c k s a r e o b s t a c l e s to e fficient a n d c o m m o d i o u s de-
sig n . S o m e t i m e s t h e y a r e d e l i b e r a t e d e v ic e s fo r z o n i n g o u t
l o w - c o s t h o u s i n g . O f f i c i a l r u le s a n d g u i d e s s h o u l d b e in t h e 305
fo rm o f p erfo r m a n ce s ta n d a r d s, s e ttin g d e s ir e d q u a litie s
s u c h a s l i g h t , p r iv a c y , o u t d o o r s p a c e , n o i s e t r a n s m i s s i o n , fir e
s a fe ty , a n d a c c e s s , a lo n g w ith a llo w a b le a v e r a g e d e n s itie s
a n d u s e m ix t u r e s a p p l i c a b l e to e n t i r e d e v e l o p m e n t a r e a s . I f
r u le s a r e e x p l i c i t l y t ie d t o r e s u l t s , t h e n s i t e p l a n s c a n b e
b o t h e f f i c i e n t a n d d iv e r s e .
T h e o r ie n ta tio n o f b u ild in g s w ith r e sp e c t to su n a n d Orientation
w i n d is a l s o i m p o r t a n t . It w a s o n c e f a s h i o n a b l e to a l i g n a ll
s t r u c t u r e s in s o m e " i d e a l" o r i e n t a t i o n . B u t u n d e r o r d i n a r y
c i r c u m s t a n c e s in t h e t e m p e r a t e z o n e , p r o p e r l y s p a c e d s i n -
g l e - a n d t w o - f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s c a n a d j u s t to m a n y o r i e n t a -
t io n s . S o c a n r o w h o u s e s , p o in t t o w e r s , a n d g a lle r y a c c e s s
s la b s , in w h i c h e a c h d w e l l i n g h a s m o r e t h a n o n e o p e n s id e .
I n t e r io r p l a n s in t h e la t t e r t y p e s m u s t o f t e n b e v a r i e d to
a d a p t to t h e d if f e r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s , h o w e v e r , a n d s o m e a l i g n -
m e n ts m a y be b e tte r th a n o th e r s . W h e n th e b u ild in g s a re
t a ll o r l o n g , s h a d i n g a n d w i n d e f f e c t s o n t h e r e m a in d e r o f
th e s ite a re s ig n ific a n t.
T h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e t a ll, c e n t r a l - c o r r i d o r s la b is t h e
m o s t d i f f i c u l t p r o b le m . N o t o n l y d o e s it h a v e a s e r i o u s e x t e r -
n a l in flu e n c e o n w in d and su n sh a d o w , but each o f it s
d w e l l i n g u n i t s h a s o n l y o n e o r i e n t a t i o n . In t h e h i g h e r l a t i-
tu d e s a n e a s t - w e s t a x is m u s t b e a v o id e d to p r e v e n t s u n le s s
d w e l l i n g s a n d g r o u n d a r e a s in w in t e r . A n o r t h - s o u t h a x i s ,
w h i l e p r e f e r a b le , is n o t i d e a l , s i n c e it e x p o s e s s o m e d w e l l -
i n g s to t h e h o t w e s t e r n s u n o f s u m m e r . In t h e t r o p ic s s u c h
a n a lig n m e n t m a y b e e x tr e m e ly u n c o m fo r ta b le . T h u s th e
lo c a l c l i m a t e , w i t h r e g a r d t o t h i s o n e a w k w a r d t y p e , m a y in -
d i c a t e a p r e f e r a b le a l i g n m e n t . I n t h e B o s t o n a r e a t h i s m i g h t
b e a s la b r u n n in g n o r t h - n o r t h w e s t to s o u t h - s o u t h e a s t , a c o m -
p r o m i s e b e t w e e n t h e d e m a n d s fo r w i n t e r s u n l i g h t a n d s u m -
m er b reezes.
V a n d a lis m a n d a s s a u l t a r e c o m m o n d a n g e r s in m a n y Security
h o u s i n g a r e a s . T o d e a l w i t h t h e m e f f e c t i v e l y is t o d e a l w i t h
t h e ir s o c i a l c a u s e s . B u t w h e r e s u c h d a n g e r s e x i s t , t h e l a y o u t
o f e x t e r io r s p a c e c a n m a k e a p l a c e m o r e o r l e s s s e c u r e . T h e
k e y te c h n iq u e s a re s u r v e illa n c e a n d g iv in g lo c a l r e s id e n ts a
s e n s e o f c o n tr o l a n d r e s p o n s ib ility o v e r th e lo c a lity . T h u s o n e
a r r a n g e s d o o r s , e x te r n a l p a t h w a y s , a n d b u ild in g c o r r id o r s s o
th a t th e y a re a lw a y s v is ib le fro m a n u m b e r o f w in d o w s a n d
f r o m t h e s t r e e t . E l e c t r o n ic a n d o p t i c a l d e v i c e s c a n a ls o b e
u s e d to s u p p l e m e n t t h e u n a id e d e y e . P a t h s a r e la id o u t s o
t h a t t h e p e d e s t r i a n s e e s h is r o u t e o p e n w e l l a h e a d o f h im ,
w i t h o u t n e a r b y h i d i n g p la c e s . G r o u n d s a r e w e l l l i g h t e d a n d
 306 m a d e e a s y fo r p o l i c e to p a t r o l in s o m e r a p id a n d s y s t e m a t i c
w a y . T e r r it o r ia l c o n c e r n is d e f i n e d s o t h a t s p a c e s a r e e i t h e r
c l e a r l y p a r t o f t h e p u b l i c s t r e e t o r a s c l e a r l y a t t a c h e d to
d w e l l i n g s o r g r o u p s o f d w e l l i n g s , a n d t h u s s u b j e c t to r e s i -
d e n t s ' c o n t r o l i f t h e y c h o o s e t o e x e r c i s e it. G o v e r n a n c e o f t h e
h o u s i n g a r e a is o r g a n i z e d to p u t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y in t h e h a n d s
o f lo c a l g r o u p s . W a l l s , lo c k e d d o o r s , f e n c e s , a n d o t h e r b a r r ie r s
are u se fu l o n ly if th e y c a n b e m o n it o r e d . T h e ir g r e a te s t
v a l u e is in d e f i n i n g t e r r it o r y a n d m a k i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l t r e s -
p a s s e r v i s i b l e . T r a in e d p o l i c e a n d c h a n g e s in t h e o r g a n i z a -
tio n o f s o c ie ty a re m o r e e ffe c tiv e w ays o f d e a lin g w ith
h u m a n a g g r e s s i o n . B u t in t r o u b l e d t i m e s t h e n a t u r e o f e x -
t e r n a l s p a c e is r e l e v a n t t o t h e s e c u r i t y t h a t c a n b e a c h i e v e d .
M a n y o f t h e s e s e c u r it y t e c h n iq u e s c o n f lic t w it h p r iv a c y , o n
t h e o n e h a n d , a n d w i t h a s e n s e o f o p e n n e s s a n d w a r m t h in
t h e la n d s c a p e , o n t h e o t h e r . B u t u n t i l t h e r e is s o c i a l p e a c e , a
d e f e n s i v e s t a n c e is n e c e s s a r y in t h e m a jo r p u b l i c a r e a s , a n d
t h o s e a r e a s m u s t b e c le a r ly d e fin e d .
Storing the car S t o r i n g t h e c a r c o n s u m e s s p a c e . I n e v i t a b l y it is a t r o u -
b l e s o m e f e a t u r e in h o u s i n g a r e a s . In w i n t r y c l i m a t e s m o s t
p e o p l e p r e f e r to u s e a g a r a g e t o p r o t e c t t h e c a r f r o m r a in a n d
s n o w a n d t o s h i e l d it f r o m t h e l o w e s t t e m p e r a t u r e s . A c a r -
p o r t is o n l y a s u b s t i t u t e fo r t h i s , a n d o p e n p a r k i n g , w h i l e
w o r k a b l e , is t h ir d b e s t . P l a c e m e n t o f t h e g a r a g e h a s n e v e r
been s a tis fa c to r ily s o lv e d , except in lo w -d e n s ity s in g le -
f a m i l y a r e a s . T h e t r a d i t i o n a l l o c a t i o n a t t h e r e a r o f t h e lo t e n -
t a ils a lo n g d r iv e w a y a n d r e d u c e s th e s iz e o f t h e p r iv a te
Reference 51 y a rd . A p o s itio n n ea r th e str e e t m a sk s fro n t e n tr a n c e s an d
d e s tr o y s th e s tr e e t s p a c e w h ile r e d u c in g p e d e s tr ia n s a fe ty .
P l a c e m e n t in o r u n d e r t h e u n i t s t h e m s e l v e s is l i k e l y t o b e
e x p e n s i v e , s i n c e t h e d w e l l i n g m u s t t h e n b e m a d e f ir e p r o o f .
L o c a tio n a lo n g s id e th e d w e llin g , o n th e s a m e b u ild in g lin e ,
is o f t e n t h e b e s t t e c h n i q u e i f t h e r e is s u f f i c i e n t s p a c e b e -
t w e e n u n i t s . G a r a g e s c a n b e p a ir e d in t h i s c a s e . A r r a n g i n g
t h e g a r a g e s in l a r g e c o m p o u n d s m a k e s t h e m i n c o n v e n i e n t t o
t h e h o u s e s . S o m e t i m e s it is p o s s i b l e t o g r o u p t w o t o s i x g a -
ra g es to g e th e r , b e tw e e n o r b e h i n d t h e u n i t s , o r in s m a ll
c o u r ts, so th a t th e y are b o th c o n v e n ie n t a n d n o t v is u a lly d is -
r u p t iv e . A t h ig h e r d e n s itie s g a r a g e s a re la r g e m u lt ile v e l
str u c tu r e s , w h ic h are p a rt o f th e to ta l a r c h ite c tu r a l c o m p o s i-
t i o n . T h e c o s t o f s u c h s t r u c t u r e s m a k e s it d i f f i c u l t to p r o v i d e
fo r m o r e t h a n a f r a c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l p a r k i n g n e e d in t h is w a y .
I f g a r a g i n g is p la c e d u n d e r n e a t h t h e a p a r t m e n t s , it w i l l b e
e v e n m o r e e x p e n s iv e .
In w a r m e r c l i m a t e s a n d i n c o l d e r a r e a s w h e n e c o n o m y
d i c t a t e s , t h e c a r w i l l b e s t o r e d in t h e o p e n . A n d e v e n w h e r e 307
g a r a g e s a r e p r o v i d e d , it is n e c e s s a r y t o a l l o w f o r t h e p a r k i n g
o f v i s i t o r s . It is n o w c u s t o m a r y in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t o p r o -
v i d e o n e a n d a h a l f to t w o p a r k i n g o r g a r a g i n g s p a c e s p e r
d w e l l i n g u n i t , a n d t h i s r a t io is r i s i n g . O n e c a r s p a c e p e r
u n it is c o n s i d e r e d a r e a s o n a b le m in im u m in h o u s in g of
m o d e r a t e ly h ig h d e n s it y . In c e n t r a l-c it y h o u s in g o f very
h i g h d e n s i t y , t h e p a r k i n g r a t io m a y d r o p t o a s l o w a s o n e -
h a lf s p a c e p er u n it, a lt h o u g h t h i s is c e r t a i n to r e s u lt in
c o n g e s t i o n . P r o v i d i n g s u r f a c e s p a c e fo r p a r k i n g a t h i g h d e n -
s i t i e s b e g i n s to e a t u p a ll a v a i l a b l e g r o u n d ; y e t g a r a g i n g
m a y b e e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o s s i b l e . O n e c o m p r o m i s e is t o p a r k
o n e l e v e l o f c a r s o n a p a v e m e n t t h a t is a h a l f s t o r y b e l o w
g r a d e a n d a s e c o n d le v e l o n a lig h t o p e n d e c k a b o v e th e m .
A t l o w d e n s i t i e s s u r f a c e p a r k i n g is a s i m p l e r m a t t e r ,
b e i n g p r o v i d e d a t t h e c u r b o r in s m a l l o n e ‫ ־‬o r t w o - c a r p a r k -
i n g s t u b s b e s i d e t h e u n it . A t m o d e r a t e d e n s i t i e s it m a y b e -
c o m e n e c e s s a r y t o g r o u p c a r s in s m a l l o f f - s t r e e t b a y s , s i n c e
t h e a l t e r n a t i v e is t o a l l o w s o l i d r a n k s o f h e a d - i n p a r k i n g a t
t h e c u r b , w h i c h is d a n g e r o u s f o r c h i l d r e n a n d t h o s e c r o s s i n g
t h e s t r e e t , d i s r u p t s t r a f fic , a n d r e s t r i c t s t h e s t r e e t v i e w to
a n e n d le s s w a ll o f ca r s. S o lid cu r b p a r k in g c a n b e a m e lio -
r a t e d b y o c c a s i o n a l p r o j e c t i o n s o f t h e p l a n t i n g s t r ip t o b r e a k
t h e li n e o f c a r s a n d t o p r o v i d e a s a f e l a u n c h i n g p a d f o r c r o s s -
in g th e s tr e e t. C u r b p a r k in g m u s t a ls o b e k e p t a w a y fr o m
i n t e r s e c t i o n s . P a r k in g o n t h e s t r e e t is e x p e n s i v e s i n c e it d e -
v o t e s h i g h l y a c c e s s i b l e a n d h e a v i l y p a v e d s p a c e to a l o w -
v a lu e u se . E v e n w h e r e ca r s are g r o u p e d in to o ff-s tr e e t p a r k -
i n g l o t s , it is p r e f e r a b le t o k e e p t h e s e l o t s n o la r g e r t h a n s i x
t o t e n s p a c e s , s i n c e la r g e r l o t s w i l l b e r e m o t e f r o m t h e u n i t s
an d v is u a lly d e p r e s s i n g . T h i s r u le is a b a n d o n e d o n ly at
h ig h e r d e n s it ie s .
It is a l s o p o s s i b l e t o i m p r o v e t h e l o o k o f s m a l l o r m e d i -
u m - s iz e d p a r k in g lo t s o r s t u b s b y d r o p p in g t h e m a f e w fe e t
b e lo w p e d e s tr ia n g rad e so th a t th e n o r m a l lin e o f s ig h t
p a s s e s o v e r t h e c a r s . T h i s a l s o m a k e s it e a s i e r to s c r e e n t h e
lo ts w ith p la n tin g or lo w w a lls . T r e e s m ay be p la n t e d
t h r o u g h o u t l a r g e p a r k i n g l o t s to p r o v i d e s h a d e a n d v i s u a l r e -
lie f . B u t s u b s t a n t i a l o p e n s p a c e m u s t b e a l l o w e d a t t h e b a s e
o f e a c h tr e e , s o t h a t a ir a n d w a t e r c a n r e a c h t h e r o o t s .
T h u s t h e a u t o m o b i l e , s o m u c h a p a r t o f o u r w a y o f li f e Divorcing the
a n d s o n e c e s s a r y in m o s t s u b u r b a n a r e a s , c o n s t a n t l y b e d e v - car
ils t h e c o n s c i e n t i o u s s i t e p l a n n e r . W h e r e v e r o n e u s e s o t h e r
m odes of tra n sp o r t— w a lk in g , b ic y c lin g , bus tra v e l —
r e s id e n tia l a r e a s a re m o r e p le a s a n t , e c o n o m ic a l, a n d c o m -
 308 m o d io u s , a s w e ll a s freer fro m p o llu tio n a n d d a n g e r . B u t th e
d e s i g n e r is m i s t a k e n if h e t h i n k s t h a t m o s t A m e r i c a n s a r e
e a s i l y d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e ir c a r . It p r o v i d e s t o o m a n y o t h e r s a t -
i s f a c t i o n s a n d m e s h e s w i t h t o o m a n y o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e ir
l i v e s . D i v o r c e m a y b e w i s e , b u t it w i l l b e b r o u g h t a b o u t o n l y
b y f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e s in t h e p a t t e r n o f l i v i n g a n d in t h e
te c h n o lo g y a n d o w n e r s h ip o f th e m e a n s o f tr a n sp o r t. For e x -
a m p l e , it w o u l d r e q u ir e l i v i n g a t c o m p a c t d e n s i t i e s a g a i n ,
p lu s a r e n e w e d a n d e f f ic ie n t p u b lic tr a n s it s y s t e m , c lu s -
t e r e d s e r v i c e s , a n d a l o s s o f f r e e d o m in v a c a t i o n t r a v e l. A l -
t e r n a t i v e l y , p r i v a t e c i t y t r a v e l w o u l d h a v e t o b e r e s t r i c t e d to
s o m e n e w s m a l l , l o w - p o w e r e d v e h i c l e , w h i l e la r g e c a r s w e r e
sto r e d o n th e p e r ip h e r y a n d p e r h a p s r e n te d or c o m m u n a lly
o w n e d . O r liv in g at m o d e r a te ly lo w d e n s itie s m ig h t b e c o u -
p le d w i t h a d i f f u s e m i c r o b u s s y s t e m , r o u t e d o n c a l l, p lu s
s p e c i a l p a t h s fo r b i c y c l e s , h o r s e s , a n d e l e c t r i c c a r t s , w h i l e
la r g e p r i v a t e v e h i c l e s w o u l d b e r e s t r ic t e d t o i n f r e q u e n t u s e
b y m e a n s o f p e r m i t s o r c h a r g e s . E a c h s o l u t i o n r e q u ir e s a
c o o r d in a te d se t o f r a th e r la r g e -s c a le a c tio n s , a n d to b e s u e -
c e s s f u l it m u s t s a t i s f y a ll t h e m a n y r e a s o n s fo r w h i c h t h e
a u t o m o b i l e is p r e f e r r e d t o d a y .
R e s id e n tia l T h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f i n d i v i d u a l b u i l d i n g s m a y f ir s t b e
M o d u le s s t u d i e d a t t h e le v e l o f a , ' m o d u l e / ' o r s m a l l g r o u p o f s t r u c -
t u r e s c o n s i d e r e d a s a r e p e a t a b l e u n it . R e s i d e n t i a l b u i l d i n g s
a r e , in f a c t , o f t e n r e p e a t e d in s e r i e s , a n d , in a n y c a s e , t h e ir
f u n d a m e n t a l i n t e r r e l a t i o n s c a n b e a n a l y z e d in s u c h g r o u p s .
S i n c e it is t h e p a t t e r n o f b u i l d i n g s a n d c i r c u l a t i o n , r a t h e r
t h a n t h e lo t o r l a n d s c a p e p a t t e r n , t h a t is p r i m a r y to a s i t e
p la n , m o d u le s o f p a th s a n d b u ild in g u n its a re th e m o s t u s e -
fu l o n e s to k n o w . M o d u le s a re o n ly s c h e m a tic : w h ile w o r t h y
o f s t u d y in t h e f ir s t s t a g e s o f a s i t e p l a n , t h e y s h o u l d n o t b e
a p p lie d b y m e c h a n ic a l r e p e t itio n . B u t a k n o w le d g e o f th e
Street-front c o m m o n m o d u l e s o r r e s i d e n t i a l g r o u p i n g is v e r y u s e f u l .
units T h e s t r e e t - f r o n t p a t t e r n is t h e m o s t c o m m o n m o d u l e , in
w h ic h th e b u ild in g u n its — h o u se s, ro w s, or a p a rtm e n t to w -
□• G•O• O• o•
ers— lin e b o th s id e s o f th e s tr e e t. A c c e s s a n d o r ie n ta t io n
ÓQÓÓ Ó a r e e a s y , a n d t h e r e is l i t t l e a m b i g u i t y in t h e p la n . A l t h o u g h
, q SLSLPo s o m e t im e s v is u a lly m o n o t o n o u s , th e c o r r id o r s p a c e c a n b e
\.o s t r o n g o r r i c h l y v a r ie d b y p a t h a l i g n m e n t , b u i l d i n g s e t b a c k ,
PQp, a n d la n d s c a p in g .
Q
For r e a so n s o f e c o n o m y , a s e c o n d ty p e h a s b e e n d e v e l-
End-on units o p e d in w h i c h r o w s o f u n i t s a r e d i s p o s e d e n d - o n to t h e s t r e e t .
T h e str e e t fr o n ta g e p er u n it , a r e lia b le in d e x o f s ite d e v e lo p -
ooao m e n t c o s t , is t h e r e b y s h a r p l y r e d u c e d . U n i t s a r e r e m o v e d
ò ò ò ò
fro m th e n o is e a n d d a n g e r o f th e str e e t b u t a ls o r e m o v e d fro m
opoo
0090

àà ò ò fò
 309

Figure 46 In P e r s s o n s romantic O p e n A i r Ci t y in M a l m o ,
S we de n, row houses are located e nd- on to the street, and their
f r o nt entrances alternate f r o m one face to the other o f the same
row. The effect is charming, b u t pa r k i n g is difficult.

it s c o n v e n i e n c e . S u c c e s s i v e r o w s o f u n i t s m a y f a c e t o w a r d
e a c h o t h e r o n c o m m o n e n t r a n c e p a t h w a y s o r m a y t u r n t h e ir
b a c k s o n e a c h o th e r to e n jo y , s o m e fa v o r a b le o r ie n ta t io n .
R o w s m a y ru n th r o u g h fr o m o n e str e e t to th e n e x t to fo r m a
c o n tin u o u s p a th s y s te m at r ig h t a n g le s to th e s tr e e t s y s te m .
A t h ir d a n d h ig h ly fa v o red m o d u l e is t h e c o u r t a r - C ourts
r a n g e m e n t , in w h i c h g r o u p s o f u n i t s f a c e in w a r d o n a c o m -
OO
m o n o p e n s p a c e . T h i s is d o n e p r i m a r i l y fo r s o c i a l a n d v i s u a l O ‫ '״‬, ‫״‬o
r e a so n s: to p r o m o te n e ig h b o r ly r e la tio n s , to e x c lu d e o u ts id - ‫ •ס‬.•o
e r s, to p r o v id e a p le a s a n t e n c lo s e d s p a c e . V e h ic u la r c ir c u la -
tio n m a y b e a llo w e d to e n te r th e c o u r t, p e r h a p s a s a n a r r o w
o n e - w a y l o o p , o r m a y p a s s t h r o u g h it in s o m e i n d i r e c t f a s h -
io n , a s in t h e s q u a r e , o r m a y b e e x c l u d e d f r o m it, a s in t h e
E n g l i s h " c l o s e ." T h e c o u r t w i t h it s c i r c u l a t i o n m a y s h r i n k t o
t h e w i d t h o f a c u l - d e - s a c . T h e in t e r n a l s p a c e o f t h e c o u r t o r
c u l- d e -s a c m a y b e o p e n to th e s tr e e t, f o r m in g a n in le t o f th e
m a jo r s t r e e t s p a c e , o r t h e e n t r a n c e m a y b e n a r r o w e d o r e v e n
f o r m a l i z e d w i t h a g a t e w a y s o a s to p r o d u c e a n i n d e p e n d e n t
sp a ce, secu re and w e ll id e n tifie d . The la n d o u tsid e th e
c o u r t s m a y b e c o m m i t t e d to p u b l i c o p e n s p a c e , t o p r i v a t e 0 ?‫ ״‬0
y a r d s , o r to s e r v ic e a c c e s s . In a ll t h e s e t y p e s , l a n d in t h e
b lo c k in t e r i o r s is r e l a t i v e l y i n e x p e n s i v e , s i n c e it a d d s l i t t l e
to t h e s t r e e t f r o n t a g e c o s t s . I f r a w la n d is c h e a p , t h e n r e a s o n -
a b ly la r g e p a r k s , g a r d e n s , o r a l l o t m e n t s m a y b e p r o v i d e d
at r e la t iv e ly little a d d it io n a l c o s t.
C o u r t s y s te m s are e c o n o m ic a l o f e x p e n s iv e s tr e e t fr o n t-
a g e , e x c e p t w h e r e lo o p s a re b r o u g h t in to th e c o u r t, a n d are
Figure 4 7 Sunnyside was built in Queens , New York , in 1924—1928 by the City
Housing Corporation on land already divided into narrow blocks. M odest row houses
were put around quiet courts , and today this is still a favored residential area. Con-
trast the tenements put up on the same land by the speculative builders — the trees
in the distance mark the locatio ?1 o f Sunnyside.
f a v o r a b le ( s o m e t i m e s to o f a v o r a b le ) to n e i g h b o r l y i n t e r - 311
c o u rse . T h e y m a y , h o w e v e r , c o m p l i c a t e t h e s tr e e t s y s t e m ,
l e n g t h e n t h e j o u r n e y fo r s e rv ic e v e h ic le s , a n d m a k e u n i t s
diffic u lt fo r t h e s t r a n g e r to lo c a te . T h e c o u r t s t e n d to lo o k
b e s t o n f a ir ly flat g r o u n d o r w h e n s l o p i n g u p h i l l f r o m t h e
o b s e r v e r . M a r k e d c r o s s s lo p e s d e s t r o y t h e v i s u a l u n i t y o f
t h e sp a c e , a n d a c o u r t o r c u l - d e - s a c ly i n g d o w n h i l l f r o m t h e
a p p r o a c h g iv e s t h e t e r m i n a l b u i l d i n g s a p e c u l i a r s e n s e o f
in f e r i o r i t y a n d i n s t a b i l i t y , in a d d i t i o n to r a i s i n g p r a c t i c a l
p r o b l e m s o f s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e a n d t h e flo w o f u tilitie s .
A f o u r t h g e n e r a l m o d u l e is t h e c lu s te r , in w h i c h u n i t s C lusters
a re c o n c e n t r a t e d a n d s u r r o u n d e d b y o p e n sp a c e . T h e s t r e e t
m a y p a s s a l o n g s i d e o r p e n e t r a t e t h i s c lu s te r . T h e m o d u l e
p r o d u c e s a s t r o n g v i s u a l e ffect o f m a s s , t h e o p p o s i t e o f t h e
s p a t i a l fo c u s o f t h e c o u r t ty p e . A c c e s s m a y b e c o m p l i c a t e d ,
b u t a s e n s e o f g r o u p u n i t y c a n b e a c h ie v e d w i t h o u t f o r c in g
so c ia l in t e r c o u r s e . T h e r e a r e s ig n i f i c a n t s a v i n g s o n r o a d s
a n d u tilitie s , a n d o v e r a ll d e n s i t y c a n b e m a i n t a i n e d e v e n
w h i l e p r e s e r v i n g s u b s t a n t i a l o p e n sp a c e . A n u m b e r o f re -
c e n t s u c c e s s f u l d e v e l o p m e n t s h a v e u s e d t h i s p r i n c i p l e to
c o n s e r v e a h a n d s o m e p ie c e o f l a n d s c a p e . T h e m o s t d iffic u lt
p r o b l e m is lik e ly to b e t h e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n i n d i v i d u a l
b u i l d i n g s , in t e r m s o f p r i v a c y a n d t h e u s e o f a d j a c e n t la n d .
T h e s e m o d u l a r l a y o u t s a p p l y to all ty p e s o f r e s i d e n t i a l
units, w h e th e r th e y are sin g le-fam ily h ouses, m o b ile hom es,
r o w s , o r s l a b o r t o w e r a p a r t m e n t s . D if f e r e n c e s in sc a le b e -
t w e e n th e s e t y p e s w ill o f c o u r s e m a r k e d l y c h a n g e t h e effect.
I n n o v a t i v e m o d u l e s a re a l w a y s p o s s ib le .
T h e r e is a n e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e o n d e s i r a b l e s t a n d a r d s
for n o n r e s i d e n t i a l f a c ilitie s in r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s . T h e u s u a l
w a r n i n g m u s t b e m a d e t h a t th e s e s t a n d a r d s re f e r to t h e
u r b a n U n i t e d S t a t e s , to t h e p r e s e n t d a y , a n d to t h e c o m -
p le t e l y a v e r a g e s i t u a t i o n . I n t h o s e ca se s t h e y h a v e s o m e
v a lu e as q u i c k first c h e c k s .
F o r e x a m p le , a b o u t t w o - t h i r d s o f a n a c re p e r 1 0 0 0 in - S t a n d a r d s for
h a b i t a n t s is c ite d a s b e irtg r e q u i r e d for n e i g h b o r h o o d c o n - P ro v id in g
v e n ie n c e s h o p p i n g . T h i s is e x c lu s iv e o f c o m m u n i t y a n d c e n - S h o p p in g
tr a l s t o p p i n g b u t i n c l u d e s s u c h fa c ilitie s as s u p e r m a r k e t s ,
d r u g s t o r e s , l a u n d r i e s , b e a u t y p a r l o r s , b a r b e r s h o p s , s h o e re-
p a i r s h o p s , a n d fillin g s t a t i o n s . T h i s a c r e a g e p r o v i d e s for t h e
s to r e s , t h e i r a c cess, a n d c u s t o m e r p a r k i n g a t a r a t i o o f 2
s q u a r e feet o f p a r k i n g for e a c h s q u a r e fo o t o f s e llin g sp a c e . It
t a k e s a m a r k e t a r e a o f a t le a s t 5 0 0 0 p e o p le to s u p p o r t a c e n -
te r o f a n y s t r e n g t h , a n d a m a r k e t o f 1 0 ,0 0 0 is p r e f e r r e d .
T h e r e is m u c h to b e said for s c a t t e r e d c o n v e n i e n c e s to r e s
312 w i t h i n t h e h o u s i n g a r e a itself. A n d w h a t o f t h e offices, re s-
t a u r a n t s , c lin ic s, l i b r a r ie s , m e e t i n g r o o m s , m o te ls , a n d o t h e r
c o m m o n f a c ilitie s t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y n e e d s ? W h a t if s to r e -
k e e p e r s t a k e o n o t h e r f u n c t i o n s t h a n s e llin g o r s to r e s a r e
c o o p e r a t i v e l y o w n e d o r g o o d s a r e n o t d i s t r i b u t e d b y r e ta ile r s
s e llin g for p ro fit?
R ecreation O n e a n d a q u a r t e r a c re s p e r 1 0 0 0 p e o p l e is a q u o t e d
standards s t a n d a r d for p l a y g r o u n d s s e r v i n g t h e a g e g r o u p f r o m six to
tw e lv e . T h e s e s h o u l d be w i t h i n h a l f a m ile o f t h e i r u s e r s , o r
p r e f e r a b l y a q u a r t e r o f a m ile , w i t h a m i n i m u m size o f 3
ac re s. T h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o ls a re c o m m o n l y c o m b i n e d w i t h
th e p la y g ro u n d s, a n d these schools d e m a n d a p p ro x im a te ly
h a l f a n a c r e p e r 1 0 0 0 p u p i l s for t h e b u i l d i n g site, t h e set-
t i n g , a c c e ss, a n d e x p a n s i o n r o o m . T h e m i n i m u m siz e fo r a
c o m b i n e d e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l a n d p l a y g r o u n d is 5 a c re s. If
t h e s c h o o l is s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e p l a y g r o u n d , t h e n a d d i t i o n a l
p l a y s p a c e m u s t b e a d d e d to t h e s c h o o l site itself. W h e r e
t h e r e a r e n o p r i v a t e y a r d s , a d d i t i o n a l p l a y lo ts m u s t b e in-
e lu d e d in t h e p l a n , c lo se to t h e d w e l l i n g s , a t a sc a le o f a b o u t
50 s q u a r e feet p e r c h ild b e t w e e n t w o a n d six y e a r s o f age.
T h e s e s t a n d a r d s d o n o t p r o v i d e for p a r k s , w h o s e s t a n -
d a r d s a r e m o r e v a r i a b l e , o r for s c h o o ls o f o t h e r ty p e s . T h e y
r e p r e s e n t o n l y t h e b a r e m i n i m u m , local, f o r m a l r e q u ir e -
m e n t s fo r t h e e d u c a t i o n a n d o r g a n i z e d o u t d o o r r e c r e a t i o n
o f c h i l d r e n u p to t w e l v e y e a r s o f age. T h e y a r e n o t b a s e d
on stu d ies of w h e re a n d h o w ch ild re n a ctu ally p la y a n d
l e a r n b u t a re o n l y a s u m m a r y o f t h e k i n d s o f p r o v i s i o n s w e
a re o ffic ia lly a c c u s t o m e d to m a k e for t h o s e p u r p o s e s . T h e y
a re n o t r e l e v a n t to o t h e r a g e g r o u p s . Is t h i s w h y o u r p l a y -
g r o u n d s all lo o k a lik e ?
S c h o o l s a n d p l a y g r o u n d s , w h i c h lo o k so g o o d o n a p l a n ,
m a y be n u i s a n c e s fo r t h e i m m e d i a t e l y a d j a c e n t d w e l l i n g s
b e c a u s e o f t h e n o i s e a n d a c t i v i t y t h e y g e n e r a t e . F o r t h is r e a -
s o n , a n d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r l a r g e size, t h e y d o n o t fit e a s ily in t o
h o u s i n g a r e a s . It is a d v i s a b l e to lo c a te ta ll a p a r t m e n t s n e a r
t h e m , to t u r n lo w d w e l l i n g s a t r i g h t a n g le s to t h e i r b o u n d a -
ries, to s c r e e n t h e m , o r to p la c e t h e m n e x t to n o n r e s i d e n t i a l
u se s. A p l e a s a n t b u t e x p e n s i v e s o l u t i o n is to b o u n d p l a y
a r e a s w i t h r o a d s o n w h i c h h o u s i n g faces f r o m a c r o s s th e
s tr e e t. L o c a tio n n e x t to s h o p p i n g a n d o t h e r c o m m u n i t y facili-
ties is o f m u t u a l b e n e f it if t h e l a r g e p l a y a r e a s d o n o t d ilu te
th e n e c e s s a r y c o n c e n t r a t i o n a n d a c c e s s ib ility o f t h e c e n te r .
R e c r e a t i o n is a b r o a d f u n c t i o n , b e i n g b o t h o r g a n i z e d
a n d u n o rg a n iz e d , in d o o r a n d o u td o o r, d aily a n d in te rm itte n t,
local a n d d i s t a n t . S i d e w a l k s , for e x a m p le , a r e a m o r e i m p o r -
t a n t r e c r e a t i o n f a c ility t h a n p l a y g r o u n d s a n d s h o u l d b e d e - 313
s ig n e d w i t h t h a t u se in m i n d . P a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t for th e
c h ild is t h e c h a n c e for a d v e n t u r e a n d for p l a y o f h is o w n in -
v e n t i o n in w o o d s , s w a m p s , b a c k a lle y s , j u n k y a r d s , a n d v a -
c a n t lots. F or t h e a d u l t , t h e i m p o r t a n t r e c r e a t i o n fa c ilitie s
m a y b e sp e c ia l s p o r t s fields, c o m m e r c i a l e n t e r t a i n m e n t , ac-
cess to n a t u r a l s c e n e r y , c ity p r o m e n a d e s , o r t h e p r i v a t e g a r -
d e n . M a n y sp e c ia l r e c r e a t i o n a l fa c ilitie s m a y be n e e d e d :
s w i m m i n g p o o ls , b o a t l a n d i n g s , p a r k s , a l l o t m e n t g a r d e n s ,
g o lf c o u r s e s , s k a t i n g r i n k s , w a l k i n g a n d r i d i n g tr a ils , a n d
p ic n ic g r o u n d s . It is b e c o m i n g m o r e a n d m o r e c o m m o n for
s m a ll h o u s i n g d e v e l o p m e n t s to p r o v i d e s o m e o f th e s e facili-
ties p r i v a t e l y a n d lo c a lly o n a c o o p e r a t i v e b a s is . P r o p e r l y o r -
g a n iz e d , t h e y a r e v e r y s u c c e s s fu l. A s w e g r o w m o r e d u b i o u s
a b o u t r e c r e a t i o n a l s p a c e s t a n d a r d s , w e t u r n to t h e a c tu a l di-
v e r s i t y o f r e c r e a t i o n a l p la c e a n d a c t i v i t y a n d t h i n k o f p r o -
v i d i n g for th is c o m p le x d i v e r s i t y a c c o r d i n g to th e p a r t i c u l a r
p e o p le w e h o u s e .
M a n y o t h e r ty p e s o f c o m m u n i t y fa c ilitie s a r e n e e d e d in O ther
r e l a t i o n to r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s : c lin ic s, fire a n d p o lic e s t a t i o n s , com m u n ity
a n d c h u r c h e s . M o s t o f th e s e f a c ilitie s d o n o t m a k e la r g e d e - facilities
m a n d s o n g r o s s l a n d a r e a a t t h e s c a le w e a r e c o n s i d e r i n g ,
e x c e p t p e r h a p s for c h u r c h e s a n d c o m m u n i t y c e n t e r s , w h i c h
g e n e r a t e s u b s t a n t i a l tra ffic a n d p a r k i n g a n d s h o u l d b e
site d a t a c c e s s ib le p o i n t s w h e r e t h e y w ill n o t d i s t u r b re si-
d e n t i a l use s. W i t h t h e i r h e a v y o f f - p e a k p a r k i n g r e q u i r e -
m e n t s , t h e y a re o f te n s u c c e s s f u lly r e l a t e d to c o m m e r c i a l
p a r k i n g lots. Fire s t a t i o n s , o n th e o t h e r h a n d , m u s t b e n e a r
se v e r a l m a j o r r o a d s , clo se to t h e c e n t e r o f th e a r e a s e r v e d , y e t
n o t a t a n y p o i n t t h a t is lik e ly to b e j a m m e d w i t h traffic,
s u c h as o n a m a j o r i n t e r s e c t i o n o r n e a r a l a r g e p a r k i n g lot.
F ac ilitie s a n d t h e i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t w ill u se a n d m a i n -
ta i n t h e m s h o u l d b e p l a n n e d to g e t h e r . N e i g h b o r h o o d a s s o -
c i a tio n s t h a t m a n a g e a local p a r k a n d s w i m m i n g p o o l a r e al-
r e a d y c o m m o n p l a c e . In m a n y t r a ile r p a r k s a n d a p a r t m e n t
d e v e l o p m e n t s , th e local • m a n a g e m e n t p r o v i d e s a n d m a i n -
t a i n s p o o ls , p l a y g r o u n d s , l a u n d r i e s , m e e t i n g r o o m s , a n d re s-
t a u r a n t s . B u t i n s t i t u t i o n s n e e d n o t b e c o n f in e d to t h e s u p p o r t
o f c o n v e n t i o n a l a c tiv itie s. P r o v i d i n g s h o p p i n g o r r e c r e a t i o n is
a n o p p o r t u n i t y for c r e a t i n g n e w w a y s o f d i s t r i b u t i n g g o o d s o r
o f i n t e g r a t i n g w o r k a n d p la y . If t e e n - a g e y o u t h s f o r m t h e i r
o w n a s s o c i a t i o n s for r e c r e a t i o n a n d l e a r n i n g a n d h a v e th e
t e r r i t o r y a n d r e s o u r c e s to s u p p o r t it, w e s h a ll see n e w k in d s
o f facilities. A s c h o o l c a n u se local r e s i d e n t s as t e a c h e r s a n d
c a n be c o m p l e t e l y d i s p e r s e d in t h e r e s id e n tia l liv in g sp a c e .
 314 C o n v e n tio n a l form s a n d co n v e n tio n a l in s titu tio n s are m u tu a l
b r a k e s u p o n e a c h o t h e r . P l a n n i n g a n e w e n v i r o n m e n t is a n
o p p o r t u n i t y to p l a n t h e t w o t o g e t h e r in a w a y t h a t s u p p o r t s
i n n o v a t i o n in e a c h .
Use segregation C u sto m a rily , w e sep a ra te resid en tial an d n o n re sid e n -
tial a c tiv itie s b y e x c lu s iv e z o n i n g , b y p l a n n i n g s p e c ia liz e d
b u i l d i n g s , a n d b y t h e s p a c i n g r u le s c o n t a i n e d in s u b d i v i -
s io n r e g u l a t i o n s . E v e n d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s m a y b e e x c lu d e d .
T his k in d of reg u la tio n e n h a n c e s th e concep tu al ord er of a
p la c e , i n c r e a s e s t h e s e c u r i t y o f p r o p e r t y o w n e r s , a n d p r e -
v e n t s c e r t a i n c o n f lic ts o f n o i s e o r c o n g e s t i o n . In f le x ib ility ,
p o o r a c c e ss, is o l a t i o n , a n d a p e r i o d i c e m p t i n e s s in t h e e n v i-
r o n m e n t a r e t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r ic e s to b e p a id . H u m a n ac-
tiv itie s n o r m a l l y o v e r l a p a n d s u c c e e d o n e a n o t h e r in sp a c e ,
w i t h s o m e f r ic tio n , y e t in d o i n g so t h e y m a k e e ffic ie n t u s e o f
t h a t s p a c e to t h e i r m u t u a l e n r i c h m e n t . W e c o u ld p l a n m o r e
liv e ly a n d fle x ib le p la c e s , o f f e r i n g a g r e a t e r r a n g e o f se r-
vic e s c lo se a t h a n d , if n o n r e s i d e n t i a l u s e s w e r e a l l o w e d to
o c c u r in h o u s i n g a r e a s , s u b j e c t o n l y to d e n s i t y r u le s a n d to
p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d a r d s for s u c h t h i n g s a s n o is e , tra ffic flow ,
o r a ir p o l l u t i o n . W h e r e t h e t i m i n g o f a c t i v i t y c a n b e c o n -
tr o lle d , w e c a n a t t a i n m u c h g r e a t e r s p a c e e fficiencies. T h e
p r o b l e m is to c r e a t e t h e p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d a r d s t h a t a r e ef-
f e c tiv e a n d a r e a lso e a s y a n d p r a c t i c a l to a d m i n i s t e r . It is
w h e n c o n t i n u o u s m o n i t o r i n g is r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e r e is t h e
g r e a t e s t d iffic u lty . T h u s it is p o s s i b l e to a l l o w i n s t i t u t i o n a l ,
c o m m e r c i a l , a n d i n d u s t r i a l u s e s in h o u s i n g a r e a s if t h e y a re
r e s t r i c t e d in t h e i r size a n d d e n s i t y o f s t r u c t u r e a n d in n u m -
b e r s o f p a t r o n s a n d e m p l o y e e s a n d a ls o s u b je c t to s t r i c t lim -
its o n p a r k i n g , t r u c k a c c e ss, a n d s o u r c e s o f n o is e , lig h t, a n d
fu m e s . A l a r g e c h u r c h o r s c h o o l c a n b e a fa r g r e a t e r n u i -
s a n c e t h a n a s m a l l f a c to r y .
T h e h o u s i n g t y p e , its o c c u p a n c y , its a r r a n g e m e n t o n
t h e g r o u n d , a n d t h e f a c ilitie s p r o v i d e d w i t h it all r e s u l t in a
c e r t a i n d e n s i t y o f p o p u l a t i o n . D e n s i t y is a s s o c i a t e d w i t h sig-
V ariations in n i f i c a n t effects, a n d it is a u s e f u l c o n c e p t in p r o j e c t p l a n -
the definition o f ning. U n fo rtu n a te ly , th e d efinitions of th e v ario u s u n its of
density m e a s u r e m e n t a r e a m b i g u o u s a n d s u b je c t to m a n i p u l a t i o n .
A s a g e n e r a l g u i d e to t h e s ite p l a n n e r , t h e d e n s i t i e s s h o w n
in T a b l e 6 a re c o n s i d e r e d r e a s o n a b l e for t h e n o r m a l b u i l d i n g
t y p e s liste d .
References 46, N e t d e n s i t y r e fe rs o n l y to t h e l a n d t h a t is in th e h o u s e
52, 54 site , e x c lu s iv e o f t h e s tr e e t. " N e i g h b o r h o o d " d e n s i t y is th e
a v e r a g e for a n e x te n s iv e a r e a , w h i c h c o n t a i n s all s t r e e t s a n d
lo cal f a c ilitie s as w e ll as h o u s i n g . T h e s e a re n o t m a g ic
fig u re s b u t r e p r e s e n t r e a s o n a b l e d e n s i t i e s in n o r m a l p r a c -
tice, a c c o r d i n g to a c c e p t e d s t a n d a r d s for c i r c u l a t i o n , o p e n
sp a c e , a n d c o m m u n i t y facilities. T h e c o m p o s i t e n e t d e n s i t y 315
o f a m i x e d d e v e l o p m e n t is e a s ily c o m p u t e d b y a d d i n g t h e
s e p a r a t e " p u r e " d e n s i t i e s a f te r t h e y h a v e b e e n w e i g h t e d
b y th e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e n e t a r e a a l l o t t e d to e a c h s u c h d e n -
sity.

T able 6. D ensities by R esidential T ype R eason able

Families per residential
Floor area Families per neighbor- densities
T ype o f u nit ratio net res. acre hood acre

Single-family U p to 0.2 U p to 8 5
T w o-fam ily 0.3 10-12 7
Row 0.5 16—20 12
C o m b in ed flats
and row 0.75 2 5 -3 0 16
T h re e -sto ry
w alk-up 1.0 40-45 20
Six-story
elevator 1.4 6 5 -7 5 28
T h irte e n -sto ry
elevator 1.8 8 5 -9 5 31

S k ille d d e s i g n e r s c a n m o v e d e n s i t i e s u p w a r d a little ;
a b a n d o n m e n t o f s t a n d a r d s , e s p e c ia lly fo r p a r k i n g o r p l a y
sp a c e , c a n m o v e t h e m u p w a r d m a r k e d l y . A n y t y p e c a n be
b u ilt a t lo w e r d e n s i t i e s t h a n t h o s e g iv e n , a l t h o u g h t h e j u s ti-
f ic a tio n fo r t h e t y p e m a y b e q u e s t i o n e d w h e n fig u re s d r o p
m u c h lo w e r , a n d it m a y b e d iffic u lt to m a i n t a i n c o m m u n i t y
fa c ilitie s a n d s e rv ic e s a t v e r y l o w d e n s itie s . S i n g l e - f a m i l y
h o u s e s a r e c o m m o n l y b u i l t a t s ig n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r d e n s i t i e s ,
g o i n g d o w n to 1 o r 2 fa m ilie s p e r n e t a c r e in s o m e d e v e lo p -
m e n t s o r l o w e r in t h e o u t e r s u b u r b s . A l t h o u g h t h e flo o r a r e a
r a t i o a n d t h e f a m ilie s p e r a c r e a r e t h e c o m m o n u n i t s o f
m e a s u r e in t h i s c o u n t r y , d i f f e r e n t u n i t s a r e u s e d in o t h e r
c o u n tr ie s , s u c h as p o p u l a t i o n o r h a b i t a b l e r o o m s p e r a c r e o r
h e c ta r e . T h e s e m e a s u r e s m a y b e m o r e s e n s i t i v e o n e s in
ca se s o f w id e v a r i a t i o n in* f a m ily size.
W i t h o u r p r e s e n t t e c h n o l o g y it s e e m s t h a t in u r b a n i z e d D ensity limits
a r e a s t h e r e is a b r o a d r a n g e o f d e n s i t y o u t s i d e w h i c h w e
s h o u l d n o t go. T h e lim its m i g h t p e r h a p s b e s e t a t 1 to 1 2 0
fa m ilie s p e r n e t acre. A n y t h i n g o f lo w e r d e n s i t y p r o d u c e s
e x p e n s iv e , s c a t t e r e d d e v e l o p m e n t . It m a y b e p l e a s a n t in it-
self, b u t it le a d s to e x c e ssiv e c ity s p r a w l a n d a c o s t l y t r a n s -
p o r t s y s te m . F u r t h e r m o r e , c o m m u n i t y f a c ilitie s b e c o m e less
acce ssib le .
A r e a s o f a d e n s i t y h i g h e r t h a n 1 2 0 f a m ilie s p e r a c r e
c a n be b u i l t b u t o n l y w i t h a loss o f o p e n s p a c e t h a t r e s u lts in
s u b s t a n d a r d liv in g c o n d i t i o n s . T h e s e l im its m a y c h a n g e ,
316 h o w e v e r , as t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d u t i l i t y t e c h n i q u e s d e v e lo p ,
as liv in g h a b i t s s h if t, o r as w e b e c o m e a b le to b u ild n e e d e d
o p e n s p a c e s i n t o b u i l d i n g s a t u p p e r levels. T w e n t y - s t o r y
a p a r t m e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e n o w b e i n g b u ilt, for e x a m p le ,
a t flo o r a r e a r a t i o s o f 2.3 a n d n e t d e n s i t i e s o f 1 5 0 fa m ilie s p e r
acre. T h e s e p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e lig h t a n d a ir b u t s u p p l y p a r k -
in g for o n l y h a l f t h e u n i t s a n d i n a d e q u a t e o u t d o o r p a r k a n d
p l a y sp a c e . In t h e A m e r i c a n s i t u a t i o n t h e y m a y b e to l e r a b l e
o n l y fo r s p e c ia l f a m ilie s in sp e c ia l c e n t r a l lo c a tio n s . A s a n
e x a m p l e o f w h a t is t e c h n i c a l l y p o s s ib le , h o w e v e r , r e f u g e e
h o u s i n g h a s b e e n b u i l t in H o n g K o n g a t n e a r l y 5 0 0 fa m ilie s
p e r a c re , a n d s o m e s l u m a r e a s e x c e e d t h is b y a g o o d m a r g i n .
E v e n as it s t a n d s , 1 to 1 2 0 fa m ilie s p e r n e t a c re is a n
e x t r e m e l y b r o a d r a n g e , a l t h o u g h it is s i g n i f i c a n t l y n a r r o w e r
w h e n t r a n s l a t e d in t o n e i g h b o r h o o d d e n s itie s . It c a n p e r h a p s
b e sa id t h a t f a m ilie s w i t h c h i l d r e n b e t w e e n t w o a n d te n
y e a r s o ld s h o u l d b e h o u s e d a t d e n s i t i e s b e l o w 20 fa m ilie s p e r
a c r e so t h a t e a c h f a m ily m a y h a v e d ir e c t a c c e ss to th e
g r o u n d . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , s o m e r e c e n t l y m a r r i e d o r c h ild -
less c o u p le s , t h e a g e d , t h e u n m a r r i e d , o r t h o s e w h o h a v e n o
s y m p a t h y for t h e jo y s a n d s o r r o w s o f h o u s e r e p a i r m a y p r e f e r
a p a r t m e n t liv in g a t h i g h e r d e n s itie s . N e w b u i l d i n g ty p e s o r
w a y s o f liv in g m a y s h if t t h e s e p r e f e r r e d r a n g e s .
D ensity E a c h b u i l d i n g ty p e h a s its o w n a p p r o p r i a t e d e n s i t y ,
thresholds a n d t h e c h o ic e o f d é n s i t y (if it is n o t fixed b y c i t y - w i d e c o n -
s i d e r a t i o n s ) s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e d e p e n d u p o n t h e b u i l d i n g ty p e
o r t y p e s t h a t a r e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e to th e s i t u a t i o n . S o m e v e r y
g e n e r a l t h r e s h o l d s , w h e r e t h e c h a r a c t e r o f d e v e l o p m e n t is
lik e ly to s h if t, m a y b e i d e n tif ie d w i t h i n th e o v e r a ll r a n g e .
A t a d e n s i t y o f a b o u t 12 f a m ilie s to t h e a c re p r o b l e m s o f n o is e
c o n t r o l a n d p r i v a c y d e v e lo p . B e lo w t h i s d e n s i t y it is m o r e
d iffic u lt to p r o v i d e c o m m o n m a i n t e n a n c e o f g r o u n d s o r g r o u p
f a c ilitie s s u c h as c l u b r o o m s , n u r s e r i e s , o r l a u n d r i e s w i t h i n
v e r y c lo se r a n g e o f t h e u n i t s . A b o u t 2 0 fa m ilie s to t h e a c r e
s e e m s to b e n e a r th e p o i n t o f m a x i m u m e c o n o m y to d a y , a n d
a b o v e th is d e n s i t y it b e c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y d iffic u lt to p r o -
v id e o u t d o o r s p a c e , d ir e c t a c c e ss f r o m all u n i t s to t h e g r o u n d ,
e a s y s u r f a c e p a r k i n g , a n d e x t e r n a l id e n t i f i c a t i o n o f u n i t s .
A t a d e n s i t y o f a b o u t 4 5 fa m ilie s to t h e a c r e o n e is lik e ly to
lose m o s t o f th e s e n s e o f v is u a l i n t i m a c y o r " h u m a n s c a le ."
A t 8 0 fa m ilie s to t h e a c re , s h o r t a g e o f s p a c e for p a r k -
in g , for l a n d s c a p i n g , a n d for r e c r e a t i o n b e g i n s to d e v e lo p . A t
th e s a m e tim e , c e r t a i n " u r b a n " c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a v e a p -
p e a r e d w h i c h m a y be h i g h l y d e s ir a b le , s u c h as a w id e v a -
r ie ty o f a c c e s s ib le a c tiv itie s a n d facilities. A b o v e 1 0 0 fa m i-
lies to th e a cre, th e p r e s s u r e for s p a c e b e c o m e s s e v e re 317
e n o u g h to a ffe c t t h e size o f t h e d w e l l i n g u n i t s t h e m s e l v e s
a n d to m a k e c i r c u l a t i o n c o n g e s t e d . T h e u p p e r r a n g e s a b o v e
80 a r e s u i t a b l e o n l y for s p e c ia l f a m ily t y p e s liv in g in c e n t r a l
u r b a n l o c a tio n s , w h o w ill a c c e p t l i m i t a t i o n s o n t h e i r facili-
ties for r e c r e a t i o n a n d m o v e m e n t in r e t u r n for t h a t lo c a tio n .
In s u m , t h e r e is n o o n e ide a l, b u t t h e d e n s i t y v a r i a t i o n s h a v e
im p o rta n t im plications.
S in g le - a n d t w o - f a m i l y h o u s e s at m o d e r a t e to h i g h d e n - V isu a l Q u a litie s
sitie s a r e d iffic u lt to a r r a n g e w i t h o u t a n a p p e a r a n c e o f r e s t- o f S m a ll H o u s e s
less r e p e t i t i o n . T h i s a r is e s f r o m t h e i r s m a ll s c a le in p r o p o r -
tio n b o t h to th e size o f a c o n t i n u o u s h o u s i n g a r e a a n d to th e
scale o f t h e c a r a n d its a s s o c i a t e d r i g h t - o f - w a y . T h i s is e s p e -
JnS£_
d a lly true of th e m o d e rn o n e -sto ry or o n e -a n d -a -h a lf-s to ry
s m a ll h o u s e a n d is i n te n s if ie d w h e r e e a c h b u i l d i n g is iso -
la te d a n d y e t c lo se to t h e n e x t o n e . W h e r e h o u s e s c a n b e
c l u s te r e d , o r r e l a t e d a c r o s s a f o o t w a y o r p e d e s t r i a n s p a c e , th e
p ro p o rtio n s can be m u c h m o re p le a sa n t, a n d th e g r o u n d sur-
face c a n b e d e s i g n e d to u n i f y t h e w h o l e . In t h e o r d i n a r y c a se
a n y r e d u c t i o n in s t r e e t w i d t h a n d t h e d e p t h o f f r o n t y a r d
h e lp s in a s i m i l a r w a y .
A n u m b e r o f d e v ic e s c a n b e u s e d to g iv e u n i t y to s m a ll
s t r u c t u r e s . I n d i v i d u a l h o u s e s m a y b e l in k e d w i t h s c r e e n
w a lls, p l a n t i n g , g a r a g e s , o r p o r c h e s . G a r a g e s m a y b e p a i r e d
o r g r o u p e d in c o m p o u n d s to i m p r o v e t h e i r p r o p o r t i o n s . H o u s e
s p a c i n g a n d s e t b a c k m a y b e v a r i e d to c r e a t e v is u a l g r o u p s
o r to m o d u l a t e t h e s t r e e t sp a c e . T a ll f o r e s t tr e e s m a y t a k e
o v e r t h e ro le o f s p a c e e n c l o s u r e , c o n t r a s t i n g w i t h t h e lo w ro o f s
o f th e h o u s e s a n d p r o v i d i n g a la r g e r - s c a l e s t r u c t u r e . T h e in -
d i v id u a l h o u s e s m a y u s e s i m i l a r r o o f s lo p e s , w a ll m a t e r i a l s ,
o r p r o p o r t i o n s o f w i n d o w o p e n i n g s . L o w - d e n s i t y h o u s e s suf-
fer f r o m p a r t i c u l a r d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s at t h e c r o s s i n g o f r o a d s .
In fact, s p a tia l g a p s a p p e a r j u s t w h e r e s t r o n g e n c l o s u r e is
m o s t d e s ir e d . T h i s a n n o y a n c e c a n b e a v o id e d b y t h e u s e o f
s c r e e n w a lls , sp e c ia l h o u s e g r o u p s , o r c o r n e r u n i t s .
T r a c t s o f s t a n d a r d i z é d u n i t s , s u c h as m o b i l e h o m e s , re- Stan dardized
ve a l t h e p r o b l e m in its m o s t a c u t e fo r m . T h e u n i t s a r e s m a ll units and
a n d n u m e r o u s , t h e y sit l i g h t l y o n t h e g r o u n d , a n d t h e y a r e m obile hom es
m a d e o f s h i n y , h a r d n e w m a t e r i a l s . T h e u n i t size p u t s a
p r e m i u m o n p r i v a c y a n d u s a b l e o u t d o o r sp a c e , y e t t h e lo n g ,
n a r r o w b o x e s lo o k d i r e c t l y i n t o o n e a n o t h e r , e v e n w h e n set o n
th e c u s t o m a r y d i a g o n a l . T h e r e is o n l y a p a t c h o f c o n c r e t e b e -
fore th e d o o r . T h e s i tin g a n d e v e n th e u n i t its e lf m u s t b e re-
d e s ig n e d so e a c h e l e m e n t c a n live w i t h its n e i g h b o r s . T h e
m o b ile h o m e is in u n e a s y t r a n s i t i o n f r o m tr a i l e r to p e r m a -
318 n e n t p r e f a b r ic a t e d h o u s e , w h i c h is n e v e r m o v e d or m o v e d
o n l y o c c a s i o n a l l y , w h e n it is s o l d or w h e n t h e o w n e r c h a n g e s
h is p e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n c e . , , F o u n d a t i o n p l a n t i n g " or s h e e t s o f
fake m a s o n r y m a k e a p rete n se o f a so lid ly rooted h o u se. W h y
n o t se t t h e m d o w n o f f t h e ir w h e e l s or, b e tte r , e x p r e s s th e
n e w c o n n e c t i o n in s o m e d ir e c t a n d e l e g a n t w a y ? M o b i l e
h o m e p a r k s are la id o u t at 4 to 9 f a m i l i e s p er n e t a cr e, q u it e
lik e n o r m a l s i n g l e - f a m i l y s u b d i v i s i o n s o f h i g h to m o d e r a t e
d e n s i t y . C o u l d t h e y n o t b e m a d e e q u a l l y a t t r a c t i v e or e v e n
b e e r e c t e d in c o n v e n t i o n a l h o u s i n g a rea s? C o u l d t h e y b e d e -
s i g n e d to b e a t t a c h a b l e in r o w s a n d c l u s t e r s in o rd er to p o o l
u sa b le o p e n space?
D i m i n u i t i v e s c a le is n o t b y i t s e l f u n p l e a s a n t : t h e t i n y
w o o d e n h o u s e s in O a k B l u f fs , o n t h e is l a n d o f M a r t h a ' s V i n e -
y a r d , M a s s a c h u s e t t s , are p a c k e d t o g e t h e r a l o n g t h e p e d e s -
tr ia n w a y s o f a f o r m e r t e n t i n g g r o u n d , a n d t h e e f f e c t is
c h a r m i n g . M o b i l e h o m e s m i g h t b e g r o u p e d in c l u s t e r s or at-
t a c h e d in r o w s or li n e s , w i t h l a n d s c a p i n g u s e d for p r iv a t e
e n c l o s u r e s , a n d e v e n t h e car m i g h t b e s it e d to c r e a t e s p a c e
i n s t e a d o f d e s t r o y i n g it. In a m a t u r e g r o v e o f t re es, e a c h
s m a l l rise a n d fa ll o f g r o u n d c o u l d d e t e r m i n e w h e r e a u n it
s h o u l d sit, w h i l e n a r r o w car t r a c k s c o u ld w i n d a m o n g t h e
tre e s t e m s . In o p e n a r e a s t h e h o m e s m i g h t b e p u t w i t h i n a

Figure 48 A m obile-hom e development in Florida. Mature planting and

an irregular layout contribute to an interesting setting. The houses them-
selves have almost disappeared behind the skirtings and porches that have
been added.
l a b r y i n t h o f s h r u b b e r y , w a lls, o r b e r m s o f e a r t h . A s t h e c o m - 319
p a c t s t a n d a r d u n i t b e c o m e s a m o r e f r e q u e n t e l e m e n t in t h e
l a n d s c a p e , t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y for o r g a n i z i n g t h a t l a n d s c a p e
falls m o r e h e a v i l y o n t h e s ite p l a n n e r . S i t i n g d e f e n s e le s s
s m a ll h o u s e s r e q u i r e s c o n s i d e r a b l e skill.
R o w h o u s e s a n d w a l k - u p a p a r t m e n t s m a y e n c lo s e Visual
s p a c e in a m u c h m o r e c o n t i n u o u s a n d flex ib le m a n n e r t h a n com position of
s in g le h o u s e s , a l t h o u g h t h e y still su f f e r f r o m l o w h e i g h t rel- row houses and
a tiv e to s t r e e t w i d t h . T h e y m a y b e se t b a c k to f o r m a n e m - apartm en ts
p h a tic space at a n in te rse c tio n o r a curve, or th e y m a y be
u s e d in s t e p f a s h i o n in p l a n a n d (o n a s lo p e ) in v e r tic a l sec-
t io n . T h e y m a y m a k e s w e e p i n g c u r v e s , as d o t h e c r e s c e n ts
at B a th . T h e y m a y f o r m c o n t i n u o u s e n c l o s u r e s , as i n H a m p -
s t e a d G a r d e n s , o r b e g r o u p e d in lo o s e r r e c t a n g u l a r l a y o u t s .
T h e d e v e lo p m e n t of c o n tin u o u sly m o d u la te d street spaces by
t h e u s e o f r o w h o u s i n g is p e r h a p s b e s t i l l u s t r a t e d in c o n t e m -
p o ra ry E nglish w ork.
G re a te r spatial v a rie ty a n d freed o m of sitin g can be
a c h ie v e d w i t h ta ll e l e v a t o r s t r u c t u r e s b e c a u s e o f t h e i r c o m -
m a n d i n g scale, t h e i r la c k o f " f r o n t " o r " b a c k , " a n d t h e i r
fle x ib ility o f e n t r a n c e l o c a tio n . S la b s m a y e n c lo s e la r g e
sp a c e s , t o w e r s m a y b e g r o u p e d in fluid lin e s o r c l u s t e r s , b u t
t h e y m a y a lso o v e r p o w e r t h e h u m a n b e i n g o r g e n e r a t e a
w a s t e l a n d o f ac c e ss a n d se r v ic e a t t h e i r b a se .
A d e v e lo p m e n t need n o t be m a d e up of on e p u re build-
in g t y p e o r d e n s i t y . O b j e c t i v e s m a y b e s t b e m e t b y s o m e
m i x t u r e t h a t w ill i n c r e a s e t h e c h o ic e o f d w e l l i n g for t h e
r e s i d e n t a n d a d d v is u a l i n t e r e s t . B u t s i m i l a r b u i l d i n g ty p e s
s h o u l d b e c l u s t e r e d in l a r g e e n o u g h a r e a s to a c h ie v e t h e i r
o w n ty p ic a l e n v i r o n m e n t . T h e t r a n s i t i o n s b e t w e e n t y p e s
m u s t b e s tu d ie d . F o r e x a m p le , ta ll a p a r t m e n t s m a y o v e r -
lo o k t h e r o o f s a n d g a r d e n s o f r o w h o u s e s o r c lo g t h e i r
s tr e e ts w i t h p a r k i n g .
O n e p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p t o f r e s i d e n t i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n is N e ig h b o rh o o d
th e d o ctrin e th a t hou ses sh o u ld be g ro u p e d in to " n e ig h b o r- U n its
h o o d s , " u n i t s o f f r o m 2 0 0 0 to 1 0 , 0 0 0 p e o p le , i n s u l a t e d f r o m
t h r o u g h traffic, b o u n d e d b y g r e e n b e l t s o r o t h e r b a r r i e r s , a n d
s e l f - c o n t a i n e d w i t h r e g a r d to all d a i l y f a c ilitie s e x c e p t th e
w orkplace. T h is con cep t u su a lly centers a b o u t th e elem en-
t a r y s c h o o l a n d i n c lu d e s s u c h d e v ic e s as s u p e r b l o c k s , n e i g h -
b o r h o o d c e n te r s , a n d t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f m o t o r a n d fo o t traffic.
T h e id e a is b a s e d o n a p r e s u m e d u n i t o f so c ia l o r g a n i z a t i o n
a n d h a s b e e n a p p lie d a n d e x p a n d e d in m a n y d i f f e r e n t sit-
u a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r ld .
A l t h o u g h t h e id e a o f n e i g h b o r h o o d u n i t s d e v e l o p e d in
 ont ion C o u n t y C o in n
Figure 49 Rozv houses, tower blocks, and four-story duplex walk-ups serving dif-
ferent clients are well related in the handsome Roehampton Lane project o f the Lon-
don County Council. The mature trees o f the original setting and the views over
London and Richmond Park are skillfully exploited. A marked increase in car owner-
ship since 1959 has put some pressure on this plan, however.
t h e u r b a n U n i t e d S t a t e s , it d o e s n o t o f t e n a p p l y t h e re . M o s t
c i t y d w e l l e r s a re n o t o r g a n i z e d s o c i a l l y in s u c h u n i t s , a n d
th e ir life d o e s n o t c e n t e r a b o u t t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l . N o r
w o u l d t h e y d e s i r e to b e c o n f i n e d to s u c h s e l f - c o n t a i n e d a re a s,
w i t h all th e ir i m p l i c a t i o n s o f l o c a l i s o l a t i o n a n d la c k o f c h o i c e .
T h e a t t e m p t to fit all s e r v i c e s i n t o t h e s a m e u n it s i z e is b a s i-
c a l l y in e f f i c i e n t , a t y p i c a l p r o d u c t o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l w e a k -
n e s s for s o l u t i o n s in w h i c h c o m p o n e n t s are n e a t l y s e p a r a t e d
a n d g r o u p e d . In u r b a n A m e r i c a , at le a s t, t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d
u n it s e e m s to b e a fic t io n .
N e v e r t h e l e s s , it h a s b e e n a c o n v e n i e n t fic t io n . It c o n -
t a in s s o m e v a l u a b l e id e a s a n d h a s a t t a c h e d i t s e l f to o t h e r
v a l u a b l e id e a s . T h e c o n c e p t w o r t h s a v i n g is t h a t lo c a l fa c ili-
ties s h o u l d b e d i s t r i b u t e d s o as to b e e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e to
d w e l l i n g s a n d t h a t w h e n s o m e f a c il iti e s are a s s o c i a t e d in
c o m m o n c e n t e r s , t h e y h a v e s p e c ia l c o n v e n i e n c e . It is n o t
n e c e s s a r y for a ll f u n c t i o n s to o c c u r at t h e s a m e c e n t e r , h o w -
e v e r, nor need th e ir service are a s co in cid e. A r e s id e n t
s h o u l d h a v e a c h o i c e as to h is s c h o o l or s t o r e or p l a y g r o u n d .
A r e a s n e e d n o t b e n e a t l y p a c k a g e d , s i n g l e c e n t e r e d , or
o f a m a g i c a l s iz e . It w ill s till b e i m p o r t a n t to k e e p t h r o u g h
traffic o u t o f r e s i d e n t i a l s t r e e t s a n d to s e e t h a t s m a ll c h il-
d r e n d o n o t h a v e to c r o s s s u c h b u s y s t r e e t s o n t h e i r w a y to 321
s c h o o l. T h e s u p e r b l o c k is a u s e f u l dev ic e , a n d so is t h e s e p a r -
a t i o n o f foot a n d m o t o r traffic, w h e r e t h e flow b e c o m e s i n t e n s e
e n o u g h to j u s tif y it. B u t m a j o r a r t e r i e s n e e d n o t s u r r o u n d a n
i n w a r d - l o o k i n g cell. L ocal s h o p p i n g , for e x a m p l e , m a y b e s t
be p la c e d a l o n g m a j o r s t r e e t s r a t h e r t h a n in s i d e t h e a r e a
t h o s e s t r e e t s d e lim it.
It m a y be d e s i r a b l e to g r o u p s o m e d w e l l i n g s to e n c o u r -
a g e t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t r u e n e i g h b o r h o o d s , t h a t is, a r e a s w i t h i n
w h i c h p e o p l e a r e o n f r i e n d l y t e r m s p a r t l y b e c a u s e t h e y live
c lose to o n e a n o t h e r . S u c h n e i g h b o r h o o d s a r e m u c h m o r e
lik e ly to be o f t h e sc a le o f 10 to 4 0 f a m ilie s r a t h e r t h a n t h e
1 5 0 0 fa m ilie s o f t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l u n it. P h y s i c a l a r r a n g e -
m e n t m a y a id n e i g h b o r h o o d f o r m a t i o n , e s p e c ia lly if t h e p o p -
u l a t i o n is s o c ia lly h o m o g e n e o u s , b u t f a c to r s s u c h as c la s s o r
p e r s o n a l i t y a r e lik e ly to b e e v e n m o r e i n f lu e n tia l. O u r u r b a n
a r e a s a r e far to o c o m p l e x to b e o r d e r e d b y s u c h a s i m p l y cel-
lu la r d e v ic e as t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n e i g h b o r h o o d u n it.
H a v i n g sa id th is , I m a y c a l m l y c o n t r a d i c t m y s e l f T rue
w h e n e v e r t h e so c ia l s i t u a t i o n is a lte r e d . If t r u e c o m m u n i t i e s N eig h b o rh o o d s
e x ist o r a r e r e a l i s t i c a l l y i n t e n d e d , w h e r e r e s i d e n t s h o l d v ita l
in t e r e s t s o f w o r k o r w o r s h i p o r f a m ily life in c o m m o n , t h e n
t h e ir s p a t i a l e x p r e s s i o n a n d s u p p o r t m a k e s g o o d s e n se . S u c h
u n i t s m a y b e f o u n d in v illa g e e c o n o m i e s , a m o n g r e lig io u s o r
s o c ia lis t U to p ia n s , in s p e c ia l e t h n i c g r o u p s , a n d in t e m p o -
r a r y s p e c i a l - i n t e r e s t c a m p s . B u t in th e s e c a s e s t h e s p a t i a l
u n i t w o u l d b e lo g ic a lly far m o r e t h o r o u g h l y i n t e g r a t e d t h a n
in t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l n e i g h b o r h o o d u n it. P o litic a l, so c ia l, a n d
e c o n o m i c o r g a n i z a t i o n is r e l e v a n t to t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e
liv in g space.
S in c e so c ia l o r g a n i z a t i o n , v a lu e s , a n d t e c h n o l o g y m a y
c h a n g e w i t h i n t h e life e x p e c t a n c y o f th e d w e l l i n g a n d e s p e -
d a l l y o f th e site p l a n , w h i c h t e n d s to h a v e a life m e a s u r e d
in c e n tu r ie s , it is s e n s i b l e to m a k e t h a t site p l a n as a d a p t -
a b le as p o s s ib le . A d a p t a b i l i t y m a y b e e n h a n c e d b y u s i n g lo w
d e n s itie s , e s p e c ia lly b y p r o v i d i n g r e s e r v e s o f u n b u i l t la n d .
A g o o d c ir c u l a t i o n s y s t e m is m o s t u s e f u l, sin c e p e r s o n s a n d
a c tiv itie s m a y t h e n re v is e t h e i r l i n k a g e s w i t h o u t s h i f t i n g
t h e i r l o c a tio n s . P u t t i n g d w e l l i n g u n i t s in s e p a r a t e s tr u c -
tu r e s p e r m i t s t h e t y p ic a l d e c is io n u n i t — t h e f a m i l y — to
m a k e c h a n g e s w i t h o u t i m p i n g i n g o n its n e i g h b o r s . M o b i l e
u n i t s s u c h as tr a ile r s c a n b e a d d e d to, e x c h a n g e d , o r d is-
c a r d e d w i t h less d if f ic u lty t h a n p e r m a n e n t u n i t s , b u t o n l y
if lot sizes, u tilitie s , a n d a c c e ss a r e a d e q u a t e to t a k e a flue-
t u a t i o n in d e m a n d .
S o m e t i m e s it is p o s s ib le to p r e d ic t t h e n a t u r e o f a c o m -
 322 in g c h a n g e , s u c h as a m o r e i n f o r m a l liv i n g s ty le , n e w
m e a n s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n to d i s p l a c e t h e ca r, th e a d v e n t o f
m a ss-p ro d u c e d b u t c o n su m e r-re sp o n siv e h o u sin g , or even a
l o o s e n i n g o f t h e n u c l e a r fa m ily . In s u c h a c a se , p r o v i s i o n for
t h e p r e d i c t e d f u t u r e c h a n g e m a y b e m a d e e x p lic itly . I n
A daptability g e n e r a l , h o w e v e r , w e fin d t h a t t h e p r o b l e m o f a d a p t a b i l i t y
h a s b e e n m o r e a c u t e in n o n r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s . S in c e t h e u s e
of h o u ses has never c h a n g e d su d d e n ly , h o u s in g h a s rarely
b e c o m e o b s o l e t e w i t h i n t h e la s t c e n t u r y b y r e a s o n o f its
p h y s i c a l fo r m , p r o v i d e d t h a t it w a s w e ll b u i l t in t h e b e g i n -
n i n g a n d h a d s u f f ic ie n t s p a c e a n d u n i t i n d e p e n d e n c e to
m a k e a d a p t a t i o n s e a sy . T h e p r o v i s o is c ritic a l. H o u s i n g o b -
s o le s c e n c e h a s o f t e n o c c u r r e d as t h e r e s u l t o f so c ia l o r g e o -
g r a p h i c a l s h if ts , o f c r o w d e d c o n d i t i o n s , o r o f in itia l p o o r d e -
s ig n . D e s i g n i n g l o w - c o s t h o u s i n g t h a t c a n b e c o n t i u o u s l y
u p g r a d e d a n d t h e r e f o r e w ill n o t q u i c k l y b e c o m e o b s o l e t e is
n o t a tr iv ia l p r o b l e m .
Tem porary T h e h o u se trailer has g ro w n in to th e m o b ile h om e,
housing w h i c h w ill s o o n b e c o m e t h e c u s t o m a r y , m a s s - p r o d u c e d
s i n g l e - f a m i l y u n i t , to b e s ite d p e r m a n e n t l y in r e s i d e n t i a l s u b -
d i v is io n s . B u t t h e n e e d fo r t r u l y m o b i l e h o u s i n g p e r s i s t s ,
w h e t h e r fo r v a c a t i o n i n g , for m i g r a t o r y o c c u p a t i o n s , o r for
s u d d e n s u r g e s in t h e h o u s i n g d e m a n d , s u c h as a r o u n d n e w
c o lle g e s, a f te r d i s a s t e r s , o r fo r t e m p o r a r y e n c a m p m e n t s . T h e
w h e e l e d t r a i l e r is t h e r e f o r e still b e i n g b u i l t a n d u s e d , a n d
t h e " c a m p e r " t r u c k h a s a p p e a r e d as a p o p u l a r v a c a t i o n
d w e l l i n g . S u m m e r t e n t c a m p i n g h a s b o o m e d in p o p u l a r i t y .
T r a i l e r s a n d c a m p e r s a r e lo o k e d u p o n as n u i s a n c e s a n d
e i t h e r b a n n e d o r s w e p t i n t o s o m e c o r n e r . C a m p l a y o u t s a re
n o r m a l l y as d r e a r y as p a r k i n g lots. T h e y h a v e all t h e fe a -
t u r e s o f t h e m o b i l e h o m e p a r k s d is c u s s e d e a r lie r , b u t in ex-
a g g e r a t e d fo r m . Y et t h e y .p r o v id e h i g h l y v a l u e d r e c r e a t i o n
for l a r g e s e c to r s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n a n d e s s e n t i a l t e m p o r a r y
h o u s i n g for s o m e . F or all t h e i r c r o w d e d n e s s a n d c l u t t e r e d
lo o k , t h e y a r e o f t e n p e r v a d e d w i t h a s p i r i t o f i n s t a n t c o m -
r a d e s h i p t h a t m a n y p e o p l e fin d v e r y a tt r a c t i v e .
Trailer courts P e r m a n e n t r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s t h a t w ill b e o c c u p ie d b y
and camp- t r a n s i e n t u n i t s — tr a i l e r c o u r t s o r c a m p g r o u n d s — r e q u i r e
grounds c a re fu l l a y o u t a n d e x t e n s i v e c o m m o n facilitie s. T h e r e m u s t
b e a s t a n d i n g for t h e t e n t o r tr a ile r , w i t h r o a d a c c e ss to it, a
Reference 50 p r i v a t e o u t d o o r a r e a , p a r k i n g sp a c e , to ile ts , b a t h i n g a n d
l a u n d r y facilitie s, s e w e r a g e , w a t e r s u p p l y , e le c tr ic ity , s to r -
a g e a r e a s , r e c r e a t i o n sp a c e , a w a s t e d is p o s a l s y s t e m , a n d
c o n tin u o u s v ig ilan t m a n a g e m e n t. T h e sim plest te n tin g
g r o u n d s u s e e a r t h r o a d s , c le a r e d t e n t site s, a n d a m o d e s t
c e n tr a l s t r u c t u r e h o u s i n g u tilitie s , to ile ts , s h o w e r s , a n d 323
l a u n d r y tu b s . T r a i l e r c o u r t s , w h i c h m a y b e o c c u p i e d for
s u b s t a n t i a l p e r i o d s b y r e s i d e n t s w a n t i n g full s e rv ic e s , p r o -
v id e h a r d s t a n d i n g s for t h e tr a ile r , p a v e d a n d l i g h t e d r o a d s ,
a n d p a v e d s e t t i n g a r e a s . W a t e r , e le c tr ic ity , a n d s e w e r c o n -
nections are at th e s ta n d in g , a n d p e rh a p s te le p h o n e a n d
te le v is io n c o n n e c t i o n s as w e ll. T h e r e a r e l a u n d r y - d r y i n g
a r e a s , l o c k a b le s t o r a g e s p a c e s fo r e a c h t r a i l e r , a m a n a g e -
m e n t b u i l d i n g , s w i m m i n g p o o ls a n d s p o r t s g r o u n d s , a h a ll
fo r m e e t i n g s , r e c r e a t i o n , o r a n u r s e r y . A s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f
th e site is r e c r e a t i o n a l o p e n sp a c e .
D e n s i t i e s a r e set b y t h e lo a d o n p u b l i c f a c ilitie s a n d b y
t h e s p a c i n g o f u n i t s , w h i c h is its e lf g o v e r n e d b y r e q u i r e -
m e n t s for fire p r o t e c t i o n , l i g h t a n d air, a c c e s s to th e u n i t ,
b u t , a b o v e all, p r iv a c y . T h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e o u t d o o r s e t t i n g
a re a , t h e c o n t r o l o f n o is e , a n d t h e v ie w s f r o m t e n t o r tr a i l e r
w i n d o w s a re k e y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . D e n s i t i e s o f u p to 8 to 10
u n i t s p e r n e t a c r e in tr a i l e r c o u r t s c a n b e a c h ie v e d b y sk ill-
ful d e s i g n (F .H .A . r e g u l a t i o n s a l l o w e v e n 12 o r 1 3), b u t
lo w e r d e n s i t i e s a r e b e t t e r , a n d m o s t c o u r t s a r e q u i t e u n i m a g -
in a t i v e l y la id o u t. C a m p g r o u n d s , to o , u s u a l l y su ffe r a la c k
o f p r i v a c y , e v e n t h o u g h t h e c o s ts o f a m o r e e x t e n d e d a n d
s h e l t e r e d p l a n a r e in t h i s c a se r a t h e r s m a ll.
It is c le a r t h a t t e m p o r a r y h o u s i n g m u s t b e k e p t f r o m
o v e r r u n n i n g t h e m o r e s e n s itiv e a n d h a n d s o m e l a n d s c a p e re-
g io n s : th e l a k e s h o r e s o r m o u n t a i n v a lle y s . T h e r e is p r o b a b l y
g o o d r e a s o n for c o n c e n t r a t i n g it in s p e c ia l a r e a s , w h e r e t h e
sp e c ia l s e rv ic e s a n d t h e l i k e - m i n d e d r e s i d e n t s c a n b e
f o u n d , a n d w h e r e it w ill n o t in t e r f e r e w i t h m o r e p e r m a n e n t
a c tiv itie s. B u t b a n n i n g it a l t o g e t h e r m e a n s so c ia l e x c l u s i o n
a n d th e d e n ia l o f a l e g i t i m a t e d e m a n d , a n d to r e le g a te it to
i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s o r to t h e e d g e s o f h i g h w a y s is o n l y a w a y o f
c r e a t i n g n e w s lu m s . G o o d m a n a g e m e n t a n d s i t i n g c a n
m a k e th e s e t e m p o r a r y c a m p s i n t o p l e a s a n t a n d n o v e l p la c e s
to live.
M o st of these te m p o ra ry houses have a shap e and a M obility and
s k in t h a t is n e w in t h e w o r ld . T h e y c o n t r a s t s h a r p l y w i t h visual n o v e lty
th e f o r m s o f l a n d s c a p e a n d o f t r a d i t i o n a l b u i l d i n g . T h i s
s e n s e o f v isu a l n o v e l t y a n d its c la s h w i t h th e e x i s t i n g la n d -
s c a p e lie at th e r o o t o f m u c h o f th e a d v e r s e p u b lic r e a c t i o n
to t h e tr a ile r . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , it is t h e v e r y n o t i o n o f m o -
b ility a n d c o n t r a s t t h a t a t t r a c t s m a n y u s e r s . E v e n w h e n t h e
u n i t m a y a c t u a l l y be fixed in p la c e for a s u b s t a n t i a l tim e ,
t h e r e is still a s e n s e o f i m p e r m a n e n c e . I m p e r m a n e n c e , r e a l
o r fa n c ie d , ra is e s p r o b l e m s o f t a x a t i o n , so c ia l r e l a t i o n s , se r-
324 vices, a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n t h a t a r e b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f t h i s tex t.
T h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d e s t h e t i c fe e lin g o f i m p e r m a n e n c e ,
h o w e v e r p l e a s a n t to s o m e , a n d p e r h a p s in p a r t to all o f us,
i n h i b i t s t h e s e n s e o f h i s t o r y a n d o f p la c e , t h e e m o t i o n a l ties
to o b je c ts o r lo c a t i o n s w h i c h d e v e l o p w i t h l o n g a s s o c i a t i o n . It
m a y r e t a r d t h e f o r m a t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p s n o t b a s e d o n f a m ily
o r o c c u p a t i o n a n d c a n b e p a r t i c u l a r l y d iffic u lt for th e y o u n g
c h ild .
B u t th e tr a i l e r p a r k a n d th e c a m p i n g g r o u n d reflect
t h e a c t u a l m o b i l i t y o f th e A m e r i c a n f a m ily . It w o u l d b e a
m i s t a k e to r e a c t b y m a k e - b e l i e v e : to c a m o u f l a g e th e tr a i l e r
as a n a n c i e n t f e a tu r e o f t h e site. M a n y h u m a n so c ie tie s
have been n o m a d ic , yet th eir c o m m u n itie s hav e been
s t r o n g . T h e p a r k d e s i g n e r c a n e n c o u r a g e n e i g h b o r l y a s s o c ia -
ti o n b y h is l a y o u t. H e m a y a ls o u s e l a n d s c a p e e l e m e n t s to
e x p r e s s t h e p e r m a n e n c e o f t h e e a r t h to w h i c h t h e u n i t s a r e
m o m e n t a r i l y a t t a c h e d . I m p e r m a n e n c e h a s p l e a s u r e s o f its
o w n . I n c r e a s i n g l y w e s h a ll h a v e to d e a l w i t h m o b i l i t y a n d
t e m p o r a r y g a t h e r i n g . It w ill r e p a y t h e i n v e s t m e n t o f s u b -
s t a n t i a l d e s i g n ta le n t.
S elf-h elp M u c h o f t h e w o r l d 's h o u s i n g is b u i l t b y t h e r e s i d e n t
H o u sin g h im s e lf , p a r t i c u l a r l y in r u r a l a r e a s a n d in th e " s q u a t t e r "
s e t t l e m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h m o s t g r e a t cities. L ittle o f it is
b u i l t n o w in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ( a l t h o u g h it w a s a c o m m o n
f e a t u r e o f th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ) , b u t is o la te d s e lf - h e lp
c o m m u n i t i e s o f y o u n g p e o p l e a r e b e g i n n i n g to a p p e a r — a
w a y o f life n o w e x p lic itly c h o s e n r a t h e r t h a n o n e im p o s e d b y
p o v e r t y . B o th k i n d s o f c o m m u n i t i e s a r e b u ilt b y th e u s e r s , in
i s o l a t i o n f r o m t h e p r o c e s s e s a n d t e c h n o l o g y o f la r g e - s c a le
d e v e l o p m e n t . B e c a u s e m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s a r e sc a rc e , t h e
m e a n s m u s t b e a s c h e a p a n d s im p le as p o s s ib le ; b u t l a b o r
m a y be p le n tif u l.
T h e s e a r e h o p e f u l p la c e s : th e s e ttle r s a re b u i l d i n g for
t h e f u tu r e . T o th e o u t s i d e r , t h e s e t t l e m e n t s a p p e a r c h a o tic
a n d u g ly , a n d t h e y h a v e o b v i o u s p r o b l e m s o f s a n i t a t i o n ,
m u d , d u s t , c o n f u s i o n , a n d d i s c o m f o r t . Yet in t h e i r liv ely ac-
tiv ity a n d t h e i r p o w e r f u l s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l c a r e a n d e x p r e s -
s io n , t h e y a r e o f te n m u c h m o r e v i s u a lly e n g a g i n g t h a n th e
p r o f e s s i o n a l l y d e s i g n e d s u b u r b . A t first g la n c e , site-
p l a n n i n g t e c h n i q u e s s e e m w ild l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e to th e s e
s e lf - h e lp s e t t l e m e n t s : to o e x p e n s iv e , to o c o m p le x , to o a u t h o r i -
t a r i a n , o r c o n c e r n e d w i t h th e w r o n g e n d s . B ut if th e n e w
p r i o r i t i e s a re u n d e r s t o o d a n d if t h e te c h n i q u e s c a n be t r a n s -
m i t t e d to th e r e s i d e n t h im s e lf , t h e n s i t e - p l a n n i n g .skill
t u r n s o u t to be as a p p r o p r i a t e as ever.
Tenure S e c u r i t y o f la n d t e n u r e is u s u a l l y o n e o f th e m o s t i m p o r -
Figure 50 Dwellings are in different stages o f construction in a self-help settle-
ment in Lima, Peru. The walls enclosing the lots are erected first.

ta n t r e q u i r e m e n t s , a n d t h e f r a m e w o r k o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t ,
p r i m i t i v e at first, m u s t a l l o w for p r o g r e s s i v e f u tu r e i m p r o v e -
m en t. T h u s the la y o u t o f the s i t e — th e q u a lity o f th e sur-
v e y , t h e p a tte r n o f t h e r i g h t s - o f - w a y , t h e l o t t i n g , t h e p r o v i -
s i o n o f s p a c e for fu tu r e g r o w t h , t h e e a s e m e n t s — w i l l b e an
e x t r e m e l y cr itica l a s p e c t o f t h e d e s i g n . A l l t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f
s u b d i v i s i o n l a y o u t m a y b e b r o u g h t to b ear, a n d t h e y ca n
e a s i l y b e t a u g h t to t h e se tt le r , a l o n g w i t h e l e m e n t a r y su r-
v eyin g.
A c c e s s is p a r a m o u n t , y e t e x p e n s i v e r o a d s c a n n o t b e A ccess
b u ilt. If t h e p a tt e r n o f r o a d s h a s b e e n a t t e n d e d to, t h e n e x t
p r io r it y is to d ea l w i t h s u r f a c e d r a i n a g e , k e e p i n g t h e tra c k s
s h a p e d a n d d r a in e d to be p a s s a b l e in all w e a t h e r . G r a v e l,
c o r d u r o y , a n d t h e u s e o f b in d e r s as in s o i l - c e m e n t are all in -
e x p e n s i v e w a y s o f m a i n t a i n i n g ro a d s. M u d a n d rain are t h e
m o s t p e r v a s i v e an d d i s p i r i t i n g o f all p h y s i c a l d i s c o m f o r t s , as
m a n y c a m p e r s h a v e le a r n e d to th e ir s o r r o w .
L arge a n d l i g h t l y u s e d o p e n s p a c e s s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d ,
 326 u n le s s t h e y c a n b e left in a n a t u r a l s e l f - m a i n t a i n i n g c o n d i-
t i o n o r b e a c tiv e ly m a i n t a i n e d as a b y - p r o d u c t o f a g r i c u l t u r e
U tilities o r s o m e o t h e r s e l f - m o t i v a t i n g f u n c t i o n . S o p h i s t i c a t e d u tilitie s
c a n b e d i s p e n s e d w i t h , b u t p u r e w a t e r is e s s e n tia l. If it is
n o t p i p e d in, t h e r e m u s t a t le a s t b e a p r o t e c t e d so u rc e . Elec-
trie p o w e r is a g r e a t c o n v e n i e n c e a n d o f t e n n o t d iffic u lt to
t a p in to a d e v e l o p i n g a re a . B u t s e lf - h e lp s e t t l e m e n t s b e n -
efit m o s t f r o m r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e a n d d e c e n t r a l i z e d t e c h n o l o -
g ies o f t h e k i n d t h a t a r e n o w o n l y p a r t o f o u r t r a d i t i o n in th e
U n i t e d S ta te s : p r iv ie s , d u g w e lls , t r a s h d u m p s , k e r o s e n e
l a m p s , w o o d e n fuel. A s o c ia lly u s e f u l a r e a fo r t e c h n i c a l re -
s e a r c h is t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h o s e d e c e n t r a l i z e d lo w - c o s t
te c h n o l o g i e s w h i c h a r e a ls o s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n d effic ie n t: s o la r
h e a t e r s , s m a ll w a t e r o r d i s p o s a l s y s t e m s , s t a b iliz e d e a r t h
r o a d s a n d w a lls.
D esign quality A l t h o u g h t h e b u i l d i n g s m a y b e s m a ll a n d p r i m i t i v e ,
in l o w - r e s o u r c e t h e y n e e d n o t t h e r e f o r e b e u n c o m f o r t a b l e o r u g ly . P r e s s e d -
housing e a r t h b lo c k s s t a b i l i z e d w i t h c e m e n t , fo r e x a m p l e , a re a v e r y
serv iceab le a n d b e a u tifu l b u ild in g m a te ria l. T h e te c h n iq u e
o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g a n d la y i n g t h e m c a n b e e a s ily t a u g h t . B y
p r o v i d i n g d e s i g n s e rv ic e s , t h e n a t u r a l e x p r e s s i v e n e s s o f t h e
self-built h o u se can be e n h a n c e d . T h e o w n e r can lea rn h o w
to s ite it in a c c o r d w i t h t h e a c c i d e n t s o f t h e lo c a l te r r a i n .
P l a n t s , p a i n t , a n d o t h e r i n e x p e n s i v e i n g r e d i e n t s c a n be
u s e d to m a k e it h a n d s o m e a n d c o m f o r t a b l e . C a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n
to t h e lo cal e c o l o g y — t h e n a t u r e o f t h e soil, t h e p l a n t s , t h e
a n i m a l s , th e m o v e m e n t o f w a t e r — w ill n o t o n l y a v o id ex-
p e n s i v e a d a p t a t i o n s b u t c o n s e r v e t h e d e ta ile d n a t u r a l la n d -
s c a p e in a w a y t h a t l a r g e - s c a le d e v e l o p m e n t c a n r a r e l y do.
T h u s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f site a n d s ite p l a n n i n g m a y be
e v e n m o r e e s s e n t i a l to t h e s e lf - h e lp b u i l d e r t h a n to h is
p ro fessio n al c o u n te rp a rt.
T railer cam ps a n d sq u a tte r se ttle m e n ts are consid ered
t h e p o o r e s t k i n d o f h o u s i n g , to b e s tr i c t l y r e g u l a t e d a n d if
p o s s ib le a b o l i s h e d . R e g a r d e d m o r e c a r e f u lly , t h e y a re re-
s p o n s e s to i m p o r t a n t n e e d s a n d w o r t h y o f m u c h b e t t e r d e -
s ig n . O u t o f t h e m m a y c o m e n e w w a y s o f liv in g .
Chapter 15

Special Types o f Site P lan n in g

l h e lo c a t i o n o f a s h o p p i n g c e n t e r d e p e n d s o n a n a l y s e s
o f m a r k e t a n d a c c e s s ib ility . T h e m a r k e t a n a l y s i s c o n s i d e r s S h o p p in g
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n , its b u y i n g p o w e r , t h e l o c a t i o n C e n te rs and
o f c o m p e t i n g c e n te r s , t h e m e a n s o f a c c e ss to th e s ite a n d its C o m m ercial
c a p a c ity , t h e t i m e d i s t a n c e s i n v o lv e d , a n d t h e c u s t o m a r y S trips
r o u t e s o f tr a v e l for o t h e r p u r p o s e s . C e n t e r s a r e ty p i c a l l y Io ‫־‬
c a te d a l o n g m a j o r a r t e r i e s , a n d it is d e s i r a b l e to h a v e m o r e Reference 58
t h a n o n e lin e o f access. B u t a p o s i t i o n a t a m a j o r i n t e r s e c t i o n
o r clo se to a f r e e w a y r a m p m a y m a k e ac c e ss c o m p l i c a t e d ,
a n d a p o s i t i o n a l o n g a h i g h w a y a l r e a d y f l o w in g full a n d
u s e d p r i m a r i l y b y f a s t t h r o u g h tra ffic m a y d i s c o u r a g e c u s-
t o m e r s . G o o d v is i b i l i t y f r o m t h e m a i n lin e s o f tr a v e l is d e -
sira b le . T h e a re a to b e d e v e l o p e d s h o u l d b e level a n d f a ir ly
c o m p a c t in s h a p e , w i t h n o s u r r o u n d i n g d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t is
u g ly , c o m p e t i n g , o r o f n u i s a n c e c h a r a c t e r .
A c o m m o n r u le o f t h u m b d iv id e s s h o p p i n g c e n t e r s i n t o
t h r e e ty p e s : th e n e i g h b o r h o o d c e n te r , d o m i n a t e d b y a s u p e r -
m a r k e t , c o n t a i n i n g a b o u t 4 0 ,0 0 0 s q u a r e feet o f s e llin g a r e a
a n d s e r v i n g p e r h a p s 1 0 ,0 0 0 p e o p l e ; th e c o m m u n i t y c e n te r ,
f e a t u r i n g a v a r i e t y o r j u n i o r d e p a r t m e n t s to re , h a v i n g f r o m
1 0 0 .0 0 0 to 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 s q u a r e feet, a n d s e r v i n g 2 0 , 0 0 0 to
1 0 0 .0 0 0 p e o p le ; a n d t h e r e g i o n a l c e n te r , w i t h o n e to fo u r
m a j o r d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e s a n d s e r v i n g a v e r y la r g e u r b a n
a re a . S u c h g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a re u se fu l o n l y as first g u e s s e s ,
h o w e v e r , a n d m u s t b e d e v e lo p e d b y d e ta ile d a n a l y s e s . A r e a
r e q u i r e m e n t s v a r y , b u t a 5 0 - a c r e site is a n o r m a l m i n i m u m
 328 for a r e g i o n a l c e n t e r , w h i l e 7 5 a c r e s w i l l a l l o w for e x p a n s i o n
to t h r e e or fo u r d e p a r t m e n t s t o r e s . A 1 2 5 - a c r e s i t e is d e s ir -
a b le s i n c e it a l l o w s for c o m m e r c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e re-
s id u a l la n d .
T h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f a c e n t e r in r e g a r d to t h e ty p e s a n d
sizes o f s t o r e s c a n o n l y j u d g e d b e o n c o m p l e t i o n o f m a r k e t
a n d f in a n c ia l a n a l y s e s , w i t h t h e b a l a n c e b e t w e e n k i n d s o f
t e n a n t s b e i n g q u i t e s ig n if ic a n t. L a r g e c e n t e r s n o w h a v e
o t h e r fa c ilitie s in a d d i t i o n to r e ta il s to r e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e a t e r s ,
offices, b a n k s , p o s t offices, a n d e v e n h o te ls , c lin ic s, a n d cul-
t u r a l fa c ilitie s. In t h i s w a y th e s h o p p i n g c e n t e r b e g i n s to re-
s e m b l e t h e o ld e r c e n t r a l d i s t r i c t , e x c e p t for its i s o l a t i o n f r o m
its i m m e d i a t e s u r r o u n d i n g s a n d t h e la c k o f r e s i d e n t i a l facil-
ities o r o f c o m m e r c i a l a c tiv itie s u s i n g s p a c e o f m a r g i n a l
q u a l i t y . It is t h i s lo c a l i s o l a t i o n a n d t h i s n a r r o w n e s s o f f u n c -
t i o n t h a t r e m a i n t h e m o s t s e r io u s d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e n e w
c e n te r s .
W h e n a s h o p p i n g c e n t e r is b e i n g p l a n n e d b y a p u b l i c
a g e n c y a s a p a rt o f a la r g e r a rea, it is p o s s i b l e to c o r r e c t s o m e
o f t h e s e f a u lt s . C o m m u n i t y f a c il it i e s c a n t h e n b e in t r o d u c e d
as a m a t t e r o f p o l i c y , a n d s h o p p i n g c a n b e c o n n e c t e d to su r-
r o u n d in g r e sid en ce s and s u p p o r tin g services and c o m m er -
cia l a c t i v i t y . L e a d i n g d e v e l o p e r s t h e m s e l v e s n o w l o o k for
s i t e s in t h e 5 0 0 - a c r e r a n g e , w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f b u i l d i n g
"total c o m m u n itie s " that in clu d e su b sta n tia l h o u s in g , em -
p lo y m e n t , and p u b lic services. T h e y th e re b y assure that

Figure 51 Stonestown Shopping Center, San Francisco, California. A typical new

center with its central mall and large external parking lots. Note the added housing
and office buildings on the periphery, and yet the lack o f fit with the surroundings.
s o m e p a r t o f t h e i r m a r k e t w ill b e h e ld c lo se to t h e i r s to r e s , 329
e v e n t h o u g h o u t e r s u b u r b i a e x p a n d s a n d n e w c e n t e r s a re
b u ilt f a r t h e r o u t. T h e c o n n e c t i o n w i t h s u r r o u n d i n g d e v e lo p -
m e n t a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y th e p r o v i s i o n o f s p a c e for e c o n o m i c a l l y
m a r g i n a l a c tiv itie s w h e n all s t r u c t u r e s a r e n e w a n d o c c u p y
v a l u a b l e la n d r e m a i n a d iffic u lty . S o m e e x p e r i m e n t s a r e
b e i n g m a d e w i t h p r o v i d i n g l o w - r e n t s p a c e in b a s e m e n t s o r
in p a r k i n g d e c k s o r w i t h s u b s i d i z i n g s p e c ia l t e n a n t s b y
m a n i p u l a t i n g r e n t a l s . C h u r c h e s , c o m m u n i t y c e n te r s , li-
b r a r i e s , a n d o t h e r " a p p r o v e d " f a c ilitie s c a n t h u s be p r o -
v id e d . C a n p la c e s a ls o b e f o u n d for s e c o n d h a n d s to r e s , c h e a p
r e s t a u r a n t s , s t u d i o lofts, a n d c o f f e e h o u s e s ? O r f a c ilitie s r u n
b y t e e n - a g e r s at t h e i r o w n t i m e s a n d in t h e i r o w n w a y ?
S h o p p in g centers n o rm a lly co n sist of o n e -o r tw o -s to ry Typical
s t r u c t u r e s , 1 0 0 to 2 0 0 feet d e e p . I n d i v i d u a l s t o r e s w i t h i n shoppin g center
th e s e l a r g e s t r u c t u r e s m a y r u n t h e full d e p t h , o r t h e y m a y layouts
b e as s m a ll as 4 0 feet d e e p w i t h a 2 0 - f o o t f r o n t a g e . C e n t e r s
t y p i c a l l y t a k e o n e o f s e v e r a l g e n e r a l f o r m s . T h e y m a y be a r-
r a n g e d in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l p a t t e r n , as a s t r i p a l o n g t h e s tr e e t,
o r t h e s t r i p m a y b e b e n t in t o a U o r L s h a p e , set b a c k f r o m
t h e a r t e r y it faces, w i t h l a n d s c a p i n g o r, m o r e lik e ly , c a r
p a r k i n g o c c u p y i n g t h e f o r e c o u r t. T h e s t o r e s m a y s u r r o u n d a
h o l l o w s q u a r e , o c c u p ie d b y se rv ic e e n t r a n c e s a n d s u r f a c e o r
d e c k e d p a r k i n g , w h i l e t h e s to r e s f r o n t o u t w a r d to p e d e s -
t r i a n s a n d s tr e e ts . T h i s is a c o m p a c t ty p e , s u i t a b l e for c e n -
tr a l s h o p p i n g , b u t t h e r e is lia b le to b e i n s u f f ic ie n t s p a c e for
p a r k i n g . M o r e c o m m o n l y in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e s t o r e s w ill
b e a r r a n g e d w i t h b u i l d i n g s f a c in g i n w a r d t o w a r d a s q u a r e ,
p a r k i n g a n d a c c e ss b e i n g o n th e o u t s i d e a n d a l a n d s c a p e d
p e d e s t r i a n c o u r t w i t h i n . U s u a l l y t h i s i n n e r c o u r t is n a r -
r o w e d a n d l e n g t h e n e d to f o r m a p e d e s t r i a n s h o p p i n g s tr e e t,
or "m a ll."
F in a lly , t h e s t o r e s m a y b e c l u s t e r e d t o g e t h e r c o m -
p a c tly , w i t h p a r k i n g a n d a c c e ss o u t s i d e a n d a n i n t e r i o r w e b
o f p e d e s t r i a n w a y s o n w h i c h t h e s t o r e s f r o n t, so t h a t s o m e
s to r e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y the* m a j o r m a g n e t s , a r e c o m p l e t e l y
w ith in th e p e d e s tria n zone. T h ese g en eral fo rm s m a y be
f u r t h e r v a r ie d b y u s i n g t w o levels i n s t e a d o f o n e , b y a llo w -
in g v e h ic le s to p e n e t r a t e t h e i n t e r i o r s p a c e s , b y m a k i n g
s to r e s d o u b l e - f r o n t e d , o r b y r o o f in g o v e r t h e p e d e s t r i a n w a y s .
In h i g h - d e n s i t y a r e a s t h e s t o r e s m a y e v e n b e s a n d w i c h e d ,
in o n e la r g e s t r u c t u r e , b e t w e e n la y e r s o f p a r k i n g a b o v e a n d ‫ז* »ש‬
*‫ג‬
b e lo w , w i t h w a l k - i n a c c e ss at t h e s t r e e t level. T h e m a i n
s t r u c t u r e is o w n e d b y t h e d e v e lo p e r o f t h e c e n te r , w h i l e th e
i n t e r i o r f ittin g s o f th e s to r e s b e l o n g to t h e c o m m e r c i a l te n -
 330 a n ts . P a r k i n g a r e a s a n d t h e s ite s for o u t l y i n g s t r u c t u r e s
m a y b e e i t h e r le a s e d o r so ld u n d e r t i g h t r e s t r i c t i o n s .
Store locations T h e l o c a t i o n o f th e v a r i o u s ty p e s o f s t o r e s is c ritic a l. T h e
b a s ic p r i n c i p l e o f l o c a t i o n is to e x p o s e s t o r e f r o n t s to t h e m a x i-
m u m f o o t traffic, k e e p i n g th is tra ffic in c o n c e n t r a t e d c h a n -
n e ls a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e w e ll d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e c e n t e r
as a w h o le . R a t h e r t h a n a l l o w th e c u s t o m e r to e n t e r h is d e s -
t i n a t i o n d i r e c t l y a n d to le a v e it as q u ic k ly , p a t h s a r e lo c a te d
to b r i n g h i m p a s t t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e c e n te r .
C e r t a i n s to r e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d to b e p r i m a r y a t t r a c t i o n s
t h a t d r a w c u s t o m e r s to th e c e n t e r b y t h e i r o w n p o w e r . S u c h
a re th e d e p a r t m e n t o r j u n i o r d e p a r t m e n t s to r e s , l a r g e sp e -
c ia lty a n d f a s h i o n s to r e s , a n d , in s m a l l e r c e n te r s , v a r i e t y
s to r e s a n d s u p e r m a r k e t s . T h e s e a c tiv itie s n o t o n l y d r a w p e o -
pie to t h e c e n t e r its e lf b u t c a n b e l o c a te d to p u ll b u y e r s p a s t
o t h e r s to r e s a n d d i s t r i b u t e tra ffic e v e n ly . S e c o n d a r y a t t r a c -
t i o n s , s u c h as b a n k s , p o s t offices, q u a l i t y r e s t a u r a n t s , c lu s -
te r s o f a p p a r e l s to r e s , a n d g r o u p s o f s e rv ic e o u t l e t s ( b a r b e r ,
b e a u t y s h o p , s h o e r e p a i r , c le a n e r ) c a n a ls o b e u s e d to c a u s e
p e o p le to m o v e a b o u t t h e c e n te r . O t h e r s t o r e s a r e p r e s u m e d
to s u b s i s t f r o m t h e d i s t r i b u t e d fo o t tra ffic so g e n e r a t e d , w h i l e
s u p p o rtin g the p rim a ry stores b y the v a rie ty of goods an d
s e r v ic e t h e y a f f o r d . O n th e o t h e r h a n d , t h e p a r k i n g a n d
se r v ic e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a c tiv itie s t h a t m a y p u ll in la r g e
c r o w d s , b u t w h o s e p a t r o n s a r e n o t lik e ly to s h o p in o t h e r
s t o r e s ( s u c h as m o v i e g o e r s o r p e o p l e b u y i n g a w e e k 's g r o c e r -
ies), m u s t n o t be a l l o w e d to i n t e r f e r e w i t h o t h e r m o v e m e n t s
in t h e c e n te r .
N o r m a l p r a c t i c e in s t o r e l o c a t i o n , th e r e f o r e , is to p u t t h e
p r i m a r y a t t r a c t i o n in t h e c e n te r , o r as a p a i r o f o p p o s e d m a g -
n e t s if t h e r e a r e tw o , o r a t t h r e e o r f o u r e n d s o f a se t o f c o n -
v e r g i n g m a lls . S e c o n d a r y a c tiv itie s a re d i s t r i b u t e d to e n -
c o u r a g e b a l a n c e d p e d e s t r i a n flo w t h r o u g h o u t t h e a re a , t h e
se r v ic e o u t l e t s b e i n g p u t a t t h e f a r t h e r m a r g i n s o r o n a lo w e r
level. O t h e r s t o r e s a r e g r o u p e d b y s i m i l a r ty p e s a n d p r ic e s
o f g o o d s to f a c ilita te c o m p a r i s o n s h o p p i n g : fo o d , w o m e n 's
w e a r , f a m ily w e a r , h o u s e w a r e s , a n d so o n . O r if c e r t a i n fa-
cilities s t a y o p e n a t n i g h t , s u c h as t h e a t e r s , r e s t a u r a n t s ,
a n d d r u g s t o r e s , t h e y w ill b e k e p t t o g e t h e r . G o o d s u s u a l l y
b o u g h t o n i m p u ls e , s u c h as c a n d y , p a s t r y , g ifts, to b a c c o , a n d
c a r d s , a r e s p r i n k l e d i n d i v i d u a l l y a m o n g t h e c lu s te r s ,
u s u a l l y a t i n t e r s e c t i o n s in p e d e s t r i a n traffic. C i n e m a s , car
a c c e s s o r y sa le s ( T B A 's ) , a n d s u p e r m a r k e t s a re p la c e d in
s e p a r a t e , f r e e s t a n d i n g b u i l d i n g s , o r in " b a c k w a t e r " a r e a s
t h a t d o n o t p r e e m p t m a ll f r o n t a g e a n d c a n b e r e a c h e d di-
r e c tly f r o m p a r k i n g . T h e d e t a i l s o f p e d e s t r i a n l a y o u t a r e sig- 331
n if ic a n t: th e e n t r a n c e s f r o m th e p a r k i n g lot a n d th e b u s te r -
m in a l, th e s t a i r w a y s , e l e v a to r s , a n d e s c a la to r s . T h e p r o b l e m
is s im ila r in p r i n c i p l e to th e i n t e r n a l l a y o u t o f a l a r g e d e-
p a r t m e n t sto re .
T h e o b je c tiv e b e h i n d th e s e a r r a n g e m e n t s is to m a x i-
m iz e sa le s, a n d it is i n t e r e s t i n g to see t h a t th is o b je c tiv e
s o m e t i m e s c o in c id e s w i t h t h e c u s t o m e r 's o b je c tiv e s , as w h e n
it f a c ilita te s c o m p a r i s o n s h o p p i n g , for e x a m p le , a n d s o m e -
tim e s d o e s n o t, as w h e n it forces e x t e n d e d m o v e m e n t
t h r o u g h o u t th e c e n t e r to m a x i m i z e i m p u l s e sa le s. F u r t h e r -
m o r e , s in c e t h e o b je c tiv e is to m a x i m i z e to ta l r a t h e r t h a n in -
d i v id u a l sa le s, n e i t h e r d o e s t h e p a t t e r n c o r r e s p o n d to t h a t o f
a n u n p l a n n e d b u s i n e s s c e n te r . T h e p a t t e r n is b a s e d o n a
h ig h ly so p h istic a te d n e g o tia tio n b e tw e e n s h o p p in g center
d e v e lo p e r a n d c o m m e r c i a l t e n a n t , u s u a l l y a l a r g e r e ta il
c h a in . W h e n e v e r a s h o p p i n g c e n t e r w o u l d b e b u i l t for s e r-
vice r a t h e r t h a n for d i s t r i b u t o r 's p r o f it, w e s h o u l d e x p e c t to
see f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e s in s o m e o f th e s e l o c a t i o n a l c r ite r ia .
T h e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f c a rs, s e rv ic e Circulation
t r u c k s , a n d s h o p p e r s o n fo o t a r e a s t a n d a r d p r o b l e m . G e n e r -
o u s p a r k i n g , a s h o r t w a l k i n g d i s t a n c e , e a s y se rv ic e , a n d a
p l e a s a n t p e d e s t r i a n e n v i r o n m e n t a re all d e s ir e d , a n d t h e y
a re in co n flict. T h e t r a d i t i o n a l a r r a n g e m e n t w a s to p u t se r-
vice ac c e ss o n o n e s id e o f t h e s t r i p o f s t o r e s a n d s h o p p e r p a r k -
in g o n t h e o t h e r , w i t h a p e d e s t r i a n w a l k a l o n g th e s t o r e -
f r o n t s at t h e e d g e o f t h e p a r k i n g a re a . T h i s is still a g o o d
t e c h n i q u e for s m a l l e r c e n te r s , w h e r e s h o p p e r s m o v e in a n d
o u t q u i c k l y a n d t h e p a r k i n g lo a d is lig h t. S t o r e f r o n t s a n d
p a r k i n g a r e v is ib le f r o m t h e first m o m e n t o f e n t r y , se r v ic e is
s c r e e n e d , a n d t h e s h o p p e r c a n p a r k c lose to t h e s to r e h e
w a n t s to p a t r o n i z e . B u t th is s y s t e m r e s u lts in a n u g ly v ie w
o f p a r k i n g lo ts f r o m t h e m a i n r o a d , a n d it p r e v e n t s t h e d e-
v e l o p m e n t o f a sp e c ia l p e d e s t r i a n e n v i r o n m e n t . A t la r g e r
sizes it b e c o m e s d iffic u lt to g e t p a r k i n g w i t h i n a r e a s o n a b l e
d i s t a n c e o f t h e s to re s .
M o r e r e c e n tly , v e h i c u l a r ac c e ss h a s b e e n p u t o n o n e
sid e of t h e s to r e s a n d p e d e s t r i a n s o n t h e o t h e r . S to r e se r v ic e
o c c u r s a l o n g th e " b a c k s " o f th e s to r e s , p r e f e r a b l y in b a y s
s c r e e n e d o ff f r o m c u s t o m e r p a r k i n g , o r e v e n in b a s e m e n t
t u n n e l s . B u t t r u c k t u n n e l s a re e x t r e m e l y e x p e n s i v e a n d
u s u a l l y a v o id e d . T h i s p a t t e r n c re a te s a p e d e s t r i a n w o r l d
a l o n g th e f r o n t s o f s to r e s , a n d if t h e s h o p s a r e a r r a n g e d in a
c lo se d c o u r t, m o r e p a r k i n g s p a c e s m a y b e p r o v i d e d w i t h i n a
g iv e n d i s t a n c e of th e s h o p p i n g a re a . T h e v ie w f r o m th e
 332 Street o n e n t e r i n g m a y b e n o h a n d s o m e r , h o w e v e r , s i n c e t h e
p a r k i n g lo t is still d o m i n a n t . It m a y e v e n b e u g lie r , s i n c e
t h e s t o r e s n o w tu r n t h e ir b a c k s to t h e e n t r a n c e s id e . A re-
c u r r e n t p r o b l e m is t h e e n t r a n c e o f s h o p p e r s i n t o t h e in n e r
co u rt. H o w d o t h e y c r o s s t h e s e r v i c e z o n e ? H o w d o t h e y s e n s e
t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i n s i d e a rea or k n o w w h e r e to g o to r e a c h t h e
store th e y w a n t? S o m e o f th ese p ro b lem s m a y be m itig a te d
b y s c r e e n i n g t h e s e r v i c e a re a s, b y u s i n g p r o m i n e n t s i g n s ,
b y d e s i g n i n g s p e c i a l e n t r a n c e s , or b y g i v i n g t h e s t o r e s d o u -
b le f r o n ta g e .
T h e v i s u a l e x p e r i e n c e o f a p p r o a c h a n d d e p a r t u r e still
leav es m u c h to b e d e s ir e d , a n d so d o e s th e p h y s i c a l e ffo rt o f
c a r r y i n g p u r c h a s e s b a c k to th e car. S u b d i v i s i o n o f th e p a r k -
in g a r e a i n t o s m a l l e r c o m p a r t m e n t s , o p e n i n g a v i e w o f t h e
i n n e r a r e a to th e o u t s i d e , e x t e n s i o n o f f in g e r s o f l a n d s c a p i n g
o r s h o p p i n g i n t o t h e p a r k i n g , m e c h a n i c a l d e v ic e s for t h e ca r-
r ia g e o f p a c k a g e s o u t i n t o t h e p a r k i n g lo ts, a n d th e i n t e g r a -
t i o n o f i n n e r a n d o u t e r c i r c u l a t i o n i n t o o n e c le a r s v s t e m are
all h e lp fu l.
It is u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t s h o p p i n g c e n t e r s a r e u s u a l l y de-
s i g n e d o n l y for p e o p l e a r r i v i n g b y p r i v a t e car. It is u n n e r v -
in g to w a l k i n t o o n e f r o m t h e o u t s i d e , a n d t h e y a r e r a r e l y
tie d to a n y s y s t e m o f p u b l i c t r a n s i t . L ike a n y h i g h l y sp e c ia l-
ized d e v ic e , th e s e c e n t e r s m a y h a v e a s h o r t life. A fe w o f th e
e a r lie s t c e n t e r s a re n o w s h o w i n g t h e first s ig n s o f o b s o le s -
cence. S o m e c e n t e r s a re n o w p r o v i d i n g b u s t e r m i n a l s as a n
i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e d e s i g n a n d r e c e iv in g s u b s t a n t i a l p a t r o n -
a g e f r o m t h e m . L o c a tio n o n a s u b w a y o r r a i l w a y lin e m i g h t
a lso b e p o s s ib le , as in P la c e V ille M a r i e , in M o n t r e a l ,
Canada.
P a r k i n g rules V a r i o u s ru le s a re g iv e n for t h e a m o u n t o f c a r p a r k i n g to

Figure 52 As-
phalt wilderness,
the pedestrian
approach to a
modern shopping
center (Park
Forest , Illinois).
be p r o v i d e d . T h e s i m p l e s t s t a n d a r d s r e la te t h e n u m b e r o f 333
p a r k i n g s p a c e s to t h e to ta l a r e a o f s e llin g sp a c e . T h u s a n
o ld e r u r b a n c e n te r , b u i l t at h i g h d e n s i t y a n d d r a w i n g t r a d e
f r o m t r a n s i t p a s s e n g e r s , m a y b e c o n t e n t e d w i t h as little as
th r e e p a r k i n g s p a c e s p e r 1 0 0 0 s q u a r e feet o f s e llin g a r e a . A
r e g io n a l s h o p p i n g c e n te r , d e p e n d i n g o n a u t o m o b i l e t r a d e
d r a w n f r o m a w id e a re a a n d lia b le to p e a k lo a d s , w ill r e ‫־‬
q u ir e five a n d a h a l f s p a c e s p e r 1 0 0 0 s q u a r e feet, w h i c h
w ill s a tis f y th e d e m a n d s o f all b u t th e te n h o u r s o f h i g h e s t
p a r k i n g lo a d p e r y e a r. T h i s a llo w s for t h e p e a k s h o p p i n g o f
c e r t a i n h o l i d a y s s u c h as C h r i s t m a s , b u t th e r e s e r v e a r e a s ,
so o f te n e m p t y , f u r t h e r c o m p l i c a t e a c c e ss to t h e c e n t e r a n d
d e g r a d e its a p p e a r a n c e . R e s e r v e p a r k i n g o f t h is k i n d is
o f te n p u t o u t s i d e t h e a c c e ss r o a d t h a t r i n g s t h e m a i n p a r k -
in g lot. O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c e r t a i n fa c ilitie s, s u c h as
c h u r c h e s , c r e a te o f f - p e a k p a r k i n g d e m a n d s a n d c a n u s e t h e
p a r k i n g a r e a s a s s i g n e d to s to r e s . S o m e s h a r i n g w i t h office
b u i l d i n g s is a lso p o s s ib le . O n e r u le is t h a t office s p a c e u p to
20 p e r c e n t o f t h e s e llin g a r e a m a y b e a d d e d w i t h o u t p r o v i d -
in g a d d i t i o n a l p a r k i n g .
T he farth est p a rk in g spaces sh o u ld be no m o re th a n
6 0 0 feet f r o m t h e s e llin g a r e a , a n d th e s e w ill b e u s e d o n l y a t
p e a k s a le s p e r i o d s . E v e r y d a y p a r k i n g w o r k s b e s t if p la c e d
w i t h i n 3 0 0 feet o f th e s e llin g a re a . It s h o u l d b e p o s s ib le to
h a v e a g e n e r a l v i e w o f t h e lo t o n e n t r a n c e a n d to m o v e
t h r o u g h it s y s t e m a t i c a l l y w h i l e l o c a t i n g a p a r k i n g sp a c e .
W h e r e l a n d is c r a m p e d o r c o s tly , in o r d e r to m i n i m i z e t h e
c a r - t o ‫־‬s t o r e d i s t a n c e , o r to d i s t r i b u t e s h o p p e r s to a tw o - le v e l
c e n te r , m u ltile v e l d e c k p a r k i n g m a y b e u s e d . It m a y a lso b e
p o s s ib le to d e p r e s s t h e levels o f p a r k i n g lo ts b y a fe w feet so
as to r e d u c e t h e i r v i s u a l d o m i n a n c e .
S in c e p a r k i n g t u r n o v e r is r a p i d a n d c u s t o m e r s a re
o f te n e n t e r i n g c a r s w i t h b u l k y p a c k a g e s , p a r k i n g s p a c e s
s h o u l d b e g e n e r o u s l y sized. A s m u c h as 4 0 0 s q u a r e feet p e r
c a r m a y b e p r o v i d e d for lo ts, e x c lu s iv e o f m a i n c i r c u l a t i o n , in
p r e l i m i n a r y la y o u ts . F 0 V t h e p a r k i n g m a n e u v e r , 4 5 - o r
6 0 - d e g r e e p a r k i n g is e a s ie s t, b u t it r e q u i r e s a c o n f u s i n g
a n d u n e n f o r c e a b l e o n e - w a y flo w s y s t e m t h a t 9 0 - d e g r e e
p a r k i n g a v o id s. P a r k i n g lo ts s h o u l d b e d iv i d e d i n t o a r e a s o f
n o m o r e t h a n 8 0 0 c a rs , e a c h id e n tif ia b le a n d l i g h t e d to 1 V2
to 2 f o o tc a n d le s . T h e r e s h o u l d b e w a l k w a y s , a n d t h e s e w a l k -
w a y s a n d th e aisles s h o u l d p o i n t t o w a r d t h e c e n te r . D r i v e r s
w ill w a n t to g e t n e a r t h e i r p o i n t o f first p u r c h a s e o r to p ic k
u p h e a v y p a c k a g e s . P a r k i n g a r e a s v is u a lly " o p p o s i t e " s to r e s
(in d i s t i n c t i o n to c o r n e r a r e a s t h a t s e e m r e m o t e ) w ill be fa-
 334 v o r e d d e s p i t e a c t u a l l o n g e r w a l k i n g d is t a n c e s . S u r f a c e
p a r k i n g w ill b e p r e f e r r e d to t h e m y s t e r i e s a n d c o n f i n e d m a -
n e u v e r s o f d e c k s a n d g a r a g e s , a n d so t h e d e c k e n t r a n c e
r a m p s m a y b e d e s i g n e d to le a d a d r i v e r in u n w i t t i n g l y .
T h e r e w ill b e c o n s i d e r a b l e c ir c u l a t i o n w i t h i n t h e lots. For
t h is p u r p o s e , r i n g r o a d s a r e p u t a t t h e o u t e r e d g e a n d a lso
t h r o u g h t h e m i d d l e o r a t t h e i n n e r e d g e o f t h e lots. T h e p a t -
t e r n w o r k s b e s t if t h e y o c c u r a t t h e i n n e r e d g e , b u t t h e y
f o r m a m a j o r b a r r i e r fo r t h e p e d e s t r i a n to c r o s s , a d i l e m m a as
yet unso lv ed . Food m a rk e ts req u ire c o n c e n tra te d p a rk in g
n e a r t h e m , as w e ll as p i c k u p s t a t i o n s .
T h e c i r c u l a t o r y s y s t e m m u s t t a k e tra ffic o f t h e p u b lic
r o a d s i n t o t h e lo ts a n d h a v e s u f f ic ie n t l e n g t h so t h a t tra ffic
c a n s lo w d o w n g r a d u a l l y a n d n o t b a c k u p o n t o t h e h i g h w a y
itself. T h e p e a k lo a d s a r e h i g h e r a t e x it t h a n a t e n t r a n c e ,
a n d a t c lo s in g t i m e e m p l o y e e s a n d s h o p p e r s m a y le a v e
w i t h i n o n e - h a l f h o u r , a l t h o u g h s t o r e c lo s in g s c a n b e s t a g -
g e r e d to s p r e a d it o u t o v e r a full h o u r . E xit a n d f e e d e r r o a d s
m u s t b e siz e d to ta k e t h e i m p a c t o f t h e e x p e c te d p e a k e m p -
t y i n g r a te . D i s c h a r g e o f t h e lo t o n t o m o r e t h a n o n e r o a d is a
d i s t i n c t a d v a n t a g e , b u t s h o p p e r s p r e f e r to e n t e r a n d ex it at
t h e s a m e pla c e . S e rv ic e tra ffic s h o u l d b r a n c h a w a y f r o m
p a s s e n g e r tra ffic as fa r f r o m t h e c e n t e r p r o p e r a s p o s s ib le . A
s h o p p i n g c e n t e r m a y h a v e o n e t r u c k p e r d a y for e v e r y 4 0 0 0
s q u a r e feet o f s e llin g a r e a , a n d m o r e in t h e c a se o f s u p e r -
m a r k e t s . A s m u c h as 1 0 to 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e d a i l y t r u c k v o l-
u m e m a y a c c u m u l a t e a t a n y o n e tim e . T o s t r e n g t h e n v is u a l
i d e n t i t y f r o m t h e h i g h w a y , t h e d e s i g n e r w ill u s e s ta c k s ,
w a t e r t o w e r s , s ig n s , f la g p o le s, a n d ta ll b u i l d i n g s for l a n d -
m arks. T h e c h a ra c ter of the skyline from the ro ad , in c lu d in g
th e i n t r u s i o n o f s t r u c t u r e s o n t h e ro o f, m u s t b e c o n t r o l l e d .
T h e i n t e r v e n i n g se a o f p a r k i n g is p l a y e d d o w n as m u c h as
p o s s ib le .
Environm ental T h e d e s i g n e r o f a s h o p p i n g c e n te r u s u a l l y h a s s o m e
detail s c o p e for a d o r n m e n t , sin c e t h e c e n t e r is n o r m a l l y u n d e r u n i -
fied c o n t r o l , t h e l o c a t i o n a l v a lu e s c r e a t e d a re c o n c e n t r a t e d
a n d h i g h , a n d t h e r e is a s t r o n g e c o n o m i c m o t i v e fo r d i s p l a y
a n d for a h a n d s o m e e n v i r o n m e n t . S p e c ia l l a n d s c a p i n g a n d
p a v i n g c a n b e ju s tif ie d , as w e ll as c a re fu l a t t e n t i o n to o u t -
d o o r f u r n i t u r e a n d o t h e r d e ta il, t h e u se o f c o lo r, s c u l p t u r e ,
f o u n t a i n s , a n d s p e c ia l d is p l a y s , a n d th e i n c l u s i o n o f facili-
ties s u c h as o u t d o o r r e s t a u r a n t s , k io s k s , r e s t i n g p la c e s , a u d i -
t o r i u m s , m e e t i n g r o o m s , e x h i b i t sp a c e , lib r a r ie s , a n d n u r s e r -
ies o r p l a y a r e a s fo r c h i l d r e n . S ig n s a re c a r e f u lly c o o r d i n a t e d
for h a r m o n y a n d le g ib i l i t y so t h a t t h e y a ls o b e c o m e o r n a -
 335

Figure 5 3 The
Merceria, Ven-
ice. Congested
but dramatic, the
display windows
are at arm's
reach.

mental. An orderly architectural framework for the individ-

ual storefronts is created.
The sequence of interior spaces is proportioned to give a
sense of intimacy, contrast, and activity. Covering the shop- Interior m alls
ping mall not only permits an equable clim ate— warm in
winter and cool in sum m er— and the use of special plants,
birds, sounds, and odors but allows stores and their goods to
open directly onto the pedestrian street. The center is
thereby further isolated from its context, however. Store-
fronts should not be too far apart. Their contents ought to be
visible in detail on both sides of any pedestrian way, except
where an open space is inserted which is itself to be the cen-
ter of attention. On the other hand, depending on the num-
 336 b e r o f s h o p p e r s , s p a c e s s h o u l d n o t b e so t i g h t as to feel c o n -
g e s te d o r o p p r e s s i v e . A p e d e s t r i a n s tr e e t 35 to 45 feet w id e
is lik e ly to b e a b o u t r i g h t . T h e s h o p p i n g m a ll s h o u l d n o t b e so
lo n g as to d i s c o u r a g e m o v e m e n t f r o m o n e e n d to t h e o t h e r ,
a n d in la r g e c e n t e r s it w ill b e p r e f e r a b l e to u se " s i d e
s t r e e t s " a n d o t h e r d e v ic e s to k e e p t h e s e llin g a r e a c o m p a c t.
T w o - l e v e l s h o p p i n g s t r e e t s a r e s o m e t i m e s u s e d to b r i n g th e
s to r e s c lo s e r to g e t h e r . T h e t w o levels m a y b e p u t a h a l f level
a b o v e a n d b e l o w t h e p a r k i n g g r a d e to m i n i m i z e t h e c lim b or
d e s c e n t , a n d e s c a l a t o r s m a y be e m p l o y e d . B e c a u s e it is dif-
ficult to i n d u c e s h o p p e r s to c h a n g e level, o n e level m a y be
f a v o r e d a n d t h e o t h e r o n e " d e a d . " F or t h i s r e a s o n , p a r k i n g
m a y a lso b e s p lit i n to t w o levels, w i t h n o m o r e t h a n 6 0 p e r -
c e n t b e i n g a s s i g n e d to o n e level, a n d t h a t to t h e level p o t e n -
tia lly th e m o s t in a c tiv e . S h o p p i n g m a g n e t s w ill a ls o b e d is-
t r i b u t e d to e v e n o u t t h e fo o t traffic.
Future grow th T h e p l a n s h o u l d a l l o w fo r f u t u r e g r o w t h , b u t n o t b y
l e a v i n g g a p s a t t h e c e n t e r . P r i m a r y s t o r e s , f ix e d in l o c a t i o n ,
w ill p r o b a b ly g r o w v e r tic a lly . O th e r sto r e s w ill b e a d d e d at
t h e p e r i p h e r y . L o c a t i o n s m a y b e le f t fo r a d d i n g n e w c r o s s
m a lls , w ith new p r im a r y s t o r e s a t t h e ir e n d s . S t r u c t u r e s
a n d u t i l i t i e s m u s t b e s i z e d fo r t h i s e x p a n s i o n . R i g h t s - o f - w a y
b e l o w g r o u n d a n d in t h e a ir m a y b e r e s e r v e d to p e r m it a f u -
t u r e c i r c u l a t i o n s y s t e m in t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s ; l e v e l s a n d m o d -
u la r s p a c i n g s c a n b e c o o r d i n a t e d t o p e r m i t e a s y r e m o d e l -
in g . S u r f a c e p a r k i n g a r e a s a r e d e s i g n e d a n d h e ld t o p e r m it
g r a d u a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e ir a ir r i g h t s fo r p a r k i n g d e c k s
a n d fu r th e r s tr u c tu r e s . B u t a la r g e e x p a n s io n m a y b e m e t
m o r e e ffic ie n tly b y b u ild in g a n o th e r c e n te r , r a th e r th a n b y
c o n t i n u o u s a d d i t i o n to t h e o r i g i n a l u n it . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t
m u s t b e a b le t o o p e r a t e a s a c o m p a c t w h o l e f r o m t h e b e g i n -
n in g , w ith o u t d e p e n d in g on fu tu r e a d d itio n s . S im ila r ly ,
e a c h f u t u r e s t a g e m u s t b e a w o r k a b l e u n it .
T h e r e g i o n a l s h o p p i n g c e n t e r is a h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d
d e v i c e fo r s e l l i n g g o o d s w i t h c o n v e n i e n c e a n d p r o f it . G i v e n
t h e m o t i v e s , t h e s i t e p l a n n i n g fo r t h e s e c e n t e r s is a s a d -
v a n c e d a n d a s s o l i d l y b a s e d o n b e h a v i o r a s a n y d o n e in t h e
U n ite d S ta te s to d a y . T h e c e n tr a l m a lls o f th e n e w e s t c e n te r s
a r e m a r v e ls o f c o m f o r t a n d d e l i g h t , t h o u g h a l s o s o m e w h a t
u n r e a l a n d e v e n o p p r e s s i v e in t h e ir m a t e r ia l d i s p l a y . B u ilt
fo r s e l l i n g , t h e s e c e n t e r s a r e a l s o b e c o m i n g t h e s o c i a l f o c u s e s
fo r la r g e s u b u r b a n r e g i o n s . C o n s c i e n t i o u s d e v e l o p e r s a r e
t r y i n g t o a d a p t t h e m to t h i s n e w r o l e , b u t it is s t i l l u n c e r t a in
if t h e y c a n b e s u c c e s s f u l l y s o m o d if ie d w i t h i n t h e i n s t i t u -
tio n a l s e ttin g th a t c r e a te d th e m .
 The o ld e r cen tra l s h o p p in g and b u s in e s s d is t r ic ts , 337
ham pered b y fr a g m e n te d o w n e r s h ip , a s c a r c ity o f sp a c e ,
c o m p le x e x is t in g s tr u c tu r e s a n d h ig h la n d v a lu e s , b u t w it h O lder shoppin g
som e a d v a n ta g e s o f tr a d itio n a l d o m in a n c e , u s e m ix t u r e , districts
t r a n s it a c c e s s i b i l i t y , a n d h is to r ic a s s o c ia t io n , are d e s p e r -
a t e l y s e e k i n g to u s e s o m e o f t h e s a m e d e v i c e s a s t h e n e w r e -
g io n a l c e n te r s . A t s u b s t a n t ia l e x p e n s e , t h e o ld c e n te r s a re Reference 63
b e in g r e b u ilt w it h p u b lic p la z a s , e n c lo s e d m a lls , a r c a d e s ,
e s c a la to r s , u p p e r -le v e l p e d e s tr ia n c o n n e c tio n s , and in te -
g r a te d p a r k in g s tr u c tu r e s . T h e r e s u lt in g s it e p la n s a re c o m -
p l e x , y e t o f t e n r a t h e r b a r r e n a n d f o r m a l in c h a r a c t e r . T h e
b e s t e x a m p l e s r e t a in t h e m ix t u r e o f u s e s a n d a s e n s e o f t h e
p a st, a n d th e y c a p ita liz e o n th e h u m a n v it a lit y o f a n e s -
ta b lis h e d d o w n t o w n . T h e y fit w a l k w a y s , s u b w a y s , c o r r i -
d o r s, e le v a t o r s , a n d e s c a la t o r s in t o o n e in te g r a t e d m o v e m e n t
sy ste m . T h e y m a k e w a lk in g a p le a s u r e , u s in g se a ts, ar-
c a d e s , r a d ia n t h e a t , d i s p l a y s , a n d p r o x i m i t y t o l i v e l y a c t i v -
it y . T h e r e a r e s o m e r a t h e r s i m p l e r u le s , fo r e x a m p l e , t o e n -
su r e th a t a c e n tr a l p u b lic o p e n s p a c e w ill b e a c t iv e ly u s e d
a n d e n j o y e d . It m u s t h a v e a g o o d m i c r o c l i m a t e a n d b e a c o m -
f o r t a b le p l a c e t o s it a n d t a lk . It m u s t b e c l o s e t o h e a v y p e d e s -
t r ia n f l o w a n d c o m m e r c i a l a c t i v i t y , t h a t is , b e a t t h e v e r y
e d g e o f t h e a c t i o n ; y e t it m u s t c o n v e y a s e n s e o f a p r o t e c t e d
a n d i n t i m a t e t e r r it o r y . M o s t d o w n t o w n p l a n s a r e s o p h i s t i -
c a t e d in t h e ir m a n a g e m e n t o f t r a f f ic o r t h e p l a c i n g o f b u i l d -
i n g s fo r p r o f it o r p r e s t i g e . T h e y a r e m o r e i n e p t , h o w e v e r , in
p r o v i d i n g fo r t h e a c t i v e u s e o f t h e ir d e c o r a t i v e o p e n s p a c e s .
A n o t h e r t y p e o f c o m m e r c i a l d e v e l o p m e n t is a s im p o r - C om m ercial
ta n t as th e n e w s h o p p in g c e n t e r b u t is u n i v e r s a l l y c o n - strips
d e m n e d : t h e h i g h w a y c o m m e r c i a l s t r ip . I n it s g a u d y c o n f u -
s i o n , it s e e m s t o s y m b o l i z e t h e w o r s t o f o u r m a t e r ia l c u lt u r e .
C r i t i c s a l w a y s s a v e r o o m fo r a p h o t o g r a p h o f it in t h e ir b o o k s
a n d a r t i c l e s . U n d o u b t e d l y , it is u g l y , v i s u a l l y d o m i n e e r i n g ,
a n e x t e n d e d t r a f fic h a z a r d . L o c a l g o v e r n m e n t s a n d h i g h -
w a y a u t h o r i t i e s w o r k h a r d to p r e v e n t o r c o n f i n e it. Y e t it c o n -
t i n u e s to f l o u r i s h , fo r it h a s a n i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n . It is t h e
p r e f e r r e d l o c a t i o n fo r t h o s e a u t o m o b i l e - o r i e n t e d , s p e c i a l c o m -
m e r c ia l f u n c t i o n s t h a t n e e d c h e a p s p a c e a n d m u s t b e e a s y
t o fin d : t h e d r i v e - i n s , t h e r e p a ir g a r a g e s , t h e c a r s a l e s , a n d
a ll t h e r e s t . T h e y w a n t v iv id l e g i b i l i t y a n d d ir e c t a c c e s s
f r o m t h e h i g h w a y , p a r k i n g a t t h e d o o r , l o w - c o s t la n d a n d
b u i l d i n g s , a n d t h e a b i l i t y to c h a n g e a n d g r o w q u i c k l y . F or
th e con su m er, th e y are a great c o n v e n ie n c e , and t h e ir
g a u d y s i g n s h a v e a s p ir i t o f t e n la c k i n g in m o r e c o n t r o l l e d
d e v e l o p m e n t . B u t t h e ir i n s t a n t a c c e s s d i s r u p t s t h r o u g h t r a f-
 338 fic, a n d t h e i r v is u a l c h a o s d e f e a ts t h e i r o w n g o a l o f q u ic k rec-
o g n i t i o n . B y t h e a g g r e s s iv e w a y in w h i c h t h e y u r g e t h e m -
se lv e s o n all p a s s e r s b y , t h e y se t t h e d o m i n a n t t o n e fo r t h e
landscape.
L ik e t h e t r a i l e r c a m p , h e r e is a n o t h e r i m p o r t a n t u se
t h a t n e e d s s i t e - p l a n n i n g a t t e n t i o n . O n e t h i n k s o f sp e c ia l
b y p a s s r o u t e s o r l o o p s p a r t i c u l a r l y d e v o t e d to th e s e r o a d -
h u g g i n g a c tiv itie s , o f w a y s o f d e s i g n i n g t h o s e r o a d s to p e r -
m i t f r e q u e n t a c c e s s w i t h o u t d i s r u p t i o n , o f t h e u s e o f s ig n s to
i n c r e a s e t h e le g ib i l i t y a n d t h e g a i e t y o f t h e sc e n e , t h a t is, o f
a d e s i g n b a s e d o n t h e a c t u a l b e h a v i o r o f t h e d r i v e r as h e
se e k s , lo c a te s , d r iv e s in, p a r k s , a n d e n t e r s t h e c o m m e r c i a l
p r e m i s e s . L i g h t i n g , s u p e r g r a p h i c s , a r tif ic a l t o p o g r a p h y ,
a n d p l a n t i n g c a n all b e e m p l o y e d i n n e w w a y s to m a k e t h is
act a p le a s a n t one. By c o n s is te n tly n eg lectin g th e c o m m o n -
p la c e e n v i r o n m e n t , site p l a n n i n g r e l e g a t e s its e lf to th e o c c a -
s i o n a l p la c e : t h e c a m p u s , t h e d o w n t o w n p la z a , o r t h e " c u l -
tural c e n te r."
In d u strial L ike t h e r e g i o n a l s h o p p i n g c e n te r , t h e o r g a n i z e d in -
D is tr ic ts d u s t r i a l d i s t r i c t is a r e l a t i v e l y n e w t y p e o f d e v e l o p m e n t . In -
d u s t r i e s o f m o d e r a t e siz e n o w p r e f e r to c l u s t e r t o g e t h e r for
r e a s o n s o f a c c e s s a n d s e rv ic e , fo r p r o t e c t i o n , for p r e s tig e , to
References 62, 64 a v o id c o m p l a i n t , o r to o b t a i n a d e q u a t e site s. B u t t h e r e h a s
b e e n less r e f i n e m e n t o f t h e t e c h n i q u e o f s i t i n g i n d u s t r i a l
u se s. Y et i n d u s t r i a l l a y o u t s a ffe c t t h e e ffic ie n c y o f t h e eco-
n o m ic base, th e daily e n v iro n m e n t of a s u b sta n tia l percen t-
a g e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , a n d t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e c ity as a
w h o le .
In d u stria l d istricts req u ire su b sta n tia l areas of m o d e r-
a t e l y flat a n d i n e x p e n s i v e l a n d t h a t c a n s u p p o r t h e a v y
lo a d s . H o u s i n g fo r e m p l o y e e s s h o u l d b e w i t h i n c o m m u t i n g
r a n g e , b u t t h e d i s t r i c t its e lf s h o u l d lie to t h e l e e w a r d o f
n e a r b y h o u s i n g a r e a s a n d in s u c h a p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e traffic
it w ill g e n e r a t e w ill n o t d i s t u r b t h o s e a r e a s . D i s t r i c t s r a n g e
u p w a r d in size f r o m 5 0 a c re s , w i t h a n a v e r a g e n e a r 4 0 0 o r
5 0 0 a c re s. O v e r s i z e d i s t r i c t s m a y b e d iffic u lt to r e la te to
o t h e r u s e s , w h ile d i s t r i c t s t h a t a r e to o s m a ll m a y be u n e c o -
n o m i c a l to s e rv e effic ie n tly . T h e r e is n o r e a s o n , f r o m a p l a n -
n in g v ie w p o in t, w h y lig h t in d u s try m a y n o t be m ix ed m ore
i n t i m a t e l y w i t h o t h e r u se s, g iv e n a d e q u a t e c o n t r o l s o v e r
n o is e a n d o t h e r e m i s s i o n s a n d su f f ic ie n t s e p a r a t e access. Yet
h o m e o w n e r s a r e t r a d i t i o n a l l y a v e r s e to i n d u s t r y lo c a te d
n e a r b y , a n d i n d u s t r y p r e f e r s to b e s e p a r a t e to a v o id t h e p o s-
s i b ility o f r e s i d e n t i a l c o m p l a i n t s . T h u s t h e e n v i r o n m e n t b e-
c o m e s i n c r e a s i n g l y s e g r e g a t e d a n d v i s u a l l y m o r e sterile.
 G o o d a c c e s s is t h e p r im a r y r e q u i r e m e n t fo r i n d u s t r y , 33 9
p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s fo r t r u c k s a n d fo r w o r k e r s A ccess to
c o m in g b y p r iv a te car. A lt h o u g h m o s t s m a ll a n d m e d iu m - industrial
s iz e d i n d u s t r i e s t o d a y m a k e l i t t l e u s e o f r a il s e r v i c e a n d districts
m a n y d i s t r i c t s a r e n o w o r i e n t e d o n l y t o h i g h w a y s , it is s t i l l
d e s i r a b l e t o l o c a t e a d i s t r i c t o n a r a il l i n e t o p r e s e r v e f l e x i b i l -
i t y o f s e r v i c e fo r f u t u r e t e n a n t s . S o m e e s t a t e s a r e l o c a t e d
n e x t t o a ir p o r t s , in r e s p o n s e t o t h e g r o w i n g i m p o r t a n c e o f a ir
f r e i g h t . In a t l e a s t o n e d i s t r i c t , t h e f a c t o r i e s a r e s e r v e d d i-
r e c tly by a ir p o r t ru n w ays. D is tr ic ts are o fte n fa r fro m
p u b lic tr a n s p o r ta tio n , a lth o u g h bus lin e s m ay la t e r be
r o u ted n ea r th e m . B u t th e te n d e n c y o f in d u s tr y to b e c o m e
m o r e a n d m o r e d e p e n d e n t o n th e tr u c k a n d th e p r iv a te a u to -
m o b i l e m a y in t h e e n d p r o v e s h o r t s i g h t e d . In s o m e l o c a l i t i e s ,
p a r tic u la r ly a b r o a d , w o r k e r s m a y c o m e p r im a r ily o n fo o t, o n
b ic y c le s , o r b y p u b lic tr a n s p o r t.
I n d u s t r i a l d i s t r i c t s a re t y p i c a l l y la id o u t w i t h a g r i d - D istrict layout
ir o n o f r o a d s t h a t e n c lo s e la rg e b lo c k s 1 0 0 0 to 2 0 0 0 feet lo n g
a n d 5 0 0 to 1 0 0 0 feet d e e p . If t h e r e is r a il s e rv ic e , t h e t r a c k s
u s u a l l y r u n t h r o u g h t h e m i d - b l o c k , p a r a l l e l to t h e l o n g axis.
T h u s i n d i v i d u a l p l o t s c a n h a v e a s t r e e t in f r o n t a n d a ra il
lin e b e h i n d . T h e p l o t s s h o u l d b e f r o m 2 0 0 to 5 0 0 feet d e e p ,
w i t h g r a d e s n o t e x c e e d i n g 4 o r 5 p e r c e n t . W h e r e ra il s p u r s
a re p r o v i d e d , t h e y s h o u l d b e g iv e n a 4 0 - f o o t r i g h t - o f - w a y ,
have a m a x im u m g ra d e of 1 or 2 percen t, an d a c u rv a tu re
w i t h n o g r e a t e r t h a n a 4 0 0 - f o o t r a d i u s . S p u r s ty p i c a l l y d i-
v e r g e a t s m a ll a n g le s . In t h e r o a d s y s t e m , la n e s m u s t b e o f
a m p l e size, r i g h t s - o f - w a y b r o a d (8 0 to 1 0 0 feet fo r m a j o r
r o a d s , a n d 60 feet f o r s e c o n d a r y o n e s ) , a n d d o c k s a n d t u r n s
m u s t a c c o m m o d a t e t h e la r g e t r a c t o r tr a ile r s . It is d e s i r a b l e
to s e p a r a t e t r u c k c i r c u l a t i o n f r o m t h e g e n e r a l c i r c u l a t i o n o f
p a s s e n g e r c a r s as m u c h as p o s s i b l e w i t h i n t h e d is tr ic t.
C r o s s i n g s w i t h t h e ra il lin e s s h o u l d b e m i n i m i z e d . S e p a r a t e
cycle p a t h s s h o u l d b e la id o u t if t h is is a s i g n i f i c a n t m o d e o f
em ployee tra n s p o rt.
I f l e g a l l y p o s s i b l e , t h e f r o n t a g e is a s s i g n e d o n l y t o i n d i -
v i d u a l t e n a n t s a t t h e t im e o f s a l e o r le a s e . T h e l o t s m a y
r a n g e in s i z e f r o m a h a l f a c r e to 4 0 o r 50 a c r e s . W h e r e p o s s i -
b le , fa c to r ie s a re g r o u p e d t o g e th e r if t h e y h a v e s im ila r s p a c e
r e q u ir e m e n t s , o r s i m i l a r l o c a t i o n a l d e m a n d s ( r a ilr o a d or
c a n a l a c c e s s ) , o r s p e c i a l u t i l i t y n e e d s , o r i f t h e y e m i t p a r t ic -
u la r n u i s a n c e s . S p e c i a l lo a d s a r e l i k e l y to b e im p o s e d o n t h e
u t i l i t y s y s t e m , a n d t h e r u le s o f t h u m b fo r r e s i d e n t i a l a r e a s
c a n n o t b e u se d . P o w e r , w a te r , a n d s e w a g e d is p o s a l o f h ig h
c a p a c i t y w i l l p r o b a b l y b e r e q u ir e d . T h e s e a r e t h e p r i o r i t y
 340 s e r v i c e s , w h o s e d e m a n d is v a r i a b l e a n d d if f i c u l t to e s t i m a t e .
P r o v i s i o n s fo r w a s t e d i s p o s a l o r r e c y c l i n g w i l l b e c o m e m o r e
d e m a n d in g as e n v ir o n m e n ta l sta n d a r d s r is e , a s th e y m u st.
O th e r s p e c ia l u tilitie s — g as, stea m , co m p ressed a ir —
m a y a ls o b e w a n te d .
S o m e g e n e r a l - p u r p o s e f a c t o r y b u i l d i n g s m a y be
e r e c te d b e f o r e t e n a n t s a r e f o u n d , to p r o v i d e for s m a l l o r g r o w -
in g f irm s u n a b l e to p l a n for, o r i n v e s t in , t h e i r o w n p l a n t .
S u c h s p e c u l a t i v e b u i l d i n g s a r e ty p i c a l l y s im p le , h ig h - c e il-
in g e d , o n e - s t o r y s t r u c t u r e s , m a d e u p of 3 0 - to 4 0 - f o o t s q u a r e
b a y s , d e s ig n e d for h i g h floor l o a d s a n d li g h t r o o f lo a d s. P la n -
n i n g , f in a n c i n g , a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o r s u p p l y se rv ic e s m a y be
e x t e n d e d to all p l a n t s in t h e e s ta te .
D ensity o f M o s t i n d u s t r i e s w a n t to a s s u r e t h e m s e l v e s o f r o o m for
industrial areas f u t u r e g r o w t h a n d w ill b u y p l o t s s u b s t a n t i a l l y la r g e r t h a n
im m e d i a t e l y n e e d e d . T h e r e a r e a ls o la r g e o p e n - l a n d u se s,
su c h as sto ra g e a n d car p a rk in g . B uildings are g en erally
o n e - s t o r y h i g h to a l l o w e a s y h o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t o f m a t e -
r ia ls. T h u s i n d u s t r i a l e s t a t e s t e n d to b e w a s t e f u l o f l a n d ,
a n d w h e r e l a n d is s c a rc e , o r w h e r e d e v e l o p m e n t c o s ts a r e
h i g h , g o v e r n m e n t s a n d e s t a t e m a n a g e m e n t s t r y to p r e v e n t
u n d e r b u i l d i n g . E x p a n s i o n l a n d m a y b e r e s e r v e d , for a g r o u p
o f fa c to r ie s , fo r e x a m p l e , r a t h e r t h a n fo r e a c h o n e s in g ly . B u t
flo o r a r e a r a t i o s t e n d to b e lo w , r a n g i n g f r o m 0.1 to 0.3 , w i t h
0.2 as a lik e ly a v e r a g e . D e n s i t y o f e m p l o y e e s p e r a c r e w ill
a ls o b e l o w in th e s e n e w i n d u s t r i a l a r e a s , r a n g i n g f r o m 10 to
3 0 w o r k e r s p e r a cre. T h e s e a r e U n i t e d S t a t e s n o r m s ; in
o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e r e is g r e a t e r p r e s s u r e o n t h e l a n d ,
for e x a m p l e , in E n g l a n d o r in c e n t r a l u r b a n a r e a s , flo o r a r e a
r a t i o s m a y c o m e c lo s e r to 0.5 , a n d e m p l o y e e d e n s i t y to 50 to
75 w o r k e r s p e r a c re , w h i l e t o t a l e s t a t e siz e m a y lie in th e
5 0 ‫ ־‬to 1 5 0 - a c r e r a n g e .
P arking E x t e n s i v e p a r k i n g s p a c e w i l l b e n e e d e d fo r w o r k e r s '
c a r s . C o n s i d e r i n g s o m e d o u b l i n g u p , it is p e r h a p s e n o u g h to
a l l o w o n e c a r s p a c e fo r e v e r y 1 .2 w o r k e r s , b u t s o m e p l a n n e r s
p r e f e r t h e m o r e g e n e r o u s f ig u r e o f o n e s p a c e f o r e a c h w o r k e r .
S i n c e o n e s h i f t a r r iv e s b e f o r e a n o t h e r l e a v e s , s p a c e s m u s t
u n f o r t u n a t e l y b e a d e q u a t e fo r t w o s h i f t s o f e m p l o y e e s a t o n e
t im e . T h e p r o b l e m o f e x i t c o n g e s t i o n a t s h i f t t i m e w i l l b e
s e r io u s , a n d th e c a p a c ity o f in te r c h a n g e s a n d e x its m u s t b e
c h e c k e d to s e e t h a t t h e y w i l l p e r m i t t h i s f l o w . A n e t w o r k o f
s e c o n d a r y r o a d s w h i c h p e r m i t s q u ic k d i s p e r s i o n o f t h e c o n -
c e n t r a t e d lo a d is p r e f e r a b le to a s i n g l e h i g h - c a p a c i t y h i g h -
w a y . S t a g g e r i n g o f s h i f t h o u r s w i l l a l s o h e lp . T h e s e p e a k
f lo w s o f w o r k e r s ' c a r s h a v e b e c o m e th e p r in c ip a l c o n flic t b e -
 tw e e n i n d u s t r i a l a n d r e s i d e n t i a l u ses, in p la c e o f t h e t r a d i ‫־‬ 341
tio n a l n u i s a n c e s o f n o is e , s m o k e , a n d d irt.
S in c e a l m o s t all d r i v e r s a r e d e s t i n e d for o n e p a r t i c u l a r
l o c a tio n w e ll k n o w n to t h e m , p a r k i n g p la c e s m a y be m o r e
d i s p e r s e d t h a n in a s h o p p i n g c e n t e r a n d m o r e c lo s e ly re-
la te d to th e a c tu a l p o i n t o f w o r k . D a y l o n g p a r k e r s c a n a ls o be
a s k e d to w a l k f a r t h e r to t h e i r c a rs t h a n s h o r t - t e r m p a r k e r s .
T h e m a x i m u m d i s t a n c e f r o m c a r to p l a n t m a y b e n e a r 1 0 0 0
feet r a t h e r t h a n th e m a x i m u m o f 3 0 0 to 6 0 0 feet for a s h o p -
p i n g c e n te r . D e s p i t e all th is , i n t e r n a l c i r c u l a t i o n in t h e d is-
tr ic t s h o u l d h a v e a s i m p l e a n d u n d e r s t a n d a b l e f o r m so t h a t
traffic d i s p e r s e s q u i c k l y to its d e s t i n a t i o n a n d v i s i t o r s a re
n o t c o n f u s e d . C l e a r v is u a l i d e n t i t y for d i s t r i c t e x its a n d
e n t r a n c e s is i m p o r t a n t a n d c a n b e a c c o m p l i s h e d t h r o u g h
l a r g e - s c a le l a n d s c a p i n g o r v e r tic a l f e a tu r e s . T h e a b i l i t y to
c o n t r o l o r c h e c k m o v e m e n t a t th e s e g a t e s m a y a ls o be s ig n ifi-
c a n t.
A s a d a i l y e n v i r o n m e n t for e m p l o y e e s , th e s e w o r k i n g E m ployee
a r e a s s u ffe r f r o m is o la tio n . T h e y a r e la r g e a n d s e a le d in ; services
t h e r e a re n o i n d e p e n d e n t lo cal f a c ilitie s to s e r v e e m p l o y e e s ,
o r to g iv e s o m e re lie f f r o m th e f a c t o r y r o u t i n e . It is n o t u n u -
su a l n o w to p r o v i d e s e rv ic e s u s e f u l to t h e i n d u s t r i e s t h e m -
selv es, s u c h as b a n k s , p o s t offices, i n d u s t r i a l a d v i s o r y s e rv -
ices, r e p a i r s h o p s , a n d fire s t a t i o n s . It w o u l d a ls o b e p o s s i b l e
to i n t r o d u c e s to r e s , r e s t a u r a n t s , b a r s , p a r k s , s c h o o ls , c r e c h e s ,

Figure 54 A typical industrial estate: New England Industrial Center , N eedham ,

Massachusetts. Low , bulky buildings on flat land in an irregular gridiron , visible from
the expressway but disassociated from their surroundings.
C ab ot, C ab ot an d Forbes
 TtuiticrlBallimarc
Figure 55 A more recent industrial area in the new town o f Columbia, Maryland.
A few o f the trees are preserved, but otherwise the featureless buildings are sur-
rounded by grass and asphalt parking lots.

libraries, medical clinics, hospitals, bus terminals, or places

of recreation. The grounds should be attractive places in
which to walk and spend lunch hours or other leisure peri-
ods. Parks or recreation grounds must be planned to resist
the inevitable pressure for subsequent industrial expansion.
Visual quality Visually the contemporary industrial district is char‫־‬
in w o r k i n g acterless, even though the individual buildings may be
areas com petently designed and cosmetic landscaping has been
applied. The low structures are dotted over a flat, empty
landscape, surrounded by parked cars. Grass, asphalt, and
chain-link fencing are the predominant materials. Since
the interesting industrial processes are invisible, one new
factory looks much like another. The grounds are for show or
storage rather than for active use. W hile the view from the
bordering roads is considered to be important, both for its ad-
vertising and its scenic value, the problem is usually han-
died by the use of large signs. It would be more effective to
open up the plants visually or otherwise to make them more
expressive of their internal activity. Approaches can be
made legible, and structures can even be grouped for visual
effect. S t o r a g e a n d p a r k i n g c a n be s c r e e n e d . M o r e o v e r , 343
g r o u n d s c a n b e d e v e l o p e d for a c tiv e u s e a n d p l e a s u r e r a t h e r
t h a n b e i n g t h o u g h t o f as e m p t y la n d to be m a d e d e c e n t w i t h
g r a s s . A p l a n n e d l a n d s c a p e s t r u c t u r e a n d c h a r a c t e r c a n be
i n t r o d u c e d . M o s t i n d u s t r i e s a r e in d e e d a n x i o u s t h a t d e s i g n
c o n t r o l s b e e x e r c is e d o v e r th e i r s u r r o u n d i n g s . U p to t h e p r e s -
e n t th e s e c o n t r o l s h a v e b e e n r a t h e r n e g a t i v e o n e s , d e a l i n g
w ith setbacks, coverage, p la n tin g , a n d b u ild in g m aterial.
I n d u s t r i a l a r e a s , lik e r o a d s , a r e n o t s i m p l y u n p l e a s a n t
n e c e s s itie s to be k e p t as n e a t a n d r e t i c e n t as p o s s ib le .
R o a d s , d a m s , b r i d g e s , p y l o n s , c o o l i n g t o w e r s , s ta c k s , q u a r -
ries, e v e n sp o il h e a p s , a re m a g n i f i c e n t o b je c ts if w e ll
s h a p e d . T h e y a r e b ig e n o u g h a n d m e a n i n g f u l e n o u g h to
t a k e t h e i r p l a c e in l a r g e la n d s c a p e s . T h e y e x p l a i n t h e in -
d u s t r i a l b a s i s o f o u r c i v i liz a tio n ; t h e y c o n t r a s t h a n d s o m e l y Reference 1
w i t h h ills, tr e e s , a n d la k e s. A s F a i r b r o t h e r a d v o c a t e s for
t h e B r itis h l a n d s c a p e , t h e y c o u ld w e ll be i n t e r w o v e n w i t h
th e e x te n s i v e r e c r e a t i o n a l o p e n s p a c e s w e so u r g e n t l y n e e d
o n t h e u r b a n f rin g e . V i s u a l l y c o m p l e m e n t a r y , a n d m a k i n g
j o i n t u se o f p a r k i n g lo ts a n d se rv ic e s, t h i s clo se w e a v i n g
w o u l d a lso a l l o w e m p l o y e e s to e n j o y t h e i r m o m e n t s o f le is u re .
I n s t i t u t i o n s a r e e x t r e m e l y d iv e r s e , y e t a few c o m m e n t s In stitu tio n s
c a n b e m a d e a b o u t site p l a n n i n g for t h e la r g e r o n e s : col-
leges, u n i v e r s i t i e s , h o s p i t a l s , g o v e r n m e n t a l u n i t s , a n d c u l-
tu r a l c e n te r s . S u c h a c tiv itie s a r e n o r m a l l y l o n g - liv e d as R efer en c e 57
w e ll as c o m p le x a n d e x te n s iv e , a n d w i t h t h i s c o n t i n u i t y it is
p o s s ib le to a c h ie v e e n v i r o n m e n t s o f g r e a t r i c h n e s s a n d
s t r o n g c h a r a c t e r . F or t h e m o s t p a r t t h e g r o u n d s o f A m e r i c a n
i n s t i t u t i o n s s t a n d in s h a r p c o n t r a s t to t h is p o s s ib ility . It is
a s t o n i s h i n g h o w little t h e p o p u l a r a n d r o m a n t i c c o n c e p t i o n o f
a c a m p u s c o r r e s p o n d s to its a c t u a l h a r s h n e s s a n d d i s a r r a y .
Y et w e a re in a p e r i o d o f r a p i d i n s t i t u t i o n a l g r o w t h . C a m -
p u s e s a n d h o s p i t a l s a r e o f te n t h e f a s t e s t - g r o w i n g a c tiv itie s
in t h e i r a re a . H u n d r e d s o f n e w i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e b e i n g b u ilt
f r o m s c r a tc h , a l l o w i n g u s, if w e w ill, to b r e a k c le a r o f m a n y
t r a d i t i o n a l f o r m s o f site â n d f u n c tio n .
T h e e le m e n ts , o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l site a re h i g h l y in d i- Diversity of
v id u a l. R a t h e r t h a n a r e p e a t e d se rie s o f fa c to r ie s , s to r e s , o r institutional
h o u s e s , t h e r e is a j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f c l a s s r o o m s , p u b lic m e e t i n g elements
p la c e s, offices, l i b r a r ie s , clin ic s, r e s id e n c e s , w a r d s , l a b o r a -
to rie s , m u s e u m s , c e r e m o n i a l r o o m s , s tu d ie s , a n d r e s e a r c h
a r e a s — a c o lle c tio n o f s in g u l a r i t i e s , e v e n t h o u g h r e p r e s s i v e
m o n u m e n t a l d e s i g n c a n r e d u c e all th is to b l e a k m o n o t o n y .
E ach s t r u c t u r e r e q u i r e s p a r t i c u l a r se rv ic e s a n d a p a r t i c u l a r
s itu a t i o n .
T h e d i v e r s i t y o f u se m a k e s it d iffic u lt to is o la te b a s ic
 University o f Virginia
Figure 56 One of the rare examples of a serene and ordered American campus:
the Lawn of the University of Virginia, designed by Thomas Jefferson.

Figure 57 A part of the University Circle area in Cleveland. This is the normal
condition of an urban institution: a chaotic collection of buildings besieged by cars
and with little room for growth and change.
o b je c tiv e s t h a t b e a r o n p h y s i c a l a r r a n g e m e n t . A d m i n i s t r a - 345
to rs r e s p o n d w i t h v a g u e g e n e r a litie s , c o n v i n c e d t h a t t h e r e is Institutional
n o v ita l l in k b e t w e e n t h e site p l a n a n d t h e i r e s s e n t i a l p u r - objectives
p o se s, o t h e r t h a n th e o b v i o u s r e q u i r e m e n t s for s h e l t e r a n d
access. O r t h e y m a y h o ld a c o n f lic tin g set o f o b je c tiv e s , h a p -
p ily c o n c e a le d u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g o f ,,f l e x ib ility " o r " b a l -
a n c e . " U n i v e r s i t y p r o p o s a l s r a r e l y c o n n e c t p l a n n i n g to
l e a r n i n g , n o r d o h o s p i t a l s l in k e n v i r o n m e n t to h e a l t h . M a n y
p e r s o n s v ita lly c o n c e r n e d — s t u d e n t s , p a t i e n t s , n u r s e s ,
s e c r e ta r ie s , v i s i t o r s — a r e c u s t o m a r i l y e x c lu d e d f r o m th e
s i t e - p l a n n i n g d e c is io n s . Y et th e i n s t i t u t i o n a l ca se is p r e e m i -
n e n t l y t h e o n e in w h i c h l o n g - t e r m p u r p o s e a n d p o lic y c a n be
m a d e b y t h o s e w h o a r e in v o lv e d in its c o n s e q u e n c e s , a n d
w h e r e th e s e p o lic ie s c a n be a p p l i e d m o s t n ic e ly to th e p l a n -
n i n g o f t h e p h y s i c a l sh e ll. T h e r e f o r e t h e p l a n n e r m u s t r a is e
s u c h is s u e s as i n t e n d e d b e h a v i o r , s ta f f i n t e r a c t i o n , p a t i e n t
a n d s t u d e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s , f le x ib ility , im a g e , p r i v a c y , ac-
cess, s t i m u l u s , c lim a te , c o m m u n i t y r e l a t i o n s , a n d a h o s t o f
o t h e r s . H e c a n in f la m e a n d i n f o r m t h e d e b a t e a t th e b e g i n -
n i n g b y p r e s e n t i n g p h y s i c a l a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t h a v e d ir e c t
a n d s t a r t l i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s for t h o s e po lic ie s.
T h e i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r e s o f th e i n s t i t u t i o n c o n t a i n a Institutional
fluid a n d s h i f t i n g se t o f a c tiv itie s , w i t h m a n y c o m p le x l in k - linkages
ages th ro u g h o u t the in s titu tio n a l g ro u p a n d th e c o m m u n ity
b e y o n d . A t p r e s e n t it is d iffic u lt to is o la te m o r e t h a n a fe w o f
t h e m o s t o b v i o u s o f th e s e lin k s , b u t in t h e f u t u r e th e i n t e r -
c o n n e c t i o n s m a y be s t u d i e d as a t o ta l s y s t e m . F o r n o w th e
p l a n n e r c a n m a k e o n l y a first a p p r o x i m a t i o n o f t h e a c tiv ity
a r r a n g e m e n t t h a t w ill o p t i m i z e s u c h l i n k a g e s for h is g iv e n
p u r p o s e . H e is u n d e r s t a n d a b l y p r o n e to g r o u p a c tiv itie s
a l o n g t r a d i t i o n a l lin e s, as b y u n i v e r s i t y d e p a r t m e n t o r
m e d ic a l s p e c ia lty . C l o s e r s t u d y m a y s h o w t h a t th e s e s t a n -
d a r d p a t t e r n s ig n o r e s e n s itiv e s p o n t a n e o u s l i n k a g e s , s u c h as
t h o s e b e t w e e n r e s e a r c h w o r k e r s in d i f f e r e n t fields. C a r e f u l
a n a l y s i s o f lin k a g e is lik e ly to be v e r y i m p o r t a n t in i n s t i t u -
tio n a l w o r k .
T im e distances b etw e e n p ro b a b le pairs of c o m m u n i-
e a t i n g a c tiv itie s b e c o m e c ritic a l. M o v e m e n t is t y p i c a l l y o n
foot o r in s lo w p u b lic v e h ic le s s u c h as e l e v a t o r s o r e s c a la to r s .
In th e f u tu r e , w e m a y see th e u se o f sp e c ia l v e h ic le s , o r b e lt
c o n v e y o r s , to c o n n e c t a n e x t e n d e d site. F a c e - to - f a c e in te r a c -
tio n s , s p o n t a n e o u s o r p l a n n e d , a r e i m p o r t a n t . W h e n w a l k i n g
t im e s e xceed c e r t a i n lim its , th e i n s t i t u t i o n b e g i n s to o p e r a t e
in s e c to r s r a t h e r t h a n as a u n it. S t u d e n t s m a y b e u n a b l e to
m o v e f r o m cla ss to cla ss u n le s s c u r r i c u l a a re c o m p a r t -
346 m e n t e d ; s ta f f w ill n o t m e e t t h o s e f r o m o t h e r b r a n c h e s w i t h -
o u t sp e c ia l p r o v i s i o n s for c lu b s o r o t h e r m e e t i n g g r o u n d s .
T h e p r o b l e m is a n i n t e r r e l a t e d o n e o f to t a l size, o f d e n -
sity , o f t h e d i s p o s i t i o n o f p a t h s a n d foci, a n d o f g r a i n , o r t h e
r e la tiv e size a n d m ix o f sp e c ia liz e d u n i t s . A t y p ic a l p r o b l e m
o f g r a i n in a u n i v e r s i t y , fo r e x a m p le , is w h e t h e r s t u d e n t
h o u s i n g s h o u l d b e in o n e p la c e o r se v e r a l, s e p a r a t e f r o m o r
i n t e g r a t e d w i t h o t h e r h o u s i n g , in c lo se c o n t a c t w i t h th e
t e a c h i n g fa c ilitie s o r n o t. T h e size a n d d e n s i t y o f t h e s c h o o l,
its p u r p o s e s , a n d t h e r h y t h m o f s t u d e n t life w ill d e t e r m i n e a
u n i q u e s o l u tio n .
General T h e re are four g e n e ra l w ay s of o rg a n iz in g a n in s titu ‫־‬
patterns of t i o n in sp a c e . O n e is to g r o u p it b y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t , Io‫־‬
organization e a t i n g t h e d e p a r t m e n t o f p h y s i c s in o n e p la c e , t h e d o r m i t o -
ries for w o m e n i n a n o t h e r , th e g e r i a t r i c u n i t in a t h i r d . T h i s
a r r a n g e m e n t w ill fit m a n a g e m e n t c o n v e n i e n c e a n d p r e s -
tig e, c o r r e s p o n d to t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f m a i n t e n a n c e a n d c o n -
t r o l, a n d r e i n f o r c e i n t e r n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e u n i t . It m a y , h o w e v e r , d i s c o u r a g e c r o s s -
c o n n e c t i o n s w i t h i n th e i n s t i t u t i o n as a w h o l e a n d d e c r e a s e
fle x ib ility . B u t s in c e m o s t p l a n n i n g d e c is io n s a r e m a d e b y
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t h i s is t h e m o s t c o m m o n m e t h o d o f a l l o c a tio n .
P l a n s w h i c h b e g i n w i t h o t h e r p r e m i s e s w ill o f t e n s h a k e
d o w n to th is .
A s e c o n d w a y is to g r o u p s p a c e s b y t h e i r p h y s i c a l ty p e
o r r e q u i r e m e n t . T h u s t h e lib r a r ie s w o u l d b e c l u s t e r e d , as
w e ll as th e c la s s r o o m s , t h e l a b o r a t o r i e s , t h e o p e r a t i n g t h e -
a te r s , t h e se rv ic e f u n c t i o n s , t h e p a r k i n g lots. T h i s m a k e s
s e n s e in t e r m s o f f u n c t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d c a n b e t t e r
r e s p o n d to s h i f t i n g lo a d s . B u t it n o t o n l y d e n ie s t h e a d m i n i s -
tr a t i v e u n i t b u t m a y t h w a r t d e s i r a b l e i n t e r a c t i o n s as w ell.
In l a r g e s y s t e m s it m a y p r o d u c e a n i n h u m a n s c a le o f sp e -
c i a liz a tio n in a c t i v i t y a n d fo rm . B u t for s o m e p a r t i c u l a r
f u n c t i o n — a n i n c i n e r a t o r o r a s t a d i u m , for e x a m p l e — a
s e p a r a t e l o c a t i o n m a y b e t h e o n l y e ffic ie n t s o l u t i o n .
O t h e r i n s t i t u t i o n s w ill m ix f u n c t i o n s w h i l e c l u s t e r i n g
t h e m in m o d u l a r u n i t s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to s o m e so c ia l c o m m u -
n ity . T h u s m a n y u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e u s e d a " c o l l e g e " s y s t e m ,
in w h i c h r e s id e n c e s , s e m i n a r r o o m s , lib r a r ie s , d i n i n g h a lls,
a n d offices a r e g r o u p e d in a u n i t i n t e n d e d to a c t as a le a r n -
i n g c o m m u n i t y . T h e s p a t i a l u n i t c o r r e s p o n d s to a so c ia l u n i t
t h a t is d iv e r s e a n d h e ld t o g e t h e r b y i n f o r m a l as w e ll as for-
m a l ties. W h e r e s u c h a u n i t a c t u a l l y f u n c t i o n s a n d w ill
h a v e a s t a b l e e x is te n c e , t h is is a n e x c e lle n t s y s t e m . B u t in
m a n y i n s t i t u t i o n s t h e so c ia l u n i t is d o u b t f u l o r w ill s h if t r a d -
ic a lly in tim e .
 F in a lly , th e s p a tia l d i s t r i b u t i o n m a y t a k e o n a m o r e 347
,' u r b a n ‫ ״‬c h a r a c t e r , w i t h w id e d i s p e r s a l a n d m i x i n g o f fu n c -
tio n s , h e ld t o g e t h e r b y a g o o d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a -
tio n s s y s te m . T h i s a r r a n g e m e n t is m e a n t to f a v o r d iv e r s e in -
t e r a c t i o n s a n d c o n t i n u o u s s h if ts in t h e f u n c t i o n a l n e t w o r k .
T o b e w o r k a b l e , sp a c e s m u s t b e m a d e u s a b l e for d iv e r s e p u r -
p o s e s , c o m m u n i c a t i o n s m u s t b e e x c e lle n t, a n d th e g r o w t h ,
i n t e r a c t i o n s , a n d d i s p l a c e m e n t of u n i t s m u s t b e c e n t r a l l y
m o n i t o r e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d o n a c o n t i n u o u s , b a s is . O n oc-
c a s io n , a c tiv itie s m a y e v e n b e j u x t a p o s e d w h i c h h a v e lit-
tie f o r m a l c o n n e c t i o n b u t b e t w e e n w h i c h n e w i n t e r a c t i o n s
a re d e s ir e d .
In m o s t c a se s, t h e re a l s p a t i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f i n s t i t u -
tio n s w ill b e a m ix o f all o f t h e s e m e t h o d s b u t p r i m a r i l y o n e
b a s e d o n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e lin e s, as b l u r r e d b y th e a c c i d e n t s
a n d c o m p r o m i s e s o f h i s t o r i c g r o w t h . T h e p le a h e r e is for a
r e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h is c o m m o n p a t t e r n , a s e a r c h fo r t h e r e a l
i n t e r a c t i o n s t h a t lie b e h i n d t h e ta b l e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n , th e
c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t a c t u a l l y e x ist. M o r e o v e r , w h e r e c h a n c e
m e e tin g s are a n im p o rta n t p a rt of th e c o m m u n ic a tio n s n e t-
w o r k o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n , as is so o f t e n t h e case, t h e lo c a tio n ,
c a p a c ity , a n d f o r m o f lo b b ie s , c o r r i d o r s , a n d c e n t r a l s p a c e s
m a y b e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n u n i t d iv i s i o n s o r t h e f o r m o f
t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s office o r t h e m a i n a u d i t o r i u m .
S i m i l a r p r o b l e m s m u s t b e s t u d i e d in r e l a t i o n to t h e Relation to
w o r l d o u t s i d e th e i n s t i t u t i o n . T h e r e w ill b e a c tiv itie s to external
w h i c h it m u s t b e c lo s e ly li n k e d : c lin ic s, p r i v a t e offices, context
s h o p p i n g , r e s t a u r a n t s , l a b o r a t o r i e s . It w ill r e q u i r e g o o d ac-
cess to its s u p p o r t i n g p o p u l a t i o n o f c itiz e n s , p a t i e n t s , o r s tu -
d e n ts . It w ill t y p i c a l l y h a v e to p r o v i d e m a n y t y p e s o f
e n t r a n c e w i t h o u t c h a o s o r i n t e r f e r e n c e for staff, v is ito r s ,
c lie n ts , a n d s u p p l i e r s . A ll o f t h e s e p r o b l e m s r e l a t e to m u l t i -
f o r m lin k a g e , a n d in t h is w a y t h e la r g e i n s t i t u t i o n is m u c h
like a c ity in m i n i a t u r e .
Q u i t e o f t e n a la r g e i n s t i t u t i o n is s e e n as a n a lie n i n t r u -
s io n b y its s u r r o u n d i n g n e i g h b o r s . It p e r f o r m s n o s e r v ic e for
t h e m , d r a w s its c lie n te le f r o m a w i d e r s p h e r e , a n d a t t h e
s a m e t i m e e x e r ts s e v e r e p r e s s u r e o n lo c a l h o u s i n g , traffic,
a n d p r o t e c t i v e se rv ic e s. S in c e th e i n s t i t u t i o n is l o n g - liv e d ,
its s u r r o u n d i n g s m a y h a v e u t t e r l y c h a n g e d s in c e its o r ig i-
n a l f o u n d i n g . T h a t m o s t i n s t i t u t i o n s a re t a x - e x e m p t a n d in
u r b a n a r e a s a r e o f te n u s e d b y p e o p le o f d i s t i n c t l y d if f e r e n t
social c la ss o n l y a d d to th e h o s tility . T h e i n s t i t u t i o n r e a c ts
by d ra w in g a s h a rp b o u n d a ry , w ith controlled entrances.
T h e u n d e r l y i n g is s u e s a r e o n e s o f so c ia l a n d e c o n o m i c
p o lic y , b u t t h e y a re re fle c te d in site p l a n n i n g as q u e s t i o n s
 348 a b o u t th e n a tu re of th e in s titu tio n a l b o u n d a ry , th e lo catio n of
c o m m o n f a c ilitie s o r a c c e ss w a y s w i t h i n t h e g r o u n d s , th e
p r o v i s i o n o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l ' ,o u t p o s t s / ' a n d e v e n , in s o m e ca se s,
w h e th e r th e in s titu tio n m ig h t b e tte r be sp atially dispersed
r a t h e r t h a n lo c a te d in a t e r r i t o r i a l e n c la v e . T h e l o c a t i o n of
h o u s i n g fo r s t u d e n t s a n d y o u n g s ta f f is a l w a y s a t h o r n y
q u e s t i o n . A m ix o f lo c a l a n d i n s t i t u t i o n a l h o u s i n g o r a c a m -
p u s t h a t is o p e n to c o m m u n i t y u s e m a y b e s o c ia lly d e s i r a b l e
b u t d iffic u lt to a c h ie v e b e c a u s e o f h a b i t u a l m e n t a l b o u n d a -
ries. C e r t a i n l y , n o i n s t i t u t i o n s h o u l d b e p l a n n e d w i t h o u t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e h e a v y d e m a n d it w ill m a k e o n its s u r -
r o u n d i n g s , a d e m a n d s o m e t i m e s t a n t a m o u n t to r e q u i r i n g
t h e fa c ilitie s o f a n e w t o w n .
Change is I n t e r n a l l i n k s n o t o n l y a r e c o m p le x b u t s h i f t u n p r e d i c t -
frequent a b ly . I n a h o s p i t a l , fo r e x a m p le , a r a p i d c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n
a s in g le w a r d a n d a c e r t a i n t h e r a p y u n i t m a y s u d d e n l y b e -
c o m e i m p o r t a n t . A c t i v i t i e s m o v e in a n d o u t o f a g iv e n b u i l d -
in g , e x p a n d i n g a n d c o n t r a c t i n g . F u n c t i o n s c h a n g e in u n -
f o r e s e e n w a y s . L o n g - t e r m g r o w t h m a y b e c e r t a i n , b u t its
r a t e is n o t e a s y to m a n a g e o r p r e d i c t . T h e r e f o r e a h i g h p r e -
m i u m m u s t b e p u t o n fle x ib ility : o n a d a p t a b l e sp a c e , a
p h y s i c a l sh e ll t h a t is e a s y to a d d to, o n a g o o d c o m m u n i c a t i o n
sy ste m th a t favors n e w c o n n ectio n s. E laborate desig n m e th -
o d s a re c u r r e n t l y u s e d to o p t i m i z e p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n s b e -
t w e e n a c tiv itie s w h e n t h o s e r e l a t i o n s w ill s u r e l y b e t r a n s -
f o r m e d w i t h i n a fe w y e a r s . I t w o u l d b e m o r e s e n s ib le to p l a n
fo r a d e n s e n e t w o r k o f a c c e ss a n d se rv ic e s a n d a m ix o f r o o m
o r b a y sizes, w h i c h h a v e p r o v e d in t h e p a s t to b e h i g h l y
r e u s a b le .
Symbolic form A t t h e s a m e tim e , m o s t i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e s y m b o l i c im -
p o r t a n c e a n d w ill w a n t a v is u a l s e t t i n g t h a t c r e a te s a cer-
ta in m o o d , w h e th e r of aw e or se re n ity or stim u lu s. T h e u n ity
a n d e x p r e s s i v e n e s s o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t a r e e s s e n tia l. T h e
d e s i g n e r h a s t h e p r o b l e m o f p r o d u c i n g a s t r o n g o v e r a ll f o r m
a n d c h a r a c t e r t h a t c a n a ls o h o u s e c o m p le x f u n c t i o n s a n d
s u r v iv e m a j o r c h a n g e a n d t h a t w ill h a v e s o m e q u a l i t y e v e n
in t h e e a r l y s ta g e s o f o c c u p a t i o n . H e t u r n s to th e t e c h n i q u e s
See pages 232—237 o f l o n g - r a n g e site p l a n n i n g d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 10. L a n d -
s c a p i n g , l i g h t i n g , a n d t h e f o r m o f t h e p a t h s y s t e m s m a y be
o f g r e a t i n t e r e s t to h im . I m p o r t a n t n a t u r a l f e a t u r e s c a n be
u s e d a s v is u a l a n c h o r s o r as t h e b a s is for c o n s i s t e n t lo n g -
r a n g e f o r m . H e w ill t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e c o n t i n u o u s c o n t r o l
a n d m a n a g e m e n t t h a t a r e a v a ila b le . C e r t a i n l y h e w ill re c -
o m m e n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c o n t i n u i n g p l a n n i n g staff.
T h e p r e d i c t i o n o f f u t u r e g r o w t h a n d c h a n g e , as w e ll as
 its t r a n s l a t i o n i n t o f u t u r e p r o g r a m r e q u i r e m e n t s , is a n o r m a l 3 49
p a r t o f th e w o r k . I m m e d i a t e s p a c e d e m a n d s a r e u s u a l l y cal- Predicting
c u la te d b y s u m m i n g u p th e s h o r t - r a n g e n e e d s o f t h e v a r i o u s future
u n i t s o f t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a n d a r r a n g i n g t h e m in a c o n s i s t e n t requirements
p r i o r i t y o r d e r . L o n g e r - r a n g e g r o w t h is m o r e lik e ly to be
g a u g e d b y a n e s t i m a t e o f th e f u t u r e g r o w t h o f t h e b a s e p o p u -
la tio n : e m p lo y e e s , p a t i e n t s , p r o f e s s i o n a l s , o r s t u d e n t s . T o
th e s e e s t i m a t e s o f p o p u l a t i o n c h a n g e a r e a p p l i e d r a t i o s o f
s p a c e p e r p e r s o n for v a r i o u s k i n d s o f f a c ilitie s, s u c h as li-
b r a r i e s , c l a s s r o o m s , w a r d s , clin ic s, l a b o r a t o r i e s , a n d offices.
T h e s e r a tio s a re d e r iv e d f r o m p a s t e x p e r i e n c e a n d a re m o d i -
fied b y s p e c u l a t i o n as to f u t u r e c h a n g e . T y p i c a l l y , m o s t in -
s t i t u t i o n s w ill u n d e r e s t i m a t e f u t u r e s p a c e d e m a n d s a n d
w ill lo o k u p o n th e n e x t b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m as t h e la st. T h e
p l a n n e r m u s t c o r r e c t fo r t h i s h a b i t o f m i n d .
F u t u r e r e q u i r e m e n t s fo r l a n d a r e a a r e t h e n c o m p u t e d
f r o m t h e flo o r s p a c e r e q u i r e m e n t s b y fix in g a se t o f d e s i r e d
s t r u c t u r a l d e n s i t i e s o r flo o r a r e a r a tio s . T h e s e w ill v a r y f r o m

Figure 58 Air view of Scarborough College, Toronto, Canada. Diverse functions

are put in a single building of complex form and arranged along a sinuous corridor
system.
Photo John Reeve:
 350 i n s t i t u t i o n to i n s t i t u t i o n . A c o lle g e o f o p e n p l a n m a y s t a y
b e lo w a ratio of 0 . 5 or even 0 . 3 , w hile an u rb a n u n iv e rsity
m a y c o m m o n l y go u p to 2.0, a n d a l a r g e c ity h o s p i t a l o n ex-
p e n s i v e l a n d , w h i c h n e e d s clo se c o n t a c t b e t w e e n its w o r k -
in g p a r t s , m a y a i m for a r a t i o as h i g h as 2 . 5 . I n l a r g e h o s p i -
ta ls, e x c e p t t h o s e d e a l i n g w i t h c h r o n i c o r c o n v a l e s c e n t c ases,
th e h ig h -rise stru c tu re m a y be p referab le sim p ly becau se of
t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t i m e d i s t a n c e s b e t w e e n a c tiv itie s . L a n d
c o s ts , t h e ta x lo sse s, a n d h u m a n d i s p l a c e m e n t s t h a t e x p a n -
s i o n b r i n g s o n , all e n c o u r a g e d e n s e , h i g h l y i n t e g r a t e d in s ti-
t u t i o n a l c o m p l e x e s in c e n t e r c ity a r e a s . C o l u m b i a U n i v e r -
sity , fo r e x a m p l e , a l r e a d y a t a flo o r a r e a r a t i o o f 3 . 0 , n o w
p l a n s a d o u b l i n g o f its flo o r s p a c e w i t h o u t f u r t h e r l a n d a c q u i-
s itio n . S u c h d e n s i t i e s a r e c o s tly . T h e y m a k e p o s s i b l e th e
c r e a t i o n o f a p o w e r f u l a n d i n t r i c a t e a r c h i t e c t u r a l o rd e r.
H o w e v e r , t h e y a r e j u s t as lik e ly to p r o d u c e a s te r ile a n d
oppressiv e e n v iro n m e n t. T h e g en eral p a tte rn of stru c tu ra l
d e n s i t y is a n i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f a n y i n s t i t u t i o n a l p l a n ,
s in c e it w ill t e n d to d e t e r m i n e s ite a c q u i s i t i o n , se r v ic e lo a d ,
l i n k a g e b e t w e e n p a r t s , f u t u r e fle x ib ility , a n d g e n e r a l v is-
u a l c h a r a c t e r . T h e r e w ill b e a c o n t i n u o u s s t r u g g l e to r e t a i n
o p e n s p a c e , w h e t h e r fo r v is u a l a m e n i t y , r e c r e a t i o n , o r f u t u r e
g ro w th .

Figure 5 9 The
campus becomes
a parking lot:
Case Institute
of Technology,
Cleveland.
E li Nano
 P a r k i n g is a p r o b l e m for i n s t i t u t i o n s as for a n y a c tiv ity , 351
b u t it is lik e ly to b e m o r e d iffic u lt b e c a u s e o f t h e c o n flic t o f Parking
th e l a r g e p a r k i n g lo t w i t h i n t e n s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t a n d w i t h
the sym bolic m e a n in g of the in stitu tio n . M o s t pro fessio n al
a n d m a n y n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l s t a f f m e m b e r s n o w d r iv e to w o r k ;
so d o v i s i t o r s , a n d e v e n m o s t s t u d e n t s if t h e y c a n . A
‫ ״‬d r i v e - i n ‫ ״‬c a m p u s m a y p r o v i d e a p a r k i n g s p a c e for e a c h o f
its m e m b e r s , b u t m o r e c o m m o n l y t h e r a t i o m i g h t b e o n e to
four. I n o r d e r to p r e s e r v e a q u i e t s e t t i n g , t h e i n s t i t u t i o n m a y
h a v e to ta k e a n e x t r e m e m e a s u r e , s u c h as s e v e r e a d m i n i s -
t r a t i v e r e g u l a t i o n , u n d e r g r o u n d g a r a g e s , o r d i s t a n t f r in g e
p a r k i n g s e r v e d b y s h u t t l e b u s . I n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l c a s e it
m a y b e p o s s i b l e to i m p o s e a l o n g e r w a l k i n g d i s t a n c e f r o m
c a r to d e s t i n a t i o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e r e a r e lik e ly to b e
k e y p e r s o n n e l — d o c t o r s , p r o f e s s o r s , o r r e s e a r c h d ir e c -
t o r s — o n w h o se q u ality the in s titu tio n d e p e n d s an d w h o
w ill u s e all t h e i r p o w e r to s e c u r e c o n v e n i e n t p a r k i n g for
t h e m s e l v e s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e c o s t to t h e w h o l e i n s t i t u t i o n .
T h u s t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l p a r k i n g s o l u t i o n is lik e ly to d i f f e r e n t i -
a te a m o n g u s e r s a n d r e q u i r e a f u ll- f le d g e d c o n t r o l s y s t e m .
C o n t r o l s f a v o r i n g s m a ll c a r s o r c a r s c a r r y i n g m o r e t h a n o n e
p e r s o n m a y a ls o b e e m p l o y e d . P u b l i c t r a n s i t a n d b ic y c le s
c a n b e f a v o r e d ; e v e n h i t c h h i k i n g m i g h t b e o ffic ia lly ex-
p lo ite d . P a r k i n g c h a r g e s m a y b e u s e d to d e f r a y p a r t o f t h e
c o st o f t h e g a r a g e s .
D e sig n in g public o p e n spaces h as becom e a n im p o r- O p e n Space
t a n t b r a n c h o f site p l a n n i n g , as a r e s u l t o f t h e i n t e n s e d e -
m a n d fo r o u t d o o r r e c r e a t i o n a r d t h e g r o w i n g r e a l i z a t i o n o f
th e n e e d for c o n s e r v a t i o n . P a r k s a re h e a v i l y u s e d . S o m e a r e
so l o a d e d t h a t t h e i r p l a n t c o v e r is b r e a k i n g d o w n a n d t h e R e fer en c es 59, 60
n a t u r a l c h a r a c t e r t h a t m a d e t h e m a t t r a c t i v e is d i s a p p e a r -
ing. S h a r p j u m p s in t h e u s e o f v a c a t i o n a r e a s w e r e p r e -
d ie te d , a n d t h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s n o w s e e m to b e o v e rfu lfille d .
A t p r e s e n t , t h e o u t s t a n d i n g p o p u l a r a c tiv itie s a r e p l e a s u r e
d r i v i n g a n d all t h e w a t e r s p o r t s , b u t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r u r a l
p l e a s u r e s o f h i k i n g , p i c n i c k i n g , c a m p i n g , h u n t i n g , a n d fish -
in g a r e e n j o y e d b y w i d e r a n d w i d e r s e g m e n t s o f o u r p o p u -
la t i o n as g e n e r a l i n c o m e s rise a n d m i n o r i t y g r o u p s c o m e
to s h a r e in d o m i n a n t m id d l e - c l a s s w a y s o f life. P r o v i d i n g
t h e s p a c e n e e d e d fo r t h e s e a c tiv itie s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h i n a
d a y 's d r i v e o f t h e g r e a t m e t r o p o l i t a n r e g i o n s , h a s b e c o m e a n
u r g e n t n e c e s s ity .
S u p p l y i n g a m p l e r u r a l s p a c e is n o t su ffic ie n t, h o w -
ever. T h e r e a r e g r e a t d if f e r e n c e s in r e c r e a t i o n a l d e m a n d
b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s in so c ie ty . C e r t a i n g r o u p s a r e n o t
 352 s e r v e d at all: s in g le w o m e n , t e e n - a g e r s , th e e ld e r ly , a n d th e
i m p o v e r i s h e d m i n o r i t i e s m o s t b l a t a n t l y . E v e n w i t h i n a fa m -
ily g r o u p , t h e v a r i o u s m e m b e r s s h o u l d b e a b le to f o llo w t h e ir
o w n d iv e r s e in te r e s ts .
L a r g e r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s s h o u l d th e r e f o r e c o n t a i n a
g r e a t v a r i e t y o f fa c ilitie s a n d a t m o s p h e r e s , s u i t a b l e for all
k in d s of sp ecial-in terest g ro u p s: ch alle n g in g a n d au to n o -
m o u s p la c e s for t h e te e n s ; s e r e n e r u r a l q u ie t; o r c r o w d e d a n d
a c tiv e a r e a s fo r t h o s e w h o w a n t s t i m u l u s a n d c o m p a n i o n -
s h ip . R e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s c o u ld d o m o r e t h a n s i m p l y h e lp o n e
to r e e s t a b l i s h c o n t a c t w i t h n a t u r e . T h e y m i g h t b e p la c e s
w h e r e o n e le a r n s n e w sk ills a n d h o b b i e s , feels o u t a n e w ca-
re e r , o r e x p e r ie n c e s p a s t o r f u t u r e o r d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f life.
T h e y c a n be a w a y o f m e e t i n g s t r a n g e r s o r o f t r y i n g o u t n e w
ro le s a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s in a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e th e p r e s s u r e is
o ff a n d t h e so c ia l f a b r ic n o t so v u l n e r a b l e to l a s t i n g d a m a g e .
M a k in g this possible requires n e w w ays of m a n a g in g
p u b lic o p e n s p a c e a n d a ls o o f d e s i g n i n g it.
Origins of open M u c h o f t h e skill in d e s i g n i n g p u b l i c a r e a s for o u t d o o r
space design r e c r e a t i o n d e v e l o p e d in t h is c o u n t r y , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e N a -
t i o n a l P a r k S e rv ic e , in t h e p a r k d e p a r t m e n t s o f l a r g e c ities,
a n d w i t h i n th e p r o f e s s i o n o f l a n d s c a p e a r c h i t e c t u r e . T h e ac-
c o m p lish m e n ts h ave been su b sta n tia l. B roader concepts of
p a r k p la n n in g need n o t a b a n d o n w h a t has alre a d y been
a c h ie v e d . P a s t d e s i g n s h a v e b e e n b a s e d o n a s t r o n g a p p r e -
c i a t i o n for n a t u r a l l a n d s c a p e s o f p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s — fo re s t,
b e a c h , g la d e , a n d m o u n t a i n — a n d o n a s e t t l e d v ie w o f
w h a t w h o l e s o m e o u t d o o r r e c r e a t i o n is a n d o f its g r a d e d d e -
g r e e s o f s u p e r i o r i t y . S m a l l - g r o u p b a c k p a c k i n g and- n a t u r e
o b s e r v a t i o n a re r a t e d v e r y h i g h l y , w h i l e tr a i l e r c a m p s o r f u n
fairs a r e d e p r e c a t e d . I n d e e d , t h e a t t i t u d e is c lo s e ly l i n k e d to
t h a t love o f n a t u r e w h i c h is t h e e m o t i o n a l b a s is for m u c h of
o u r s c ie n tific k n o w l e d g e a b o u t n a t u r a l s y s te m s . T h e p r o b -
le m is to see h o w it m a y b e r e c o n c ile d w i t h t h e c h a n g i n g
w a y s in w h i c h o p e n s p a c e is b e i n g u s e d b y e v e r l a r g e r
n u m b e r s o f p e o p le .
"Openness" T h e " o p e n n e s s " o f o p e n s p a c e is n o t so m u c h a m a t t e r o f
h o w fe w b u i l d i n g s s t a n d u p o n it b u t r a t h e r o f h o w o p e n it is
to t h e fre e ly c h o s e n a c t i o n s o f its u s e rs . O p e n n e s s is a p r o d -
u c t o f p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r b u t a lso o f acc e ss, o w n e r s h i p , m a n -
a g e m e n t a n d o f th e r u le s a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t g o v e r n ac-
tiv ity . A n o p e n a r e a n e e d n o t b e a n a t u r a l o n e , in t h e s e n s e
o f b e i n g u n t o u c h e d b y m a n ( th e r e a re v e r y few o f t h e s e a n y -
w a y ) , a n d in d e e d in sp e c ia l c a s e s t h e o p e n s p a c e m i g h t be
h e a v i l y o c c u p ie d b y m a n - m a d e s t r u c t u r e s o r e v e n b e a la rg e
i n t e r i o r v o lu m e . T h i s is a b e h a v i o r a l d e f i n itio n : a sp a c e is
 o p e n if it a llo w s p e o p le to a c t fre e ly w i t h i n it. T h i s is n o t th e 353
ca se w i t h m o s t u r b a n s p a c e s , o f c o u r s e , i n t e r i o r o r e x te r io r , o r
w i t h c o m m e r c i a l fa r m s , s i n g l e - p u r p o s e r u r a l r e s e r v a t i o n s ,
p la y f ie ld s , o r e v e n w i t h c e r t a i n c a r e f u lly t e n d e d w o o d s a n d
parks.
W e h a v e a b e t t e r id e a t o d a y o f t h e g r e a t v a r i e t y o f Variety of
p e o p le w h o m a y w a n t to u se a n o p e n s p a c e a n d o f th e v a r i e t y demand
o f t h i n g s t h e y m a y w a n t to d o th e r e . O u r list o f o p e n - s p a c e
p r o t o t y p e s — p ic n ic g r o u n d , p l a y g r o u n d , m e a d o w , b e a c h ,
w o o d w i t h t r a i l s — is to o r e s t r i c t e d , a n d so is o u r focus o n
space s ta n d a rd s or on th e recreatio n al d e m a n d s of th e "a v e r-
a g e f a m i l y . " W e a r e b e g i n n i n g to a s k b y w h o m th e s p a c e
w ill a c t u a l l y b e u s e d , w h a t t h e i r specific d e m a n d s a re , a n d
h o w t h o s e d e m a n d s w ill b e c o m m u n i c a t e d to t h e p a r k d e -
s i g n e r s a n d m a n a g e m e n t . W e a r e a lso less c e r t a i n a b o u t
h o w to s o r t o u t " g o o d " r e c r e a t i o n a l a c tiv itie s f r o m " b a d " o n e s .
F in a lly , w h i l e t h e m o t i v e o f c o n s e r v i n g n a t u r e is as
s t r o n g as ever, o r e v e n s t r o n g e r , w e a ls o b e g i n to see m a n
a n d h is w o r k s as p a r t o f t h a t n a t u r e a n d to r e a liz e t h a t all
e c o lo g ic a l s y s t e m s a r e c h a n g i n g a n d c a n n o t b e i m m o b i l i z e d .
C o n s i d e r i n g m e n a n d o t h e r o r g a n i s m s t o g e t h e r le a d s u s to
a t t e m p t s to c h a n g e b o t h o f t h e m in o r d e r l y w a y s .
W e t h e n c o m e to a d o u b l e set o f c r i t e r i a for d e s i g n . O n Dual criteria
th e o ne h a n d , w e are c o n cern ed w ith th e q u a lity of h u m a n for open space
e x p e r i e n c e in t h e o p e n sp a c e : th e free c h o ic e o f a c ti v i t y ; design
t h e r e le a s e f r o m t h e i n t e n s e s t im u li o f c lo s e u r b a n liv in g ;
t h e c h a n c e to b e c o m e a c tiv e ly e n g a g e d , to e x h i b i t m a s t e r y ;
t h e o p p o r t u n i t y to le a r n a b o u t t h e n o n h u m a n w o r l d ; t h e a b il-
ity to m e e t n e w p e o p l e o r e x p e r i m e n t w i t h n e w w a y s o f liv-
ing. T h e s e g a i n s a r e to a la r g e e x t e n t p s y c h o l o g i c a l , a n d
th e y a re n o t a c h ie v e d b y s tr ic t c o n s e r v a t i o n o f th e p r e e x i s t -
in g s t a t e of n a t u r e . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w e a r e a lso c o n -
c e r n e d w i t h t h e e c o lo g ic a l b a l a n c e of t h e site so t h a t it c a n
c o n t i n u e to r e n e w its e lf u n d e r th e n e w p r e s s u r e s t h a t w ill
b e p u t o n it. T h i s a im s h o u l d be for s o m e n e w " n a t u r a l " b a l-
a n c e of w h i c h m e n a n d t h e i r a c tiv itie s a r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t .
T h e s o l u t i o n m u s t s a t i s f y b o t h se ts o f c r ite r ia : p s y c h o l o g i c a l
" o p e n n e s s " a n d e c o lo g ic a l s e l f - r e n e w a l . T h e a n a l y s e s t h a t
p r e c e d e t h e p la n , t h e r e f o r e , s t a r t w i t h b o t h t h e c lie n t g r o u p
a n d t h e n a t u r a l site.
A c o n c e p t c a r r ie d o v e r f r o m r a n g e m a n a g e m e n t is t h a t Carrying
of " c a rry in g ca p a c ity ," or th e n u m b e r of p eo p le or in te n s ity capacity
o f a c ti v i t y t h a t a p la c e c a n s u p p o r t w i t h o u t lo s in g its a b i l i t y
to r e n e w its e lf n a t u r a l l y : for t h e g r o u n d c o v e r to h o ld , th e
tre e s to su c c e e d th e m s e l v e s , o r t h e w a t e r to p u r i f y itself. B u t
c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y a lso re fe rs to th e q u a l i t y o f h u m a n e x p e r i-
354 e n c e d e s i r e d , w h e t h e r it is t h a t o f w i l d e r n e s s o r o f c o m p a n -
i o n s h i p . S o t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y d e p e n d s o n t h e e c o lo g y of
t h e p la c e (a h a y f ie ld a n d a g r a s s y d u n e a r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t
in t h e i r r e s p o n s e to c r o w d s ) , a s w e ll a s o n h o w i n t e n s i v e l y it
w ill b e m a n a g e d , w h a t k i n d o f o u t d o o r e x p e r i e n c e is d e s ir e d ,
a n d w h a t t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f its u s e r s a re . O n e m a n m a y
feel t h a t h is p a c k t r i p is s p o ile d if h e m e e t s a n y o n e i n t h e
c o u r s e o f t w o w e e k s , w h i l e a n o t h e r w ill b e f r i g h t e n e d w h e n
h e is o u t o f s i g h t o f h is f e llo w s fo r m o r e t h a n fif te e n m i n u t e s .
T w o t h o u s a n d p e r s o n s p e r m i l e o f b e a c h w ill s e e m p le a s -
a n t l y o p e n to a c ity d w e l l e r a n d u n h a p p i l y c r o w d e d to o n e
u s e d to r u r a l s o litu d e . F o r t h i s r e a s o n it is d iffic u lt to se t g e n -
er a l d e n s i t y s t a n d a r d s fo r a r e a s o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s . It is m o r e
u s e f u l to p r o v i d e a d i v e r s i t y o f d e n s i t e s — b u s t l i n g c a m p -
g r o u n d s a n d l o n e l y s h e l t e r s — a n d to u s e m a n a g e m e n t a n d
c o n s t a n t m o n i t o r i n g to e n s u r e e c o lo g ic a l r e n e w a l . A r e a s m a y
b e r o t a t e d t h r o u g h a r e s t i n g p e r i o d , for e x a m p l e , o r a c c e ss
m a y b e r e g u l a t e d b y c o n t r o l l e d e n t r a n c e p e r m i t s , o r a n e c o l-
o g y .m ay be m od ified b y in tro d u c in g " w e e d s " or o th e r s tu rd y
plan ts.
Gradation of L a r g e o p e n s p a c e s , w h i c h w ill s e r v e v a r i e d p o p u l a -
access ti o n s , a r e u s u a l l y o r g a n i z e d o n a p r i n c i p l e o f g r a d e d a c c e ss so
t h a t d i v e r s e a c t iv itie s t h a t w o u l d c o n flic t w i t h e a c h o t h e r
a r e s p r e a d o u t in sp a c e . H i g h - c a p a c i t y r o a d s c o m e u p to
s o m e e d g e o r focal p o i n t , w h e r e a r e lo c a te d t h e c e n t r a l i z e d
fa c ilitie s, t h e d e n s e c a m p i n g a r e a s , t h e i n t e n s i v e a c tiv itie s .
F r o m t h i s p o i n t o r e d g e , t h e i n t e n s i t y o f a c t i v i t y a n d t h e ca-
p a c i t y o f t h e a c c e s s s y s t e m g r a d e o u t w a r d t o g e t h e r , u n t i l re-
g io n s are reach ed th a t ca n be p e n e tra te d o n ly o n foot w ith
s o m e d if f ic u lty , in w h i c h t h e r e a r e n o m a n - m a d e s t r u c t u r e s ,
in w h i c h t h e h u m a n o c c u p a t i o n w ill b e lo w a n d s p o r a d i c . A
w h o l e n a t i o n a l p a r k m a y b e o r g a n i z e d in t h i s w a y , w i t h a
r i n g o f h i g h w a y s , c a m p g r o u n d s , a n d p ic n ic g r o v e s , s u r -
r o u n d i n g a c o r e " w i l d e r n e s s , " a p p r o a c h a b l e o n l y b y diffi-
c u lt p a c k tr a ils . A n o c e a n b e a c h c a n b e p l a n n e d to h a v e o n e
s e c t i o n — c o m p l e t e w i t h p a r k i n g lo ts, r e s t a u r a n t s , to ile ts ,
a n d l i f e g u a r d s — w h i c h is m e a n t for h e a v y u se , a s w e ll as
a r e a s t h a t w ill b e l o n e ly b e c a u s e o n e m u s t w a l k a m ile to
reach th em . T h e p referen ces of tw o different, p o te n tia lly
c o n f lic tin g g r o u p s a re m e t , a n d f a c ilitie s a r e e f f ic ie n tly c e n -
tr a liz e d . A r e a s t h a t w ill s u s t a i n a h e a v y lo a d c a n b e d e -
s i g n e d a n d m a n a g e d to t a k e t h e s h o c k , a n d o t h e r a r e a s t h a t
m a y b e p e c u l i a r l y f r a g ile c a n b e p r o t e c t e d f r o m h e a v y in-
tru sio n .
 In a s im ila r w a y , l a r g e r e c r e a t i o n a l a r e a s n e e d n o t be 355
‫ ״‬p u r e , " t h a t is, d e v o id o f a n y c o m m e r c i a l c o n c e s s i o n s , m o -
tels, o r tr a i l e r p a r k s . T h e y c a n i n c l u d e t e e n - a g e c a m p s ,
s e lf - b u ilt s u m m e r h o u s i n g , c o n s e r v a t i o n w o r k c a m p s , o r c e n -
te rs for t e m p o r a r y e d u c a t i o n . T h e y m a y c o n t a i n p r o d u c t i v e
a c tiv itie s as w e ll: l u m b e r i n g , m i n i n g , a n d g r a z i n g a r e t r a -
d i t i o n a l e l e m e n t s in th e n a t i o n a l f o r e s ts . B u t o p e n s p a c e m a y
a lso h a v e e n c la v e s o f i n d u s t r i a l u s e if t h e p l a n t s a r e r e g u - See page 3 4 2
la te d to p r e v e n t e n v i r o n m e n t a l p o l l u t i o n . A s a n o t h e r e x a m -
pie, o p e r a t i n g f a r m s a r e n o w s u c c e s s f u lly b e i n g i n t e g r a t e d
w ith h o lid a y accom m odatior;.
S in c e t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f o p e n n e s s a n d f r e e d o m is a Diversity of
p s y c h o l o g i c a l o n e , it c a n b e p r e s e r v e d , e v e n w h e n l a r g e territory
n u m b e r s a re u s i n g a p la c e , b y a n o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e s p a c e
in to s m a ll te r r i t o r i e s , e a c h o f w h i c h is s h i e l d e d f r o m s i g h t
and so u n d of th e other. N a tu r a l m a sk s of cover a n d te rra in
c a n b e u s e d o r a rtific ia l o n e s c r e a te d . S h i e l d i n g t h e d if f e r -
e n t a c c e ss r o u t e s f r o m e a c h o t h e r is a p a r t o f t h e s t r a t e g y . A t
t h e s a m e tim e , it is u s e f u l to lo c a te d iv e r s e a r e a s clo se to o n e
a n o t h e r so t h a t d i f f e r e n t m e m b e r s o f t h e s a m e g r o u p c a n
e n j o y t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s o r m o v e e a s ily f r o m o n e k i n d o f a c t i o n
to a n o t h e r . C l o s e j u x t a p o s i t i o n c a n e v e n a d d to t h e s e n s e o f
d i v e r s ity , as w h e n a le a f y g le n clo se to a n a c tiv e a m u s e m e n t
a r e a s e e m s b y c o n t r a s t all t h e m o r e s e c lu d e d .
A t t h e s a m e tim e , s in c e m a n y u s e r s o f a n o p e n s p a c e
w ill b e s t r a n g e r s to it, as w e ll a s u n a c c u s t o m e d to r u r a l
l a n d s c a p e f o r m s o r a c c o m p a n i e d b y c h i l d r e n lia b le to w a n -
d e r off, it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e a r e a as a w h o l e b e c le a r ly o r -
g a n i z e d , a t le a s t in t h e m o r e a c tiv e ly u s e d p a r t s . H e r e t h e
g e n e r a l s t r u c t u r e m u s t b e e a s y to p i c t u r e in t h e m i n d ;
a p p r o a c h e s s h o u l d be d ir e c t, s e q u e n c e s c lear. L e g ib le m a p s
a n d s ig n s w ill s u p p l e m e n t t h i s p u r p o s e .
T h u s th e d is trib u tio n of users can be c o n tro lled b y th e Design for
l o c a t i o n o f a c c e ss a n d fa c ilitie s. I n a d d i t i o n , p e o p l e t a k e motion
p l e a s u r e in m o t i o n itself, a n d m u c h o f t h e d e l i g h t o f a p la c e
lies in h o w o n e g e ts to it*. T h e d e s i g n o f th e a c c e ss s y s t e m is
t h e r e f o r e a k e y d e c i s i o n in p a r k p l a n n i n g . O n e d e a ls w i t h
th e w h o l e n e t w o r k : h i g h w a y s , f o r e s t tr a c k s , b u s s c h e d u l e s ,
cycle p a t h s , r i d i n g s ta b le s , w a t e r w a y s , fo o t tr a ils . R o u t e s
c a n b e m a s k e d o n e f r o m t h e o t h e r a n d still i n t e r l a c e c lo s e ly
in t h e s a m e t e r r i t o r y . E a c h o n e c a n h a v e a m e m o r a b l e v is u a l
s e q u e n c e , s u ite d to its o w n m o d e o f m o t i o n . E a c h o n e c a n be
g iv e n g lim p s e s o f t h e la r g e r t e r r a i n a n d m a k e a n u n d e r -
s t a n d a b l e a p p r o a c h to its d e s t i n a t i o n . W h a t is s e e n b y t h e
 356 w a y s i d e c a n c o n v e y a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e g e o l o g y o r e c o lo g y o f
t h e p la c e . C e r t a i n lo c a litie s c a n b e m a d e r e m o t e b y v i r t u e o f
a d if f ic u lty o r b r e a k in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n : a f e r r y o r a t o r t u o u s
defile. T h e d e g r e e o f u s e c a n b e r e g u l a t e d b y t h e c a p a c i t y o f
t h e a c c e ss s y s t e m . D e l i g h t in m o t i o n is n o w a c o m m o n ta s te ,
a b e t t e d b y t h e n e w m a c h i n e s t h a t o p e n u p p r e v i o u s l y im -
p assa b le te rra in s: b e a c h bug g ies, sn o w m o b ile s, u n d e rw a te r
tr a c t o r s . F a c ilitie s m u s t b e m a d e fo r t h e s e n e w k i n d s o f
m o v e m e n t , a n d o t h e r r e g i o n s m u s t b e d e f e n d e d a g a i n s t th e m .
C o n s i d e r i n g t h is v e r y s t r o n g i n t e r e s t in m o t i o n —
p l e a s u r e d r i v i n g , in p a r t i c u l a r , b u t a ls o c y c lin g , b o a t i n g ,
a n d h i k i n g — w e c o m e to t h e n e e d fo r c r e a t i n g a c o n t i n u o u s
recre atio n a l n e tw o rk , p e n e tr a tin g th e m e tro p o lita n regions
a n d their h in te rla n d s. T h is m e a n s n o t o n ly ru ra l ro a d s w ith
f r e q u e n t w a y s i d e p ic n ic a n d s w i m m i n g a r e a s b u t a lso a co-
h e r e n t n e t w o r k o f b ic y c le p a t h s , o f s u b u r b a n a n d r u r a l
w a l k i n g tr a ils , e v e n o f p u b l i c b r i d l e p a t h s o r c a n o e i n g
r o u te s . T h e s e b a d l y n e e d e d tr a i l s w ill u s u a l l y b e q u i t e in e x -
p e n s i v e to c o n s t r u c t a n d m a i n t a i n . T h e p r i n c i p a l p r o b l e m
w ill b e to s e c u r e t h e p u b l i c r i g h t - o f - w a y .
O t h e r t h a n m o t i o n , w a t e r is t h e s t r o n g e s t a t t r a c t i o n :
p e o p l e w ill g r a v i t a t e t o w a r d t h e la k e s , p o n d s , s t r e a m s , a n d
o cean shores. W a te r p ro v id es the m o st a ttra c tiv e rec re atio n a l
a c tiv itie s a n d a t t h e s a m e t i m e w ill b e m o s t v u l n e r a b l e to
o v e r u s e . C o n t r o l a n d m a n a g e m e n t is u s u a l l y r e q u i r e d . T h e
n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y is for all s t r u c t u r e s a n d a c c e ss to b e d r a w n
to t h e w a t e r 's e d g e , r e s u l t i n g in a m u t i l a t e d s h o r e a n d a
n e g l e c t e d i n t e r i o r . It is b e t t e r to p u t b u i l d i n g s a n d r o a d s
b a c k o u t o f s ig h t, k e e p i n g t h e w a t e r e d g e u n e n c u m b e r e d
a n d its u s e s p r e a d o u t.
The principle T h i s is o n e i n s t a n c e o f a m o r e g e n e r a l s t r a t e g y : t h e
of occupying m o s t a t t r a c t i v e a n d fra g ile f e a t u r e s o f a l a n d s c a p e s h o u l d
the margin n e v e r b e p e r m a n e n t l y o c c u p ie d sin c e o c c u p a t i o n o f t e n de-
s t r o y s w h a t is m o s t v a lu e d . P e r m a n e n t s t r u c t u r e s a re p u t o n
t h e less a t t r a c t i v e l a n d b u t s h o u l d lo o k t o w a r d a n d be a c c e s-
sib le to t h e b e s t a r e a s . M e a n w h i l e , t h e n e w s t r u c t u r e s c a n
e n h a n c e w h a t is o t h e r w i s e a r e l a t i v e l y f e a t u r e l e s s t e r r a i n .
T h u s , o n a r e c r e a t i o n a l is l a n d , s e t t l e m e n t s a re b e s t p u t in th e
in t e r i o r , le a v i n g t h e o c e a n b e a c h e s o p e n a n d free. H o u s e s
a re set, n o t in t h e m i d d l e o f a m e a d o w , b u t a t t h e e d g e of
th e w o o d s, lo o k in g over the gra ssy expanse. A m a s k of u n d is-
t u r b e d tr e e s is left a r o u n d t h e s h o r e s o f a p o n d . B u i l d i n g s a re
set, n o t o n t h e v e r y t o p o f a h ill, b u t o n t h e b r o w , o r lo w e r
d o w n o n t h e u p p e r s lo p e s , w h e r e t h e y e n j o y t h e v ie w w i t h -
o u t d e m e a n i n g t h e n a t u r a l f e a t u r e t h a t a f f o r d s it. A n e s s e n -
tial p a r t o f th e a n a l y s i s o f a n o p e n s p a c e is t h e id e n t i f i c a t i o n 357
o f v a l u a b l e f e a tu r e s to b e left u n e n c u m b e r e d b u t a c c e ssib le .
O p e n s p a c e s c a n p r o v i d e fo r t h a t k i n d o f d ir e c t a c t i o n
a n d a c c o m p l i s h m e n t w h i c h is i n c r e a s i n g l y d e n i e d u s in a
h i g h l y o r g a n i z e d s o c ie ty . P e o p le c a n l e a r n n e w s p o r t s , p l a n t
g a r d e n s , b u ild s u m m e r h o m e s , h u n t , c a m p , l e a r n n e w
skills. P a r k s s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d fo r t h i s k i n d o f a c tiv e p a r t i -
c i p a t i o n f a r m o r e t h a n t h e y a re t o d a y . T h e y c a n b e p la c e s for
m e e t i n g c h a lle n g e s in w a y s t h a t a r e s o c ia lly a c c e p t a b l e a n d
p e rso n a lly satisfying: ro ck -clim b in g , b a c k p a c k in g , even
m ock w arfare. Som e d an g ero u s g ro u n d can be p reserved and
m a d e a c c e s s ib le b y sp e c ia l p e r m i t . P a r k s c a n a ls o b e p la c e s
for l e a r n i n g n o t o n l y a b o u t n a t u r a l h i s t o r y b u t a ls o a b o u t so-
c ie ty a n d a b o u t o n e s e lf. T h e y c a n b e b o t h f a m i l i a r a n d
s t r a n g e — p la c e s w h e r e o n e feels a t e a s e a n d r e la x e d a n d
y e t w h e r e , w i t h i n a s h o r t d i s t a n c e , o n e c a n m o v e off i n t o u n -
k n o w n te r r i t o r y .
It is n o t e n o u g h to p r o v i d e t h e s p a c e for r e c r e a t i o n : p e o - Learning n ew
p ie m u s t b e t a u g h t t h e n e w skills. U n d o u b t e d l y , t h e c u r - recreation
r e n t p o p u l a r i t y o f c a m p i n g in t h e n a t i o n a l p a r k s is d u e to skills
w h a t w a s le a r n e d in s u m m e r c a m p s a g e n e r a t i o n a g o . N o t
o n l y s h o u l d t r a d i t i o n a l p l e a s u r e s b e t a u g h t , b u t n e w a c tiv i-
ties s h o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d a n d c o m m u n i c a t e d : s k i n d iv in g , o r i-
e n t e e r i n g , g l i d in g , s k y d i v in g , a n d w a t e r - s k i i n g a r e all re -
cent in v en tio n s. Iceb o atin g , sp e lu n k in g , c ro ss-c o u n try
s k iin g , o r r o c k - c l i m b i n g a r e o l d e r sk ills b u t a r e j u s t n o w
b e i n g t a u g h t to a g e n e r a l p u b lic . W e c a n e v e n d e s i g n n e w
r e c r e a t i o n a l la n d s c a p e s , w h i c h u s e l i g h t a n d s o u n d a n d
t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l d e p t h : c a v e s, m a z e s , a e r ia l r u n w a y s ,
u n d e r w a t e r j u n g le s , c h a n g e a b l e t e r r a i n s , d o - i t - y o u r s e l f c o n -
s t r u c t i o n y a r d s , m a n - m a d e b o a t i n g m a r s h e s . T h i s is a fu r-
t h e r w a y o f p r o v i d i n g for d iv e r s e d e m a n d .
U r b a n r e n e w a l is o n e a s p e c t o f a m o r e g e n e r a l p r o c e s s R enew al
in w h i c h a n e x i s t i n g e n v i r o n m e n t is r e b u i l t a n d r e h a b i l i -
t a t e d b y g r o u p e f f o r t to s a tis f y n e w p u r p o s e s o r n e w s t a n -
d a r d s . U r b a n r e n e w a l as a f o r m a l p r o c e s s in t h e U n i t e d
S ta te s h a s b e e n m u c h c r itic iz e d fo r its so c ia l d i s r u p t i o n , its
a u t h o r i t a r i a n s ty le , a n d its e c o n o m i c in e ffic ie n c y . A t h o r -
o u g h d i s c u s s i o n o f t h is p r o c e s s lies fa r b e y o n d t h e s c o p e of
th is b o o k , b u t it is c le a r e n o u g h t h a t a s u b s t a n t i a l a m o u n t o f
site p l a n n i n g w ill o c c u r, a n d h a s o c c u r r e d , as a r e s u l t o f t h e
s y s t e m a t i c r e b u i l d i n g o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , w h e t h e r it is c a r -
rie d o u t u n d e r t h i s p r o g r a m o r in s o m e s o c ia lly le ss d e s t r u e -
tive w a y . W h i l e r e n e w a l h a s t r a d i t i o n a l l y b e e n a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h c e n t r a l c ity a r e a s , w e c a n e x p e c t s u b u r b a n r e n e w a l to
 358 b e c o m e a m a j o r is s u e w i t h i n t h e d e c a d e . S ite p l a n n i n g in a
r e n e w a l s i t u a t i o n m a y b e d o n e for m a n y p u r p o s e s a n d t h u s
h a s a ff in itie s w i t h m a n y p a r t i c u l a r ty p e s o f site o r g a n i z a ‫־‬
Reference 61 tio n . B u t a fe w g e n e r a l c o m m e n t s p a r t i c u l a r to r e n e w a l site s
m a y a lso b e m a d e .
T h e o u t s t a n d i n g fact, o f c o u r s e , is t h a t t h e a r e a is al-
re a d y o c c u p ie d — th e re are re sid e n ts, w o rk e rs, a n d users
w h o h a v e a s u b s t a n t i a l s t a k e in it. If t h e a r e a is to b e r e u s e d
b y t h e e x i s t i n g r e s i d e n t s , t h e n t h e y s h o u l d b e in v o lv e d in
its s ite p l a n n i n g f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g — s e t t i n g g o a ls a n d
c r ite r ia , a n a l y z i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d s i t u a t i o n , d e v i s i n g
a n d c h o o s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s , e v a l u a t i n g t h e c h a n g e s as t h e y
o c c u r, m a i n t a i n i n g a n d c o n t r o l l i n g t h e r e h a b i l i t a t e d e n v i-
ro n m e n t. T h e p a rtic ip a to ry te c h n iq u e s discussed e lsew h ere
in t h i s b o o k fin d t h e i r g r e a t e s t u s e f u l n e s s in t h i s k i n d o f sit-
u a t i o n . P h y s i c a l c h a n g e c a n b e a n o p p o r t u n i t y for so c ia l re-
n e w a l . E v e n if t h e a r e a w ill b e r e u s e d b y o t h e r s , a n d n o t b y
t h e e x i s t i n g r e s i d e n t s , t h e l a t t e r w ill still h a v e a n i m p o r t a n t
v o ic e in t h e p r o c e s s o f r e n e w a l — in t h e s t a g i n g a n d c h a r a c -
te r o f d i s p l a c e m e n t a n d r e l o c a t i o n .
Existing assets I n r e n e w a l , w e w o r k o v e r g r o u n d o c c u p ie d b y m a n y
in a renewal h u m a n a n d p h y s i c a l a s s e ts , all e n t a n g l e d in t h e u r b a n sp i-
area d e r w e b . D e a l i n g w i t h t h o s e a s s e t s d e m a n d s a s y m p a t h y for
c ity life a n d for th e w a y in w h i c h it d e v e lo p s . D e s i g n e r s
w h o p e r f o r m b r i l l i a n t l y o n c le a r site s w ill r a is e h a v o c in r e ‫־‬
n e w a l a r e a s , to w h i c h m a n y o f o u r i n h u m a n r e d e v e l o p m e n t
p r o j e c t s m u t e l y te stify . T h e a r e a is lik e ly to b e s t u d d e d w i t h
s t r u c t u r e s a n d a c tiv itie s t h a t still h a v e so c ia l a n d e c o n o m i c
u tility . T h e i m p u l s e o f a d e s i g n e r t r a i n e d to o r d e r a n d p a t -
t e r n is to s w e e p t h e m a s id e or, if t h e i r r e t e n t i o n is fo rc e d
u p o n h i m , to seal t h e m o ff lik e l u m p s o f f o r e ig n m a t t e r . B u t
m a n y h u m a n a s s o c i a t i o n s h a v e g a t h e r e d a b o u t t h e old
b u i l d i n g s ; t h e y a c c o m m o d a t e a c tiv itie s e c o n o m i c a l l y m a r ‫־‬
g in a l b u t s o c ia lly u se fu l. T h e y w ill p r o v i d e a c o n t r a s t to
n e w e r s t r u c t u r e s a n d m a i n t a i n c o n t i n u i t y w i t h th e p a s t.
E x is tin g t y p e s o f b e h a v i o r m a y b e r e n e w e d a n d m a d e v is i‫־‬
b le, n o t s u p p r e s s e d ; a n o r d e r c a n b e f o u n d w h i c h w ill e m -
b r a c e t h e n e w a n d o ld t o g e t h e r . M u c h o f th e m e a n i n g a n d
v i t a l i t y o f u r b a n life rise s f r o m j u s t s u c h a s e n s e o f c o m p le x
a s s o c i a t i o n , o f t h e l a y e r s o f h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t m a d e v is i‫־‬
ble. A s h o p p i n g c e n t e r in a n o ld c h o c o l a t e f a c t o r y o r a
n e i g h b o r h o o d c o m m u n i t y c e n t e r in t h e h o m e o f a b r i l l i a n t
n i n e t e e n t h - c e n t u r y f e m i n i s t h a v e r ic h o v e r t o n e s fo r th e
present.
T h e s e a r c h for o r d e r c o n t e n d s w i t h th e fact t h a t r e ‫־‬
b u i l d i n g m u s t b e d o n e p i e c e m e a l, a s t h e c o m m u n i t y ac- 359
q u ir e s t h e p o w e r to c a r r y o u t t h e p l a n . F o r m a l o r d e r is u n -
lik e ly to b e s u c c e s s fu l: a fle x ib le a n d m u l t i f o r m p a t t e r n is
r e q u ir e d . T h e d e s i g n e r r e s i g n s h i m s e l f to t h e s a d o r g lo r i- Incremental
o u s fact t h a t th e f a b r ic w ill b e i n h a b i t e d b y a s u c c e s s i o n o f order
a c tiv itie s. H e n e e d n o t fin d a p e r m a n e n t sh e ll w i t h i n w h i c h
t h e y c a n all be c o n f in e d b u t m a y l o o k fo r a g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e
to w h i c h s u c c e s s iv e a c tiv itie s m a y a t t a c h t h e m s e l v e s a n d
f r o m w h i c h t h e y w ill g r o w a n d e la b o r a t e . A n o p e n s p a c e
sy stem or a c ircu latio n sy ste m can be a m o re im p o rta n t con-
t r i b u t i o n t h a n a p a t t e r n o f b u i l d i n g s h a p e s . O r t h e c ritic a l
c o n t r i b u t i o n m a y b e ju s t t h e o p p o s i t e o f a g e n e r a l o r d e r i n g
s y s t e m ; it m a y lie in t h e d e t a i l e d t r e a t m e n t o f e x i s t i n g
w a s t e a n d p u b lic s p a c e s t h a t c a n b e m o d if ie d a t s m a ll c o st,
w ith m in im u m d istu rb a n c e of e xisting stru c tu re s a n d w ith
little t h r e a t to th e e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d so -
cial t e r r ito r ie s . S o w e lo o k to a n e w f o r m for a n o ld p a r k to e n -
c o u r a g e n e w b e h a v i o r o r t h i n k o f fa c e - lif tin g a s tr e e t so t h a t
it s u p p o r t s w h a t p e o p l e w a n t to d o in t h e s t r e e t a n d is a fo c u s
o f c o m m u n i t y p r i d e a n d i d e n tif ic a tio n . B y c r e a t i n g s t r a t e g i c
effects w i t h m i n i m u m site e ff o r t t h e d e s i g n e r a c h ie v e s h is
g r e a t e s t v a lu e .
R e n e w a l d e s i g n is f r a c t i o n a t e d , r a t h e r like a s u b d i v i - The fragmenta-
sio n , if n o t so s e r io u s ly . It is a sp e c ia l ca se o f t h e " m u l t i p l e - tion of renewal
d e v e l o p e r " s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 10. A g e n e r a l design
site p l a n , fix in g u se, d e n s i t y , c i r c u l a t i o n , p u b lic facilities,
p e r h a p s e v e n b u i l d i n g m a s s , is p r e p a r e d b y th e c o m m u n i t y Sec pages 237 and
o r a p u b lic a g e n c y . O t h e r p u b lic a n d p r i v a t e d e v e l o p e r s 238

c a r r y o u t th is p l a n for t h e i r o w n p u r p o s e s : p u b l i c o r p r i v a t e
h o u s i n g , s h o p s , f a c to r ie s , offices, clin ic s, s c h o o ls , h i g h w a y s ,
t r a n s i t lines. T h e s e d e v e l o p e r s m a y h a v e b e e n in clo se liai-
s o n w i t h t h e o r i g i n a l p l a n n e r s , o r t h e y m a y b e la te a r r iv a ls .
T h e orig in al ag e n c y m u s t a n tic ip a te dev elo p er req u ire-
m e n t s , ju d g e h o w d e ta i l e d its o w n p l a n s h o u l d be, a n d d e -
vise c o n t r o l s t h a t w ill c a r r y o u t its i n t e n t w h i l e a l l o w i n g a d -
j u s t m e n t to th e u n f o r e s e e n f u tu r e . T h e d e v e l o p e r m a k e s h is
o w n p l a n in t h e s p ir it o f t h e o r i g i n a l a n d y e t m u s t k n o w
w h e n to b r e a k a w a y f r o m t h a t o r i g i n a l b e c a u s e o f a n e w id e a
o r a n e w s i t u a t i o n . I d e a lly , e a c h a c t o r w ill p e n e t r a t e th e
o t h e r 's f u n c tio n , th e d e v e l o p e r in f l u e n c i n g th e o r i g i n a l p r o -
g ram , th e in itiatin g ag ency m a k in g a detailed illustrative
p la n a s a te s t o f its id eas. F ro m th is p l a n th e n e e d e d c o n t r o l s
a re e x t r a c t e d , d e ta ile d a t c r itic a l p o i n t s , a n d left q u ite g e n -
era l e l s e w h e r e . B u t th is s e p a r a t i o n in p l a n n i n g , r e q u i r e d b y
t h e la p s e o f tim e , p o litic a l c o n flic t, c o m p e t i t i v e b i d d i n g , o r
 360 a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p a r t i t i o n i n g , is a c h a s m n o t e a s ily b r id g e d .
T h e p r o b l e m s o f c o o r d i n a t i o n m a k e it all to o t e m p t i n g to u s e a
s in g le d e v e lo p e r , t h u s s q u e e z i n g o u t m ix e d u s e s a n d s m a ll
a g e n t s , r e g a r d l e s s o f th e r e s u l t i n g social loss.
The context of R e n e w a l site s m e r g e i n t o t h e i r s e t t i n g s . S t r u c t u r e s
a renewal f la n k n e i g h b o r i n g o n e s , s t r e e t s r u n i n t o c o n t i g u o u s s tr e e ts ,
project a c tiv itie s a re p a r t o f a c i t y - w i d e n e t w o r k . M o s t r e d e v e l o p -
m e n t p l a n s d e n y t h e s e c o n n e c t i o n s (as d o s h o p p i n g c e n te r s ,
i n s t i t u t i o n s , a n d so m a n y o t h e r n e w c r e a t i o n s o f o u r s ) . T h e
p l a n s fo c u s i n w a r d , t u r n t h e i r p a r k i n g lo ts o u t w a r d , e m p h a -
size t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e n e s s . D e s i g n e r s a n d i n h a b i t a n t s call
t h e m " p r o j e c t s ' 7 o r " i s l a n d s . " D e s i g n h a b i t s a r e r e in f o r c e d
b y t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e d u r e s t h a t d iv id e t h e r e b u i l d i n g
p r o c e s s i n t o a c t i o n s lo c a te d in a r e a s w i t h s h a r p b o u n d a r i e s .
R e n ew al actions th a t focused on fu n ctio n al system s, or on
tim e p erio d s, or on n e tw o rk s ra th e r th a n b o u n d e d areas
m ig h t overcom e som e of this ten d en cy . W e c a n n o t deal here
w i t h t h e s e issu e s or w i t h t h e is s u e o f f o r m a t th e c ity scale.
L a c k in g s o m e b e t t e r p u b l i c d ir e c tiv e , th e site p l a n n e r c a n -
n o t c o n t r i b u t e d i r e c t l y to c o n n e c t i o n s a t t h is c o m p r e h e n s i v e
level. B u t h e c a n a t le a s t m a k e s u r e o f t h e lo cal fit o f h is de-
s ig n . H e c a n t h i n k o f a p p r o a c h o r t h e o u t w a r d v ie w , o f
b o u n d a r i e s a n d t h e t e n d e n c y o f h u m a n a c t i v i t y to o v e r r u n
t h e m , o f h a r m o n i e s o f sc a le a n d f o r m b e t w e e n site a n d set-
tin g .
W h a t h a s b e e n sa id h e r e is o n ly a n e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e
m o r e g e n e r a l t h e m e s o f th is te x t. Y et th e s e issu e s a re so c o m -
m o n l y f o r g o t t e n in site p l a n n i n g for r e n e w a l t h a t it s e e m s
n e c e s s a r y to p o i n t o u t t h e i r s p e c ia l a p p l i c a t i o n in t h a t c o n -
te x t. W e c a n e x p e c t m o r e a n d m o r e o f o u r u r b a n d e v e lo p -
m e n t to b e c o m e a r e n e w a l p r o c e s s , a n d s u r e l y w e m u s t l e a r n
h o w to d o it in a r ic h a n d h u m a n e w a y .
S e le c te d B ib lio g r a p h y

1. F a i r b r o t h e r , N a n . New Lives, New Landscapes. General

N e w Y o rk : K n o p f , 1 9 7 0 . References
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k in d s of b e h a v io r a n d preferences of occupants.
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s t u d e n t h o u s i n g a re a .
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b o h e m ia n n e ig h b o r h o o d s , in fla te d to g e n e r a l p la n n in g
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L in k in g s p a tia l d e s ig n a n d b e h a v io r b y th e u s e o f b e -
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cem ber 1969.
E x c e lle n t b r ie f h a n d b o o k o n th e u s e o f a e r ia l p h o t o s ,
p lu s s p e c ia liz e d m a te r ia l o n fo r e s tr y in te r p r e ta tio n .
34. B a e r w a l d , J o h n E. Traffic Engineering H an dbook. 365
T h i r d E d itio n . W a s h i n g t o n , D .C .: I n s t i t u t e o f T r a ffic
E n g in e e r s , 1 9 6 5 .
A b a s ic g e n e r a l te x t.

3 5 . B e a z le y , E liz a b e th . D esign and D etail o f the S pace Be-

tween Buildings.
L ondon: A rc h ite c tu ral Press, 1960.
D e t a ile d , t h o r o u g h , a n d v e r y u s e fu l, p a r tic u la r ly in re -
g a rd to th e " h a r d " e le m e n ts o f la n d s c a p e d e s ig n at
h ig h to m o d e r a te d e n s it ie s .

36. C o m m it te e o n L a n d S u b d iv is io n , C it y P la n n in g D iv i-
s io n , A m e r ic a n S o c ie t y o f C iv il E n g in e e r s . Land Sub-
division , M anual o f Engineering Practice.
N o . 16. N e w Y o r k , 1 9 5 2 .
A n o ld m o n o g r a p h th a t to d a te h a s n o d ir e c t r e p la c e -
m e n t.
37. G e ig e r , R u d o lf. The C lim ate near the G round.
T r a n s la te d b y S c r ip ta T e c h n ic a , In c . C a m b r id g e , M a s s .:
H a r v a r d U n i v e r s it y P r e s s , 1 9 5 0 .
A n o ld b o o k , n o t e a s y to r e a d , a n d f o c u s e d p r im a r ily
o n a g r ic u ltu r a l m ic r o c lim a t e s ; b u t it c o v e r s t h e e s s e n -
tia l p r in c ip le s a n d h a s n o r e c e n t r iv a l.

38. H i g h w a y R e s e a r c h B o a r d . H ighw ay C apacity M anual.

W a s h i n g t o n , D .C .: H i g h w a y R e s e a r c h B o a r d , 1 9 6 5 .
D etailed a n aly sis of th o se ch ara c teristic s of ro a d s th a t
a ffect c a p a c ity .

39. N e w v i l l e , Jack. N ew Engineering C on cepts in C om -

m unity D evelopm ent.
T e c h n i c a l B u lle tin # 5 9 . W a s h i n g t o n , D .C .: U rban
L an dscape In stitu te, 1967.
N e w t e c h n iq u e s in c le a r in g , g r a d in g , d r a in a g e , s t r e e ts ,
s e w e r a g e , a n d u t ilitie s .

40. P a rk er , H a r r y , a n d J o h n W . M a c G u ir e . S im plified Site

Engineering fo r A rchitects and Builders.
N e w Y o r k : W ile y , 1 9 5 4 .
P r o s a ic , o ld , b u t u s e f u l m a te r ia l o n g r a d in g , u t ilit ie s ,
ro a d d e s ig n , etc . ‫י‬

41. P e te r s o n , J. T. The C lim ate o f C ities: A Survey o f Re-

cent Literature.
W a s h i n g t o n , D .C .: U .S . D e p a r t m e n t o f H e a l t h , E d u -
c a tio n , a n d W e l f a r e , N a t i o n a l A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l
A d m in istratio n , O c to b e r 1969.
A u s e fu l b r ie f s u m m a r y o f c u r r e n t k n o w le d g e .

42. S e e ly e , E. E. Data B o o k fo r Civil Engineers, V o l. 1:

Design.
N e w Y o rk : W ile y , 1 9 6 0 .
A g o o d s o u r c e fo r th e d e t a ils o f v a r io u s s it e e n g in e e r -
in g str u c tu r e s.
 366 43. W a y , D o u g la s . A ir P hoto Interpretation fo r Land
Planning.
C a m b rid g e , M ass.: D e p a rtm e n t of L andscape A rc h i-
tecture, H a r v a r d U n iv e rsity , 1969.
R e a d in g g e o l o g y , t o p o g r a p h y , a n d v e g e t a t io n t y p e
fr o m v e r t ic a l air p h o t o s . U s e f u l a n d s y s t e m a t ic w r it t e n
m a te r ia l, p o o r ly r e p r o d u c e d p h o t o g r a p h s .
4 4. W e d d le , A . E., ed . T echniques o f L an dscape A rchitec-
ture.
N e w Y o rk : A m e r ic a n E ls e v ie r , 1 9 6 7 .
A n u n e v e n t e c h n ic a l s y m p o s iu m , w it h se v e r a l v e r y in -
fo r m a tiv e e s s a y s o n la n d s c a p e c o n s t r u c t io n m e t h o d s .
45. W o r k in g G r o u p , M i n is t r y o f T r a n s p o r t, G r e a t B r ita in .
Traffic in Towns.
L o n d o n : H . M .S .O ., 1 9 6 3 .
A t h o r o u g h a n d p r a c tic a l d is c u s s io n o f v e h ic u la r tr a ffic
in u r b a n a r e a s th a t p u ts th e e m p h a s is o n th e e n v ir o n -
m e n t se r v e d b y it. M a n y e x a m p le s . F o c u s e d o n E n g lis h
p r o b le m s a n d th e c i t y - p l a n n in g s c a le , h o w e v e r .

R esidential 46. A m e r ic a n P u b lic H e a lt h A s s o c ia t i o n , C o m m it t e e o n

Site Planning t h e H y g ie n e o f H o u s in g . Planning the N eig h bo rh ood :
Standards fo r H ealthfu l H ousing.
C h i c a g o : P u b l i c A d m i n i s t r a t i o n S e rv ic e , 1 9 4 8 .
O u t o f d a te a n d o b s e s s e d w it h p r e c is e s ta n d a r d s b u t
s t ill a u s e f u l a n d c o m p r e h e n s iv e b a c k g r o u n d .
47. C e n tr a l M o r t g a g e a n d H o u s in g C o m m is s io n . Site Plan-
ning H an d book.
O tta w a , 1966.
A n e x c e lle n t c o n d e n s e d m a n u a l o n r e s id e n tia l s it e p la n -
n in g . M a n y d e t a ile d s t a n d a r d s .
4 8. K e n n e d y , R o b e r t W o o d s . The H ouse and the A rt o f Its
Design.
C h a p te r s 9 a n d 1 0 . N e w Y o rk : R e in h o ld , 1 9 5 3 .
S e n s it iv e d is c u s s io n o f th e s it in g o f s m a ll m id d le - c la s s
h o u ses.
49 . M c K e e v e r , J. R., ed. The C om m unity Builders Hand-
book.
W a s h in g to n , D .C .: U r b a n L an d In stitu te , 1968.
A le n g t h y a n d p r a c tic a l t r e a tis e o n la r g e r e s id e n tia l
d e v e lo p m e n t s fr o m th e b u ild e r 's p o in t o f v ie w .
50. M in is t r y o f H o u s in g a n d L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t , G r e a t
B r ita in . Caravan Parks.
L ondon: H .M .S .O ., 1962.
G o o d g e n e r a l m a n u a l o n th e la y o u t o f tr a ile r p a r k s.
51. M in is t r y o f H o u s in g a n d L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t , G r e a t
B r ita in . Cars in H ousing I 1.
L ondon: H .M .S .O ., 1966.
G o o d e x a m p le s o f th e d ia g r a m m a t ic p o s s ib ilit ie s o f
r e la t in g h o u s e s o f p a r k in g , o p e n s p a c e , a n d p e d e s tr ia n
w ays.
52. M i n i s t r y o f H o u s i n g a n d L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t , G r e a t 367
B r ita in . T h e D e n s i t y o f R e s i d e n t i a l A r e a s .
L ondon: H .M .S .O ., 1952.
D e n s ity m e asu res a n d th e ir consequences.
53. M i n i s t r y o f H o u s i n g a n d L o c a l G o v e r n m e n t , G r e a t
B r ita in . L a n d s c a p i n g f o r F l a t s .
L ondon: H .M .S .O ., 1967.
A n e x c e lle n t p r a c t i c a l , d e t a i l e d , b u t n o t v e r y i m a g i n a ‫־‬
tiv e g u id e .

54. R o y a l I n s t i t u t e o f B r i t i s h A r c h i t e c t s . F a m i l y L i f e i n
H ig h D e n s i t y H o u s i n g , w i t h P a r tic u la r R e f e r e n c e to
the D e s ig n o f S p a c e a b o u t B uildings.
L ondon: T h e In stitu te, 1957.
T h e title e x p l a i n s itself.

55. U n i t e d S ta te s F e d e r a l P u b lic H o u s i n g A u t h o r i t y . P u b -
lie H o u s i n g D e s i g n .
W a s h i n g t o n , D .C .: N a t i o n a l H o u s i n g A g e n c y , 1 9 4 6 .
A n old h a n d b o o k o n h o u s i n g p r o j e c t s ite p l a n n i n g , o f
su b sta n tia l v alue today.

56. A p p l e y a r d , D o n a l d , K e v i n L y n c h , a n d J o h n R. M y e r . Site P lan n in g

T he V ie w fro m the R oad. for O th e r Uses
C a m b r i d g e , M a s s . : M .I .T . P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 .
A n e a r l y a t t e m p t to a n a l y z e t h e m o v i n g v ie w .

57. B r a w n e , M i c h a e l , ed. U n i v e r s i t y P l a n n i n g a n d D e s i g n .
London: Lund, H u m p h ries, 1967.
A general d iscu ssio n of n e w u n iv e rsity p la n n in g by ad-
m i n i s t r a t o r s a n d a r c h i t e c t s , p l u s a d o z e n ca se s o f n e w
u n i v e r s i t y p la n s .

58. G r u e n , V i c t o r D ., a n d L a r r y S m i t h . S h o p p i n g T o w n s
U .S.A .
N e w Y o rk : R e i n h o l d , 1 9 6 0 .
A th o r o u g h a n d w e ll-illu stra te d coverage, n o w som e-
w h a t o u td ated .

59. H o le , V e re . C h i l d r e n ' s P l a y o n H o u s i n g E s t a t e s .
M in is try of T ech n o lo g y , B uilding R ese a rc h S ta tio n ,
R esearch P a p e r # 3 9 . L ondon: H .M .S .O ., 1966.
G o o d o b s e r v a t i o n o f h o w p r e t e e n p l a y g r o u n d s a r e ac-
t u a l l y u s e d , a l t h o u g h l im ite d to t r a d i t i o n a l k i n d s o f
p l a y g r o u n d s a n d w i t h o u t a th e o r e t i c a l b a sis.

60. L y n c h , K e v in . ,‫׳‬T h e O p e n n e s s o f O p e n S p a c e . "

In M a r c o u , O 'L e a r y a n d A s s o c i a t e s , O p e n S p a c e f o r
H u m a n N e e d s . W a s h i n g t o n , D .C .: T h e N a t i o n a l U r -
b a n C o alitio n , 1970.
S o m e o f t h e b e h a v i o r a l p o s s ib ilitie s in o p e n s p a c e d e -
sig n .
 368 61. M o n t g o m e r y , R o g e r . " I m p r o v i n g t h e D e s i g n P r o c e s s
in U r b a n R e n e w a l . "
A m erican Institute o f Planners Journal, V ol. 31 (Feb-
ru a ry 1965), pp. 7 -2 0 .
A n a l y s is o f th e p r o b le m s o f d e s ig n c o n t r o l, b a s e d o n
r e n e w a l e x p e r ie n c e .
62. P a s m a , T h e o d o r e K. O rganized Industrial Districts.
W a s h in g t o n , D .C .: U .S . D e p a r t m e n t o f C o m m e r c e ,
O f fic e o f T e c h n ic a l S e r v ic e s , A r e a D e v e lo p m e n t D iv i-
s io n , 1 9 5 4 .
A n o ld a n d s o m e w h a t s k e t c h y d is c u s s io n .
63. P u s h k a r e v , B o ris S ., a n d J. M . Z u p a n . The Pedestrian
and the City.
C a m b r id g e , M a s s .: M .I .T . P r e s s , f o r t h c o m in g .
A n e x c e lle n t d e ta ile d t e c h n ic a l m a n u a l o n c a lc u la t in g
p e d e s t r ia n c a p a c ity a n d d e m a n d in m id t o w n M a n h a t -
ta n .
64. U n it e d N a t i o n s , D e p a r t m e n t o f E c o n o m ic a n d S o c ia l
A ffa ir s . The P hysical Planning o f Industrial Estates.
N e w Y o rk : U n ite d N a t i o n s , 1 9 6 2 .
A t h o r o u g h d is c u s s io n , p r im a r ily fo r u s e in th e d e v e l-
o p in g c o u n tr ie s .

P ictorial 65. B a r d i, P. M . The T ropical G ardens o f Burle M arx.

R eferen ces and N e w Y ork: R e in h o ld , 1964.
Exam ples W e ll- illu s t r a t e d c a t a lo g o f th e w o r k o f a m a s te r la n d -
s c a p e a r tist.
6 6 . C a m in o s , H o r a c io , J o h n F. C. T u r n e r , a n d J o h n A .
S te ffia n . Urban D w elling Environm ents: An Elem en-
tary Survey o f Settlem ents fo r the Study o f Design
D eterm inants.
C a m b r id g e , M a s s .: M .I .T . P r e s s , 1 9 6 9 .
A c o m p a r a t iv e g r a p h ic d e s c r ip tio n o f s ix t e e n u r b a n
r e s id e n tia l n e ig h b o r h o o d s , e ig h t in B o s to n , M a s s ., a n d
e ig h t in fo u r L a tin A m e r ic a n c itie s .
67. E a to n , L e o n a r d K. L an dscape A rtist in A m erica: The
Life and W ork o f Jens Jensen.
C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s it y o f C h ic a g o P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 .
T h e fin e n a tu r a l la n d s c a p e s th a t J e n s J e n s e n c r e a te d in
th e M id d le W e s t.
6 8 . E d en , W illia m A . " H a m p s te a d G a r d e n S u b u r b : 1 9 0 7 —
5 7 ."
R oyal Institute o f British A rchitects Journal, V ol. 64
( O c t o b e r 1 9 5 7 ) , p. 4 8 9 .
A d e s c r ip tio n o f th e c la s s ic " g a r d e n c ity " a n d o f its
e v o lu t io n .
69. H a r a d a , Jiro. G ardens o f Japan.
L o n d o n : S tudio, 1928.
A g o o d p ic tu r e b o o k a n d e x p o s it io n o f th e b a s ic p r in e i-
p ie s o f t h e s e g a r d e n s .
70. H e g e m a n n , W e r n e r , a n d E lb e r t P e e ts . The A m erican 369
Vitruvius: An A rchitect's H an d b ook o f Civic Art.
N e w Y o rk : A r c h i t e c t u r a l B o o k P u b l i s h i n g , 1 9 2 2 .
A fin e p i c t u r e b o o k o f t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t s o f e a r l y
civic d e s i g n , t h o u g h t h e p i c t u r e s a r e to o s m a ll. S u r -
p r i s i n g l y e n o u g h , t h e te x t is a ls o t h o u g h t f u l a n d in -
f o r m e d . P e e ts b e c a m e o n e o f t h e m o s t s k ille d U .S . s ite
p l a n n e r s o f h is d a y .
71. H y a m s , E d w a r d . The English G arden.
N e w Y o rk : A b r a m s ( p a p e r ) , 1 9 6 6 .
A g o o d h i s t o r i c a l s u m m a r y o f t h e g r e a t E n g lis h g a r -
dens.
72. K a tz , R. D. D esign o f the H ousing Site.
U r b a n a , 111.: U n i v e r s i t y o f I llin o is , 1 9 6 6 .
N u m e ro u s in fo rm ativ e p lan s an d illu stratio n s of cur-
r e n t r e s i d e n t i a l site p l a n n i n g , t h o u g h t h e te x t is w e a k .
73. M a s s o n , G e o r g i n a . Italian G ardens.
N e w Y ork: A b ra m s (p ap er), 1961.
A good historical s u m m a ry of th e Ita lia n g a rd en .
74. R a s m u s s e n , S t e e n Eiler. Tow ns and Buildings.
C a m b rid g e , M a ss.: H a r v a r d U n iv e rs ity Press, 1951.
A delightful a n d very o b se rv a n t d e sc rip tio n of v ario u s
fine t o w n s a n d b u i l d i n g g r o u p s , w i t h h a n d s o m e m a r -
g in a l d r a w i n g s .
75. S ir e n , O s v a l d . G ardens o f China.
N e w Y ork: R o n a ld Press, 1949.
S till t h e b e s t b o o k o n t h e s u b je c t.
Index*

Abies concolor, 85 Architecture, 3, 2 2 3 , 23 3 . See also

A b so r p tiv e capacity, 181 Buildings; Str uctu res
A ccele ration lanes, 149 Arrival, 2 0 3 , 2 0 7
A cce ss, 118, 3 2 5 A s h , w h ite , 8 7
gradation of, 3 5 3 - 3 5 4 A sph a lt, 209
Acer platanoides, 85 A t te n t i o n , a n a ly sis of, 111
Acer rubrum, 85 Austrian pine, 8 8
Acer saccharum, 85 A u to m o b ile , 1 2 1 , 12 5 , 3 0 7 . Sec
Activ ity , 29, 31, 3 2 , 35. See also also P ark in g; S treets; Traf-
Behavior; Behavior set- fic
tings sto rin g of, 3 0 6 - 3 0 8
diagram, 25, 26, 27, 4 2 , 2 4 5 A v e n u e , 199
grap hic l a n g u a g e for, 44 planted, 2 1 6
A d a p ta b ility A x is, 1 9 9
o f circulation sy s tem , 1 3 6 A z i m u th o f su n, 71, 72, 73
p op u la tio n d e n s i t y and, 321
of site, 3 9 Balconies, 3 0 1 , 3 0 2
A d a p ta tio n , in crem en ta l, 2 7 1 - 2 7 3 Baldwin Hills, in Los A n g e l e s , 126
Aesculus hippocastanum, 86 Barker, Roger, 27, 28
Ailanthus altíssima, 86 Barriers, 194
Air, m o v e m e n t of, 65, 74, 76. See ey e level, 194
also Clim ate; W in d noise , 8 0
A lb ed o , 65 Bath, cr escen ts of, 2
A lex a n d er, C hristopher, 2 7 7 , 284 Bearberry, as ground cover, 82
A lig n m e n t Bedrock, 59
horizontal, 1 4 0 —141 Beech, European, 82, 86
as related w h o le, 155 B e etleb u n g tree, 87
standards, table of, 156 Behavior
vertical, 1 5 1 —1 52 o f drivers, 129
A ltitu d e of sun, 69, 7 1 - 7 3 en v iro n m en ta l, 95, 97, 100
Am erican elm, 9 0 e n v iro n m en t su p p o rtiv e of, 37,
A m p h ith ea ter, o utd oor, 2 6 0 2 24
A m u r cork tree, 8 8 localized, 1 0 4 - 1 0 5
A n a ly sis of sites, social and p sy - mark et, 225
chologica l, 9 5 - 1 1 7 . ob serv a tio n of, 103
A n g l e of rep os e, 161 spatial, 10 1 , 1 0 9
A n thr o po c en tricity , 9 specialized, 105
A n t h r o p o lo g y , applied tech n iqu es ty pe s of, 3 0
of, 97, 114 Behavior circuit, 105
A p a rtm en ts. See also H o u sin g : Behavior settin gs, 13, 27 , 28, 30,
Bu ildings 31 , 10 5 , 261
elevator, 2 9 7 , 3 0 0 - 3 0 1 , 3 0 2 - 303 ch eck list for, 93
" g a r d e n , 301 ‫׳‬ definitio n s of, 2 7 6
prefabricated, 3 0 2 d esig n by, 2 7 6 - 2 7 7
w a lk -u p , 2 9 6 , 2 9 9 - 3 0 0 , 301 diagra m s of, 24 7
w i n d o w l e s s , 304 B erk eley, U n iv e r sity o f C aliforn ia
Arcade, 2 0 0 at, 234
*Italic page numbers refer to illustrations.
372 Bicycles, 1 2 5 , 1 3 9 , 1 4 0 C e s sp o o ls, 182. See also Sep tic
Black g u m tree, 8 7 tanks; S ew ers
Blocks C h a n n eliza tio n , 1 4 7
len gth of, 143 C h a n n e ls
tower, 320 capacity of, 1 29
Blo w o ffs, installation of, 183 hierarchies of, 128
Board o f rev iew , 2 4 0 ty pe s of, 1 1 8 - 1 1 9
Bollards, 195 C h a th a m Village, in Pittsburgh,
Borings, 59. See also Soil 131
Bo sto n C h eck erb o a rd pattern, 3 6
Central Artery in, 134 C h eck list, o f site data, 21, 9 1 - 9 4
clim ate of, 62—63, 64 C h u rch es, 3 1 3
G o v e r n m e n t Cen ter in, 2 47 Circu lation sy s t e m , 50 , 118, 121,
Paul Rev ere Mall in, 26 12 4 , 1 2 5 . See also M o v e -
Boulders, 2 1 0 m ent systems
Bou n d aries, 38 d iagram s of, 2 4 7
Bow l, 1 9 9 d isp ersed , 1 2 0
Budget , 2 4 5 . See also C o s ts efficien cy of, 125
B uchanan, Colin, 134 e x p e n s e of, 1 29
B u g le w e e d , as g ro u n d cover, 8 2 grain of, 12 5 , 1 2 8
Bu ilding lines, 2 3 1 , 2 3 9 inte grated, 1 2 0
Buildings layou t of, 1 3 0
airflow and, 75—76 n eg a tiv e effect of, 134
d e sig n of, 2 3 3 —2 34 patterns of, 2 4 5
lo w , 2 0 7 social and esth etic impact, 1 3 1 -
orien ta tio n of, 3 0 5 136
restrictio n s on , 231 tests of, 1 3 5 - 1 3 6
sp a cin g b e tw e en , 3 0 3 —3 0 5 u n d ergrou n d , 120
tall, 2 0 7 . See also H o u sin g ; In- C ity
stitu tio n s center, 101
B u lld ozers, 1 5 9 clim a te of, 77
B u tto n w o o d tree, 89 inner, 81
m icroclim ate of, 77, 78
C ab le, la y in g , 1 8 5 . See also L ines sp atial d e sig n of, 2 3 0
C am p g ro u n d s, 3 2 2 , 3 2 3 , 324 C ity p la n n in g , 3
C am p u s, 3 4 3 , 3 4 8 C lay, 52, 5 7
" d riv e -in ,351 ‫״‬ n o n p la stic, 54
as p ark in g lot, 350 organ ic, 54
urban, 344, 350 plastic, 54
C an ad ian h em lo ck , 9 0 C lea n o u ts, 1 8 0
C anopy, 199 C lev ela n d , U n iv e r sity C ircle in,
C ap acity 344
o f roads, 1 4 5 - 1 4 6 , 1 48 Clients, 5, 28 , 3 5 , 3 7 - 3 9 , 97 , 2 3 2 ,
o f sew ers, 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 , 1 79 245, 256, 268, 282, 287
o f w a lk w a y s, 1 5 0 characteristics of, 99
Car, 1 2 1 , 1 2 5 , 3 0 7 control by, 2 6 1 , 2 8 2
sto rin g of, 3 0 6 - 3 0 8 co sts and, 4 0
C arport, 3 0 6 nature of, 9 6 —9 7
" C arryin g cap acity," 3 5 3 - 3 5 4 v a lu es of, 98
C ase In stitu te o f T e ch n o lo g y , 350 Climate, 16, 17, 38 , 60 , 64, 68, 78,
Catalpa speciosa (northern C a- 2 4 5 . See also M icro clim a te
talp a), 86 o f Bo sto n , 62—63, 64
C atch b a sin s, 1 71. See also D rain - ch eck list for, 92
age o f the city, 77
C edar, Eastern red, 8 1 , 8 7 in tem p erate zo n e s , 74
C e n te r lin e , 1 2 5 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 1 , 1 5 1 , 1 5 4 Close , cathedral, 2 0 0
C entral A rtery, B oston , 134 Closu re, visual, 2 1 9 , 3 1 7
C entral Park, in N e w York C ity, Clover, as g ro u n d cover, 82
192 Cloverleaf, 1 4 8
Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 86 Cluster, 2 1 1 , 3 1 1 , 3 1 8 - 3 1 9
C oal Crest, 199 373
co st of, 1 87 Cribbing, 161 , 1 7 0
d eliv ery of, 188 Criteria
C ollecto r street, 128 se n su o u s, 2 2 4 —2 2 7
C o lo n n a d e s, 195 o f site p la n n in g , 5 - 6
C o lu m b ia , M a rylan d , 342 C ritical path a n a ly sis, 2 6 6
C olu m b ia U n iv ersity , 3 5 0 C r o ssin g s, layou t of, 140. See also
C om fort, 16 In tersectio n s
se n sa tio n and, 224 C ro ss sectio n s, 125, 1 37, 1 4 0
tem p eratu re and, 6 1 —64 C r o s sw a lk s , 151
C o m m u n ica tio n C u l-d e-s a cs, 1 2 4 , 127, 1 2 8 , 132,
con trol of, 3 7 - 3 8 143, 271
direct, 107, 1 10 Culverts, 1 7 8 , 1 7 9
so cia l, 6 C u rb s, 2 0 9 . See also S id ew a lk s
C o m m u n i t y , facilities for, 2 3 1 - C u rve
232, 313, 3 2 8 - 3 2 9 circular, 141
C o m p uter, in d esig n p ro cess, 2 85, horizontal, 141
286 parabolic, 153
C om p u ter program s, 2 0 2 reverse, 1 4 2
C on crete, as grou n d cover, 2 0 9 sag, 154
C o n d o m in iu m s, 3 0 2 vertical, 1 5 2 - 1 5 3
C o n d u ctiv ity , 66 Cut and fill
C o n g ru en ce o f form and u se, 2 2 2 - balance of, 1 6 1 - 1 6 8
2 23 d iagram of, 164
C o n serv a tio n , 47, 2 3 9 C u ts, avo id a n ce o f sh a llo w , 161
C o n stru ctio n , 2 6 4 , 284 C y cla d es, street in, 213
c o sts of, 41 , 2 8 9 C y c lew a y s, la y o u t of, 1 3 9 , 1 4 0
su p erv isio n of, 2 5 7
C o n tin u ity o f form , 2 1 9 - 2 2 0 , 2 3 6 D a n v ik sk lip p a n ap artm en ts, in
C on to u r-a rea m eth o d , 1 6 3 - 1 6 5 , S to ck h o lm , 300
16 8 D ata
C on to u rs ch eck list of, 9 1 - 9 4
o f grou nd surface, 19, 4 7 co st, 40
n ew , 1 6 1 , 1 6 3 - 1 6 5 ga th e rin g of, 13
readin g of, 4 8 - 4 9 , 1 6 4 - 1 6 5 D a y lig h t, 16, 3 0 3
road, 1 5 4 - 1 5 5 D e cib el, as m easu re o f n o ise lev el,
Contract bidding, 2 5 6 79-80
Contrast, 2 1 9 - 2 2 0 D eclin a tio n o f the sun, 7 1 - 7 3
Con trol Defile, 15, 50
en viro n m en ta l, 78 D e n s it y
o f noise , 78, 3 2 3 activity, 33
C o n v e c t io n , 6 6 - 6 7 area, 33, 34
C o o n l e y h ou se, 250 control of, 2 3 9
Cork, Am u r, 88 definition of, 3 3 - 3 4
C o s t-b en efit analysis, 3 7 - 4 3 o f d e v e lo p m e n t, 37
C o sts, 2 8 9 - 2 9 5 g ro ss, 34
acreage, 2 9 5 lo w , 3 9
o f circu lation sy stem , 129* m ixtu res of, 3 1 5 , 3 1 9
futu re m a n a g em en t, 4 0 n e ig h b o r h o o d , 3 1 4
linear, 295 net, 34
m a in ten a n ce, 291 p h ysical, 33
m in im iza tio n of, 40 range, 3 1 6
p ercen ta g e, 2 9 5 rate, 33
red uction of, 291 resid en tial, 3 4 , 42, 3 1 4 - 3 1 7
site, 39, 40, 4 1 , 4 2 , 43 su ita b ility of, 3 5
C ou rts, 199, 23 4 . See also Parks table o f resid en tia l, 3 1 5
trailer, 3 2 3 " D en tela ted " effect, 231
C ourtyard h o u se, 301 D ep recia tio n , 41
C over, v e g eta tiv e, 19 D e sig n
C reep in g lilytu rf, 8 2 ap p roach es to, 2 4 6
374 D e sig n ( continued ) Earthwork
b u ild in g , 2 3 3 co sts of, 2 9 2
o f d etail, 2 1 7 - 2 1 9 linear, 163
d e v e lo p m en t of, 21 t e c h n o l o g y of, 1 5 7 , 1 5 8 , 1 6 0 ,
en v iro n m en ta l, 2 3 6 165, 167
m e th o d s of, 2 7 0 - 2 9 5 E arthw ork ca lcu la tio n s, 1 6 3 —1 6 8
m od el an d , 2 8 7 con to u r-a rea m eth o d , 1 6 3 —1 65
m odu lar, 2 7 6 en d -area m eth o d , 1 6 5 - 1 6 6
m u ltip le-d ev e lo p e r, 2 3 8 b y grid , 1 6 6 - 1 6 7
p ro cess of, 2 4 6 , 2 4 9 , 2 5 6 b y m od el, 1 6 7 —1 6 8
ren ew al, 3 5 9 E asem en ts, 18, 19
site, 2 2 3 (see also S ite p la n n in g ) Eastern h em lo ck , 9 0
in n o v a tiv e , 2 7 8 —2 8 0 E astern red cedar, 8 7
p rob in g, 2 8 0 - 2 8 1 E cology, 1 2 —13, 4 5 , 2 4 5 . See also
str a teg y of, 223 E n viron m en t
u g ly , 1 - 2 b alan ce of, 1 1 —12
su b d iv isio n , 2 3 7 se lf-m a in ta in in g , 40
',u rb an ,2 3 7 ‫״‬ o f site, 4 5 —95
D e s ig n -S c ie n c e In tern a tio n a l, 20 E fficien cy o f circu lation sy stem s,
D eta il, d e sig n of, 2 1 7 —2 1 9 125
D e v elo p er , in urban ren ew al, 3 5 9 Egress, fire, 241
D iagram Electricity, 1 2 0 , 2 9 0
a ctiv ity , 25, 26, 27, 42 , 2 4 5 c o n d u its for, 1 3 3 , 1 3 4 , 138, 185,
a p p lication of, 3 5 - 3 6 188, 217, 290
earth w ork , 1 6 3 , 1 6 4 , 1 6 6 c o sts of, 1 8 7
su n d ia l, 73 E lem en tary sc h o o l, 3 1 9 —3 2 0
D isa g g r e g a tio n , 2 7 6 - 2 7 8 E levation s, sp ot, 2 5 2
D isp o sa l p lan t, 1 8 1 . See also S e w - Elm, A m erican , 9 0
ers; W a ste d isp o sa l E m otion, sh elter and , 1 9 9 . See also
D ista n ce . See also V ie w B ehavior
forw ard sig h t, 1 5 3 Em path y, 1 1 3 . See also Behavior
sig h t, 154 settin gs
str ee t-to -d o o r , 144 E nclosu re, 1 9 1 - 1 9 2 , 1 9 4 - 1 9 5
D istr ib u tio n , tim e, 3 7 E n glish ivy, as grou n d cover, 8 2
D itc h e s, 1 7 0 , 1 7 8 . See also D rain - E ntrance, 1 2 9 , 1 3 1 , 1 9 5 , 2 0 7 , 3 3 4
age E nvironm ent
D iv e r s ity o f en v ir o n m e n t, 2 2 5 a d ap tin g of, 1 05
D o u g l a s fir, 89 a ttitu d es tow ard , 10 7 , 1 1 0 , 1 11
D ra in a g e, 11, 14, 59, 6 7 c h a n g e in, 11 5 , 263
sa n itary, 169, 1 79, 1 8 0 (see also ch ild ren and , 2 2 7
S ew ers) co n flicts over, 1 0 2
c o sts of, 2 9 3 con trol of, 2 2 9
slo p e s and, 4 9 h arm on y w ith , 3
storm , 168, 1 7 1 , 1 7 2 , 1 7 3 , 1 7 6 - im pact of, 1 1 5
177 in h u m an e, 1 0 0
storm sew er p ip es, 1 6 8 , 172, in stitu tio n s and, 2 6 3 - 2 6 4
176-178 m an a g em en t of, 46 , 2 63
su b su rface, 1 7 9 org a n iza tio n of, 2 2 6
su rface, 119 p ercep tion of, 2 1 9
u n d ergrou n d , 1 70 p rob lem s of, 1 04, 1 0 9
D r a w in g s, tech n ica l, 2 5 1 , 2 55 se n su o u s, 2 2 5
D rive, loop , 143 sim u la ted , 1 1 0
D riv ew a y s, 143 sp atial, 9 5 (see also E cology)
D r y -str en g th test, for soil, 55 E quinox, 6 9 , 72
D w e llin g u n it, 2 9 6 E rosion, 11
D y sfu n c tio n , e v id en ce s of, 10 2 slo p e s and, 4 9
E stim ates, o f cost, 40 . See also
Earth C o sts
as material, 14, 2 0 6 - 2 0 9 Ethics, o f site p la n n in g , 9 6 - 9 7 , 1 1 6
stab ilized , 2 0 9 European b eech , 86
Excavation, 166. See also Earth- G as 375
work cost of, 1 87
Exotics, u se of, 2 1 5 delivery of, 188
Expan dab les, 29 8 G e o l o g y , ch eck list for, 92
Exp ressw ay, 7 34 G e o m o r p h o lo g y , 51
Gingko biloba ( G in g k o tree), 87
Gleditsia triacanthos inermis mo-
Facilities, co m m u n it y , 3 1 1 - 3 1 4 raine, 87
Fagus sylvatica, 86 G oals, 5 - 7 , 28, 29, 3 7 - 4 0 , 2 4 4 -
Fairbrother, Nan, 3 43 245
Families per acre, 3 1 5 —3 1 7 G o l d m o s s ston ecrop , 8 2
Fences, 2 1 7 , 21 8. See also W alls Grade
Fertilizer, 83 g en tle, 191
Fill, fo u n d a tio n s in, 5 7 m a x im u m , 1 5 2
Financial a n a ly sis o f projects, 2 8 9 — new, 160
2 95. See also C o s ts ramp, 1 4 9
Fire stat ion s, 3 1 3 separation s, 148
Flat. See A p a rtm en ts G rad in g plan, 1 57, 1 6 2 , 2 5 2 , 25 3 ,
Floor area ratio, 33, 3 1 5 , 3 4 9 - 3 5 0 255
Flow. See also Drainage; M o v e - d ifficu lties in, 161
m en t s y s t e m s G rad in g p ro cess, 1 5 7 , 1 5 8
ped estrian, 1 5 0 , 3 3 0 G rain, 37 , 3 8
surface, 1 6 9 - 1 7 9 o f circulation s y s t e m s , 12 5 , 1 2 7
ty p e s of, 1 18 G rass
u n d erg ro u n d , 14 as grou n d cover, 82, 83, 2 0 9
Flow s y s t e m s , ch aracteristics of, G ravel, 51, 57, 138
121 cla y ey , 53
Focal p o in ts , 35 clean , 53, 57
Footpaths, 13 3, 20 9. See also Path- for roads, 58
ways silt, 53
Form Grid
circular, 199 calcu lation o f earth w ork by,
grou n d , 4 9 - 5 0 1 6 6 , 167
g ro w th , 39 u se of, 122
lo n g -r a n g e visual, 236 G rou nd
se n s u o u s, 1 8 9 - 2 2 8 flat, 2 0 6
sim p licity of, 2 1 9 , 2 2 0 form of, 47, 48 , 49, 50
stan dard ization of, 3 6 surface, 15
thr ee-dim en sio n a l, 44 textu ral fin ish of, 2 0 8
visual, 151 G rou nd cover, 20 9 . See also Plant
Foundation cover
co n d itio n s for, 1 3 - 1 4 s e n s u o u s form of, 2 1 4 - 2 1 5
soils and, 57 G ro u n d ivy, as gro und cover, 82
Fraxinus americana, 8 7 G ro u n d w a ter , 14
Freeways, inte rse ctions on, 142. G u tters, 1 5 4 , 178, 20 9 . See also
Sec also In tersections D rain age
Fuel delivery, 1 8 8 ,
Future g ro w th , prediction of, 3 4 8 — Habita ble r o o m s per acre, 33
350 ‫ ״‬Habita ts," 3 0 2
H ach ures, 48
Halprin, Lawrence, 2 1 2
G a m in g , 112. See also Behavior Halprin 's fountain , in Portland,
settin gs 272
Garages, 3 0 6 , 31 7 . See also Park- Hard m ap le, 85
ing H ead ligh t beam , 144, 145
G ard en s H ealth , en v iro n m en t and , 38
formal, 200 H eat
Japanese, 2 18 balance of, 65
Sto urh ea d, 203 central, 1 8 7
Tivoli, 196 co n d u ctiv ity of, 66
376 H eat ( continued) Im h off tank, 181
c o n v e ctio n of, 6 6 Im p erm an en ce, 3 2 3 , 3 2 4 . See also
sp ecific, 67 H o u sin g , tem p orary
H ea tin g p lan t, 1 8 7 In cin erator, 1 8 8
" H eat islan d ," 77 In d ivid u al d e v e lo p m en t, 2 2 7
H ea v en , tree of, 8 6 In du strial d istricts, 3 3 8 - 3 4 2
H em icy cle, 199 in C o lu m b ia, M arylan d , 342
H e m lo c k , C anadian or Eastern, 9 0 N e w E nglan d, 341
H erb s In form ation , sto ra g e of, 2 8 5
in la ndsc ape, 2 1 3 In lets in d rain age sy stem , 1 6 9 , 1 7 1 ,
large, 8 2 174, 175, 176
H ierarcy, sy m m etric, 3 6 , 2 2 0 —2 21 In stitu tio n s
H ig h w a y s, 134. See also R oad s; site p la n n in g for, 3 4 3 —3 5 0
S treets spatial o rgan ization of, 3 4 6 —3 4 7
com m ercial strip s o n , 3 3 7 - 3 3 8 Interaction, social, 31, 38 , 4 4 , 128,
H o n e y co m b , 1 99 1 3 1 - 1 3 2 , 1 8 9 , 321
H o rizo n ta l scale, 2 5 2 In terch an ges, 1 2 8
H orse ch e stn u t tree, 86 Interest charg es , 41
H o sp ita ls, 3 4 3 , 3 5 0 Intersections, 1 4 2 , 14 6 , 1 47, 154
H our a n gle, 71, 72 ca p acity of, 1 4 9
H o u sin g , 2 9 8 —3 2 6 . See also A p art- d ia m o n d , 148
m en ts flo w at, 1 4 7
central-c ity, 3 0 7 on f reew a y s, 1 4 2
cluster a rran gem en t of, 211 light at, 1 8 6
c o m m o n ty pe s of, 2 9 6 —2 9 7 se parated, 1 4 8
w ith court yard s, 3 0 1 , 3 0 9 Inver sion, 74
d e v e l o p m e n ts , 2 1 6 Islands, 2 1 3
elevat or apartm ent, 2 9 7 , 3 0 0 - Ivy, as grou n d cover, 8 2
3 0 1 ,3 0 2 -3 0 3
Japanese black pine, 88
flat, 2 9 6
Jefferson, T h o m a s, 3 44
"habitats," 3 0 2
Juniper, prostrate, as grou n d cov-
in ad eq uate, 3 1 6
er, 82
in stitu tional, 3 4 8
locat ion of, 144
Juniperus virginiana, 87
l o w - c o st , 23 9 , 2 4 0 , 2 8 9 , 3 2 2 K atsura P alace, in K yoto, 2
m ob ile h o m e s, 3 1 7 , 3 1 8 K atsura tree, 86
no n fa rm , 34
prefabricated, 2 9 7 - 2 9 8 Land, con serv a tio n of, 2 3 9
row, 131, 2 9 6 , 2 9 8 - 2 9 9 , 3 0 8 , Landform . See T o p o g ra p h y
3 0 9 , 3 1 0 , 3 1 9 , 320 L andscape, 50 , 190
sin g le-fa m ily , 2 9 2 , 2 9 6 , 2 9 7 , 3 1 7 b eau tifu l, 2 2 8
standards of, 3 0 4 " civilized ," 12
tem pora ry, 3 2 3 - 3 2 6 con trol of, 2 2 3
ten ur e patterns in, 3 0 2 e c o lo g y of, 2 14
tower or slab, 2 9 7 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 2 , natural, 1 9 9 , 2 0 7
305, 311, 319 n igh t, 1 8 6
trailers, 1 98 orga n iza tio n of, 1 89
tw o -fa m ily , 2 9 6 , 2 9 8 , 3 1 7 p ercep tio n of, 2 0 2 , 2 0 6
w a lk -u p ap artmen t, 2 9 6 , 2 9 9 — rural, 16
300, 301, 319 sp ecifications for, 254
H u m a n scale, 194, 195 urban, 17
H u m id ity , 60, 61 , 6 7 Landscape families, 15
ranges of, 16 Landscaping, 3
H y d ra n ts, 183 c o sts of, 2 94
for industrial districts, 3 4 2
Iden tity, visual, 2 25 p rob lem o f m a tu rity in, 2 1 5 - 2 1 6
Illusions, spatial, 1 90 for s h o p p i n g centers, 3 3 4 —3 3 6
Im ages Land use
spatial, 1 0 8 p attern s of, 2 4 5
tem poral, 1 09 records, 23
La nd-use diagram. See Dia gram , M a ch in es, ea rth -m o v in g , 1 5 9 - 1 6 0 , 377
act ivity 16 1 . See also E arthw ork
Latitude, 71 , 72 M ach u P icchu, 3, 210
Layouts M a in s, w ater, 182, 183. See also
p relim in ary, 22 W ater
sk etch , 23 M a in ten a n ce
L egib ility, tem p oral and sp atial, c o sts of, 40 , 4 1 , 4 2
225-226 o f slo p e s, 49
Level, c h a n g e s of, 19 1, 2 0 8 su ita b ility for, 30
Level areas, 1 90 M alls
Light interior, 3 3 5 —3 3 6
artificial, 1 9 7 sh o p p in g , 3 2 9
flood , 1 8 7 M a lm o , in S w e d e n , 309
exterior, 1 8 6 , 1 8 7 M anagement
at site, 1 9 0 in v e st m e n t, 284
sp a ce and , 196 o f site, 4 3 , 2 6 2
on streets, 1 85 M a n h attan , p ed estrian flo w in, 151
w ater and, 211 M a n h o le s, 1 7 1 , 17 2 , 1 7 6 , 1 7 9 , 1 80,
Lilyturf, creep in g , 82 217
Lima, El A g u stin o in, 2 7 M a n n in g form u la, 17 7 , 1 7 8
Lincoln C en ter, in N e w York C ity, for p ip e size, 1 7 0 - 1 7 1
248 M ap
Linden, little leaf, 90 b ase, 19, 91
Linear sy s tem , 124 c ity b ase, 23
Lines con tou r, 24, 48, 50, 91
situ a tio n , 24
building, 239
so il, 53
electric, 1 3 3 , 1 8 5 , 2 9 0
p o w er, 134, 1 3 8 , 2 1 7 top o g ra p h ic, 19
h ig h -v o lt a g e, 184 M a p le trees, 85
se wer, 17 1 , 174, 182 M a rk eliu s, S v en , 2 4 8
sigh t, 2 0 2 M ark et a n a ly se s, 23
M ark et sy stem , failu res of, 43
telep h o n e, 18 5 , 187, 2 9 0
transit, 133 M arth a's V in eyard , 3 1 8
M a sk in g , 190, 19 5
u n d erg ro u n d , 185
u tility , 2 9 0 M aze, 199
w ater, 1 8 2 M ea n in g , visu al, 2 2 6
M ea n s, focus on, 2 7 8 —2 7 9
Linkage, 3 3 , 35
M erceria, o f V en ice, 335
diagram of, 3 2
M eters, w ater, 183. Sec also W ater
o u tsid e, 33
M icroclim ate, 6, 16, 17, 24, 64, 65,
Liriodendron tulipifera,87 66, 70, 74
Little leaf linden , 90
o f L ond on, 77
Loading areas, 145
m od ification of, 77
Locality. See Site
p ercep tion of, 1 97
Locust, m oraine, 87
poor, 38
Loess, 5 7
sh a d e-d efin ed , 70
London, m icroclimate of, 77
variations in, 78, 81
Loops, 124 •
M ilita ry crest, 50
Los A n g e le s Miyajima T e m p le, 211
Baldwin Hills in, 126 M o b ile h o m e s, 3 1 7 , 3 1 8 , 321
residential terracing in, 2 0 8 need for, 3 2 2
Lots M o d el
location of, 2 32 calculation by, 1 6 7 —168
p arkin g, 2 59, 2 6 2 {see also Park- th r ee-d im en sio n a l, 4 8 , 2 88
ing) M o d u le s, 2 7 6
p la n nin g for, 231 (see also Sub- resid en tial, 3 0 8 - 3 0 9
division) M on treal E xp osition , 3 0 2
sizes of, 304 M orain e locu st tree, 8 7
" M o rp h o lo g ica l" app roach, 2 7 9
M acadam , 138, 17 3, 2 0 9 M o sa ics, 209
378 M o v em e n t a q u ed u cts as, 1 3 2
d iagram s, 1 4 8 E n glish , 2 0 0
on foot, 131 (see also P a th w a y s ) in terior, 1 2 7
p attern s of, 1 03 (see also Traf- m o b ile h om e, 318, 3 2 2
fie) stan d ard s for, 3 1 2
recording of, 104 trailer, 3 2 4 , 3 2 6
M o v e m e n t sy s t e m s , 1 1 8 - 1 3 6 . See P ark w a y s, 2 0 0
also Circu lation s y s t e m " P a sses," in rou gh terrain, 15, 5 0
fea tu re s of, 38 P a th w a y s, 1 3 1 , 1 32, 234
M u c k , 54 character of, 2 3 5
M y e r , John R., 2 4 7 in in d u strial d istricts, 3 3 9
lo ca tio n of, 2 2 9
N a t io n a l Park Service, 3 5 2 pattern of, 1 32
N e i g h b o r h o o d s , 13 2 , 3 1 9 social c o n se q u en ce s of, 1 35
d e n s i t y of, 34 P attern
form a tio n of, 3 21 circu lation , 44 ( s e e also C ircu la-
true, 3 2 0 - 3 2 1 tion sy s te m )
N e t w o r k pattern, 3 6 , 3 7 d istrict, 3 6
N e w England, residen tial streets focal, 3 7
in, 1 9 5 P a v em en t, 1 3 7 , 1 3 8 , 2 0 9
N oise, 38 asp h alt, 2 1 8
contro l of, 78, 3 2 3 c o sts of, 2 9 3
m a x im u m , 2 4 2 d im e n sio n s of, 1 3 8 —1 39
standards for, 134 P eat, 54, 5 7
N o rth ern catalpa, 8 6 P ed estria n s, 1 2 5 , 127, 1 32
N o rth ern red oak , 89 flo w of, 1 5 0 , 3 3 0
N o r w a y m ap le, 85 lig h tin g and, 1 8 6
N o r w a y pine, 88 m o tio n of, 133
Nyssa sylvatica, 87 sp ace a n d , 1 4 9 - 1 5 0 , 201
P ek in g , Im perial P alace of, 2
O a k trees, 82 , 8 9
P ep p erid g e tree, 8 7
O b je ctiv es, 5 - 7 , 28, 29, 3 7 - 4 0 ,
P ercep tio n , 1 9 0 , 1 9 7 , 2 1 9 , 2 2 2
244-245 P ergam u m , cen ter of, 2
O b se r v a tio n , o n -t h e - s p o t , 103
P eriscop e, 2 0 2
O il
P eriw in k le, as grou n d cover, 8 2
cost of, 1 8 7
P erm afrost, 6 0
d eliv ery of, 188
P h ello d en d ro n am urense, 8 8
O n e -w a y sy s te m s , 1 2 2 , 1 3 8 , 145
P h o to g ra p h s, aerial, 24, 9 0 - 9 1
O p e n A ir C ity , P er sso n 's, 309
in terp retation of, 9 0
" O p e n n ess," 3 5 2 —3 5 3
O p en sp ace, d esig n of, 3 5 1 —3 5 7
Piazza, Italian, 198, 1 9 9
P iazza G ran de, o f A rezzo , 201
O p tical illu sio n s, 191
P in e trees, 8 8
O p tim iz in g o f e sse n tia l fu n ctio n ,
Pin oak , 89
273-274
O rien ta tio n Pinus nigra, 88
o f b u ildin g s, 3 0 5
Pinus resinosa, 88
q u e s t io n s of, 2 0 3
Pinus strobus, 88
Pinus sylvestris, 8 8
Pinus thunbergi, 8 8
P ach ysan d ra, as grou n d cover, 8 2
P ip e
P agod a tree, 9 0
P ark in g, 129, 3 1 3 gas, 1 8 7
size of, 172, 1 76, 1 7 7 , 180, 183,
at cu rb sid e, 1 3 8
184
in in d u strial d istricts, 3 4 0
water, 1 8 3 - 1 8 4
at in stitu tio n s, 351
layou t of, 144 Place, French, 198, 2 0 0
lo c a tio n o f, 144 Pla ne tree, 89
p ro v isio n for, 3 0 7 Planim eter, 1 6 5
at sh o p p in g cen ters, 3 3 2 —3 3 4 P la n n in g , city. See C ity p lan n in g;
P arks, 1 99, 23 2 , 2 7 1 , 3 5 1 . See also S ite p la n n in g
G ard en s P lant cover, 16, 17, 8 1 - 8 3
Planting Quercus alba, 8 9 379
ov erh ea d , 2 0 9 Quercus borealis, 89
public, 1 4 0 Quercus palustris, 89
strip, 13 8, 139 , 1 40 Q u i c k s a n d , 57
Plants, 17. See also Trees
clim ate and, 74, 75
Radial star pattern , 3 6
in landsc ape, 2 1 3
Radial sy s t e m , 123
as site indicators, 81
Radius o f curve, 1 4 1 , 1 42, 156
su cc ess io n of, 8 1 - 8 2
Rail transit, 121
Platanus acerifolia, 89
Rainfall
Platform, inte rsection, 154
i n te n s ity of, 1 7 3 - 1 7 4 , 175
Plats, 2 5 5
in U n ited Sta tes, 7 75
P la y g ro u n d s, 2 3 2 , 2 6 0 , 2 7 1 , 3 1 2 ,
Ram ps, 1 4 8 - 1 4 9
3 1 3 . See also Parks
R eco n n a iss a n ce, o f site, 19, 21
P lu m b in g. See D rain age; P ipe;
Records, on climate, 24. See also
W ater
C lim a te
P o les
R ecreation , 3 1 2 , 3 5 2 . See also
ligh t, 1 8 6
P arks
p o w er, 1 8 5 , 1 8 6
facilities for, 3 1 3
u tility , 2 1 7 . See also L ines
o u td o o r, 3 5 0
P o llu tio n , 3, 11, 38. See also En-
R ecyclin g, as d esig n strategy, 2 8 3 -
v iro n m en t
284
b io lo g ica l, 1 7 9
Red cedar, E uropean, 8 1 , 8 7
ch em ica l, 1 79
Red m ap le, 85
sta n d a rd s for, 134
Red oak , n o rth ern , 8 9
therm al, 179
Red p in e, 88
P o pu la tio n s, 45. See also Behavior
se ttin g s R en ew al
c a teg o ries in, 9 7 su b u rb a n , 3 5 7 - 3 5 8
c h e ck list for, 93 urban. See Urb an ren ew a l
d em o g ra p h ic stu d ies of, 1 0 0 Rep ort s, 21, 2 5 5 , 2 5 6
P otiala, at Lhasa, 2 2 2 R esou rces, p reservatio n of, 46. See
P recip ita tio n , 16, 60, 64. See also also E n viron m en t
R ainfall R e v ie w board, 2 4 0
Prefabricated h o u sin g , 2 9 7 - 2 9 8 R h y th m , 1 9 1 , 2 1 9
Preliminary plan, 2 5 0 Ridge lines, 15
Probing, as d esig n m eth o d , 2 8 0 - Rights, legal, 18
281 R i g h ts - o f- w a y
P roblem, structure of, 2 7 4 - 2 7 6 use of, 1 1 9 , 132
Profile w id th of, 1 4 0
at in te rsection s, 154 Ring, pattern , 36
road, 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 , 2 5 1 - 2 5 2 , 2 53, Road ability , 153
2 55 Road s. See also H i g h w a y s ; Str eets
o f sew ers, 1 7 2 ca p acity of, 145
P rogram , 2 8 - 3 1 , 2 4 5 , 2 5 6 cen ter lin es of, 1 41, 1 5 2
co m p u ter, 2 0 2 co n to u r s and, 1 30, 1 55
linear, 2 73 cost of, 2 9 3
preparation of, 2 6 0 —2 6 2 cu rvat ure of, 1 4 1 - 1 4 2
req u irem en ts of, 29 d ea d -e n d , 143
s e n s u o u s, 223 earth, 138
sta g es of, 28—29 grade of, 50
traditional, 28 hierarchy of, 1 2 8
P ro m en a d e, waterfront, 2 0 0 h orizon tal a lig n m e n t of, 1 4 0 -
P roportion , scale and, 1 9 2 —194 141
Prostrate juniper, as g ro u n d cover, in industrial districts, 3 3 9 , 3 4 0
82 la yout of, 1 3 0
Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 89 lig h tin g on, 1 8 6
P sy ch o lo g ica l a n a ly sis, in d irect, lim iting d im e n s i o n s of, 143
101-103 location of, 2 2 9
P u rp ose, o f site p la n n in g , 5 - 6 , 25 m a in t e n a n c e of, 3 2 5
380 R oad s ( co n tin u ed ) S e ttlem e n t
pattern of, 2 3 1 Inca, 3, 2 1 0
in p erspe ctiv e, 154 N e w E ngland, 2
profile of, 1 5 1 - 1 5 2 , 2 5 1 - 2 5 2 , s e lf-h e lp , 3 2 4 - 3 2 6
253, 255 ,,sq u atter," 3 2 4 , 3 2 6
s a fety and, 1 5 5 S e w a g e , 11 9 , 1 2 0
sp eed on, 1 5 6 S ew er p ip es, size of, 1 6 8 , 1 7 2 , 1 7 6 -
visu a l impact of, 231 178
w id th of, 1 3 8 S ew ers
R oad sy s te m , 12 9 . S e e also C ircu la- la y o u t of, 1 7 1 - 1 7 2
tion sy stem ru n o ff form u la, 1 7 2 - 1 7 3
R oa d to w n , 124 san itary, 1 8 0 , 2 9 0
R ock storm , 1 7 3 , 1 8 0 , 2 9 0 (see also
as part o f la n d sca p e, 2 1 0 D ra in age)
soil and, 14 S h a d in g , 69
R o eh a m p to n Lane project, in Lon- Shadow s, 196
d o n , 32 0 m o v e m e n t of, 6 9 , 7 2 —73
Rom e, N o lli's m a p of, 195 p a ttern s of, 71
Rotaries, 1 4 7 S h o p p in g , c o n v e n ien ce , 311
b ridged, 1 4 8
S h o p p in g cen ters, 43 , 2 3 2
R o w h o u se s , 131, 2 9 6 , 2 9 8 - 2 9 9 ,
com m ercial, 3 2 7 —3 3 8
3 0 8 , 309, 310, 3 1 9 , 320
d e sig n of, 3 2 9 - 3 3 3
R u b b ish , 1 8 8
fa cilities at, 3 2 8
R u n o ff coef ficient, 1 7 2 , 1 73, 1 7 5 ,
o b s o le sc e n c e of, 3 3 2
17 6 , 1 7 8
p ed estria n ap p roach to, 332
S to n e s to w n , 328
Salix babylonica, 89 ty p e s of, 3 2 7
Sand, 52, 5 7 S h ou ld er o f road, 1 3 8
c la y ey , 53, 1 3 8 Sh ru b s, 82, 18 6 . S ee also T rees
clean , 53, 57 in la n d sca p e, 2 1 3
for roads, 58 se n s u o u s form of, 2 1 4 —2 1 5
silty, 53 S h u n t, 143
San F ran cisco, str ee ts of, 2 0 7 S id ew a lk s, 1 2 8 , 3 1 2
S asak i, H id eo , 1 6 2 m a x im u m grade of, 1 5 2
S avan n a, 4 6 as p la y g ro u n d s , 1 3 2
S cale, p rop ortion and , 1 9 2 —194 S ig h t d ista n ce, 143
S carb orou gh C o lleg e , T o ro n to , S ig h t lines, 2 0 2
349 S ignals, traffic, 1 4 6
Sch olar tree, 90 S ign s, 2 1 7
S ch w a rtz, Robert, 2 8 0 as part o f la n d sca p e, 2 1 8 , 2 1 9
S co tch pine, 88 S ilh o u ette , 1 9 6
S creen in g , 22 S ilt, 5 2 , 5 7
S e e d in g , grass, 159 n o n p la stic, 53
S elf-h elp h o u sin g , 3 2 4 —3 2 6 organ ic, 54
p lastic, 54
S e n s u o u s criteria
S in g le -f a m ily h o m e s , 2 9 2 , 29 6 ,
b eh avioral su pport , 2 2 5
297, 317
com fo rt, 2 2 4 —2 2 5
Site, 5, 9
diversity, 2 2 5
a n a ly sis of, 9—24, 94, 2 44
id en tity, 2 2 5
best use of, 22—23
in divid ual d e v e l o p m e n t, 2 2 7
controls, 2 3 8 - 2 3 9 , 2 4 0
m e a n in g , 2 2 6
d e sig n (se e D e s i g n , site; Site
tem pora l and spatial legibility,
p la n n in g )
225-226
eco logica l aspect of, 2, 19, 4 5 —95
S e n su o u s form , 18, 1 8 9 —2 2 8
eq u ilib riu m of, 10
S ep tic ta n k s, 1 8 1 , 1 8 2 . S e e also esth etics of, 194
C e ssp o o ls; S ew ers flat, 1 7 2
S eq u en ce, visu a l, 2 0 2 - 2 0 6 id en tity of, 2 2 5
S etbacks, 2 3 1 , 3 0 4 " im p ro v em en t" of, 13
S ite (continued) agricultural cla ssifica tio n of, 5 1 — 381
inhabitants' u se of, 17 53
in ta n g ib le qualities of, 18 a n a ly sis of, 54, 55
m a n a g e rs of, 2 5 7 ch aract eristics of, 14
nature of, 18 ch eck list for, 92
org a n iza tio n of, 2 23 classification of, 5 1 , 5 2 , 5 3 , 5 7 —58
p relim in ary evalu atio n of, 20 clayey, 138
reg ional co n tex t of, 23 e n g in e er in g ch a ra cteristics of, 56
renew al, 3 6 0 fertile, 58
se lectio n of, 22 field id en tifica tio n of, 53—55
s e n s u o u s form of, 18, 1 8 9 —2 2 8 m o v e m e n t of, 1 6 0 ( see also
space, 1 9 0 E arthw ork)
stu d y of, 19 organ ic, 55
sw am py, 182 p lan t cover and, 81
u n in t e n d e d ef fe cts of, 11 as plan t m ed iu m , 58
u n iqu e character of, 1 0 - 1 1 rock and, 14
Site form, 4 5 —95 sta b le b alan ce of, 1 5 8
Site p la n nin g . See also D e s i g n , site stru ctu re of, 5 9
art of, 3—4 Soil Survey Manual, 52
vs. city p la n n in g , 4 Solar a n g le, 16
co s t-b en efit a n a ly sis in, 3 7 - 4 3 S o lstic e, 72
criteria of, 5 Sophora japonica, 9 0
data for, 24 S ou n d
definition of, 3, 7 co n v e c t io n of, 6 6
e c o l o g y of, 11—12 tra n sm issio n of, 7 9 - 8 1 (see also
et hics of, 9 6 - 9 7 , 1 1 6 N oise)
financial feasibility of, 4 1 —43 S o u r g u m tree, 8 7
la n g u a g e of, 2 2 5 , 2 6 7 Space
literature on, 1 0 2 b e tw e e n b u ild in g s, 3 0 3 - 3 0 5
lo n g -r a n g e , 2 3 2 , 2 3 3 , 2 3 5 , 2 3 7 character of, 2 35
o b jectiv es of, 5 - 7 , 28, 29, 3 7 - 4 0 , d im e n sio n s of, 191, 1 9 2
244-245 extern al, 1 9 9
at o ccu p ied site, 1 0 0 h ig h -sp e ed p ercep tio n of, 194
pattern s of, 2 4 6 ligh t and , 1 9 6
p ro b lem s of, 9 8 - 1 0 0 " m u ltip u rp o se," 2 7
pro cess of, 4—5 o p en , 26, 3 5 0 —3 5 7
p sy ch o lo g ica l a n a ly sis of, 9 5 - o u td o o r, 1 9 1 , 2 0 0
117 street, 234
p u rp o se of, 5—6, 25 stru ctu re of, 221
social a n a ly sis of, 9 5 - 1 1 7 sy m b o lic c o n n o ta tio n s of, 1 9 7 —
sta g es of, 4 198
S k etch , u se of, 2 5 0 ty p e s, 192
S k y lin e, 19 4 varia tio n s in, 195
profile of, 2 3 6 in urban area, 2 0 6
S lid es, earth, 59 v isib le, 2 0 0
S lo p e, 199 " w a ste," 3 6
c h a n g e s in, 171 S p atial character, 234
classification of, 15 S p ecia liza tio n , 1 2 5 , 1 2 8
g ro u n d , 49 S p eed , d e sig n , 1 4 9
o rien tation of, 68 "Spirit of place," 5
and radiation, 68—69 Sq uare
steep, 191 English, 299
v i e w of, 2 0 8 Italian, 2, 7 9 8, 1 9 9
Slot, 1 9 9 Sta g in g , 35 , 2 0 0
S n o w , 64, 66, 68 Stairs
S o a k a g e p its, 1 82. See also D rain - public, 1 5 1 , 1 5 2
age; S ew ers street, 2 7
Social an alysis, 9 6 - 9 7 , 2 6 0 Standards, 243
Soil d en sity , 34
ab so rp tiv e capacity of, 181 n ational, 241
382 S ta n d a rd s (continued) Surface material, role of, 67, 68
for n o n resid en tia l facilities, 3 11 Surfaces, paved , 77. See also Pave-
S ta tio n in g , 1 4 0 - 1 4 1 m en t
Ste in, Clarence, 1 2 6 , 131 S u rv ey
S te reo ty p e s, 11 2 , 2 7 3 . See also Be- a ll-p u rp o se, 23
hav ior se ttin g s g eo lo g ica l, 24
S te ps, 2 7 , 201 soil, 24
S to n e s , 2 0 9 - 2 1 0 , 2 1 2 sy s tem a tic, 19
S to n e s t o w n S h o p p i n g Cen ter, in S w a m p m aple, 85
San Francisco, 328 S w a les, 1 7 0 . See also D ra in a g e
Store lo cation, 3 2 9 - 3 3 1 S y ca m o re tree, 8 9
Sto u rh ea d g ardens, 203 S y m b o l i s m , in site p la n nin g , 221
S treetlig h ts, 185 S y m b o ls , 2 2 6
Streets. See also H i g h w a y s ; R oads Symm etry, 219
cro ss section of, 1 2 5 , 1 3 7 , 1 4 0 S y n c h r o n y , 37
d ead en d, 143
detail of, 106 Talies in East, 2 2 2
F loren tine, 193 Tanbark, 2 0 9
fro n ta g e per unit, 3 0 8 T a n g e n t s, 1 4 1 , 1 4 2
h ierarchy of, 1 2 8 m i n i m u m grade of, 1 5 2
im p r o v e m e n t of, 1 3 2 Taxes, 41
layout of, 251 T e le p h o n e lines, 1 8 7
loop , 1 2 8 T ele v is io n , cable, 1 8 7
m a x i m u m capacity of, 1 4 5 —1 4 6 T e m p eratu re, 60, 61. See also Heat
m a x im u m grade of, 1 52 co m fo rt and, 6 1 —64
N e w England, 1 9 5 ra n g es o f , T 6 , 67
pattern of, 1 3 2 , 2 3 2 Un ite d Sta tes , 84
resid en tial, 145 v ariations in, 17
trees and, 2 1 7 Tenure, patterns of, 3 0 2
Stress, en v iro n m en ta l, 38 , 3 9 Term inals, 1 2 8
Strips, co m m ercial, 3 2 7 , 3 3 7 —3 3 8 Terrace, 2 0 0
Str uctu res Terrazzo, 2 0 9
ch eck list for, 93 Test for soil
per ceptual, 2 2 2 d ry -stren g th , 55
relation to g ro u n d , 2 0 6 thread, 55
spatial, 221 Textu re
visual, 2 1 9 o f gro und, 2 0 8 —2 0 9
Sty le, control of, 2 3 8 —2 3 9 o f plan tin g, 2 1 4 - 2 1 5
S u b d e v elo p e r, 2 3 8 . See also Cli- Tilia cordata, 9 0
en ts T im e
S u b d iv is io n , 2 3 2 , 2 3 7 , 2 3 8 d istribution of, 37
d e v e l o p m e n t by, 2 3 0 " w a ste," 36
p la n n in g of, 2 2 9 Tivoli gard en s, in C o p e n h a g e n , 1 96
S u b so il, 14, 51, 6 0 T jun ction s, 133
c o m p a cte d , 58 T o p o g r a p h y , 14—15, 49 , 2 4 5
Sub su rface a n a ly sis of, 51
c o n d i ti o n s of, 14 c h a n g e s in, 15
p ro b le m s of, 6 0 ch eck list for, 92
S uburbs, 101 T o p so il, 51, 59
5u g a r m aple, 85 organic, 14, 58
S u g g e s t i o n , su b c o n s c io u s, 2 7 9 —2 8 0 stripping of, 15 7 , 1 6 0
Sun, a n g le of, 69, 71 To u ch , s e n s e of, 18 9 , 19 7 , 2 13
Sundial, 7 1 - 7 3 T o w e r and slab, 2 9 7 , 3 0 1 , 3 0 2 ,
S u n lig h t, d a y s of, 26 305, 311, 319
S u n n y s i d e h o u sin g , in N e w York, Traffic
310 A m erica n , 131
S u p erb lo ck s, 126, 1 2 7 , 1 2 8 , 321 behavior of, 9 5
S u p erd ev elo p er, 2 3 8 . See also Cli- ch an n eliza tio n of, 1 4 7
en ts flow of, 1 4 5 , 1 4 6
S u p e r h ig h w a y s , 1 2 1 , 1 2 5 - 1 2 6 p a v e m e n t and, 1 38
Surface, g ro u n d , 15 se paration of, 3 1 9 , 321
Traffic ( continued) s e q u e n c e of, 223 383
sp eed and, 1 55 o f trailer parks, 323
vehicu lar, 1 28 Village, e c o n o m y of, 321
Traffic sign als, 1 4 6 Visib ility, 5 0
Trailers, 1 9 8 Vista, 1 99
h o u se, 3 2 2
Transfo rmer s, 1 84, 185 W a lk -u p apartm en ts, 2 9 6 , 2 9 9 -
Transition s, 2 2 0 300, 301, 319
T ransporta tion. See also Circula- W a lk w a y s, 1 2 7 , 1 3 9 , 1 40. See also
tion sy s tem s ; Traffic P a th w a y s; S id ew a lk s
rail, 121 cap acity of, 1 5 0
urban, 3 0 8 c o sts of, 293
T rash, 2 1 7 . See also W a stes elev a ted , 1 39
T ravel, foot, 127. See also P ath- en tran ce, 143
w ays lig h tin g of, 1 8 6
T ree o f h ea v en , 8 6 in V en ice, 2 0 4 —2 05
T rees, 82, 186. See also specific W alls, 2 1 7
Latin and common names h eig h t of, 194
cla ssifica tio n of, 8 3 - 9 0 sto n e, 210
d ecid u o u s, 69 ‫ ״‬W a ste a rea s,39 ‫״‬
fo rest, 2 15 W a ste d isp o sa l
in la n d sca p e, 2 1 3 in industrial districts, 3 4 0
m a in ten a n ce of, 83 in res iden tial districts
se n su o u s form of, 2 1 4 —215 W a st es , 4 6
as soil in d ex , 81 san itary, 179
T rin ity C o lleg e, 235 solid , 188
T rucks, 125 Water, 2 9 0
parkin g of, 145 ava ilability of, 59
Tsuga canadensis, 9 0 ch eck list for, 92
T u lip tree, 8 7 clean, 1 8 2
T u n n els, 1 9 9 co n se rv a tio n of, 239
T u p elo tree, 8 7 effect on climate, 66, 67, 74
T u rb u len ce o f air, 6 6, 75 fire d em a n d for, 183
T urnaroun d, m in im u m , 1 43, 231 la n d sca p e and, 2 1 0 - 2 1 1 , 2 1 2 ,
213
Ulmus americana, 9 0 for recreation , 3 5 5
U n ited S ta tes G eo lo g ica l S u rvey, reflectio n s from , 66, 67, 211
23 storm , 12 0
U n iversity , 2 7 4 . See also C a m p u s su b su rface, 5 9 —6 0
U n iv ersity o f Virginia, 344 su p p ly of, 1 19, 12 0 , 184
Urban d esig n , 3, 4, 2 3 0 , 2 3 7 su rface, 169
Urban renew al, 22, 2 3 7 , 2 3 8 , 3 5 7 - W ater m ap le, 85
360 W ater p ip es, 182, 18 3 , 184
U tilities W ater pressu re, 18 2 , 1 83, 184
co st of, 2 93 W ater table, 14, 59, 6 0
critical, 1 19 W a y s, veh icu lar, 1 3 7 . See also
layout of, 1 3 3 - 1 3 4 , 2 51, 252 5 5 ,4‫״‬ H ig h w a y s; R oad s; S treets;
location of, 1 88, 2 2 9 Traffic
W eath er. See C lim ate; M icro cli-
Valley, 1 9 9 m ate; W ind
Values, 4, 5, 6, 7, 95 W eep in g w illo w , 89
Valves, 18 3 W ells, in d ivid u al, 184
Van d alism , 3 0 5 W h ite ash , 8 7
V eg eta tio n, 60. See also Plant-s W h ite oak , 82, 89
co n serv a tio n of, 239 W h ite p in e, 88
n o ise and, 81 W ichura rose, 82
Vertical scale, 2 5 2 W illo w , w e ep in g , 89
V iew W ind , 17, 60, 61, 66
b lo ck in g of, 2 3 9 barriers to, 75
o f landscape, 2 3 2 d irection of, 16
priva cy and, 304 effect o f b u ild in g s, 7 5 - 7 6
384 W in d (continued) telep h o n e , 1 8 7
effect o f to p o g r a p h y , 74—75 W righ t, Frank L loyd, 2 2 2 , 2 5 0
force of, 16 W righ t, H en ry, 1 2 6 , 131
m o v e m e n t s of, 75
W in d b r ea k s, 75
Yards, 3 0 3 , 3 0 4
W i n d o w s , 80, 3 0 4
‫ ״‬Year o f sto r m ,1 7 3 - 1 7 4 ‫״‬
W in d tunnel, 76
W ires
electric, 1 85 Z o n in g , 2 6 3 , 3 1 4