Chapter 3: ORGANIZATION OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

Objectives:
 What a computer system is and how it works to process data
Introduction
System is a group of components, consisting of subsystems or procedures that work in a
coordination fashion to achieve some objective.
A computer system composed of components that are classified either as Computer
hardware or Computer software.
Computer Hardware
Computer architecture is defined as the science of selecting and interconnecting
hardware components to create computers that meet functional, performance, and cost
goals. It can be described as the logical structure of the computer system.
Computer hardware is the physical part of the computer that can be touched, seen,
broken.
Based on this the hardware part of a computer system is composed of a number of
interacting physical parts. The different hardware parts of a computer which are
responsible for these operations are illustrated by the following model.

Computer System Model

The Central Processing Unit

ALU Control Unit

INPUT UNIT OUTPUT UNIT
Registers

ROM
RAM

SECONDARY
STORAGE DEVICE

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1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU or the microprocessor (or simply processor) is referred as the brain of the
computer system; it is a VLSI chip inside the system, plugged onto the motherboard. A
processor controls all internal and external devices, and performs arithmetic and logic
operations.
A processor operates only on binary data, that is, data composed of 1s and 0s. These 1s
and 0s correspond to electrical switches being switched ON or switched OFF.
The functions of a processor can be summed up as:
 Carrying out arithmetic and logic functions
 Controlling the use of main storage (memory) to store data and instructions
 Controlling the sequence of operations
 Controlling all the parts of the computer system
The CPU consists of three main subsystems: The control unit (CU), the Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU), and the Registers. The three subsystems work together to provide the
operational capabilities of the computer.
Registers
The registers are special purpose, high speed memory units. They hold various types of
information such as data, instructions, addresses, and the intermediate results of
calculations. Especially, they hold the information that the CPU is currently working on.
Registers can be thought of as CPU’s working memory. As soon as a particular
instruction or piece of data is processed, the next instruction immediately replaces it, and
the information that results from the processing is returned to main memory (RAM).
The Control Unit
The control unit can be thought of as the heart of the CPU. It controls the I/O devices and
transfer of data to and from the primary storage. The control itself is controlled by the
individual instructions in programs located in primary storage. Instructions are retrieved
from the primary storage, one at a time.
In order to maintain the proper sequence of events required for any processing task, the
control unit uses clock inputs. Thus, the control unit repeats a set of four basic operations:
fetching, decoding, executing, and storing.

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  Fetching: - It is the process of obtaining a program instruction or data item from
memory.
 Decoding: - It is the process of translating the instruction into commands the
computer can execute.
 Executing: - It is the process of carrying out the commands.
 Storing: - It is the process of writing the result to memory.
Arithmetic Logic Unit
The Arithmetic Logic Unit carries out arithmetic and logical operation on the data made
available to it. The data required to perform the arithmetic and logical functions are
inputs from the designated registers.
The ALU can be divided into two units, the Arithmetic Unit, and the Logic Unit.
 Arithmetic Unit: - Contains the circuitry that is responsible for performing the
actual computing and carrying out the arithmetic calculations, such as addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 Logic Unit: - The importance of the Logic Unit is the ability it provides to the
CPU to make logical operations based on the instructions provided to it. The logic
unit uses statements such as AND, OR, and NOT. This is useful when you have a
set of instructions to execute only if certain conditions are true.
2. Memory
There are two types of memories: Primary and Secondary. The primary memory or the
main memory is part of the main computer system. The processor directly stores and
retrieves information from it. The processor accesses the main memory in random
fashion, that is, the processor can access any location of this memory either to read
information from it or store information in it.
The primary memory is implemented by two types of memory technologies. The first is
called Random Access Memory (RAM) and the other is Read Only Memory (ROM).
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM can be defined as a block of sequential memory locations, each of which has a
unique address determining the location and those locations contain a data element. It
stores programs and data that are in active use.

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Storage locations in main memory are addressed directly by the CPU’s instructions. It is
volatile in nature, which means the information stored in it remains as long as the power
is switched ON. As soon as the power is switched OFF, the information contained in it
vanishes.
RAM can be further divided into two categories:
1. Dynamic RAM (DRAM): - This type of RAM holds the data in dynamic manner
with the help of a refresh circuitry. Each second or even less than that the content of
each memory cell is read and reading action refreshes the contents of the memory.
Due to this refreshing action, the memory is called DRAM.
2. Static RAM (SRAM): - SRAM along with DRAM is essential for a system to run
optimally, because it is very fast as compared to DRAM. It is effective because most
programs access the same data repeatedly and keeping all this information in the fast
SRAM allows the computer to avoid accessing the slower DRAM. SRAM is
generally included in a computer system by the name of cache.
Cache: - It is a piece of very fast memory, made from high-speed static RAM that
reduces the access time of the data. It is very expensive and generally incorporated in the
processor, where valuable data and program segments are kept. This enables the
processor to access data quickly whenever it is needed.
Major reason for incorporating cache in the system is that the CPU is much faster than
the DRAM and needs a place to store information that can be accessed rapidly. Cache can
be further categorized into two categories: Level 1 Cache (L1) and Level 2 Cache (L2).
Read Only Memory (ROM)
As the name suggests, read only memory can only be read, not written. The contents of
ROM are not lost even in case of a sudden power failure, making it non-volatile in nature.
The instructions in ROM are built into the electronic circuits of the chip. These
instructions are called firmware. ROM is also random access in nature.
Types of ROM
 Masked ROM: It is a hard-wired device that contained a pre-programmed set of
data or instructions. The contents of such ROMs have to be specified before chip
production, so the actual data could be used to arrange the transistors inside the
chip.

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  Programmable ROM (PROM): Blank PROM chips can be coded by anyone with
a special tool such as PROM-Programmers. However, once a PROM has been
programmed, its contents can never be changed. It is also known as one-time
programmable (OTP) device. Like other ROMs, the information stored in PROM
is also non-volatile, but they are more fragile that other ROMs as a jolt of static
electricity can easily cause fuses in the PROM to burn out, changing essential bit
pattern from 1 to 0.
 Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM): It is programmed in exactly the same
manner as a PROM. However, unlike PROMs, it can be erased and
reprogrammed repeatedly. An EPROM can be erased by simply exposing the
device to a strong source of ultraviolet light for certain amount of time. An
EPROM eraser is not selective; it will erase the entire EPROM.
 Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM): It can be erased by an
electrical charge and then written to by using slightly higher-than-normal voltage.
It can be erased one byte at a time. Hence, the process of re-programming is
flexible, but slow. It is often used to store programmable instructions in devices,
such as printers and other peripherals.
 Flash ROM: Also called Flash BIOS or Flash memory, is a type of constantly
powered non-volatile memory that can be erased and re-programmed in blocks. It
is often used to hold control code such as the BIOS in a personal computer. It is
used in cellular phones, digital cameras, LAN switches, PC Cards for notebook
computers, digital set-up boxes, embedded controllers, and other devices.
Type Writeable Erase Size Cost Per Byte Speed
Masked ROM No N/A Inexpensive Fast
PROM Only Once N/A Moderate Fast
EPROM Yes Entire Chip Moderate Fast
EEPROM Yes Byte Expensive Fast to read, slow to
erase/write
Flash ROM Yes Block Moderate Fast to read, slow to
erase/write

Memory space is used in five different ways

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  To hold the computers operating system program (DOS, Windows, etc.) that
oversees processing and acts as an interface between the hardware and the
application programs.
 To hold application programs word processing, spreadsheet, etc.
 To hold data and information temporarily, receiving from input devices and
sending them to output devices during processing
 To store other data or information needed in processing in the working storage
area.
 To provide additional space for programs or data, as needed.
Memory size (storage capacity)
 Like the CPU, memory devices contain thousands of circuits of circuits
imprinted on a silicon chip. By representing data as a combination of on or off circuit
states, the data is stored in memory.
 Computes vary widely in the amount of internal (primary) memory they
have. The size of memory is measured by the number of storage locations it contains.
Each storage location or byte has a predetermined capacity
 A byte is the amount of memory required to store one digit, letter or
character. A byte is equal to eight bits. Bytes are generally measured by
o Kilobyte (KB, K-byte). Although accepted as approximately one
10
thousand, actually means 2 or 1,024. A storage device with 640 KB capacity
can hold 460 X 1,024 (or 655,360) bytes.
o Megabyte (MB, M-byte) millions of bytes. Accepted as

approximately one million actually equal 1.048,576 (1.024 X1,024 or 2 20)

o Gigabytes (GB, G-bytes) billions of bytes. Accepted as
approximately one billion, actually equals 1,073,741,824 (1,024 X 1,024 X 1,024,
or 2 30 )
o Terabyte (TB, T-byte) trillions of bytes. Accepted as
approximately one trillion, actually equals 1,099,511,627,776 (1,024 X 1.024 X
1,024 X 1,024 or 240)

3. Secondary Storage Units

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In the previous section, we discussed about primary memory, which is volatile in nature
and has a very limited storage capacity. This kind of memory is mainly used for
processing the data. Being volatile primary memory cannot hold data or instructions once
the computer is switched off. The computer requires more stable (non-volatile) type of
memory so that it can store all the data (files) and instructions (software programs) even
after the computer is turned off. This kind of memory is known as secondary memory or
auxiliary memory or peripheral storage or secondary storage.
Secondary storage includes devices like hard disks, floppies, CD-ROMs, and magnetic
tapes. These devices have a larger (and more permanent) storage capacity and they are
less expensive as compared to primary storage devices, but they are slow in comparison.
The benefits of secondary storage can be summarized as follows:
 Non-Volatility: - a Secondary Storage device is non-volatile, that is, it does not
lose its contents even when its power is cut off.
 Capacity: - Secondary storage devices can store large volumes of data. A simple
diskette holds the equivalent of 500 printed pages or 1 book. An optical disk can
hold the equivalent of approximately 500 books.
 Reliability: - Data is safe because secondary storage is physically reliable.
Sometimes, however, disks may fail, but the overall reliability of secondary
storage is excellent. It is more difficult to tamper or illegally access the data on
secondary storage as compared to data stored in traditional file cabinets.
 Convenience: - With the help of computer authorized people can locate and
access data quickly.
 Cost: - It is less expensive to store data on a tape or disk that to buy and house
filing cabinets. The greatest savings can be found in the speed and convenience of
filing and retrieving data.
 Reusability: The data remains in the secondary storage as long as it is not
overwritten or deleted by the user.
 Portability: - Modern day storage devices like CD-ROMs and floppy disks are so
small that they can be easily ported from one computer to another. In addition,
since most of the storage devices are standardized, they can be used with almost
every computer irrespective of their construct.

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The information in the secondary storage device can be accessed, depending upon how
the information is stored on the storage medium. Primarily, there are two methods of
accessing data from the secondary storage devices:
 Sequential: - Sequential access means the computer system must search the
storage device from the beginning until it finds the required piece of data. This
access method is less expensive than other methods. The disadvantage of
sequential organization is that searching for data is slow.
 Direct: - Direct access means that the computer can go directly to the information
that the user wants. The most common direct access storage is the disk and the
most popular types of disks today are magnetic and optical disks.
Based on access, secondary storage devices can be classified as:
1) Sequential Access Devices
a) Magnetic Tape
b) Punched Cards
c) Punched Paper Tape
2) Direct Access Devices
a) Magnetic Disks
o Floppy Disk
o Hard Disk
o Zip Disk
b) Optical Disk
o CD-ROM
o DVD
o CD-RW
c) Magneto Optical Disk
A. Magnetic Disks
Magnetic disks are metals or plastic platters coated with ferrous oxide, an easily
magnetizable material. Magnetic disks allow for random access of information and
overcome the slow access time commonly found in tape files.
Magnetic disks in general consist of tracks on which data are recorded as magnetic spots.
Each track is further divided into sectors. The same amount of data can be recorded on

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any track in a sector (512KB). Bits are more tightly packed on the inside tracks than on
the outside tracks because the inside tracks are shorter.
The Hard Disk
 The hard disk is like a big floppy disk with higher capacity. You don't take
the disk out; it stays in the drive forever. Hard disks can store data from few
MB to terabytes in capacity.
 Uses a spinning magnetic platter(s), bits are stored in the magnetic field of
this platter. Hard disks can store enormous amounts of data, but it is a lot
slower to access them than it is to access RAM. They also don't lose their
value when the power is turned off.
 A high capacity magnetic disk made up of metal which can be fixed in the
system unit of the computer.
 Serves as a secondary storage.
 Enables very fast accessibility of data.
 Accessing data from hard disk is faster than from floppy disks.
 The disks, which are usually grouped together into a disk pack are
separated by small air spaces to allow access for read/write head.
 Each disk has approximately 200 tracks on which information is stored.
Tracks of the small number on all adjacent disks are referred to as a cylinder
of that disk.
 The total collection of tracks available on one movement of the access
mechanism is known as cylinder.
 The amount of time it takes to retrieve (or store) data from (or to) disk is
called the disk access time.
B. Optical disk/storage
Optical storage devices use the principle of light to store information. Optical disks are
storage medium from which data is read and to which it is written by lasers. CD, DVD.
4. Input Unit
 It is the unit used to enter data into the computer so that it can be processed.
 It converts information from a form suitable to human beings to one
understandable by the computer.

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Categories of Input Devices
 Keyboards – most frequently input devices for notebooks and desktops to enter
information and commands.
 Stylus – most frequently used input devices for PDAs and tablet PCs to enter
information and commands
 Mouse: Mouse is a hand-operated device that controls the movement of the
cursor or pointer on a display screen. It is a small object that can be rolled along a
rough flat surface.
 Game controller – used for gaming to control screen action
 Gaming wheel – steering wheel and foot pedals for virtual driving
 Scanners – used to convert information that exists in visible form into electronic
form
o Image Scanner – captures images, photos, text, and artwork
o Barcode Scanner – reads information in the form of vertical bars
o Biometric Scanner – scans a human physical attribute, like a fingerprint
or iris, for security purposes
 Optical Character Reader – reads characters that appear on paper or sales tag
(used in POS(Point of Sale) systems)
 Magnetic Ink Character Recognition Systems
 Optical Recognition Systems
Optical Recognition Systems fall into two categories. The first and most advanced are the
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) systems, which are able to recognize hand-printed
and typewritten characters. The second type of optical character recognition is referred to
as Optical Mark Recognition (OMR). A typical example of an OMR application would
be computerized test forms. OMR systems are also used to read bar codes such as the
Universal Product Code (UPC).
 Digital Camera – captures still image or video as a series of 1s and 0s
 Digital Video Camera – captures video digitally
 Webcam – captures digital video for the Web

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5. Output Unit
Output is anything that comes out of a computer. The output may be a picture, text or
image. An output device is any machine capable of accepting and representing
information from a computer.
Convert the result of the only-machine understandable form to a form understandable by
human beings. The most common type of output devices are printers, plotters, monitor or
screen, speakers.
Types of Output Devices
1. Hard Copy: The physical form of output is known as hard copy. In general, it refers
to the recorded information copied from a computer onto paper or some other durable
surface, such as microfilm. Hard copy output is permanent and relatively stable form
of output. This type of output is also highly portable. Among the wide variety of hard
copy output devices, the following are the most commonly used ones.
a. Printers
b. Plotters
c. Microfilm
2. Soft Copy: The electronic version of an output, which usually resides in computer
memory and/or on disk, is known as soft copy. It is not permanent form of output. It is
transient and is usually displayed on the screen. This kind of output is not tangible,
that is, it cannot be touched. Soft copy output includes audio and visual (textual or
graphical) form of output, which is generated using a computer. Among the wide
variety of soft copy output devices, the following are the most commonly used ones.
a. Monitors
b. Audio response
c. Projectors
Hard Copy Output Devices
A. Printers
The most common output device you will encounter will be the printer. Printer is
available in various forms, to suit the needs of various types of users. A printer is an
output device that prints characters, symbols, and perhaps graphics on paper hardcopy.

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Printers are categorized according to whether or not the image produced is formed by
physical contact of the print mechanism with the paper. Hence they classified as impact
and non-impact printers. Impact printers have contact; non-impact printers do not.
B. Plotters
A plotter is an output device designed to produce high-quality graphics in a variety of
colors. Plotters are used for creating large hardcopy items, such as maps, architectural
drawings, and 3-D illustrations items typically too large for regular printers. Plotters are
considerably more expensive than printers. They are used in engineering applications
 It differs from printers in that it draws line using a pen. It can produce
continuous lines. Printers, on other hand, draw lines by simulating lines by printing a
closely spaced service of dots.
 Multicolor plotters use different color pens to draw different colors.
C. Microfilm
It is an extremely high speed, low cost process, which records computer generated
information directly from the computer tape or cartridge to a miniaturized microfilm
media. The microfilm product is in fiche or roll format, which can be duplicated rapidly
and inexpensively. This process can produce data in microfilm form at a highly
significant speed from that of a paper printer.
Soft Copy Output Devices
A. Visual Displays (Monitors)
Monitors display softcopy output. Monitors run under the control of a graphics display
adapter card plugged into an expansion slot on the system board. The adapter allows
information to leave the computer and appear on the monitor. The Monitor can be:-
Cathode-Ray Tubes (CRTs)
The front of the CRT screen is coated in phosphor so that when a beam of electrons from
the electron gun hits the phosphor, it lights up selected pixels to generate an image on the
screen.
Flat-Panel Displays
Compared to CRTs, flat-panel displays are much thinner, weigh less, and consume less
power.
Their biggest limitations are:

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 Cost an LCD(Liquid-crystal display) for a desktop microcomputer costs 2-
3 times as much as an equivalent CRT monitor;
 Images are not always as good as CRT images; and
 Flat-panel images cannot be clearly viewed from an angle.
 Flat-panel displays consist of two plates of glass separated by a substance
that may be activated in particular ways.

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Computer Software
The computer hardware is an electronic device which has the potential of performing the
task of solving a problem. However one has to give precise instructions to the hardware
in order to solve problem.
The finite set of instructions (steps) that the computer follow to perform a given job is
called a program. Any program to be executed first it should reside /loaded/ in the
memory.
Software
 It is a collection of programs and routines that support the operations of
performing a task using a computer.
 Software also includes documentations, rules, and operational procedures.
Software makes the interface between the user and the electronic components of the
computer.
 The computer software is collection of set of instructions that instructs the
computer hardware. These set of instructions perform different functions; some deals
with handling the computer hardware and the others perform user specific tasks such
as managing a database.
 Therefore the computer software is divided into two major categories:
1. System software and
2. Application software
1. System software
The system software handles the computer hardware so that the user can operate the
computer with little knowledge about the computer hardware. For example, the user is
not concerned where the file is saved on the hard disk. This is the responsibility of the
system software to check the hard disk and space on the free space of the hard disk.
 It constitutes those programs which facilitate the work of the computer hardware.
 It organizes and manages the machine’s resources, handles the input/output
devices.
 It controls the hardware by performing functions that users shouldn’t have to or
are unable to handle.
 System programs make complex hardware more users friendly.

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  It acts as intermediate between the user and the hardware.
 It enables the computer understand programming languages i.e. it serves as means
of communication between user and a computer.
The important categories of system software are:
a) Operating System
b) Language Software
a) Operating system
An operating system is a program that acts as the link between you, the computer’s
software and hardware resources. It is the foundation software onto which all other
application programs are loaded. It is the master program of your system that allows you,
the user, to run application programs. Without the operating system the application
software would be unable to function.
Operating System software manages most of your computer’s activities, including the
allocation of computer resources, maintenance of files, and running of application
software. As a file manager the operating system is used to name, save, retrieve and
maintain program and data files you create and use on your computer. As a resource
manager, the operating system controls the flow of information through your computer.
Data accepted by the keyboard, seen on the display, or sent to a printer are all under the
control of the operating system.
The first segment of the operating system software is contained in the ROM (firmware)
of your computer. This software tests the internal components and circuitry of the
computer when it is turned on.
After completing the Startup tests, the ROM-based software activated the next segment
of the operating system found on the disk.
Examples of operating system software include MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk Operating
System), MS-Windows, UNIX.
“it is the first software we see when we turn on the computer, and the last software we
see when the computer is turned off.” It organizes and controls the hardware on our desks
and in our hands.
 The operating system allows you to concentrate on your own tasks or applications
rather than on the complexities of managing the computer.

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An operating system has three major functions.
i. Controlling operations (control program)
 Coordinates, or supervises the activity of the computer system.
 Decides where programs and data should be stored in the computer memory.
 Handles communications among the computer components, applications software
and the user.
 Controls the saving and retrieving of files to and from disks in the disk drive.
 It performs all its controlling tasks with out the involvement or awareness of the
user.
ii. Input/Output Management
 The I/O manager coordinates the computers communication with outside world,
flow of data to the display screen and other output devices (printers/ plotters) and
from the key board or other input devices.
 Handles the flow of data to and from the disk drives (file management).
 Handles the process of preparing a disk for use, the copying, renaming, erasing
task of a file.
iii. Command Processing (Command Interpreter)
 It interprets the commands or what you enter using the keyboard or other input
devices.
 If you write an internal command it carries out the function of that command if it
is external command or other executable file it searches for the corresponding file
in the default (current disk) or the user specified disk, loads the file into memory
and transfers control to that program. Once this program is terminated, control
returns to command.com and the program for that command or file is discarded
from memory.
Generally the operating system does six things
1. Processor management
2. Memory management
3. Device Management
4. Storage management

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 5. Application interface
6. User interface
7. Coordinating communications on Network
b) Language Software.
Is software which is used by programmers to develop application software and translate
programs to machine code. Language software is a generic name consisting of various
programs that serve as editors & translators to develop programs in a number of
programming languages. There are different types of language software and each of them
briefly discussed in the following sections.
Machine Language (Low-Level Language)
A computer’s machine language consists of strings of binary numbers and is the only
language that the CPU directly “understands”. The programmer speaks directly to the
CPU with the appropriate instruction set that consists of string of binary digits. It is
referred to as a low level language because the programmer has to think about the type of
instructions that a particular machine can execute and know the binary equivalent of the
instruction set. An instruction prepared in any machine language will have at least two
parts. The first part is the command or operation, and it tells the computer what function
to perform. The second part of the instruction is the operand, and it tells the computer
where to find or store the data or other instructions that are to be manipulated
Advantage
 Machine Languages make efficient use of memory
 Instructions of a machine language program are immediately executable.
 Machine language instructions can be used to manipulate the individual bits in
a byte of computer storage.
Disadvantage
 Difficult to learn
 Prone to errors
 Difficult to correct or modify errors
 Not portable
 Machine Languages are machine dependent
 Machine languages require a high level of programming skill.

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Assembly Language
Machine language is the lowest-level programming language. Assembly language is a bit
higher than machine language, but it is still ‘low’ in the sense that the programmer must
spend some time thinking of the instructions that the particular computer can execute,
rather than spending all his time in solving the problem. This language lies between high-
level languages and machine languages.
The major drawback of machine languages and assembly languages is that they are
machine oriented.
A machine can directly understand only instructions written in machine code. Therefore,
for an assembly language to be understood by the CPU there must be an intermediary
between the programmer and the hardware. An assembler is a program that enables the
computer to convert the programmer’s assembly language instructions into its own
machine code.
A program of instructions written by a programmer in an assembly language is called a
source program. After this source program has been converted into machine code by an
assembler, it’s referred to as an object program.

Source code Assembler Object code

(Assembly Langrage) (Machine Code)

Advantage
 Writing in Assembly Language saves time and reduces the need for detail.
 Fewer errors are made and those made are easier to find. These programs are
easier to modify.
 Easier to learn
 Easier to locate correct errors
Disadvantage
 Coding is time consuming. It is also machine-oriented program. The
programmers must know the machine characteristics and requirements
 The program size is big like machine codes
 It is usually unique to a particular computer series

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  It is not directly executable by the computer. It needs assembler to translate it
into machine codes
High Level Programming Language
It is human Oriented Language because it is more related with human language. It is
machine independent. A programmer may not be needed to know the details of the
internal logical structure of a computer.
Some of the Common High Level Languages:
FORTRAN (Formula Translator), COBOL (Common Business Oriented Languages),
BASIC (Beginner All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code), Java, C, C++, C#, etc.
A programming language consists of all the symbols, characters, and usage rules that
permits people to communicate with computers. A programming language must accept
certain types of written instructions that will enable a computer system to perform a
number of familiar operations.
The high level programming languages are problem oriented unlike the machine
language, which is machine oriented programming language.
Advantage
 Easier to learn and write the codes
 Codes are written without any particular machine in mind
 Portable
 Small program size
 They are easier to learn.
 They require less time to write.
Disadvantage
 Require more time to run and more computer memory space
 Cannot access all components of the computer hardware such computer
accessories. In that case we have to use lower level languages
 They require additional time during translation
 They are less efficient compared to the machine code languages.

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Compilers and Interpreters
For a High-Level language to work on the computer, it must be translated into machine
language. There are two kinds of translators. Compilers and interpreters high level
languages are called either compiled languages or interpreted languages.
In compiled languages, a translation program is run to convert the programmer’s entire
high level program, which is called the source code, in to a machine language code. This
translation process is called compilation.
An interpreted language, a translation program converts each program statement into
machine code just before the program statement is to be executed. Translation and
execution occur immediately one after the other. That means, it translate one statement at
a time.
2. Application Software
Application software is software developed to do user specific tasks such as word
processing, spreadsheet and database management. It is developed using the language
software. Application software is a set of related programs designed to carry out certain
tasks that fulfill users’ specific needs.
Word Processors/ Word processing
Example: WordStar, WordPerfect, Microsoft word
Spreadsheet Software
Example: Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft Excel, Quatropro
Database Management System
Example: Ms Access, MySQL, Oracle, Ms Server etc
Graphics Software
They are programs that are designed to create pictures and drawings. There are different
types of graphics programs. They are used for engineering design, spatial analysis
applications and machine design.
Some examples are:
 Auto CAD (Computer Assisted Design), Geographic Information System (GIS)
Adobe Photoshop, etc
Desktop Publishing software: programs that give users the ability to create (publish)
Professional newsletters, brochures, pamphlets, reports and books.

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Accounting Software: are programs that designed to automate accounting tasks.
Games: are programs that are designed for recreational purposes.
Virus Protection and Detection software:

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