NAME :________________________

REG :________________________

CLASS :________________________
 MULTIMEDIA
UNIT-III
➔ Text:
◆ Types of Text
◆ Unicode Standard
◆ Font
◆ Insertion of Text
◆ Text compression
◆ File formats.
➔ Image:
◆ Image Types
◆ Seeing Color
◆ Color Models
◆ Basic Steps for Image Processing
◆ Scanner
◆ Digital Camera
◆ Interface Standards
◆ Specification of Digital Images
◆ CMS
◆ Device Independent Color Models
◆ Image Processing software
◆ File Formats
◆ Image Output on Monitor and Printer.
UNIT-IV
➔ Audio:
◆ Introduction
◆ Acoustics
◆ Nature of Sound Waves
◆ Fundamental Characteristics of Sound
◆ Microphone
◆ Amplifier
◆ Loudspeaker
◆ Audio Mixer
◆ Digital Audio
◆ Synthesizers
◆ MIDI
◆ Basics of Staff Notation
◆ Sound Card
◆ Audio Transmission
 ◆ Audio File formats and CODECs
◆ Audio Recording Systems
◆ Audio and Multimedia
◆ Voice Recognition and Response
◆ Audio Processing Software.
UNIT-V
➔ Video:
◆ Analog Video Camera
◆ Transmission of Video Signals
◆ Video Signal Formats
◆ Television Broadcasting Standards
◆ PC Video
◆ Video File Formats and CODECs
◆ Video Editing
◆ Video Editing Software.
➔ Animation:
◆ Types of Animation
◆ Computer Assisted Animation
◆ Creating Movement
◆ Principles of Animation
◆ Some Techniques of Animation
◆ Animation on the Web
◆ Special Effects
◆ Rendering Algorithms.
➔ Compression:
◆ MPEG-1 Audio
◆ MPEG-1 Video
◆ MPEG-2 Audio
◆ MPEG-2 Video.
 Multimedia
UNIT-III

INTRODUCTION TO MULTIMEDIA

Aims and Objectives

In this lesson we will learn the preliminary concepts of Multimedia. We will discuss the various benefits and
applications of multimedia. After going through this chapter the reader will be able to :

● define multimedia
● list the elements of multimedia
● enumerate the different applications of multimedia
● describe the different stages of multimedia software development

Introduction

Multimedia has become an inevitable part of any presentation. It has found a variety of applications right
from entertainment to education. The evolution of internet has also increased the demand for multimedia content.

Definition

● Multimedia is the media that uses multiple forms of information content and information processing
(e.g. text, audio, graphics, animation, video, interactivity) to inform or entertain the user.
● Multimedia also refers to the use of electronic media to store and experience multimedia content.
● Multimedia is similar to traditional mixed media in fine art, but with a broader scope. The term "rich
media" is synonymous for interactive multimedia.

Elements of Multimedia System

● Multimedia means that computer information can be represented through audio,graphics, image,
video and animation in addition to traditional media(text and graphics).
● Hypermedia can be considered as one type of particular multimedia application.
● Multimedia is a combination of content forms Audio, Video

Applications of Multimedia

Multimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited to, advertisements, art, education,
entertainment, engineering, medicine, mathematics, business, scientific research and spatial, temporal applications.

A few application areas of multimedia are listed below:

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● Creative industries
● Commercial
● Entertainment and Fine Arts

Multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients
of information are called Interactive Multimedia.

● Education
● Engineering
● Industry
● Mathematical and Scientific Research
● Medicine
● Multimedia in Public Places

TEXT

Ever since the inception of human civilization ideas have been largely articulated using the written mode.
The flexibility and ease of use of the textual medium makes it ideal for learning. Word processing programs
emerged as one the earliest application programs. In multimedia presentations, text can be combined with other
media in a powerful way to present information and express moods.Text can be of various types.

● Plain Text
It consisting of fixed size characters having essentially the same type of appearance.
● Formatted Text
Where appearance can be changed using font parameters.
● Hyperlink
Which can serve to link different electronic documents and enable the user to jump from one to the other in
a non-linear way. Internally text is represented via binary codes as per the ASCII table.

● The ASCII table is however quite limited in its scope and a new standard has been developed to
eventually replace the ASCII standard.
● This standard is called the Unicode standard and is capable of representing international characters
from various languages throughout the world. Text can be inserted into an application using various
means.
● The simplest way is directly typing text into the application by using the keyboard; alternatively text
can be copied from another pre-existing file or application and pasted into the application.

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● Nowadays we also generate text automatically from a scanned version of a paper document or image
using Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software.
● When text is saved onto the hard disk, it can be compressed using various algorithms so as to reduce
the file size.
● All algorithms however work in a lossless mode (ie) all information in the original file is maintained
intact without loss of data in anyway.
● Depending on how various visual properties of text are stored and the compression scheme
followed, text can be stored into the number of file formats each requiring its own specific
application to open and modify the contents.

TYPES OF TEXT

Essentially there are three types of text that can be used to produce pages of a document.

● Unformatted text
● Formatted text
● Hypertext
● Unformatted Text

● Also known as plain text, this comprise of fixed sized characters from a limited character set. The
character set is called ASCII table which is short for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange and is one of the most widely used character sets.
● It basically consists of a table where each character is represented by a unique 7-bit binary code.
This means there are 27 or 128 code words which can be used to identify the characters.
● The characters include a to z, A to Z, 0 to 9, and other punctuation characters like parenthesis,
ampersand, single and double quotes, mathematical operators etc. All the characters are of the same
height.
● In addition to normal alphabetic, numeric and punctuation characters collectively called printable
characters, the ASCII characters set also includes a number of control characters.
● These include BS(Backspace), LF(Line feed), CR(Carriage return), NUL(Null), SOH(Start of
heading), STX(Start of text), ETX(End of text), EOT(End of transmission), ENQ(Enquiry),
ACK(Acknowledge), BEL(Bell), TAB(horizontal tab), VT(Vertical tab), FF(Form feed), SO(Shift
out), SI(shift in), DLE(Data link escape), DC1(device control 1), DC2(Device control 2),
NAK(Negative acknowledge), SYN(Synchronous idle), ETB(End of trans block), CAN(Cancel),
EM(End of medium), SUB(Substitute), ESC(Escape), FS(File separator), GS(Group separator),
RS(Record separator), US(unit separator)

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● Whenever characters included in the table are required to be stored or processed by a computer, the
corresponding numeric code is retrieved from the ASCII table in binary form and substituted for the
actual text for internal processing.
● This includes both the printable and control characters example: each line of text in a document is
terminated by a linefeed character.
● Later as requirements increased an extended version of ASCII table was introduced known as the
extended ASCII character set, while the original table came to be known as standard ASCII set.
● The extended set used an 8- bit representation and therefore had a provision of 256 characters. The
first 128 characters were the same as the original character set, now known as the standard ASCII
table while the remaining codes were used to represent small simple graphical symbols.

● Formatted Text

o Formatted texts are those where apart from the actual alphanumeric characters, other control characters
are used to change the appearance of the characters example: bold, underline, italics, varying shapes,
sizes and colors. Most text processing software uses such formatting options to change text appearance.
o It is also extensively used in the publishing sector for the preparation of books, papers, magazines,
journals and soon. In addition a variety of document formatting options are supported to enable an
author to structure a documents into chapters, sections and paragraphs and with tables and graphics
inserted at appropriate points.
o The control characters used to format the text is application dependent and may vary from one package
to another example bold appearance.
● Hypertext

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o Documents provide a method of transmitting information. Reading a document is an act of
reconstructing knowledge. A book or an article on paper has a given structure and is represented in a
sequential form. Although it is possible to read individual paragraphs, without reading previous
paragraphs, authors mostly assume sequential reading. Novels as well as movies always assume a pure
sequential reception.
o Technical documentation (example: manuals) consists often of a collection of relatively independent
information units. There also exists many cross- references in such documentation which leads to
multiple searches at different places for the reader. A hypertext document can be used to handle such
situations.
o The term hyper is usually used to mean something excessive (beyond super) example: hyper active,
hyper tension etc. Here the term is used to mean certain extra capabilities imparted to normal or
standard text like normal text, a hypertext document can be used to reconstruct knowledge through
sequential reading but additionally it can be used to link multiple documents in such a way that the
user can navigate non-0 sequentially from one document to the other for cross-references. These links
are called hyperlinks. Hyperlinks from one of the core structures in multimedia presentations, because
multimedia emphasizes a non-linear mode of presentation.
o Example: A multimedia tourist brochure can have text information about various places of interest,
with photographic images; can have voice annotations about how to get to those places and the modes
of travel available, video clips of how tourists are traveling and the facilities provided to them.
o All these information can be hyperlinked like a list of hotels at each place along with their changes. A
tourist can make use of a search facility to navigate to the information regarding a specific place of
interest and then use the hyperlinks provided to view each category of information.
o Hypertext is mostly used on the World Wide Web for linking different web pages together and
allowing the user to navigate from one page to another. To crate such documents the user uses
commands of a hypertext language like HTML or SGML to specify the links.
o Typically hyperlinks take the form of an underlined text string and the user initiates the access and
display of a particular document by pointing and clicking the mouse on the appropriate link.
o The underlined text string on which the user clicks the mouse is called an anchor and the document
which opens as a result of clicking is called target document on the web target documents are
specified by a specific nomenclature called web sites address technically known as Uniform Resource
Locator or URL.
▪ Example of hypertext:
▪ The World-Wide Web
▪ Shakespeare On-Line

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● Node Or Anchor
o The anchor is the actual visual element (text) which not only is associated with some meaning by
itself but also provides an entry point to another document.
o An important factor in designing an user interface is the concept of how the anchor can be
represented properly.
o In most cases the appearance of the text is changed from the surrounding text to designate a
hypertext, example: by default it is colored blue with an underline.
o Moreover the mouse pointer changes to a finger icon when placed over a hypertext.
o The user actually clicks over the hypertext in order to activate it and open a new document in the
document viewer.
o In some cases instead of text an anchor can be an image, a video or some other non-textual
element. In such cases the term hypermedia is more appropriate.
● Pointer Or Link

○ These provide connection to other information units known as target documents.

○ A link has to be defined at the time of creating the hyperlink, so that when the user clicks on an
anchor the appropriate target document can be fetched and displayed.
○ Usually some information about the target document should be available to the user before
clicking on the anchor.
○ If the destination is a text document, a short description of the content can be represented. in the
case of an image, the image content can appear in thumbnail form on the screen.
○ A visual representation of the video content can follow in the form of a moving icon. If the
content of the destination node consists of audio information a visual representation of the audio
content must follow.
○ Example In the case of a music passage a picture of the composer could be displayed.

UNICODE STANDARD

○ The Unicode standard is a new universal character coding scheme for written characters and text. It
defines a consistent way of encoding multilingual text which enablestextual data to be exchanged
universally.
○ The Unicode standard goes far beyond ASCII‘s limited capability by providing the capacity of
encoding more than 1 million characters.
○ The Unicode standard draws a distinction between characters, which are the smallest
component of written language, and glyphs, which represent the shapes, the characters can
have when displayed.
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○ Some of the languages and their corresponding codes are: Latin (00), Greek (03), Arabic (06),
Devanagari/Bengali (09), Oriya/Tamil (0B), etc.
○ Several methods have been suggested to implement Unicode based on variations in storage
space and compatibility.
○ The mapping methods are called Unicode Transformation Formats (UTF) and Universal
Character Set (UCS).
● Some of the major mapping methods are:

a) UCS-4,UTF-32
Uses 32-bit for each character. The simplest scheme as it consists of fixed length encoding, how it is not efficient
with regard to storage space and memory usage, and therefore rarely used. Initially the UCS-4 was proposed with a
possible address range of 0 to FFFFFFFFFF, but Unicode requires only upto 10FFFF.

b) UTF-16
A 16-bit encoding format. In its native format it can encode numbers upto FFFF, i.e, as xxxxxxx xxxxxxx. For
codings beyond this, the original number is expressed as a combination of two 16-bit numbers.

c) UTF-8
The bits of a Unicode character is divided into a series of 8-bit numbers. The output code against various ranges of
input codes are given in Table 4.1

Code range Input code Output code

000000-00007F Xxxxxxx 0xxxxxxx

000080-0007FF xxx xxxxxxxxx 110xxxx 10xxxxxxx

FONT

Font Appearance

● The appearance of each character in case of formatted text is determined by specifying what a font
name. Font name refers to font files which contain the actual description of the character appears on
the windows platform font files are stored in specific folder called fonts under the windows folder.

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● These files are usually in Vector format meaning that character descriptions are stored
mathematically. This is useful because characters may need to be scaled to various heights and
mathematical descriptions can easily handle such variations without degrading the appearance of
characters.
● Windows call these fonts as true types fonts because their appearance stays the same on different
devices like monitors, printers and plotters, and they have a file extension of TTF.An alternative
form of font files is the bitmap format where each character is described as a collection of pixels
● Examples Of Default (Upper Row) And Downloaded (Lower Row) Fonts

Times Roman Arial, Century Gothic, Verdana, Courier New,

ABADDON AERO AVQUEST, Cassandra, FAKTOS.

● Some of the standard font types included with the windows OS package shown in upper row. Other
than theses there are thousands of font types made by various organizations and many of them are
freely downloadable over the Internet.
● Each application has a default font name associated with it. When a specific font requested by the
user is not available in the system, then the default font is used which is assumed to be always
available.
● Some software application packages allow font files to be embedded within them so that when a
presentation file crated using that package is shown on a target system which does not have the
requisite font files, and then the embedded fonts are used instead. Some examples of downloadable
fonts are shown in lower row.

FONT STYLE AND SIZE

● Font characters have a number of sizes. Size is usually specified in a unit called point (pt) where 1
point equal 1\72 of an inch. Sometimes the size may also be specified in pixels.
● Standard characters in textual documents usually range from 10 to 12 pts in size, while the upper
limit may go well beyond 100.
● Specified font types can be displayed in a variety of styles. Some of the common styles used are:
bold, italics , underline, super script and sub script .
● Some application packages allow changing the horizontal gap between the characters called kerning
and the vertical gap between two lines of text called leading.
● Some packages allow a number of special effects on text to make it more dramatic, interesting and
fun.

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● This includes changing the appearance in a variety of ways like bending, slanting, warping, rotating,
adding shadows and 3D effects etc, other ways of manipulating text include animations like scrolling
, fading, changing colors , adding sound effects etc.

INSERTION OF TEXT

Text can be inserted in a document using variety of methods. These are;

● USING A KEY BOARD

○ The most common process of inserting text in to a digital document is by typing the text using an
input device like the keyboard.

○ Usually a text editing software, like Microsoft word, is used to control the appearance of text
which allows the user to manipulate variables like the font, size, style, color etc.
○ Some image processing and multimedia authoring software provide a separate text editing
window where the user can type text and integrate it with the rest of the media like background
images.
● COPYING AND PASTING

○ Another way of inserting text in to a document is by copying text from a pre- existing digital
document.
○ The existing document is opened using the corresponding text processing program and portions
of the text may be selected by using the key board or mouse.
○ Using the copy command the selected text is copied to the clipboard.
○ This text can then be inserted in to another existing document or a new document or even in
another place of the same document by choosing the paste command, where upon the text is
copied from the clipboard in to the target document.
○ This text can then be edited as per the user’s requirements.
● USING AN OCR SOFTWARE

■ A third way of inserting text in to digital documents is by scanning it from a paper

documents. The text in a paper document including books, newspaper, magazines, letter
heads etc can be converted in to the electronics form using a device called the scanner.

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●
■ The electronic representation of the paper document can then be saved as a file on the
hard disk of the computer.
■ The scanned file will however be an image file in which the text will be present as part of
an image and will not be editable in a text processors.
■ To be able to edit the text, it needs to be converted from the image format in to the
editable text format using software called Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
software.
■ The OCR software traditionally works by a method called pattern matching.
■ Here the software tries to match each and every scanned character to a already stored
definitions of characters within the software. For every match found, the software
represents the character as an editable text objects instead of an image object.
■ This process is however largely dependant on the appearance of the characters for finding
an adequate match and thus on the specific fonts.
■ Some of the standard fonts may be converted with appreciable accuracy while other
fonts may not be recognized.
■ The conversion process is also dependant upon the quality of the scanned paper
document and on the quality of the OCR software.
■ If the letters on the scanned page are clearly visible and in a standard font, then using a
good quality OCR software.
■ One may expects to convert most of the characters although no software can guarantee
100% accuracy in conversion, research on OCR is based on another technology called
feature extraction.
■ Using this method the software attempts to extract the core features of the characters and
compare them to a table stored within itself for recognition.
■ It is believed that if it can be done accurately enough, it will make the recognition process
independent of the appearance or font of characters because the core set of features will
remain same in any font representation. example: if the software algorithm can extract the
line, the circle, and the arc in the positions shown below, it will recognize the character to
be ‘a’ whatever the actual shape.

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TEXT COMPRESSION

Large text documents covering a number of pages may take a lot of disk space. We can apply compression
algorithms to reduce the size of then text file during storage. A reverse algorithms must be applied to decompress
the file before it contents can be displayed on screen. However to be meaningful, the compression – decompression
process must not change the textual content in anyway, not even a single character. There are two types of
compression methods that are applied to text as explained.

● Huffmancoding

This type of coding is intended for applications in which the text to be compressed has known
characteristics in terms of the occurrences. Using the information, instead of using fixed length code words, an
optimum set of variable – lengths code words is derived such that the shortest codeword is used to represent the
most frequently occurring characters. This approach is called Huffman coding.

● Lempel –Ziv (Lz) Coding

In the second approach followed by the Lempel – ziv (LZ) method, instead of using a single character as a
basis of the coding operation a string of characters is used. Example: a table containing all the possible words that
occur in a text document is held by both the encoder and decoder. As each word occurs in the text, instead of
representing the text as ASCII characters, the encoders stores only the index of where the word in the table. The
decoder converts the index in to the appropriate words from the table. Thus the table is used as a dictionary, and the
LZ algorithm is also known as dictionary based algorithm.

● Lempel – Ziv Welsh (Lzw) Coding

Most word processing packages have a dictionary associated with them which is used for both spell
checking and compression of text. Typically they contain in the region of 25000 words and hence, 15 bits (215 =
32768) are required to encoding the index. To encode the word compression with such as scheme would require
only 15 bits instead of 777 bits with 7 bit ASCII code words. The above method may not however produce efficient
result for documents with a small subject of words in the dictionary. Hence the variations of the above algorithm
called Lempel-ziv welsh (LZW) method allows the dictionary to be built up dynamically by the encoder and
decoder for the document under processing. The dictionary becomes a better match for a specific document than a
standard dictionary.

FILE FORMATS

The following text formats are usually used for textual documents.

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● Txt (Text)

Unformatted text document created by an editor kike note pad on those platform. Unformatted text
document can be used to transfer textual information between different platform like windows DOS and UNIX. The
data is encoded using ASCII codes but sometimes Unicode encodings like UTF – 8 or UTF – 16 may be used.

● Doc (Document)

Developed by Microsoft as a native format for storing documents created by the ms word package. Contains
a rich set of formatting capabilities . Since it require property software it is not considered a document exchange
format.

● Rtf(Rich Text Format)

Developed by Microsoft in 1987 for cross platform document exchanges . it is the default format for Mac
OS X’s default editor test edit. The word pad editor earlier created RTF files by the default although now it has
switched to the DOC format RTF control codes are human readable , similar to HTML code.

Example this is (\b bold) text; \\par a new paragraph begins.

● Pdf (Portable Document Format)

Developed by adobe systems for cross platform exchange of documents. In addition to text the format also
support images in graphics PDF is an open standard and any one make write programs that can read and write PDF
s without any associated royalty charges.PDF readers can be downloaded for free from adobe site and there are
several free open source readers available.

Example; X PDF (http;\\WWW.foolabs .com\ x PDF),

PDF (http:// www. Purl.org/net/Gpdf),

View PDF (http;//mac.wms-network.de/gnustep/image apps /view PDF /view pdf.html)

● Ps(Post Script)

Post script is a page description language used mainly for desktop publishing. A page description language
is a high level language that can describe the contents of a page such that it can be accurately displayed on output
devices usually a printer. Post script was developed in 1985 and soon became the ideal choice for graphical output
for printing applications. In the same year apple laser writer was the first printer to ship with post script prior to post
script, then printing graphics on a Dot matrix printer, the graphics had to be interpreted by the computer and then
sent as a series of instructions to the printer to reproduce it . These printer control languages varied from printer to

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printer. Post script offered a universal language that could use for any brand of printer .Post script represent all
graphics and events text as vectors, (ie) as combination of lines and curves.A post script compatible program
converted a input document in to the PS format, which is sent to be printer.

A post script interpret a inside the printer converted the vectors back in to the raster dots to be printed.
These allow arbitrary sealing, rotating and other transformations.

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IMAGE

● After text the next element that comes under the preview of multimedia are pictures. A picture being
‘worth a thousand words’ can be made to import large amounts of information in a compact way.
● It is a fact that most people dislike going through pages of text especially on a computer screen, and
so it has been the endeavor of most multimedia developers to supplement words with picture in
presentation.
● The pictures that we see in our everyday life can be broadly classified into two groups those that
depict some real world situation typically captured by a camera and those that have been drawn or
painted and can depict any fictitious scenario.
● The first of pictures are called images and the second types are called graphics. Images can either be
pure black and white or grey scale having a number of grey shades or color containing a number of
color shades.
● Color is a sensation that light of different frequencies generates on our eyes, the higher frequencies
producing the blue end and the lower frequencies producing red end of the visible spectrum.
● An object appears to have a certain color because it observes the other color components from white
light and reflects only light of frequencies specific to that color to our eyes.
● To recognize and communicate color information we need to have color models. Color models help
us express color information in terms of numerical value.
● Generally color models definite a set of primary color and other colors are expressed as various
combinations of the primaries.
● To most well known color models are the RBG models used for colored lights like images on a
monitor screen and the CMYK model used for colored inks like images printed on paper.
● The first one defines the color red, green and blue as primary colors while the second one defines the
colors cyan, magenta and yellow as the primaries.
● The colors used in these models are however dependent on the physical properties of devices which
generate them. Eg: Physical/chemical properties of CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) and are therefore
referred to as device dependent color models.
● Device independent color models also exist and are based on the human perception of color rather
than the device properties.
● One of the most well known independent color model is HSB model where the primaries are hue,
saturation and brightness. The total range of color model is known as gamut.

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● Different color models may have different gamut’s indicating that it may not always be possible to
accurately convert colors from one model to another. Image processing involves three stages, input,
editing and output.
● The input stage deals with the issues of converting hardcopy paper images into electronic versions.
This is usually done via a device called the scanner.
● A number of electronic sensors within the scanner within the scanner each convert a small portion
of the original image into pixels and store them as binary numbers within the storage device of a
computer.
● While scanner is used to digitalize documents, another device called the digital camera can convert
real world scene into a digital image.
● Digital cameras also contain a number of these electronic sensors which are known as Charged
Coupled Device (CCD) and essentially operate on the same principle as scanner.
● Once a digital version of a image is generated, an editing software is used to manipulate the image in
various way.

IMAGE TYPE

Image that we see in our everyday lives can be categorized into various types.

● Hardcopy Vs Soft Copy

The typical image that we usually come across are the pictures that have been printed on paper or some
other kinds of surfaces like plastic, cloth, wood etc, these are also called hardcopy images because they have been
printed on solid surfaces.

Sometimes images are also seen in electronic forms on the TV screen or computer monitor. Such images
have been transformed from hard copy images or real objects into the electronic form using specialized procedures
and are referred to as softcopy images.

● Continious Tone, Half-Tone And Bitone

Photographs are also known as continuous tone image because they are usually composed of a large
number of varying tones or shades of colors.

Sometimes due to limitations of the display or printing devices, all the colors of a photograph cannot be
represented adequately. In those cases a subset of the total number of colors are displayed. Such images are called
partial tone or half tone images.

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Photographic representation in a news paper is examples where they appeared to be made up of colored
dots. Here because the printing press is unable to print a large number of colors, the photographs are broken down
into discrete dots containing some of the mostly used original colors of the original photograph.A third category of
image is called bitonal images, which uses only two colors, typically black and white. And do not use any shades
of grey. These types of images are mostly used for special effect.

SEEING COLOR

The phenomenon of the seeing color is dependent on a triad of factors:

1. The nature of light,

2. The interaction of light and matter and
3. the physiology of human vision.

Each factor plays a vital part and the absence of I any one would make seeing color impossible.

1. Light is a form of energy known as electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic radiation consists of a large number of waves with varying frequencies and
wavelengths. At one extreme are the radio waves having the longest wavelength (several kilometers) and at
the other extreme are the gamma rays with the shortest wavelength (0.1 nanometers) out of the total
electromagnetic spectrum a small range of wave’s cause’s sensations of light in our eyes. This is called
visible spectrum of waves

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2.The second factor is the interaction of light with matter.

● Whenever light waves strike an object, part of the light energy get absorbed and/or
transmitted, while the remaining parts gets reflected deck to our eyes. The wavelength
presented in the reflected lights imparts a specific color to the object from which the light is
reflected.
● For example a red ball looks red because it absorbs all the other wavelengths in white light
and reflects back only those wavelengths which produce a red color sensation in our eyes.
● Transmission takes place when light passes through an object without being essentially
changed; the object in this case is said to be transparent.
● Some alterations do not take place, however according to refractive index of the material
through the light is transmitted.
● Refractive Index (RI) is the ratio of speed of light in a vacuum (i.e:, space) to the speed of
light in a given transparent material(eg, air, water, gas).
● For e.g.: The RI of water is 1.0003. if light travels through space at 186000 miles per second,
it travels through air at 185944 miles per second – a very slight difference.
● By comparison, the RI of water is 1.333 and the RI of glass will vary from 1.5 to 1.96- a
considerable slowing of light speed.
● The point where two substance of differing RI meet is called the boundary surface.
● At this point a beam of transmitted light (the incident beam) changes direction according to
difference in refractive index and also the angle at which it strikes the transparent object: this
is called refraction.
● If light is only partly transmitted by the object (the rest being absorbed) the object is
translucent.

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● When light strikes an opaque object (i.e an object that does not transmit light), the object’s
surface plays an important role In determining whether the light is fully reflected, fully
diffused, or same of both.
● A smooth or glossy surface is one made up of particles of equal or nearly equal refractive
index. These surfaces reflect light at an intensity and angle to the incident beam.
● Scattering or diffusion is another aspect of reflection. When a substance contains particles
of a different refractive index, a light beam striking the substance will be scattered.
● The amount of light scattered depends on the difference in the two refractive indices and also
on the size of the particles.
● Most commonly, light striking an opaque object will be both reflected and scattered. This
happens when an object is neither wholly glossy nor wholly rough.

3.The Third part of the color triad is the human vision.

○ The retina is the light sensitive part of the eye and its surface is composed of photoreceptors
or nerve endings.
○ These receive the light and pass it along through the optic nerve as a stimulus to the brain.
○ The different frequencies gives raise to the different color sensations in our eyes.
○ Within the visible range shorter wavelength give rise to color like violet, blue and green.
While longer wavelength produce yellow, orange and red.
○ All the colors combine to produce white light. White light can be split into component color
by passing it through a prism.

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COLOR MODELS

Color models help us in recognizing and expressing information related to color. In our everyday life we see
a large variety of colors which we cannot express by names. Researchers have found Out of the most of the colors
that we see around us can be derived from mixing a few elementary colors. These elementary colors are known as
primary colors. Primary colors mixed in varying proportions produce other color called composite colors. This
provides us with a way to refer to any arbitrary color: by specifying the name and proportions of the primary colors
from which it can be produced.

Two primary colors mixed in equal proportions produce a secondary color. The primary colors along with
the total range of composite colors they can produce constitute a color model. There can be multiple color models
each with its own set of primary and composite colors.

● RGB Model
▪ The RGB color model is used to describe behavior of colored lights like those emitted from a
TV screen or a computer monitor.
o This model has three primary colors: red, green, blue in short RGB.
▪ Inside a CRT, electron beams falling an red, green and blue phosphor dots produce
corresponding colored lights which mix together in different proportions to produce lights of
composite colors.
▪ Proportions of colors are determined by the beam strength. An electron beam having the
maximum intensity falling on a phosphor dot creates 100% of the corresponding color. 50% of
the color results from a beam having half the peak strength. Proportions are measured in
percentage values.
▪ An arbitrary color, say orange, can be specified as 96% red, 40% green and 14% blue. This
means that to produce orange colored light on the screen, the three electron beams striking the
red, green and blue phosphors need to have 96%, 40% and 14% of their maximum insanities
respectively.
▪ All three primary colors at full intensities combine together to produce white, i.e their
brightness values are added up. Because of this, the RGB model is called an additive model.
▪ Lower intensity values produce shades of grey. A color present at 100% of its intensity is called
saturated, otherwise the color is said to be unsaturated.
▪ The three secondary colors of the RGB model are: magenta(formed by mixing equal quantities
of red and blue), cyan(formed by mixing equal quantities of blue and green) and yellow (formed
by equal quantities of green and red)
The three primary colors in varying percentages from composite colors.
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● CMYK Model

○ The RGB model is only valid for describing behavior of colored lights. When specifying colors of ink
on paper we require a different model.
○ Consider a blue spot of ink on paper. The ink looks blue because it only reflects blue light to our eyes
while absorbing the other color components from white light.
○ If we now mix a spot of red ink with blue ink what resultant do we expect? If the RGB model was
followed, the resultant would have been magenta.
● But try to analyze the situation here the red ink would try to absorb the blue light reflected from the blue ink and
similarly the blue ink would try to absorb the red light from the red ink.

○
■ The result is that no light comes from the ink mixture to our eyes and it looks black. Thus,
clearly the RGB model is not being followed here and we need a new model to explain its
behavior.
■ This new model is named CMYK model and is used to specify printed colors. The primary
colors of this model are cyan, magenta and yellow. These colors when mixed together in equal
proportions produce black, due to which the model is known as a subtractive model.

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■ Due to impurities in the ink the actual color obtained is dark brown instead of black. So an extra
black ink is added to produce pure black which is why the color model is known as CMYK, the k
standing for the black component.
■ The colors of pure cyan, magenta and black inks are indicated as 100% when the inks are mixed
with other inks. The proportion and saturation of the colors decrease. Mixing cyan and magenta
in equal proportions produce blue, magenta and yellow produce red and yellow and cyan
produce green.
■ Thus the secondary colors of the CMYK model are the same as the primary colors of the RGB
model and vice versa. These two methods are thus known as complimentary models.

● Device Dependency And Gamut

▪ It is to be noted that both the RGB and the CMYK models do not have universal or absolute
color values.
▪ We know exactly how much is 1 kilogram or 1 meter because these measures are standardized
and have the same value everywhere.
▪ But when we talk about 100% red, the color that is indicated will actually be dependent on the
physical characteristics of the phosphor dots or the ink.
▪ Since these characteristics will slightly differ in different devices there is no concept of an
absolute color, but different devices there is no concept of an absolute color but different devices
will give rise to slightly different set of colors.
▪ For this reason both the RGB and the CMYK models are known as device dependent color
models.
▪ Another issue of concern here is the total range of colors supported by each color model. This is
known as the gamut of the model.
▪ It has been found that the RGB model has a larger gamut than the CMYK model. This is
essentially means that all colors in the RGB model cannot be expressed in terms of the CMYK
model.
▪ For this reason an image displayed on a monitor screen may have its colors slightly changed
when printed on paper. When the printing system finds no CMYK representation of a specific
RGB value, it will attempt to substitute it with the nearest or most similar CYMK value leading
to a change in the color shade.
▪ Image processing software displays a gamut warning to the user under these conditions. The lab
color model is a device independent model and is considered to have the largest gamut.

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BASIC STEPS FOR IMAGE PROCESSING

Image processing is the name given to the entire process involved with the input, editing and output of
images from a system. When studied in connection to multimedia it implies digital manipulation of images. There
are three basic steps.

● Input

o Image input is the first stage of image processing. It is concerned with getting natural images into a
computer system for subsequent work.
o Essentially it deals with the conversion of analog images into digital forms.
o This is mainly done using two devices.
▪ The first is the scanner which can convert a printed image or document into the digital form.
▪ The second is the digital camera which digitizes real world images, similar to how a
conventional camera works.
o Sometimes we can start with ready-made digital images, e.g.: copied from a clipart gallery or a photo-
cd, or downloaded from the internet.
o In such cases we skip the image input stage and go straight to the image editing stage.
● Editing
o After the images have been digitized and stored as files on the hard disk of a computer, they are changed
or manipulated to make them more suitable for specific requirement.
o This step is called editing and usually involves one or more image editing software which provides
various tools and functionalities for editing the images.
o Before the actual editing process can begin, an important step called color calibration needs to be
performed to ensure that the image looks consistent when viewed on multiple monitors.
o After editing, the images are usually compressed using mathematical algorithms and then shared into
specific file formats.
● Output

o Image output is the last stage in image processing concerned with displaying the edited image to the
user.
o The image can either be displayed in a stand-alone manner or all as part of some application like a
presentation or web page.
o In the most cases the image need to be displayed on-screen via a monitor.
o However for some application like printing a catalog or brochure, the images need to be printed on paper
using a printer.

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SCANNER

● For images digitization involves physical devices like scanner or digital camera.The scanner is a device used to
convert analog images into the digital form.
● The most common type of scanner for the office environment is called the flatbed scanner.It looks like a
photocopying machine with a glass panel and a moving scan head below it.
● The paper document to be scanned is placed down on the glass panel and the scanner is activated using software
from a computer to which the scanner remains attached.
● The traditional way of attaching a scanner to the computer is through an interface cable connected to the parallel
port (centronics) of the pc, but nowadays other forms of interfaces like scsi or vsb are gaining prominence.
● Constuction And Working Principle

★ To start a scanning operation the paper document to be scanned is placed take down on then
glass panel of the scanner is placed and the scanner is activated using software from the host
computer.
★ The scan head contains a source of white light. As the head moves across the paper, the light
illuminates the paper progressively.
★ The light on getting related by the paper image is made to fall on a grid of electronic sensors,
by an arrangement of a mirror and lenses.
★ The electronic sensors are called charge coupled devices (CCD). And are basically converts
of the light energy in to voltage pulses.
★ The strength of the voltage p[produced is proportional to the intensity of the light falling on
the CCD elements.
★ Brighter regions of the image reflect more light on to the CCD thereby producing stronger
voltage signal.
★ Darker image portions produce weaker signals.
★ After a complete scan the image is converted from a continuous entity in to a discrete
converted from a continuous voltage pulses.
★ This process is called sampling, derived from the fact that each point of the image is sampled
or examined to obtain a value regarding its brightness at the point.
★ The voltage signals are temporarily stored in a buffer inside the scanner.
★ The next set up called quantization involves the representing the voltage pulses as binary
numbers and carry out an ADC inside the scanner in conjunction with software bundled with
the scanner called the scanning software.

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★ The software has to first decide on the number of bits to be presenting the binary
representation.
★ This information either supplied by the user is decided accordingly to some default setting.
★ For an n bit representation there will be 2n voltage pulse that can be represented by binary
numbers practical bit values range from 8 bits to 24 bits.This id known as bit – depth of then
image
★ The collection of binary numbers is stored ion the hard disk of the PC as a digital image file.
★ Since each number has been derived from the intensity of the incidence light, this
e4ssentially represents brightness value at different points of the image , and are known as
pixels.
★ Larger the bit depth, more are the number of brightness value that can be stored.
★ Thus a 24 bit digital image will be more accurate representation of the original analog image
then an 8 bit image, and so would be a vector quality.
★ However it will also occupy a larger disk space and need more processing power to
manipulate. This increases the cost of storing and manipulating a higher quality image.
★ The actual value of the bit depth will be decided largely as a matter of compromise between
the cost and quality requirements.

SCANNER TYPES

Scanners can be of various types each designed for specific purposes.

Flatbed Scanners

● The flatbed scanner is the most common type in office environments.

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● It looks like a photocopying machine with a glass panel on which the document to be scanned is
placed face down. Below the glass panel is a moving head a source of white usually xenon
lamps.
● The moving head moves slowly from the one end of the document to the other and the light
emitted from it is caused to fall on the document get reflected from it and fall on a CCD array via
a system of mirrors.
● Depending on bright and dark regions of the document, CCD generates varying voltage signals
which are stored in a buffer and later fed to an ADC.
● The light is made to fall on small strips (rows) of the document at a time.
● As the head moves on, the next row is scanned.
● The process continues until all the rows of the document have been scanned.Text or image on the
document is therefore visible to the CCD only because of the light it reflects.

Drum Scanners

● Drum scanners is used to obtain good quality scans for professional purposes and generally
provides a better performance than flatbed scanners.
● It consists of a cylindrical drum made out of a highly translucent plastic like material.
● The image to be scanned, usually a film, is wet – mounted on the drum, meaning that it is
soaked in a fluid.
● The fluid helps to camouflage the scratches and dust grains over the film and provides improved
clarity of the film.
● The fluid can either be oil-based or a alcohol- based. For the sensing element, drum scanners use
a photo – multiplier tube (PMT) instead of a CCD.
● A PMT, also referred to as an electron multiplier, is much more sensitive to light than the CCD
and more expensive as well.
● It works on the principle of photoelectric effect in which absorption of a result in an electron
emission.
● The photon is detected by amplifying the electron, referred to as photo – electron, by passing it
through a cascade of acceleration electrodes, called dynodes.
● The multiplier consists of a sealed glass tube containing an anode and a number of dynodes.
Each dynode is charged to a higher voltage than the previous one.
● On hitting each dynode, the photo-electrons will invoke emission of additional electrons, which
accelerate towards the next dynode.

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● This process continues until the anode is reached where the accumulation of charge results in a
sharp increase in voltage pulse indicating the detection of the photon.
● An amplification gain of the order of 108 can be achieved in multipliers containing about 14
dynodes, which can provide measurable pulses from even single photons.

Bar – Code Scanners

● A bar code scanner is designed specifically to read barcodes printed on various surfaces. A barcode
is a machine – readable representation of information in a visual format.
● Traditionally barcodes use a set of parallel vertical lines whose widths and spacing between them is
used to encode information.
● Nowadays they come in other forms like dots and concentric circles.
● Barcodes relieve the operator of typing strings in a computer, the encoded information is directly
read by the scanner.
● They are extensively used to indicate details of products at retail outlets and other automated
environments like baggage routing in airports.
● The data contained in a barcode varies with the application.
● In the simplest case an identification number is used as an index in a database where the details
about the product is stored The EAN (European Article Numbering) and the UPC (Universal Product
Code) belong to this class.
● The other type is where the barcode holds the complete information and does not need external
databases.
● This led to barcode symbologies that can represent more than digits, typically the entire ASCII
character set.
● Stacked and 2D barcodes belong to this class where a 2D matrix of lines may be used. The PDF 417
IS the most common 2D barcode.
● A barcode scanner is usually smaller than the flatbed or the drum scanner and contains a light
source which can either be an LED or a LASER.
● The light on falling on the barcode gets reflected back and is sent to a photoconductor for translating
them in to electrical impulses.
● Additionally the scanner contains a circuit for analyzing the barcode data and sending the decoded
data to the output port of the scanner.

A LASER barcode scanner is more expensive than a LED one but is capable of scanning barcodes at a
distance of about 25cm.

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▪ The barcode scanner can either be hand-held or stationary type.
▪ Hand-held types are small devices that can be held by hand and usually contains
a switch for triggering and light emission.
▪ It can be either wedge – shaped or pen- shaped, both of which are slided over the
barcode for scanning.
▪ The stationary type remains on the table and the barcode is passed under its light
port for scanning, generally found in retail counters and markets.
▪ Most barcode scanners use the Ps\2 port for getting connected to the computer,
however they can also use the RS-232 and USB ports.

COLOR SCANNING

● Since the CCD elements are sensitive to the brightness of the light, the pixels essentially store only
the brightness information of the original image.This is also known as luminance (or luma)
information
● To include the color of chrominance (or chroma) information there are three CCD elements for
each pixel of the image format.
● These three elements are sensitive to the red, blue and green components of light.
● White light reflected off the paper document is split in to the primary color components by a glass
prism and made to fall on the corresponding CCD sub – components.
● The signal output from each sub – component can be combined to produce a color scanned image.
The pixels in this case contain both the luma and chroma information.(below figure)

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DIGITAL CAMERA

CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING PRINCIPLE

● Apart from the scanner used to digitize paper documents and film, another device used to digitize
real world images is the digital camera. use like a conventional camera, a digital camera also has a
lens through which light from real world objects enter the camera.
● It instead of falling on film to initiate a chemical reaction the light instead falls on a CCD array,
similar to that inside the scanner
● .Just like a scanner the voltage pulses from the CCD array travel to an ADC where they are
converted to binary representations and stored as a digital image file.
● Unlike a scanner a digital camera is usually not attached to a computer via a cable.
● The camera has its own storage facility inside it usually in the form of a floppy drive, which can save
the images created in to a floppy disc.
● Images however cannot be stored in floppy discs in their raw forms as they would tend to take too
much space. So instead they are compressed to reduce their file sizes and stored usually in the JPEG
format.
● This is a lossy compression technique and results in slight loss in image quality.
● Each floppy inserted into the camera can hold about 15 to 25 images, depending on the amount of
compression.
● The floppy can then simply be taken out of the camera, inserted into a PC and the files copied.
● Users are usually not permitted to set parameters like bit-depth and resolution and the digital camera
uses its default set of values.
● Earlier digital cameras had CCD arrays of about 640*480 elements but modern high – end cameras
have as many as 20484*1536 elements in its CCD arrays.
● Modern digital cameras contain memory chips within them for storing images, which can range from
50 mb to 500 mb or beyond.
● These cameras can be directly interfaced with a PC via the USB port for copying the stored images
to the hard disk.

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INTERFACE STANDARDS

Interface standards determine how data from acquisition devices like scanners and digital cameras flow to
the computer in an efficient way.Two main interface standards exist: TWAIN and ISIS

TWAIN(Technology Without an Interesting Name)

o TWAIN is a very important standard in image acquisition , developed by Hewlett –

Packard , Kodak, Aldus , Logitech which specifies how image acquisition devices such as
scanners , digital cameras and other devices transfer data to software applications.
● It is basically an image capture API for Microsoft windows and Apple Macintosh platforms. The
standard was first released in 1992 and currently has a version of 1.9 as of January 2000.
● The word TWAIN is from Kipling’s ‘the Ballad of East and West’ in which he wrote ‘….. and
never the twain shall meet …’
● TWAIN is a software protocol which regulates the flow of information between software
applications and imaging devices like scanners.
● The standard is managed by the TWAIN working group which is non – profit organization with
representative from leading imaging vendors.
● The goals of the working group included:
o multiple platform,
o support for different types of devices of devices like flatbed scanners, handheld scanners,
image capture boards, digital cameras etc..
o provide a well – defined standard that gains support and acceptance from leading
hardware and software developers ,

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o provide extensibility and ability to grow with industry needs ,
o easy to implement with clear documentation , support different types of data like bitmap
images , vector images , text etc.

IMAGE AND SCANNER INTERFACE SPECIFICATION (ISIS)

The second important standard for document scanner is the Image and Scanner Interface Specification
(ISIS).

● It was developed by Pixel Translations and they retain control over its development and licensing.
● ISIS has a wider set of features than TWAIN and typically uses the SCSI – 2 interface while TWAIN mostly
uses the USB interface .
● The ISIS architecture is based on software modules like image acquisitions, file conversion, data extraction
and file R/W commands.
● This has the advantage of scalability, new modules are added without making system wide changes. ISIS
modules interact with each other through a system of tags and choices.

SPECIFICATIONS OF DIGITAL IMAGES

● Pixel Dimensions

The number of pixels along the height and width of a bitmap image is known as the pixel dimensions of the
image.The display size of an image on – screen is determined by the pixel dimensions of the image plus the size
and setting of the monitor.

● Image Resolution
The number of pixels displayed per unit length of the image is known as image resolution, usually measured
in pixels per inch (ppi) .An image with a high resolution contains more and therefore smaller pixels than an image
with a low resolution.

● File Size
The digital size of an image measured in kilobytes, megabytes, or gigabytes is proportional to the pixel
dimensions of the image.Images with more pixels may produce more detail but they require more storage space and
may be slower to edit and print.

● Color Depth
This defines the number of bits required to store the information of each pixel in the image, and in turn
determines the total number of possible colors that can be displayed in the image. Photographic images usually

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need a depth of 24 – bits for true representations. Increasing the bit depth increases the capability of displaying a
larger number of colors but it also increases the file size of the image.

COLOR MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (CMS)

In digital imaging systems, color management (or colour management) is the controlled conversion
between the color representations of various devices, such as image scanners, digital cameras,
monitors, TV screens, film printers, computer printers, offset presses, and corresponding media.

The primary goal of color management is to obtain a good match across color devices; for
example, the colors of one frame of a video should appear the same on a computer LCD monitor,
on a plasma TV screen, and as a printed poster.

● Color management helps to achieve the same appearance on all of these devices, provided
the devices are capable of delivering the needed color intensities.
● With photography, it is often critical that prints or online galleries appear how they were
intended. Color management cannot guarantee identical color reproduction, as this is rarely
possible, but it can at least give more control over any changes which may occur.
● Parts of this technology are implemented in the operating system (OS), helper libraries, the
application, and devices. A cross-platform view of color management is the use of an
ICC-compatible color management system.
● The International Color Consortium (ICC) is an industry consortium that has defined:
● an open standard for a Color Matching Module (CMM) at the OS level
● color profiles for:
○ devices, including DeviceLink profiles that transform one device profile (color space)
to another device profile without passing through an intermediate color space, such as
L*A*B*, more accurately preserving color
○ working spaces, the color spaces in which color data is meant to be manipulated
● There are other approaches to color management besides using ICC profiles.
● This is partly due to history and partly because of other needs than the ICC standard covers.

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● The film and broadcasting industries make use of some of the same concepts, but they
frequently rely on more limited boutique solutions.
● The film industry, for instance, often uses 3D LUTs (lookup table) to represent a complete
color transformation for a specific RGB encoding.
● At the consumer level, system wide color management is available in most of Apple's
products (macOS, iOS, iPadOS, watchOS).
○ Microsoft Windows lacks system wide color management and virtually all
applications do not employ color management.
○ Windows' media player API is not color space aware, and if applications want to color
manage videos manually, they have to incur significant performance and power
consumption penalties.
○ Android supports system wide color management, but most devices ship with color
management disabled.

DEVICE INDEPENDENT COLOR MODELS

A device independent color space is one where the coordinates used to specify the colour will
produce the same colour wherever they are applied.
An example of a device independent colour space is the CIE L*a*b* colour space (known as
CIELAB and based on the human visual system).

CIE L*a*b* Model

CIELAB or CIE L*a*b* is a device-independent, 3D color space that enables accurate
measurement and comparison of all perceivable colors using three color values. In this color space,
numerical differences between values roughly correspond to the amount of change humans see between
colors.The International Commission on Illumination (CIE) developed the L*a*b* color model in 1976
with the intent of creating a standard for color communication.

What Does CIE L*a*b* Stand for?

The CIE in CIELAB is the abbreviation for the International Commission on Illumination’s French
name, Commission Internationale de l´Eclairage.

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The letters L*, a* and b* represent each of the three values the CIELAB color space uses to
measure objective color and calculate color differences.

● L* represents lightness from black to white on a scale of zero to 100,

● while a* and b* represent chromaticity with no specific numeric limits.
○ Negative a* corresponds with green,
○ positive a* corresponds with red,
○ negative b* corresponds with blue and
○ positive b* corresponds with yellow.

HSB MODEL

The HSB color model uses a color representation by three parameters: Hue, saturation and
brightness. The model is also known as HSV color model. The HSB color space is shown in the following
figure as color wheel.

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Hue (H)

The hue refers to the gradation of color within the visible spectrum of light. It refer to a particular
color within this spectrum, as defined by its dominant wavelength. A color is defined by the central
tendency of the light wave's wavelength.

The hue is the color type (such as red, blue, or yellow) shown on the outer color wheel. It ranges
from 0-360 (but normalized to 0-100% in some applications).

Saturation (S)

The saturation is the purity or intensity of a color.

The saturation is sometimes called the "vibrancy" of the color and is shown in vertical direction of
the center triangle of the color wheel. It ranges from 0-100%.

Brightness (B or V)

Brightness or value of a color is an attribute of visual perception in which a light source appears to
emit a given amount of light. Brightness is also known as luminance in another context.

It ranges from 0-100%.

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IMAGE PROCESSING SOFTWARE

In electrical engineering and computer science, image processing is any form of signal processing
for which the input is an image, such as a photograph or video frame; the output of image processing may
be either an image or, a set of characteristics or parameters related to the image. Most image-processing
techniques involve treating the image as a two-dimensional signal and applying standard signal-processing
techniques to it.
Image processing usually refers to digital image processing, but optical and analog image
processing also are possible. This article is about general techniques that apply to all of them. The
acquisition of images (producing the input image in the first place) is referred to as imaging.

Image processing software offers a wide variety of ways to manipulate and enhance images. We
discuss below some of the salient features of a typical image processing software.

i) Selection Tools:

Selection Tools enables us to select a specific potion out of an image and manipulate it or copy it to
another image. The selection border may be geomentrical in shape like rectangular, circular, polygonal and
may be irregular in shape. Selection may also be done based on color instead of shapes.

ii) Painting and Drawing Tools

These tools are used to paint lines, shapes, etc. or fill regions with specified colors.
The colors are chosen from a color palette or specified by their RGB values.

iii)Color Selection Tools

These tools are used to select foreground and background colors from a color palette.
They also usually allow specifying colors by their RGB values.

iv)Gradient Tools

Gradient Tools are used to create smooth blends of multiple colors. Gradients may be of various
shapes like linear, radial, diamond-shaped, etc.

v) Clone Tools

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Clone Tools are used to create multiple copies of specific features in an image.
They are also used to select specific patterns and apply them repeatedly over an image.

vi)Transformation Tools
These tools are used to transform specific portions of an image in various ways like moving,
rotating, scaling, skewing, distorting, etc.

vii) Retouching Tools

These tools are used to change brightness/contrast of the image as well as color hues.
Specific portions of the image may be desaturated, i.e. converted to grayscale. Parts of the image
may also be blurred or sharpened.

viii) Text Tools

These tools allow the user to include text in various styles and sizes. The text may have different
colors and orientations.

ix) Changing Image Characteristics

Image processing software allows images to be opened and saved in various file formats.
Operations like changing image dimensions, color depth and resolution are also allowed. When the
resolution of an image is modified using image processing software the total number of pixels is changed.
In cases where the resolution is increased, e.g. converting from 72dpi to 300dpi, extra pixels needs to be
generated by the software.

x) Indexed color

The term refers to a type of images usually with a limited number of color values e.g.256. A color
lookup table (CLUT) is used to store and index the color values of the image. Within the image file,
instead of storing the actual RGB values, the index number of the row containing the specific color value
is stored.

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FILE FORMATS

Images may be stored in a variety of file formats. Each file format is characterized
by a specific compression type and color depth. The choice of file formats would depend on the
final image quality required and the import capabilities of the authoring system. The most popular
file formats are:

1) BMP (Bitmap)

BMP is a standard Windows compatible computer. BMP formats supports RGB,

Indexed Color, Grey scale and Bitmap color modes, and does not support alpha channels.

2) JPEG (Joint Photographers Expert Group)

Joint Photographers Expert Group (JPEG) format is commonly used to display

photographs and other continuous-tone images in hypertext markup language (HTML)
documents over the World Wide Web and other online services.

3) GIF (Graphics Interchange Format)

Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) is the file format commonly used to display
indexed color graphics and images in hypertext markup language (HTML) document
over the World Wide Web and other online services.

4) TIFF (Tagged Image File Format)

Tagged Image File Format (TIFF) designed by Aldus Corporation and Microsoft in
1987, is used to exchange files between applications and computer platforms. TIFF is a
flexible bitmap image format supported by virtually all paint, image-editing and page
layout applications.

5) PNG (Portable Network Graphics)

Developed as a patent-free alternative to GIF, Portable Network Graphics (PNG)

format is used for lossless compression and for display of images on the World Wide Web.

6) PICT (Picture)

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PICT format is widely used among Mac OS graphics and page-layout applications as
an intermediatary file format for transferring images between applications. PICT format is
especially effective at compression images with large areas of solid color.

7) TGA (Targa)

Targa (TGA) format is designed for systems using the True vision video board and is
commonly supported by MS-DOS color applications. This format supports 24-bit RGB
images.

8) PSD (Photoshop Document)

Photoshop (PSD) format is a default file format used in the Adobe Photoshop
package and the only format supporting all available image modes.

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IMAGE OUTPUT ON MONITOR

The image pixels are actually strings of binary numbers and therefore may be referred to as logical
pixels. When the images are displayed on the monitor however, the logical pixels are directly mapped on to
the phosphor dots of the monitor, which may be referred to as physical pixels.

Dependence on Monitor Resolution

Let us consider an image having dimensions 1 inch by 1 inch and a resolution of

72ppi. Thus, the image is made up of 72 logical pixels horizontally and 72 logical pixels
vertically. The monitor resolution in this case is equal to the image resolution.

Let us consider an image to be rescanned at a high resolution of 144ppi. Thus, the

image is made up of 144 logical pixels. The monitor resolution is however unchanged at 72dpi.
The monitor resolution in this case is less to the image resolution.

On the other hand if the image resolution decreases to 30ppi, internally 1 inch of the
image will consist of 30 logical pixels. The monitor resolution in this case is more than the
image resolution and makes the image look smaller.

Dependence on Monitor Size

Let us consider a 15‖ monitor which displays 640 pixels horizontally and 480 pixels
vertically. An image with pixel dimensions of 640X480 would fill up the entire screen. If the
viewing mode of the 20‖ Monitor is increased to 800 by 600 then the image will occupy only a
portion of the screen as the available number of pixels is more than that required for displaying the
image.

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IMAGE OUTPUT ON PRINTER
Though there are a large variety of printers in the industry, two types are mostly used for printing
multimedia content: the LASER printer and the Inkjet printer. The number of dots printed per inch of the printed
page is called the printer resolution and expressed as dots per inch. Thus based on the final purpose the image
needs to be created or scanned at the appropriate resolution.

LASER Printer

The LASER printer was introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1984, based on technology developed by Canon. It
worked in a similar way to a photocopier, the difference being the light source. LASER printers quickly became
popular due the high quality of their print and low running costs.

Inkjet Printer
Inkjet printers, like LASER printers, employ a non-impact method meaning that there is no head or hammer
striking the paper to produce the print, like typewriters or the dot-matrix printer. Ink is emitted from nozzles as they
pass over a variety of possible media.

i) Thermal technology
Most inkjets use thermal technology, whereby heat is used to fire ink onto the paper. There
are three main stages with this method. The ink emission is initiatedby heating the ink to create a bubble until the
pressure forces it to burst and hit the paper. This is the method favored by Canon and Hewlett-Packard. This
imposes certain limitations on the printing process in that whatever type of ink is used, it must be resistant to heat
because the firing process is heat-based.

ii) Piezo-electric Technology

Epson‘s proprietary piezo-electric technology uses a piezo crystal at the back of the
ink reservoir. It uses the property of certain crystals that causes them to oscillate when subjected to electrical
pressure (voltage). There are several advantages to eh piezo method. This allows more freedom for
developing new chemical properties on ink.

iii) Inks

The ink is used in inkjet technology is water-based and this poses a few problems. Oil based ink is
not really a solution to the problem because it would impose a far higher maintenance cost on the hardware.
Printer manufacturers are making continual progress in the development of water-resistant inks, but the print
quality from inkjet printers are still weak compared to LASER printers.

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UNIT-III

SECTION A
1. TIFF stands for ________________..
2. ____________format is used to exchange files between application computer platforms.
3. Adjusting the space between the lines is called _____________.
4. Define text.
5. Antialiasing is also known as______________.
6. Define image.
7. Little decoration at the end of the letter is called a _________.
8. The number of pixels displayed per unit length is called as_______________.
9. CMS stands for___________.
10. The quality of scanned image is determined its _____________.
SECTION B
1. Give a brief account on device independent color model.
2. Describe the use of digital camera in multimedia.
3. Explain briefly the basic image types.
4. Write a short note on image processing software.
5. Explain the file format for text.
6. Write short notes on Scanner.
7. Write short notes on Digital camera.
8. List and explain the specification of digital images.
9. Discuss about various text insertion methods.
10. Explain the types of text.
SECTION C
1. Discuss in detail about the various image type and image file formats.
2. Explain the RGB color model in detail.
3. Describe in detail device independent color models.
4. Explain briefly about: a) Text compression b) Scanner.
5. What are the color models? Explain.
6. Explain the basic steps for image processing in detail with neat diagram.
7. Discuss in brief about the major text file formats.
8. List and explain the specification of digital images.
9. Discuss about various text insertion methods.
10. Explain the basic steps of image processing.
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UNIT-IV

AUDIO

After text, images and graphics the next element to be used extensively in multimedia is sound.
Sound is a form of energy capable of flowing from one place to another through a material medium.

ACOUSTICS

Acoustics is the interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of all mechanical waves in gases,
liquids, and solids including vibration, sound, ultrasound and infrasound.

A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician while someone working in the field
of acoustics technology may be called an acoustical or audio engineer. The application of acoustics can be
seen in almost all aspects of modern society with the most obvious being the audio and noise control
industries

NATURE OF SOUND WAVES

Sound is one kind of longitudinal wave, in which the particles oscillate to and fro in the same
direction of wave propagation. Sound waves cannot be transmitted through vacuum. The transmission of
sound requires at least a medium, which can be solid, liquid, or gas. Acoustics is the branch of science

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dealing with the study of sound and is concerned with the generation, transmission and reception of sound
waves. The application of acoustics in technology is called acoustical engineering.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND

Sound waves travel at great distances in a very short time, but as the distance increases the waves
tend to spread out. As the sound waves spread out, their energy simultaneously spreads through an
increasingly larger area. Thus, the wave energy becomes weaker as the distance from the source is
increased. Sounds may be broadly classified into two general groups. One group is NOISE, which includes
sounds such as the pounding of a hammer or the slamming of a door. The other group is musical sounds, or
TONES.

The distinction between noise and tone is based on the regularity of the vibrations, the degree of
damping, and the ability of the ear to recognize components having a musical sequence.

● Amplitude

Amplitude of wave is the maximum displacement of a particle in the path of a wave and is measure
of the peak- to – peak height of the wave.The physical manifestation of amplitude is the intensity of energy
of the wave.

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● Frequency

This measures the number of vibrations of a particle in the path of a wave. The physical
manifestation of frequency of a sound wave is the pitch of sound. A high pitched sound, like that of a
whistle, has higher frequency than a dull flat sound, like the sound of a drum. Frequency is measured in a
unit called Hertz and denoted by Hz.

● Waveform

A waveform is a graphic representation of a signal in the form of a wave. It can be both sinusoidal as well
as square, triangular shaped, etc., depending on the type of wave generating input. The waveform depends
on the properties that define the size and shape of the wave. The most familiar AC waveform is the sine
wave, which derives its name from the fact that the current or voltage varies with the sine of the elapsed
time.

These are the 4 types of wave forms. Sine, Square, Triangle and Sawtooth (Commonly referred to as a saw
wave). Sine waves are the only naturally occurring waves but thanks to technological innovations, sound
waves can be manipulated and changed entirely. Each are represented with different equations with some
of them being very complex. The waves above are exactly the same. They have the same period,
amplitude, wavelength and frequency, the only difference is their wave form.

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● Speed

A sound wave is also characterized by its speed.The speed of sound depends on the medium through
which the sound travels, and the temperature of the medium but not on the pressure.The speed is about 340
m/secin air and 1500 m/sec in water.

MICROPHONE

A microphone (colloquially called a mic or mike; both pronounced) is an acoustic-to-electric

transducer or sensor that converts sound into an electrical signal.

In 1876, Emile Berliner invented the first microphone used as a telephone voice transmitter.

Microphones are used in many applications such as telephones, tape recorders, karaoke systems,
hearing aids, motion picture production, live and recorded audio engineering, FRS radios, megaphones, in
radio and television broadcasting and in computers for recording voice, speech recognition, and for
non-acoustic purposes such as ultrasonic checking or knock sensors.

Most microphones today use electromagnetic induction (dynamic microphone), capacitance change
(condenser microphone), piezoelectric generation, or light modulation to produce an electrical voltage
signal from mechanical vibration.

A microphone is an example of a transducer, a device that changes information from one form to
another. Sound information exists as patterns of air pressure; the microphone changes this information into
patterns of electric current.

The recording engineer is interested in the accuracy of this transformation, a concept he thinks of as
fidelity.

A variety of mechanical techniques can be used in building microphones. The two most commonly
encountered in recording studios are the magneto-dynamic and the variable condenser designs.

The Dynamic Microphone.

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● In the magneto-dynamic, commonly called dynamic, microphone, sound waves cause

movement of a thin metallic diaphragm and an attached coil of wire.
● A magnet produces a magnetic field which surrounds the coil, and motion of the coil within
this field causes current to flow.
● The principles are the same as those that produce electricity at the utility company, realized
in a pocket-sized scale. It is important to remember that current is produced by the motion of
the diaphragm, and that the amount of current is determined by the speed of that motion.
● This kind of microphone is known as velocity sensitive.

The Condenser Microphone.

● In a condenser microphone, the diaphragm is mounted close to, but not touching, a rigid
backplate. (The plate may or may not have holes in it.)
● A battery is connected to both pieces of metal, which produces an electrical potential, or
charge, between them.
● The amount of charge is determined by the voltage of the battery, the area of the diaphragm
and backplate, and the distance between the two
● . This distance changes as the diaphragm moves in response to sound. When the distance
changes, current flows in the wire as the battery maintains the correct charge.
● The amount of current is essentially proportioinal to the displacement of the diaphragm, and
is so small that it must be electrically amplified before it leaves the microphone.
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Omnidirectional Microphone

● Since omnidirectional mics collect signals equally from all directions, their polar pattern is
perfectly circular.
● This model is often situated on a boom stand and held above the sound source.
○ If you want to record a focus group interview, you would ideally use an
omnidirectional microphone hanging down in the group's center.

Bidirectional Microphone

● These specialized mics gather audio simultaneously from two directions – from left and right
or front and back.
● This is evidenced by this model's polar pattern, which looks like a figure-eight.
● Bidirectional mics are suitable for recording two people facing each other, enabling them to
speak or sing directly into the mic from opposite sides.

Unidirectional Microphone

● A unidirectional microphone only records sounds coming from the front of it. Moreover,
they are less sensitive to sounds coming from the back or sides of the microphone.
● The signal pick-up pattern for this category is named “cardioid” due to its heart-shaped look.
These mics are ideal for isolating sounds while also minimizing background noise.

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AMPLIFIER

● Generally, an amplifier or simply amp is any device that changes, usually increases, the
amplitude of a signal.
● The relationship of the input to the output of an amplifier—usually expressed as a function
of the input frequency—is called the transfer function of the amplifier, and the magnitude of
the transfer function is termed the gain.
● In popular use, the term usually describes an electronic amplifier, in which the input "signal"
is usually a voltage or a current. In audio applications, amplifiers drive the loudspeakers used
in PA systems to make the human voice louder or play recorded music.
● Amplifiers may be classified according to
○ the input (source) they are designed to amplify (such as a guitar amplifier, to perform
with an electric guitar),
○ the device they are intended to drive (such as a headphone amplifier),
○ the frequency range of the signals (Audio, IF, RF, and VHF amplifiers, for example),
whether they invert the signal (inverting amplifiers and non-inverting amplifiers),
○ the type of device used in the amplification (valve or tube amplifiers, FET amplifiers,
etc.).
● A related device that emphasizes conversion of signals of one type to another (for example,
a light signal in photons to a DC signal in amperes) is a transducer, a transformer, or a
sensor. However, none of these amplify power.

CLASS A

○ The first and simplest solution would be to use a single transistor in linear mode Basically
the transistor must be biased to have a collector voltage close to VCC /2 when no signal is
applied on the input.
○ This enables the output signal to swing either above or below this quiescent voltage
depending on the input voltage polarity.

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● Figure 1—A Class-A amplifier can be built around a simple transistor. The transistor must be biased in so it stays
in the linear operating region (i.e., the transistor is always conducting).

○ This solution’s advantages are numerous: simplicity, no need for a bipolar power supply, and
excellent linearity as long as the output voltage doesn’t come too close to the power rails.
○ This solution is considered as the perfect reference for audio applications. But there is a
serious downside.
○ Because a continuous current flows through its collector, even without an input signal’s
presence, this implies poor efficiency. In fact, a basic Class-A amplifier’s efficiency is barely
more than 30%
CLASS B
○ How can you improve an amplifier’s efficiency? You want to avoid a continuous current
flowing in the output transistors as much as possible.
○ Class-B amplifiers use a pair of complementary transistors in a push-pull configuration .
○ The transistors are biased in such a way that one of the transistors conducts when the input
signal is positive and the other conducts when it is negative.
○ Both transistors never conduct at the same time, so there are very few losses. The current
always goes to the load…
○ A Class-B amplifier has more improved efficiency compared to a Class-A amplifier.
○ This is great, but there is a downside, right? The answer is unfortunately yes.
○ The downside is called crossover distortion

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Figure 2—Class-B amplifiers are usually built around a pair of complementary transistors (at left).

Each transistor conducts 50% of the time. This minimizes power losses, but at the expense of the crossover distortion at
each zero crossing.

CLASS AB
○ As its name indicates, Class-AB amplifiers are midway between Class A and Class B.
○ Have a look at the Class-B schematic shown in Figure 2.
○ If you slightly change the transistor’s biasing, it will enable a small current to continuously
flow through the transistors when no input is present. This current is not as high as what’s
needed for a Class-A amplifier.
○ However, this current would ensure that there will be a small overall current, around zero
crossing.
○ Only one transistor conducts when the input signal has a high enough voltage (positive or
negative), but both will conduct around 0 V.
○ Therefore, a Class-AB amplifier’s efficiency is better than a Class-A amplifier but worse
than a Class-B amplifier.
○ Moreover, a Class-AB amplifier’s linearity is better than a Class-B amplifier but not as good
as a Class-A amplifier.
○ These characteristics make Class-AB amplifiers a good choice for most low-cost designs…
CLASS C
○ There isn’t any Class-C audio amplifier Why? This is because a Class-C amplifier is highly
nonlinear.

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○ How can it be of any use?An RF(Radio frequency) signal is composed of a high-frequency
carrier with some modulation.
○ The resulting signal is often quite narrow in terms of frequency range. Moreover, a large
class of RF modulations doesn’t modify the carrier signal’s amplitude.For example, with a
frequency or a phase modulation, the carrier peak-to-peak voltage is always stable.
○ In such a case, it is possible to use a nonlinear amplifier and a simple band-pass filter to
recover the signal.
○ A Class-C amplifier can have good efficiency as there are no lossy resistors anywhere.
○ It goes up to 60% or even 70%, which is good for high-frequency designs. Moreover, only
one transistor is required, which is a key cost reduction when using expensive RF transistors.
○ So there is a high probability that your garage door remote control is equipped with a
Class-C RF amplifier.
CLASS D
○ Class D is currently the best solution for any low-cost, high-power, low-frequency
amplifier—particularly for audio applications.
○ First, a PWM (Pulse-width modulation ) encoder is used to convert the input signal from
analog to a one-bit digital format.
○ This could be easily accomplished with a sawtooth generator and a voltage comparator as
shown in Figure 3.
○ This section’s output is a digital signal with a duty cycle proportional to the input’s voltage.
If the input signal comes from a digital source (e.g., a CD player, a digital radio, a computer
audio board, etc.) then there is no need to use an analog signal anywhere.
○ In that case, the PWM signal can be directly generated in the digital domain, avoiding any
quality loss….
○ As you may have guessed, Class-D amplifiers aren’t free from difficulties.
○ First, as for any sampling architecture, the PWM frequency must be significantly higher than
the input signal’s highest frequency to avoid aliasing….
○ The second concern with Class-D amplifiers is related to electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC)…

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Figure 3—A Class-D amplifier is a type of digital amplifier.

The comparator’s output is a PWM signal, which is amplified by a pair of low-loss digital switches. All the magic
happens in the output filter.

CLASS E and F

○ Remember that Class C is devoted to RF amplifiers, using a transistor conducting only

during a part of the signal period and a filter.
○ Class E is an improvement to this scheme, enabling even greater efficiencies up to 80% to
90%. How? Remember that with a Class-C amplifier, the losses only occur in the output
transistor.
○ This is because the other parts are capacitors and inductors, which theoretically do not
dissipate any power. Because power is voltage multiplied by current, the power dissipated in
the transistor would be null if either the voltage or the current was null.
○ This is what Class-E amplifiers try to do: ensure that the output transistor never has a
simultaneously high voltage across its terminals and a high current going through it

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LOUDSPEAKER

A loudspeaker (or "speaker") is an electro acoustic transducer that converts an electrical signal into
sound. The speaker moves in accordance with the variations of an electrical signal and causes sound waves
to propagate through a medium such as air or water.

After the acoustics of the listening space, loudspeakers (and other electro acoustic transducers) are
the most variable elements in a modern audio system and are usually responsible for most distortion and
audible differences when comparing sound systems

Dynamic Loudspeaker

The most common type of driver, commonly called a dynamic loudspeaker, uses a lightweight
diaphragm, or cone, connected to a rigid basket, or frame, via a flexible suspension, commonly called a
spider, that constrains a voice coil to move axially through a cylindrical magnetic gap. A protective dust
cap glued in the cone's center prevents dust.

Woofers and Tweeters

Since the audio signal is broken up into different frequency ranges to be sent to different speakers, it
only makes sense that the speakers be designed to handle those frequency ranges. That’s where woofers
and tweeters come in.

A woofer is a speaker designed for low-frequency sounds and a tweeter is a speaker designed for
high-frequency sounds.

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WOOFERS

● At a glance, the main difference between woofers and tweeters is that the woofers are a lot
larger than the tweeters.
● A good woofer might be 12 inches in diameter or more. There are a couple of reasons for
that. First of all, the speaker has to move slower and the diaphragm (the speaker cone) has to
move farther to create the sound wave.
● Secondly, the speaker must produce a higher volume of sound, as low frequency sound
waves don’t travel as well as high frequency ones do and are much more likely to dissipate
and be absorbed by surfaces they come into contact with.
● The speaker enclosure and the woofer interact with each other; so the speaker enclosure is
usually designed specifically to match the woofer.
● There are several types of designs, but the two basic categories are a sealed enclosure and a
ported enclosure.
● Sealed enclosures try to trap the sound coming off the back side of the speaker, providing the
cleanest, crispest bass sound. However, the sound volume is lower.
● Ported speakers are designed to allow that sound to escape, adding to the volume.
● However, the sound coming off the back of the speaker is 180 degrees out of phase with that
coming off the front of the speaker. That can cause the sound waves to cancel each other out.
● However, the extra distance that the sound waves coming off the back of the speaker have to
travel prevents that.
● Instead, the sound becomes less distinct and “muddy” due to the phase shift between the two
sets of sound waves.
● Tuned ports are used on some speaker enclosures.
● These ports are created to a specific size, so that they will cause the sound to reach the area
in front of the speaker exactly one cycle later than the sound coming off the front of the
speaker.
● While this still creates distortion, it is less than that caused by an unturned port.

TWEETERS

● Tweeters do not interact with their cabinets at all, and at times are used without a cabinet.

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● While the construction is similar to a standard electromagnetic speaker, they usually use a
dome-shaped diaphragm in place of a speaker cone. These are referred to as “dome
tweeters.”
● This diaphragm can either be made of plastic, plastic impregnated silk, aluminum or
titanium. Each material type produces its own unique sound characteristics.
● Since tweeters are extremely small, they don’t produce a lot of volume. To help this, many
are attached to a horn.
● This horn resonates or vibrates with the tweeter, mechanically amplifying the sound that it
produces, in much the same way that a trumpet or other brass instrument amplifies the
buzzing of the musician’s lips.

MIDRANGE

● As previously mentioned, some speaker systems use three or more speakers. In those cases,
midrange speakers are attached to each of the band-filters.
● A midrange speaker is essentially the same in appearance as a full-range speaker or woofer.
● The major difference is that s midrange speaker will not be as big as a woofer, but only about
5 to 8 inches in diameter.

AUDIO MIXER

● In professional studios multiple microphones may be used to record multiple tracks of sound
at a time. Example recording performance of an orchestra.
● A device called an audio mixer is used to record these individual tracks and edit them
separately Each of these tracks a number of controls for adjusting the volume, tempo, mute
etc.,
● An audio mixer is a device with the primary function to accept, combine, process and
monitor audio.
● Mixers are primarily used in four types of environments: live (at a concert), in a recording
studio, for broadcast audio, and for film/television. An audio mixer can come in either
analog or digital form.

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DIGITAL AUDIO

Digital audio is created when a sound wave is converted into numbers – a process referred to as
digitizing. It is possible to digitize sound from a microphone, a synthesizer, existing tape recordings, live
radio and television broadcasts, and popular CDs.

Digitized sound is sampled sound. Every nth fraction of a second, a sample of sound is taken and
stored as digital information in bits and bytes. The quality of this digital recording depends upon how
often the samples are taken.

Sampling Rate

● An analog signal consists on an electric signal changing during the time.

● A signal represented in a time domain, on the oscilloscope screen. The same signal, as
represented and archived in a wave file, like a points of values sequence
● A signal represented in a time domain, on the oscilloscope screen. The same signal, as
represented and archived in a wave file, like a points of values sequence
● When the analog signal is converted into a digital signal, it becomes a list of numbers, or
bits. The number of bits is called "encoding".A value measuring is done at regular time
intervals. Hence, a sound file hasa header, where are reported samples number, bit and
sample rate a header,a series of numbers
● The sampling rate (SR) is the number of times a signal is read in a second (usually, 44100 or
48000 times).As a signal is sample n times in a second, the signal is sampled every 1/n
seconds

Aliasing

● Aliasing is an undesirable effect that is seen in sampled systems.

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● When the input frequency is greater than half the sample frequency, the sampled points do
not adequately represent the input signal. Inputs at these higher frequencies are observed at a
lower, aliased frequency.

Bit Rate and File Size

● Bitrate is the number of bits (or data) that are processed per unit of time.
● The average bitrate for an MP3 file is 128 kbits per second or kbps. A file created at this bitrate
should have good quality and takes up about 1 Megabytes of data per minute of audio.
● Different bitrates yield varying sound quality.
● The higher the bitrate, the more times per second the original sound is sampled, thus yielding a
more authentic reproduction and better sound.

Size per Minute Comparison

Bitrate (kilobits per Format Megabytes per

second) Minute

320 MP3 3.0 MB

192 MP3 1.8 MB

160 MP3 1.5 MB

128 MP3 1.0 MB

Audio Streaming

● A technology that lets continuous streaming of audio files like music, podcasts, voice-overs,
lectures, etc. over the internet is Audio streaming.

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● The primary advantage of audio streaming lies in the privilege to listen to the audio without
downloading.
● The audio streaming is put into small packets of data as it arrives and with an initial
buffering for a few seconds, it transitions to playback.
● As the audio gets continuously played, more audio packets simultaneously arrive on the
device and the audio playback happens without any disruptions.

High fidelity

● High fidelity (often shortened to Hi-Fi or HiFi) is the high-quality reproduction of sound. It
is popular with audiophiles and home audio enthusiasts.
● Ideally, high-fidelity equipment has inaudible noise and distortion, and a flat (neutral,
uncolored) frequency response within the human hearing range.
● High fidelity contrasts with the lower-quality sound produced by inexpensive audio
equipment, AM (Amplitude Modulation) radio, or the inferior quality of sound reproduction
that can be heard in recordings made until the late 1940s.
● Music files that have a higher sample rate and/or bit depth than CDs are what high fidelity
audio is considered to be.
● CDs have a sample rate of 44.1 KHz and a 16-bit bit depth, so as long as at least one of these
numbers is higher than those of a CD, audio is considered to be hi-fi.

SYNTHESIZER
Synthesizers are used for the composition of electronic music and in live performance. The intricate
apparatus of the sound synthesizer generates wave forms and then subjects them to alteration in intensity,
duration, frequency, and timbre, as selected by the composer or musician.
Types of Synthesizer
Subtractive synthesis: This uses complex waveforms which are generated by oscillators
and shaped by filters which either boost or remove frequencies to tweak a final sound signal.
Additive synthesis: Additive uses a large number of waveforms and combines them into a
cohesive sound. These are usually made up of sine waves.

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Frequency modulation synthesis: Often acronymized into FM, this method modulates
waveforms with the frequency of others. These waveforms can then be used to modulate other
waveforms and so on the cycle goes.
Wavetable synthesis: These synthesizers modulate between digital representations of
different waves to change their shape and timbre.

Characteristics Of Synthesizers

● Polyphony

The polyphony of a sound generator refers to its ability to play more than one note at a time.
Polyphony is generally measured or specified as a number of notes or voices. Most of the early music
synthesizers were monophonic, meaning that they could only play one note at a time. If you pressed five
keys simultaneously on the keyboard of a monophonic synthesizer, you would only hear one note. Pressing
five keys on the keyboard of a synthesizer which was polyphonic with four voices of polyphony would, in
general, produce four notes. If the keyboard had more voices (many modern sound modules have 16, 24,
or 32 note polyphony), then you would hear all five of the notes.

● Sounds
The different sounds that a synthesizer or sound generator can produce are sometimes called
"patches", "programs", "algorithms", or "timbres". Programmable synthesizers commonly assign "program
numbers" (or patch numbers) to each sound. For instance, a sound module might use patch number 1 for
its acoustic piano sound, and patch number 36 for its fretless bass sound. The association of all patch
numbers to all sounds is often referred to as a patch map. Via MIDI, a Program Change message is used to
tell a device receiving on a given Channel to change the instrument sound being used. For example, a
sequencer could set up devices on Channel 4 to play fretless bass sounds by sending a Program Change
message for Channel four with a data byte value of 36 (this is the General MIDI program number for the
fretless bass patch).

● Multitimbral Mode

A synthesizer or sound generator is said to be multitimbral if it is capable of producing two or more

different instrument sounds simultaneously. If a synthesizer can play five notes simultaneously, and it can
produce a piano sound and an acoustic bass sound at the same time, then it is multitimbral. With enough
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notes of polyphony and "parts" (multitimbral) a single synthesizer could produce the entire sound of a
band or orchestra.

Multitimbral operation will generally require the use of a sequencer to send the various MIDI
messages required. For example, a sequencer could send MIDI messages for a piano part on Channel 1,
bass on Channel 2, saxophone on Channel 3, drums on Channel 10, etc. A 16 part multitimbral synthesizer
could receive a different part on each of MIDI's 16 logical channels.

The polyphony of a multitimbral synthesizer is usually allocated dynamically among the different
parts (timbres) being used. At any given instant five voices might be needed for the piano part, two voices
for the bass, one for the saxophone, plus 6 voices for the drums. Note that some sounds on some
synthesizers actually utilize more than one "voice", so the number of notes which may be produced
simultaneously may be less than the stated polyphony of the synthesizer, depending on which sounds are
being utilized.

MIDI

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a communication standard developed for

electronic musical instruments and computers.

MIDI files allow music and sound synthesizers from different manufacturers to communicate with
each other by sending messages along cables connected to the devices.

What is MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface)?

● Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) is a standard to transmit and store music,
originally designed for digital music synthesizers. MIDI does not transmit recorded sounds.
Instead, it includes musical notes, timings and pitch information, which the receiving device
uses to play music from its own sound library.
● The MIDI keyboard is also useful to simply the creation of musical scores. An advantage
of structured data such as MIDI is the ease with which the music director can edit the data.
● A MIDI file format is used in the following circumstances :
● Digital audio will not work due to memory constraints and more processing power
requirements When there is high quality of MIDI source When there is no requirement for
dialogue.

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A digital audio file format is preferred in the following circumstances.

● When there is no control over the playback hardware

● When the computing resources and the bandwidth requirements are high.
● When dialogue is required.

The MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA)

➔ MIDI Manufacturers association

➔ The MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA) is a non-profit trade organization
➔ Where companies work together to create MIDI standards
➔ MMA + JMSC(Japan MIDI Standard Committee)
➔ That assure compatibility among MIDI products.
➔ The MMA is a U.S. organization established in 1985
➔ Since 1985 the MMA has produced
➔ 11 new Products
➔ 38 sets of improvements to existing MIDI specification.

MIDI specifications

1.Hardware

Makes use of special five conductor cable.To connect synthesizer portsThe spec defines a maximum cable
length of 50 feet (15 meters).

2.MIDI messages:

Classification of MIDI messages:

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● A MIDI event that carries the MIDI note on message tells a MIDI device that at a certain time
some note should be played and should start sounding. This message belongs to the category of
MIDI voice messages.
● Velocity indicates how hard the key was struck when the note was played, which usually
corresponds to the note's loudness (the MIDI velocity range is from 0–127, with 127 being the
loudest).
● Channel messages are those which apply to a specific Channel, and the Channel number is
included in the status byte for these messages.Channel Messages may be further classified as being
either Channel Voice Messages, or Mode Messages. Channel Voice Messages carry musical
performance data, and these messages comprise most of the traffic in a typical MIDI data stream.
Channel Mode messages affect the way a receiving instrument will respond to the Channel Voice
messages.

3.MIDI File Formats:

MIDI files store the list of a large number of musical instruments. It also provides the list of each of
the notes any instrument will play and indicates for each one how loud it is, what pitch and how long it
will last. Then using several pure-tone generators called oscillators. The Standard MIDI File Format is
AIFF, RIFF, SND, ROL, SUN Audio and VOC.

In a specialized FM-synthesis microprocessor chip, it is possible to produce any musical note you might
imagine, nearly the way it would sound if it had been played on one of those instruments. Every MPC has
got a frequency modulation (FM) MIDI synthesizer built-in, ready to play the sounds indicated by such a
file.
1. Audio Interchange File Format (AIFF): It is used by Machintosh, IBM compatibles, and Silicon
Graphics machines. It also supports up to 32-bit resolution.
2. Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF): It is developed by Microsoft and contains both digital audio
and MIDI data.
3. SND: It is developed by Apple and supports only 8-bit resolution.
4. ROL: It stores MIDI-like data and Yamaha FM-synthesizer information.
5. Sun Audio: It is a 16-bit compressed audio format used by Sun Microsystems workstations. It is also
used on the Internet.
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6. VOC: It is developed for the Creative Sound Blaster Audio Card. It also supports up to 16-bit resolution.
● The MIDI Format

The MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a format for sending music information between
electronic music devices like synthesizers and PC sound cards.

● The MIDI format was developed in 1982 by the music industry.

● The MIDI format is very flexible and can be used for everything from very simple to real
professional music making.
● MIDI files do not contain sampled sound, but a set of digital musical instructions
● (musical notes) that can be interpreted by your PC's sound card.
● The downside of MIDI is that it cannot record sounds (only notes). Or, to put it another way:
It cannot store songs, only tunes.
● The upside of the MIDI format is that since it contains only instructions (notes), MIDI files
can be extremely small. The example above is only 23K in size but it plays for nearly 5
minutes.
● The MIDI format is supported by many different software systems over a large range of
platforms.
● MIDI files are supported by all the most popular Internet browsers.
● Sounds stored in the MIDI format

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BASIC OF STAFF NOTATION

Staff notation

In Western musical notation, the staff or stave is a set of five horizontal lines and four spaces
that each represent a different musical pitch or in the case of a percussion staff, different percussion
instruments.

Notes

○ Circles, dots, and lines are all called notes. In music, we use notes for two main purposes:
○ Notes give us information about the pitches we will be playing. Notes that are higher up on
the staff sound higher in pitch and notes that are lower on the staff are lower in pitch.
○ Any type of notes can be in any position on the staff.
○ Notes give us information about the duration of the pitches we will play in a given piece of
music. Musicians use a combination of open and closed circles with and without lines
attached to them to communicate these different durations.

Quarter note symbol

Clef

○ A clef (from French: clef 'key') is a musical symbol used to indicate which notes are
represented by the lines and spaces on a musical stave.
○ Placing a clef on a stave assigns a particular pitch to one of the five lines, which defines the
pitches on the remaining lines and spaces.
○ The three clef symbols used in modern music notation are the G-clef, F-clef, and C-clef.
Placing these clefs on a line fixes a reference note to that line—an F-clef fixes the F below
middle C, a C-clef fixes middle C, and a G-clef fixes the G above middle C.

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Sharp

● More specifically, in musical notation, sharp means "higher in pitch by one semitone (half
step)".
● Sharp is the opposite of flat, which is a lowering of pitch.
● A sharp symbol, ♯, is used in key signatures or as an accidental.
● For instance, the music below has a key signature with three sharps (indicating either A
major or F♯ minor, the relative minor) and the note, A♯, has a sharp accidental.

Flat

● In music, flat (Italian bemolle for "soft B") means "lower in pitch".
● Flat is the opposite of sharp, which is a raising of pitch.
● In musical notation, flat means "lower in pitch by one semitone (half step)", notated using
the symbol ♭ which is derived from a stylised lowercase 'b'.

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SOUND CARD

● A sound card (also known as an audio card) is an internal computer expansion card that
facilitates the input and output of audio signals to and from a computer under control of
computer programs.
● The term sound card is also applied to external audio interfaces that use software to generate
sound, as opposed to using hardware inside the PC.
● Typical uses of sound cards include providing the audio component for multimedia
applications such as music composition, editing video or audio, presentation, education and
entertainment (games) and video projection.
● Many computers have sound capabilities built in, while others require additional expansion
cards to provide for audio capability.
● Sound cards usually feature a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), which converts recorded or
generated digital data into an analog format.
● The output signal is connected to an amplifier, headphones, or external device using standard
interconnects, such as a TRS connector or an RCA connector.
● If the number and size of connectors is too large for the space on the backplate the
connectors will be off-board, typically using a breakout box, or an auxiliary backplate.
● More advanced cards usually include more than one sound chip to provide for higher data
rates and multiple simultaneous functionality, for example digital production of synthesized
sounds (usually for real-time generation of music and sound effects using minimal data and
CPU time).
● Digital sound reproduction is usually done with multichannel DACs, which are capable of
simultaneous digital samples at different pitches and volumes and application of real-time
effects, like filtering or distortion. Multichannel digital sound playback can also be used for
music synthesis, when used with a compliance[clarification needed]
, and even multiple-channel
emulation. This approach has become common as manufacturers seek simpler and lower-cost
sound cards.
● Most sound cards have a line in connector for an input signal from a cassette tape or other
sound source that has higher voltage levels than a microphone. The sound card digitizes this
signal and stores it (under control of appropriate matching computer software) on the
computer's hard disk for storage, editing, or further processing.

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● Another common external connector is the microphone connector, for signals from a
microphone or other low-level input device.
● Input through a microphone jack can be used, for example, by speech recognition or voice
over IP applications.

Basic components of sound card

● Memory banks for storing audio data during digitization and playback of sound files
● DSP (Digital Signal Processor) gives the sound card ability to perform functions like digital
filtering, anti-aliasing, noise shaping and compression
● DAC / ADC (Digital-to-Analog Converter, Analog-to-Digital Converter) for digitizing
analog sound and reconverting digital sound files to analog form for playback
● Sound Card Input Ports: MIC, Line In for feeding audio data to the sound card through a
microphone connected to it; for feeding audio data from external CD players for recording or
playback
● Output Ports: Speakers, Line Out for attaching speakers for playback of sound files; for
connecting to external recording devices or an external amplifier
● MIDI Input Port for interfacing with an external synthesizer. Using this connection, MIDI
songs can be composed on the PC using software and then can be sent to the sound modules
of external synthesizers for playback.

Audio File Formats

MP3 (MPEG - Audio Layer 3) WAV (Waveform format)

● Open standard technology

● Uses file compression to create near-CD quality audio files
● WAV (Waveform format)
● for Windows platform
● Real formats (RA, RAM, RM)
● for streaming audio
● WMA (Windows Media Audio)
● Developed by Microsoft

3 ASF (Advanced Systems Format)

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● Formerly known as Advanced Streaming Format
● Mircosoft’s proprietary format for streaming
● Stores audio and video information
● Specially designed to run on networks
● Content is delivered to users as continuous flow of data; little waiting time will be experienced
before playback begins
● AIFF or AIF (Audio Interchange File Format)
● Macintosh waveform format

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface):

● Internationally accepted file format for storing MIDI data

● Provides instructions on how to replay music; does not record the waveform (MIDI data is not
digital audio)
● Files of MIDI format are often smaller than those of most other audio file formats
● If spoken dialog is needed, digital audio should be used instead

AUDIO TRANSMISSION
● Audio file format
An audio file format is a file format for storing digital audio data on a computer system. This data
can be stored uncompressed, or compressed to reduce the file size.

It can be a raw bitstream, but it is usually a container format or an audio data format with defined
storage layer.

● Types of formats

It is important to distinguish between a file format and an audio codec. A codec performs the
encoding and decoding of the raw audio data while the data itself is stored in a file with a specific audio
file format.

Although most audio file formats support only one type of audio data (created with an audio
coder), a multimedia container format (as Matroska or AVI) may support multiple types of audio and video
data.
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There are three major groups of audio file formats:

● Uncompressed audio formats, such as WAV, AIFF, AU or raw header-less PCM;

● Formats with lossless compression, such as FLAC, Monkey's Audio (filename extension
APE), WavPack (filename extension WV), TTA, ATRAC Advanced Lossless, Apple
Lossless (filename extension m4a), MPEG-4 SLS, MPEG-4 ALS, MPEG-4 DST, Windows
Media Audio Lossless (WMA Lossless) , and Shorten (SHN).
● Formats with lossy compression, such as MP3, Vorbis, Musepack, AAC, ATRAC and
Windows Media Audio Lossy (WMA lossy) ).

Uncompressed audio formats

● There is one major uncompressed audio format, PCM, which is usually stored in a .wav file on
Windows or in a .aiff file on Mac OS.
● The AIFF format is based on the Interchange File Format (IFF).
● The WAV format is based on the Resource Interchange File Format (RIFF), which is similar to IFF.
WAV and AIFF are flexible file formats designed to store more or less any combination of sampling
rates or bitrates.
● This makes them suitable file formats for storing and archiving an original recording.
● BWF (Broadcast Wave Format) is a standard audio format created by the European Broadcasting
Union as a successor to WAV.
● BWF allows metadata to be stored in the file. See European Broadcasting Union: Specification of
the Broadcast Wave Format (EBU Technical document 3285, July 1997). This is the primary
recording format used in many professional audio workstations in the television and film industry.
● BWF files include a standardized timestamp reference which allows for easy synchronization with
a separate picture element. Stand-alone, file based, multi-track recorders from Sound Devices,
Zaxcom, HHB USA, Fostex, and Aaton all use BWF as their preferred format.
● The .cda (Compact Disk Audio Track) is a small file that serves as a shortcut to the audio data for a
track on a music CD. It does not contain audio data and is therefore not considered to be a proper
audio file format.

Lossless compressed audio formats

● A lossless compressed format stores data in less space by eliminating unnecessary data.

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● Uncompressed audio formats encode both sound and silence with the same number of bits
per unit of time. Encoding an uncompressed minute of absolute silence produces a file of the
same size as encoding an uncompressed minute of music.
● In a lossless compressed format, however, the music would occupy a smaller portion of the
file and the silence would take up almost no space at all.
● Lossless compression formats enable the original uncompressed data to be recreated exactly.
They include the common[5] FLAC, WavPack, Monkey's Audio, ALAC (Apple Lossless).
● They provide a compression ratio of about 2:1 (i.e. their files take up half the space of the
originals). Development in lossless compression formats aims to reduce processing time
while maintaining a good compression ratio.

Lossy compressed audio formats

● Lossy compression enables even greater reductions in file size by removing some of the data.
Lossy compression typically achieves far greater compression but somewhat reduced quality
than lossless compression by simplifying the complexities of the data.
● A variety of techniques are used, mainly by exploiting psychoacoustics, to remove data with
minimal reduction in the quality of reproduction. For many everyday listening situations, the
loss in data (and thus quality) is imperceptible.
● The popular MP3 format is probably the best-known example, but the AAC format found on
the iTunes Music Store is also common.
● Most formats offer a range of degrees of compression, generally measured in bit rate. The
lower the rate, the smaller the file and the more significant the quality loss.

CODEC
● A codec is a device or computer program capable of encoding or decoding a digital data
stream or signal. The word codec is a portmanteau of "compressor-decompressor" or, more
commonly, "coder-decoder".
● A codec (the program) should not be confused with a coding or compression format or
standard – a format is a document (the standard), a way of storing data, while a codec is a
program (an implementation) which can read or write such files. In practice "codec" is
sometimes used loosely to refer to formats, however.

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● A codec encodes a data stream or signal for transmission, storage or encryption, or decodes it
for playback or editing.
● Codecs are used in videoconferencing, streaming media and video editing applications.
● A video camera's analog-to-digital converter (ADC) converts its analog signals into digital
signals, which are then passed through a video compressor for digital transmission or
storage.
● A receiving device then runs the signal through a video decompressor, then a
digital-to-analog converter (DAC) for analog display.
● The term codec is also used as a generic name for a video conferencing unit.

Media codecs
● Codecs are often designed to emphasize certain aspects of the media, or their use, to be
encoded. For example, a digital video (using a DV codec) of a sports event needs to encode
motion well but not necessarily exact colors, while a video of an art exhibit needs to perform
well encoding color and surface texture.
● Audio codecs for cell phones need to have very low latency between source encoding and
playback; while audio codecs for recording or broadcast can use high-latency audio
compression techniques to achieve higher fidelity at a lower bit-rate.
● There are thousands of audio and video codecs ranging in cost from free to hundreds of
dollars or more. This variety of codecs can create compatibility and obsolescence issues. The
impact is lessened for older formats, for which free or nearly-free codecs have existed for a
long time.
● The older formats are often ill-suited to modern applications, however, such as playback in
small portable devices. For example, raw uncompressed PCM audio (44.1 kHz, 16 bit stereo,
as represented on an audio CD or in a .wav or .aiff file) has long been a standard across
multiple platforms, but its transmission over networks is slow and expensive compared with
more modern compressed formats, such as MP3.
● Many multimedia data streams contain both audio and video, and often some metadata that
permit synchronization of audio and video.
● Each of these three streams may be handled by different programs, processes, or hardware;
but for the multimedia data streams to be useful in stored or transmitted form, they must be
encapsulated together in a container format.

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● Lower bitrate codecs allow more users, but they also have more distortion.
● Beyond the initial increase in distortion, lower bit rate codecs also achieve their lower bit
rates by using more complex algorithms that make certain assumptions, such as those about
the media and the packet loss rate.
● Other codecs may not make those same assumptions. When a user with a low bitrate codec
talks to a user with another codec, additional distortion is introduced by each transcoding.

Audio format defines the quality and loss of audio data. Based on application different type of audio
format are used. Audio formats are broadly divided into three parts:

1. Uncompressed Format
2. Lossy Compressed format
3. Lossless Compressed Format
1. Uncompressed Audio Format:
● PCM –
It stands for Pulse-Code Modulation. It represents raw analog audio signals in digital form. To
convert analog signal into digital signal it has to be recorded at a particular interval. Hence it has
sampling rate and bit rate (bits used to represent each sample). It a exact representation of the
analog sound and do not involve compression. It is the most common audio format used in CDs
and DVDs
● WAV –
It stands for Waveform Audio File Format, it was developed by Microsoft and IBM in 1991. It is
just a Windows container for audio formats. That means that a WAV file can contain compressed
audio. Most WAV files contain uncompressed audio in PCM format. It is just a wrapper. It is
compatible with both Windows and Mac.
● AIFF –
It stands for Audio Interchange File Format. It was developed by Apple for Mac systems in
1988. Like WAV files, AIFF files can contain multiple kinds of audio. It contain uncompressed
audio in PCM format. It is just a wrapper for the PCM encoding. It is compatible with both
Windows and Mac.
2. Lossy Compressed Format:

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It is a form of compression that loses data during the compression process. But difference in quality no
noticeable to hear.

● MP3 –
It stands for MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3. It was released in 1993 and became popular. It is most
popular audio format for music files. Main aim of MP3 is to remove all those sounds which not
hearable or less noticeable by humans ears. Hence making size of music file small. MP3 is like
universal format which is compatible almost every device.
● AAC –
It stands for Advanced Audio Coding. It was developed in 1997 after MP3.The compression
algorithm used by AAC is much more complex and advanced than MP3, so when compared a
particular audio file in MP3 and AAC formats at the same bitrate, the AAC one will generally
have better sound quality. It is the standard audio compression method used by YouTube,
Android, iOS, iTunes, and PlayStations.
● WMA –
It stands for Windows Media Audio. It was released in 1999.It was designed to remove some of
the flaws of the MP3 compression method. In terms of quality it is better than MP3. But is not
widely used.
3. Lossless compression:

This method reduces file size without any loss in quality. But is not as good as lossy compression as the
size of file compressed to lossy compression is 2 and 3 times more.

● FLAC –
It stands for Free Lossless Audio Codec. It can compress a source file by up to 50% without
losing data. It is most popular in its category and is open-source.
● ALAC –
It stands for Apple Lossless Audio Codec. It was launched in 2004 and became free after 2011.
It was developed by Apple.
● WMA –
It stands for Windows Media Audio. But it is least efficient in term of compression and is not
open-source. It has limited hardware support.

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AUDIO RECORDING SYSTEMS

A "digital audio recording device" is any machine or device of a type commonly distributed to
individuals for use by individuals, whether or not included with or as part of some other machine or
device, the digital recording function of which is designed or marketed for the primary purpose of, and that
is capable of, making a digital audio copied recording for private use. he definition of "digital audio
recording medium" is similar:

A "digital audio recording medium" is any material object in a form commonly distributed for use
by individuals, that is primarily marketed or most commonly used by consumers for the purpose of making
digital audio copied recordings by use of a digital audio recording device

Dolby Systems

● Dolby Volume is an advanced digital signal processing technology for controlling

playback volume.
● No more jarring transitions
● . No need to turn up the volume for softly spoken dialogue and background sounds.
● Types
○ Dolby Digital EX,
○ Dolby Digital Live,
○ Dolby Digital Plus,
○ Dolby Digital Surround EX,
○ Dolby Digital Recording,
○ Dolby Digital Cinema,
○ Dolby Digital Stereo Creator
○ Dolby Digital 5.1 Creator.

Digital Theater System(DTS)

● DTS, Inc. (originally Digital Theater Systems) is an American company, DTS company makes
multichannel audio technologies for film and video.
● Digital Theatre System (Digital cinema, or d-cinema) is perhaps the most significant challenge to
the cinema industry since the introduction of sound on film.

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● As with any new technology, there are those who want to do it fast, and those who want to do it
right. Both points of view are useful.
● This new technology will completely replace the conventional theatre system having projectors,
film boxes, low quality picture, sound system.
● Let's not forget the lesson learned with the introduction of digital audio for film in the '90s.
● Cinema Digital Sound, a division of Optical Radiation Corporation, was the first to put digital audio
on 35mm film. Very, very few remember CDS, who closed their doors long ago. Such are the
rewards for being first.
● In the initial trial stage, the server used for storage and play out was a QuBit unit, manufactured by
QuVis.
○ The QuVis server is loaded with the digital movie from either discs or tape, compressed with
a proprietary wavelet compression algorithm.
○ Data is scrambled on the hard drive for protection. But digital image data sent to the
projector was not protected.
○ For early trial systems, no one seemed too concerned about the potential security risks of
these systems, given that it would take a knowledgeable person and a very expensive
recorder to pirate the movie.

AUDIO AND MULTIMEDIA

○ Multimedia content on the Web, by its definition - including or involving the use of several
media - would seem to be inherently accessible or easily made accessible.
○ However, if the information is audio, such as a RealAudio feed from a news conference or
the proceedings in a courtroom, a person who is deaf or hard of hearing cannot access that
content unless provision is made for a visual presentation of audio content.
○ Similarly, if the content is pure video, a blind person or a person with severe vision loss will
miss the message without the important information in the video being described.

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●
○ Descriptive video or described video intersperses explanations of important video with the
normal audio of a multimedia presentation. These descriptions are also called audio
descriptions.

Types of Audio in a Presentation

● We can add audio, such as music, narration, or sound bites, to your PowerPoint
presentation.
● To record and hear any audio, your computer must be equipped with a sound card,
microphone, and speakers.
● To add music or other audio clip to your slide show, select the slide you want and click
Insert > Audio.
● Sound formats that work with PowerPoint include: . wav, . mp3., . wma, .

Reasons for using audio in multimedia

● it helps deliver information,

● it increases the production value
● it evokes emotional responses,
● it emphasises what's on the screen and is used to indicate mood.
● When put to good use, language, sound effects, music, and even silence, can elevate your video
dramatically.

Suggestions for using audio in multimedia

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● Remember the basics. ...
● Know your equipment. ...
● Focus on the big stuff first. ...
● Minimize noise. ...
● Always monitor sound. ...
● Use sound to add detail. ...
● Vary the loudness of audio. ...
● Use layers to create richer sound.

VOICE RECOGNITION AND RESPONSE

● Voice recognition and voice response promise to be the easiest method of providing a user
interface for data entry and conversational computing, since speech is the easiest, most
natural means of human communication.
● Voice input and output of data have now become technologically and economically feasible
for a variety of applications.
● Voice recognition systems analyze and classify speech or vocal tract patterns and convert
them into digital codes for entry into a computer system. Most voice recognition systems
require "training" the computer to recognize a limited vocabulary of standard words for each
user.
● Operators train the system to recognize their voices by repeating each word in the
vocabulary about 10 times. Trained systems regularly achieve a 99 percent plus word
recognition rate.
● Speaker-independent voice recognition systems, which allow a computer to understand a
voice it has never heard before, are used in a limited number of applications.
● Voice recognition devices are used in work situations where operators need to perform data
entry without using their hands to key in data or instructions, or where it would Cartier
Replica provide faster and more accurate input.
● For example, voice recognition systems are being used by manufacturers for the inspection,
inventory, and quality control of a variety of products, and by airlines and parcel delivery
companies for voice-directed sorting of baggage and parcels.

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● Voice recognition is also available for some microcomputer software packages for voice
input of data and commands. However, voice input is expected to become very popular for
most word processing applications in the next few years.
● Voice response devices range from mainframe audio-response units to voice-messaging
minicomputers to speech synthesizer microprocessors.
● Speech microprocessors can be found in toys, calculators, appliances, automobiles, and a
variety of other consumer, commercial, and industrial products.
● Voice-messaging minicomputer and mainframe audio response units use voice-response
software to verbally guide an operator through the steps of a task in many kinds of activities.
● They may also allow computers to respond to verbal and touch-tone input over the
telephone. Examples of applications include computerized telephone call switching,
telemarketing surveys, bank pay-by-phone bill-paying services, stock quotations services,
university registration systems, and customer credit and account balance inquiries.

AUDIO PROCESSING SOFTWARE

There are a variety of reasons to use audio editing software; while some people use it to create and
record files, others use it to edit and restore old recordings, and some use it only to convert and change file
types.

Thanks to audio editing software, more people have the opportunity to get their creative juices
flowing by using the affordable and capable applications available on the market today.

If you are curious about what you can do with audio editing software and trying to decide if it’s the
right purchase for you, here are some basic features each application allows you to perform:

● Create – With an easy-to-use basic program, even an amateur can create unique voice and music
mixes for an internet radio station, website, PowerPoint presentation or for personal use.

● Restore – Advanced filters and other tools within the audio editing software applications can
restore the sound of aged LPs or damaged audio recordings. You can also use these filters to filter
out background noises, static or other unwanted noise.

● Edit – Audio editing software applications include several editing tools, including cut and paste
options and the ability to edit tag or media information.

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● Record – Through a compatible program, you can record your favorite podcasts, internet radio
stations and other types of streaming audio. You can also pull audio from a video or audio file, CDs,
DVDs or even your sound card, so that you can edit and listen to it on your computer or a portable
device.

● Convert – Most programs can convert file formats. For example, from a MIDI to an MP3, WMA,
WAV or OGG file.

● We are continually researching, reviewing and ranking the top audio editing software choices
available so you have the latest and the greatest features, tools and additions at your
fingertips.

● We have included articles on audio editing software, along with reviews of each top product,
including: Magix Music Maker, WavePad and Dexster Audio Editor.

● Our side-by-side comparison of audio editing software will help you quickly determine
which application is the best suited to meet your individual audio editing needs.

Audio Editing Software Benefits

● The top eight programs in our review ranked quite close to each other and are within a
similar price range; however, they all support different formats, editing tools and recording/
burning abilities.
● There are several factors to consider when looking for suitable applications. Before choosing
a program, determine what you want to do with the software.
● Are you interested in working with streaming audio, making arrangements for your iPod or
MP3 player, restoring sound files, forensics, creating audio for your website or burning a CD
of your band's music?
● There are also a variety of editing tools, effects and filters available. If you are a beginner,
you may want to look for a product that includes a large number of preset effects and filters.
● Alternately, if you already know how to use this kind of software and know how to make
adjustments on your own, you may want a program that supports a high level of
manipulation through a 10-band equalizer, a mixer or various processors.
● Below are the criteria TopTenREVIEWS used to evaluate each application:

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Audio Editing
All good programs contain play, record, cut, copy, paste and so on; this criterion looks beyond the
essential editing tools to include tools such as equalizers, processors, mixers, preset effects, filters and
analyzing tools like the waveform or spectrogram.

● Recording/Editing Ability
The best programs will capture audio from files, the sound card or from downloaded CDs as
well as from outside sources such as a line-in from a stereo, MIDI device or microphone.

As a bonus, it is also helpful if the product includes burning software so that you can use your CD
or DVD burner to save edited files.

To be the most compatible, the product must be able to work with and convert many file formats,
like the various WAV file types, Windows Media Audio (WMA), AIFF (used by Apple) and MP3
files.

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UNIT-IV
SECTION A
1. Sound is __________ in nature.
2. The number of vibrations per second is called ____________.
3. Define sound.
4. Sound pressure levels are measured in __________.
5. MIDI stands for ________.
6. Sound is usually represented as __________.
7. _________ is a Dolby's sound-generation professional system.
8. ___________ handle low frequencies.
9. _________ is the smallest distinguishable sound in a language.
10. Define use of Audio Processing Software.
SECTION B
1. Explain the fundamental characteristic of sound.
2. List and explain basic internal components of the sound cards.
3. Discuss the types and characteristic of synthesizers.
4. Discuss about any three audio file formats
5. Explain briefly about Audio recording systems.
6. Define acoustics and explain the nature of sound waves.
7. Explain about sound card.
8. Write a note on audio synthesizers.
9. Briefly explain about CODECS.
10. Write a note about Microphone and Amplifier.
SECTION C
1. Discuss in detail about audio transmission and audio processing software.
2. List the characteristics of sound.
3. Explain briefly about audio recording system and its fie formats.
4. Discuss in detail about voice recognition and response.
5. State the features of MIDI and differentiate MIDI from Digital Audio.
6. Discuss the important parameters of digital audio.
7. Discuss in detail about MIDI.
8. Discuss in detail about any four audio file format.
9. Explain various interfaces for audio transmission.
10. Briefly explain about audio file formats and CODECS

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UNIT-V

VIDEO

VIDEO INTRODUCTION:
○ Motion video is a combination of image and audio. It consists of a set of still images called
frames displayed to the user one after another at a specific speed, known as the frame rate
measured in number of frames per second(fps).
○ The frame rate should range between 20 and 30 for perceiving smooth realistic motion.
The recording and editing of sound has long been in the domain of the PC.
○ This is because of the enormous file size required by video. Thus, a 20 minute clip fills
up 32 GB of disk space.
○ The only solution to this problem is to compress the data, but compression hardware
and software were very expensive in the early days of video editing.
○ Motion video is conceptually similar to but physically different from motion picture.
Motion picture is recorded on celluloid film and displayed in cinema theaters by
projecting on a screen, whereas motion video is represented in the form of electrical
signals as an output from video cameras.
○ Motion video is also conceptually similar to animation, the difference being that while
video represents a sequence of real world images captured by a movie camera.
ANALOG VIDEO CAMERA:
● Analog video cameras are used to record a succession of still images and
then convert the brightness and color information of the images into
electrical signals.
● The tube type analog video camera is generally used in professional studios
and uses electron beams to scan in a raster pattern, while the CCD video
camera, using a light-sensitive electronic device called the CCD, is used for
home/office purposes where portability is important.

Monochrome Video Camera:

○ The essential components of an analog video camera consist of a vacuum tube

containing an electron gun, and a photo-sensitive semi-conductor plate called
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Target in front.
○ A lens in front of the Target focuses light from an object on to the Target.
○ The positive terminal of a battery is connected to the lens side of the Target
while the negative terminal is attached to the cathode of the electron gun.
○ The target is almost an insulator in the absence of light.
○ The electrons migrate towards a positive potential applied to the lens side of
the target.
○ This positive potential is applied to a thin layer of conductive but transparent
material.
○ The vacant energy states left by the liberated electrons, called holes, migrate
towards the inner surface of the target.
○ Thus, a charge pattern appears on the inner surface of the target that is most
positive where the brightness or luminosity of the scene is the greatest.
○ The charge pattern is sampled point-by-point by a moving beam of electrons
which originates in an electron gun in the tube.
○ Excess electrons are turned back towards the source.
○ The exact number of electrons needed to neutralize the charge pattern
constitutes a flow of current in a series circuit.
○ It is this current flowing across a load resistance that forms the output signal
voltage of the tube.

Color Video Camera:

● It essentially consists of three camera tubes in which each tube receives selectively
filtered primary colors.
● Each camera tube develops a signal voltage proportional to the respective color
intensity received by it. Light from the scene is processed by the objective lens system.
● The image formed by the lens is split into three images by glass prisms. These prisms
are designed as diachronic mirrors.
● A diachronic mirror passes one wavelength and rejects other wavelengths. Thus, red,
green and blue images are formed.
● This generates the three color signals Vr,Vg,Vb the voltage levels of which are
proportional to the intensity of the colored light falling on the specific tube.
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TRANSMISSION OF VIDEO SIGNALS

Problems in Transmitting Color Signals:

● A color video camera produces three color signals corresponding to the R,G,B components to
the R,G,B components of the color image.
● These signals must be combined in a monitor to reproduce the original image.
● Such a scheme is suitable when the monitor is close to the camera, and three cables could be
used to transmit the signals from the camera to the monitor.
1. Firstly, it requires three separate cables or wires or channels which increases the
cost of the setup for large distances.
2. Secondly, it was found difficult to transmit the cables at exact synchronism with
each each other so that they arrived at the same instant at the receiving end.
3. Thirdly, for TV signals, the transmission scheme had to adapt to the existing
monochrome TV transmission set up.
4. Additionally it provided a means of compressing the data during transmission
for reducing the bandwidth requirements.

Color Perception Curve:

○ All objects that we observe are focused sharply by the lens system of the human eye on
the retina.
○ The retina which is located at the back side of the eye has light sensitive cells which
capture the visual sensations.
○ The retinal is connected to the optic nerve which conducts the light stimuli to the
optical centre of the brain.
○ According to the theory formulated by Helmholtz the light sensitive cells are of two
types – rods and cones.
○ The rods provide brightness sensation and thus, perceive objects in various shades of
grey from black to white.
○ The cones are sensitive to color and can broadly be classified into three different
groups.
○ The combined relative luminosity curve showing relative sensation of brightness
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produced by individual spectral colors is shown in fig.8.4.
○ Thus, One lumen (lm) of white light = 0.3lm of red+0.59lm of green+0.11lm of
blue=0.89lm of yellow+0.11lm of blue = 0.7lm of cyan+0.3lm of red = 0.41lm of
magenta +0.59lm of green.

Luminance and Chrominance:

○ The RGB model is used mainly in color image acquisition and display. The
luminance- chrominance color system is more efficient and hence widely used.
○ This has something to do with color perception of the HVS (human visual system). It
is known that the HVS is more sensitive to green than red and the least sensitive to
blue
○ .The luminance component, describes the variation of perceived brightness by the
HVS in different portion of the image without regard to any color information.
○ The chrominance component, describes the variation of color information in
different parts of the image without regard to any brightness information.
○ It is denoted by C and consists of two sub- components: hue (H) which is the actual
name of the color, e.g. red, and saturation (S) which denotes the purity of the color.
○ An image may be thought to be composed of two separate portions, a luminance
component and a chrominance component, which when superimposed on each other
produce the final image that we see.
○ Seperately both the luminance and chrominance components look like grayscale
images, similar to R,G,B color channels in an image processing software like Adobe
Photoshop.

Generating YC signals from RGB:

● The RGB output signals from a video camera are transformed to YC format using
electronic circuitry before being transmitted.
● For a color TV, the YC components are again converted back to RGB signals which are
used to drive the electron guns of a CRT.
● As a first estimation the brightness (Y) component can be taken as the average of
R,G,and B.
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● However from the color perception curve above we see that the human eye is more
sensitive to the green part of the spectrum than to the red and blue.
● The relation between Y and RGB which is used unanimously nowadays is shown as:
● Y=0.3R + 0.59G + 0.11B
● This states that the brightness of an image is composed of 30% of red information, 59% of
green information and 11% of blue information.
● The C sub-components, ie. H and S, are quantitatively defined in terms of color difference
signals referred to as blue chrominance Cb and red chrominance Cr.
These are defined as:

Cb = B – Y

Cr = R – Y
Chroma Subsampling
● Conversion of RGB signals into YC format also has another important advantage of
utilizing less bandwidth through the use of chroma sub sampling.
● Studies on visual perception of the eye have shown that the human eye is less sensitive
to color information.
● This limitation is exploited to transmit reduced color information as compared to
brightness information, a process called chroma sub-sampling, and save on bandwidth
requirements.
There can be different schemes of chroma sub-sampling described as follows.
4:2:2 These numbers indicate the amount of luminance and chrominance transmitted from the
video camera to the TV receiver set. It implies that when the signal is converted into an image on
the TV screen, out of 4 pixels containing luminance information (Y), only 2 pixels contain color
sub- component 1(Cb) and 2 pixels contain color sub –component 2(Cr). The reduction in color
information helps on reduce bandwidth of the transmitted signal

4:1:1 This scheme indicates a still further reduction in color information in the transmitted signal.
The image produced by the signal contain only one-forth of the original color information, i.e. out
of 4 pixels containing luminance information (Y), only 1 pixel contain color sub-component 1(Cb)
and 1 pixel contain color sub-component 2(Cn). Hence this scheme produces a greater loss in color
information than the 4:2:2 scheme
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4:4:4 This scheme implies that there is no chroma sub-sampling at all, i.e. out of 4 pixels
containing luminance information (Y), all 4 pixels contain color sub-component 1(Cb) and all 4
pixels contain color sub-component 2(Cn). There is no loss in color component and hence the picture
is of the best quality, although the signal would have the highest bandwidth

4:2:0 In all the above cases sub-sampling is only done along a row of pixels, i.e. horizontally,
but not vertically along a column. The 4:2:0 scheme indicates both horizontal and vertical
sub-sampling, it implies that out of 4 pixels containing luminance information (Y), only 2 pixels
contain color sub- component 1(Cb) and 2 pixels contain color sub-component 2(Cr), both along a
row as well as along a column. Hence the amount of information loss is double that of the 4:2:2
scheme and comparable to the 4:1:1 scheme.

VIDEO SIGNAL FORMATS

Component Video:
● This refers to a video signal which is stored or transmitted as three
separate component signals.
● The simplest form is the collection of R,G and B signals which usually
form the output of analog video cameras.
● Three separate wires and connectors are usually used to convey such
signals from the camera to another device for storage or playback.
● R,G,B signals are replaced by Y,Cb and Cr signals, also delivered along
three separate wires.

Composite video:

● For ease is signal transmission, specially TV broadcasting, as also to reduce

cable/channel requirements, component signals are often combined into a single signal
which is transmitted along a single wire or channel. This is referred to as composite
video.
● In this case the total bandwidth of the channel is split into separate portions and
allowed for the luminance and chrominance parts.
● Since the human eye is more sensitive to luminance changes than color changes,
luminance is allotted a greater bandwidth than the chrominance parts.
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● However single cable is used, this leads to cost savings.

S-Video:

● Short for super-video.

● An analog video signal format where the luminance and chrominance portions are
transmitted separately using multiple wires instead of the same wire as for composite
video.
● The connector used is a 4-pin mini-DIN connector with 75ohm termination
impedance.

SCART Connector:

● SCART (Syndicat des Constructeurs d‘ Appareils Radiorecepteurs et Televiseurs) is a

French standard of a 21-pin audio and video connector.
● It can be used to connect VCR‘s,DVD players, set top boxes, game systems and
computers to television sets. SCART attempts to provide a standardized connector
containing all the signals for audio video applications across different manufacturers.
● SCART connectors are non-locking and may become loose or fall off, maximum cable
length is 10 to 15m.
● Properly manufactured SCART connectors use coaxial cables to transmit audio/video
signals, however cheaper versions may use plain wires resulting in degraded image
quality.
● single signal which is transmitted along a single wire or channel.

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TELEVISION BROADCASTING STANDARDS
There are three different video broadcasting standards: PAL, NTSC, and SECAM
NTSC (National Television Standards Committee)

● The majority of 60Hz based countries use a technique known as NTSC originally developed
in the United States by a focus committee called the National Television Standards
Committee.
● NTSC (often funnily referred to as Never Twice the Same Colour) works perfectly in a video
or closed circuit environment but can exhibit problems of varying colour when used in a
broadcast environment.

PAL (Phase Alternate Lines)

● This hue change problem is caused by shifts in the colour sub-carrier phase of the signal.
● A modified version of NTSC soon appeared which differed mainly in that the sub-carrier
phase was reversed on each second line; this is known as PAL, standing for Phase Alternate
Lines (it has a wide range of funny acronyms including Pictures At Last, Pay for Added
Luxury etc).
● PAL has been adopted by a few 60Hz countries, most notably Brazil.
SECAM
● Amongst the countries based on 50Hz systems, PAL has been the most widely adopted.
● PAL is not the only colour system in widespread use with 50Hz; the French designed a
system of their own -primarily for political reasons to protect their domestic manufacturing
companies - which is known as SECAM, standing for Sequential Couleur Avec Memoire.
● The most common facetious acronym is System Essentially Contrary to American Method.

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PC VIDEO

● The TV screens display video as 720 columns by 480 rows or 720 columns by 576
rows(PAL) using a sampling rate of 13.5MHz as per the CCIR recommendations.
● In order to avoid distortion on a PC screen it was necessary to use a horizontal
addressability of 640 for NTSC and 768 for PAL.
● Analog video needs to converted to the digital format before it can be displayed on a
PC screen.
● The procedure for conversion involves two types of devices – source devices and
capture devices, as detailed below.

1. Source and Source Devices

○ ‗Source‘ implies the media on which analog video is recorded.
○ In most cases these are magnetic tape, i.g. VHS tape. Video recorded onto a source
must conform to one of the video recording standards i.e. either NTSC or PAL.
○ Outputs from a source device must conform to one of the video signal standards i.e.
either component video or composite video or S-video.
○ The source and source device can be one of the following:
■ Camcorder with pre-recorded video tape
■ VCP with pre-recorded video cassette
■ Video camera with live footage.

2. Video Capture Card

A video capture device is essentially an expansion board that can handle a variety of
different audio and video input signals and convert them from analog to digital or vice versa. A
typical circuit board consists of the following components:

Video INPUT port to accept the video input signals from NTSC/PAL/SECAM

broadcase signals, video camera or VCR. The input port may conform to the
composite-video or S-video standards.

Video compression-decompression hardware for video data.

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Audio compression-decompression hardware for audio data.

A/D converter to convert the analog input video signals to digital form.

Video OUTPUT port to feed output video signals to camera and VCR.

D/A converter to convert the digital video data to analog signals for feeding to

output analog devices.

Audio INPUT/OUTPUT ports for audio input and output functions.

A video capture card is also sometimes referred to as a video frame grabber. The
overview of the main components are:

Video Channel Multiplexer: Since a video capture card supports a number of input
ports, e.g. composite video, S-video and a number of input formats, e.g, NTSC, PAL,
HDTV, a video channel multiplexer allows the proper input port and format to be selected
under program control and enables the circuitry appropriate for the selected channel.

ADC:

● The Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) reads the input analog video signal from an
analog video camera or VCP, and digitizes it using standard procedures of sampling
and quantization.
● The parameters for digitization include the sampling rate for the visual and audio
portions, the color depth and the frame rate. The sampling rate for the audio portion is
usually chosen as CD-quality, i.e.44.1 KHZ, 16-bit, stereo.

Image Processing Parameters:

● Image processing parameters include specifying the brightness, contrast, color, audio
volume, etc. which are specified using the video capture software.
● These parameters are changed using a lookup table which converts the value of an
input pixels or audio sample in a pre-defined way and writes it to an appropriate frame
buffer of the capture card.

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Compression Decompression:

The video capture card often contains a chip for hardware compression and decompression of
video data in real time.

There can be multiple standards like MPEG-1, MPEG-2, H.261/263, which would require a
programmable CODEC on the card.

3. Video Capture Software

Tuning Parameters

● These parameters define the final output of the video and audio in the
digital file produced.
● These include frame rate (specifies the final frame rate of the video
file), brightness/contrast and color controls (specifies appearance of
the captured video). frame size of the video, sampling rate,
compression scheme and volume of the audio.
● It also lets the user specify whether the source video is available using
composite video or S-video signal format, and whether the recording
format of the source video is NTSC or PAL

AVI Capture

● This utility allows the user to specify whether the digital video file
would be stored in the AVI file format (see section 8.10.1).
● No compression is applied to the video data and hence this is suitable
for small files.
● Playback of the video is done through playback software like the
Windows Media Player or Real Player.

AVI to MPEG Converter

● This utility allows the user to convert a captured AVI file to MPEG
format.
● Here the MPEG compression algorithm is applied to an AVI file and a
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separate MPG file is created on the disk.

● Before compression parameters like quality, amount of compression,
frame dimensions, frame rate, etc. may be specified by the user.
● Playback of the MPEG file is done through the Windows Media
Player.

MPEG Capture

● Certain cards allow the user to capture video directly in the MPEG
format.
● Here analog video data is captured, digitized and compressed at the
same time before being written to the disk.
● This is suitable for capturing large volumes of video data.
● Parameters like brightness, contrast, saturation, etc. may be specified
by the user before starting capturing.

DAT to MPEG Converter

● This utility converts the DAT format of a Video-CD into MPEG.

Conversion to MPEG is usually done for editing purposes.
● DAT and MPG are similar formats so that the file size changes by very
small amounts after conversion.
● The user has to specify the source DAT file and the location of the
target MPG file.

MPEG Editor

● Some capture software provide the facility of editing an MPEG file.

● The MPG movie file is opened in a timeline structure and functions
are provided for splitting the file into small parts by specifying the
start and end of each portion.
● Multiple portions may also be joined together. Sometimes functions
for adding effects like transitions or sub-titling may also be present.
● The audio track may also be separately edited or manipulated.

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VIDEO FILE FORMATS AND CODECs

The Video file Format is made up of 2 kinds:
● a codec
● and a container.
Video Codec
● A video codec (the name codec originates from “enCOde / DECode”) is a protocol
for encoding and decoding video. H.264, MPEG-4, and DivX are examples of
common codecs.
● A well-designed codec has high efficiency or the capacity to maintain quality while
shrinking the file size.

Video Container
● The container format specifies how the metadata and data in a file are organized, not
how the video is encoded (which the codec determines).
● The metadata and compressed video data encoded with the codec are stored in the
container file.
● The file’s extension reflects the container format, also referred to as “the
format.”.AVI,.MP4, and.MOV are common container types.
● Container formats can be combined with a variety of codecs to determine which
devices and programs the file is compatible with.
Here are the most common digital video formats and how one can frequently use them:

MP4

● The most prevalent video file format is MP4 (MPEG-4 Part 14). MP4, Apple’s
preferred format, is compatible with most other devices.
● It stores video, audio, and text files using the MPEG-4 encoding process, but it has a
lesser resolution than some others.
● YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram videos look great in MP4.

MOV (QuickTime Movie)

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● Although MOV (QuickTime Movie) files store high-quality video, audio, and
effects, they can be fairly large.
● MOV files were created by Apple for QuickTime Player and use MPEG-4 encoding
to play with QuickTime for Windows.
● Facebook and YouTube both accept MOV, which works great for viewing TV.

WMV

● The WMV (Windows Media Viewer) files, like MOV files, have good video quality
and a huge file size.
● Microsoft created WMV for Windows Media Player.
● Apple users can see these videos because YouTube supports WMV, but they need
first download Windows Media Player for Apple.
● Remember that WMV does not let you choose your aspect ratio.

Audio Video Interleave (AVI)

● AVI (Audio Video Interleave) works with practically every web browser on
Windows, Mac, and Linux PCs.
● Audio Video Interleave, which Microsoft created, has the highest quality but also
the largest file sizes. YouTube supports it, and it works nicely for watching TV.

AVCHD

● Advanced Video Coding High Definition is a high-definition video coding program.

● These files were created for Panasonic and Sony digital camcorders, and they
compress for convenient storage without sacrificing quality.

FLV, F4V, and SWF

● Although the FLV, F4V, and SWF (Shockwave Flash) video codecs were created for
Flash Player, they are frequently used to broadcast videos on YouTube.
● iOS devices do not support Flash.

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MKV player for MAC

● Matroska Multimedia Container happens to be a free and open-source multimedia

container format that was developed in Russia.
● It can play almost any codec, although many programs don’t support it.
● If you plan to watch your video on a TV or computer with an open-source media
player like VLC or Miro, MKV is a good choice.

WEBM or HTML5

These formats are ideal for embedding videos on your personal or professional website.
They have to load quickly and stream smoothly since they are small files.

MPEG-2

MPEG-2 with an H.262 codec is the way to go if you want to burn your video to a DVD.

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VIDEO EDITING:

Online and Offline Editing

● Offline editing
○ Offline editing is part of the post-production process of film making and television
production in which raw footage is copied and the copy only is then edited, thereby
not affecting the camera original film stock or video tape.
● Online editing
○ Online editing is a post-production linear video editing process that is
performed in the final stage of a video production. It occurs after offline editing.
For the most part, online editing has been replaced by video editing software that
operate on non-linear editing systems (NLE)

SMPTE Time Code

Time code, sometimes known as SMPTE (pronounced Simp-Tee) or SMPTE code, is an

electronic signal which is used to identify a precise location in digital systems and on
time-based media like audio or video tape.

SMPTE is an acronym for Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, the
developers of this standard.

Timebase

The timebase settings are for your frames per second, and these can be changed depending
on how you want the footage to look. Prefer to use 23.976 fps.

Edit Decision List

An edit decision list or EDL is used in the post-production process of film editing and video editing.
The list contains an ordered list of reel and timecode data representing where each video clip can be obtained
in order to conform the final cut.

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VIDEO EDITING SOFTWARE

Importing Clips

To convert a file into the format required by the application being used. Many
applications are capable of importing a variety of popular formats, converting them
into the native format of the application for display, printing or editing.

The Timeline Panel

The timeline panel is where your video takes shape. By dragging items from the project
panel or source monitor and placing them in the desired order, you create a sequence of clips and
events which play in the timeline from left to right.

With items in the timeline, you can:

1. Adjust edit points, making clips shorter or longer, or stretch them over time.
2. Create multiple layers of video, e.g. titles, superimposed images, etc.
3. Create multiple layers of audio, e.g. voiceovers, music, etc.
4. Add transitions, filters, special effects, etc.

Playback of Clips

● The act of reproducing a sound or video recording, especially in

order to check a recording that is newly made. (in a recording
device) the apparatus used in producing playbacks. the recording so

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played, especially the first time it is heard or viewed after being

recorded.

Trimming Clips

● Trimming a video is when you remove footage from the beginning or end of clip,
usually to bring the focus in to the most important part of a video.
● Cutting, on the other hand, is when you make sections out of a single clip to then
use elsewhere in your overall video edit.

Splitting a Clip

● Cutting a clip into separate pieces (known as splitting a clip) is necessary to remove
unwanted elements, apply different effects and transitions, or speed up the video in
a portion of a clip.
● Trimming and splitting functions are essential to getting the exact content you
want in your video timeline.
Manipulating the Audio Content
● Audio editing is the process of manipulating sound recordings.
● This can be done for many reasons, such as to improve the quality of the recording,
to remove unwanted noise or sounds, or to change the length or pitch of a particular
audio clip.

Adding Transitions
● They structure the film from first shot to last. There are several common forms —
the wipe, the dissolve, the split-cut, and many more.
● Practically, transitions are how film editors move a scene from one video clip to
another.
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Changing the speed of a Clip

● A video editor usually allows the playback speed of a clip to be changed, Le to
simulate show motion or fast-motion.
● This is usually done by selecting the clip on the timeline and specifying a
percentage by which the speed is to be changed.
● If the speed is decreased then the length of the speed is correspondingly increased
as a slower speed implies a larger duration for playing that clip.
Changing the Opacity of a Clip
● Many video editors allows the user to change the opacity of a clip. A clip is
usually opaque, ie. with opacity 100%.
● If the opacity is decreased, the clip becomes partially transparent.
● This implies that through the clip, other clips placed on a lower track would
become visible.
● When played back, visual content for multiple clips would be visible
simultaneously
Applying Special Effects
● Visual filters like blur, emboss, lens flare, etc. could be applied on video clips.
● Also the extent of these filters could be varied over the length of the clip, i.e. a blur
filter could be gradually increased from the beginning to the end of a clip.
Superimposing an Image
● An image can be superimposed over a video clip. For example, a logo can be
placed at a specific position of the video frame so that it is always visible.
● Additionally some editors allow the superimposed image to be animated, i.e. the
image can be made to gradually move from left to right or from top to bottom of
the video frame over time.
Exporting a Movie
While editing and exporting digital video, a concept which needs to be understood is called
rendering.
● A video editor provides us with a visual interface where we can click and drag to specify
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editing operations on video operations.

● The interface is however only a symbolic representation of the actual video data.
● The changes we make in the interface do not immediately get reflected in the actual video
files.
● Only when we specifically ask the video editor to commit the changes, for example by
clicking an option or a button, does the changes actually get incorporated in the physical
files.
● This process of physically changing the data based on some instruction given via an
interface is known as rendering. Since video files are usually large, rendering can also be a
time consuming process.
● Depending on the amount of video data and the nature of operations rendering may often
span for several hours and even for days.
● When exporting a movie, the changes specified are first rendered and then copied to an
output file format supported by the editor.
● In most cases AVI and MOV formats are usually supported, in some cases creating other
formats like MPG may also be possible.

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ANIMATION

● Animation is a visual technique that provides the illusion of motion by displaying a

collection of images in rapid sequence.
● Each image contains a small change, for example a leg moves slightly, or the wheel of a
car turns.
● When the images are viewed rapidly, your eye fills in the details and the illusion of
movement is complete.
● When used appropriately in your application’s user interface, animation can enhance the
user experience while providing a more dynamic look and feel.
● Moving user interface elements smoothly around the screen, gradually fading them in and
out, and creating new custom controls with special visual effects can combine to create a
cinematic computing experience for your users.
● In Time Machine perceived distance provides an intuitive metaphor for a linear
progression in time.
● Older file system snapshots are shown further away, allowing you to move through them
to find the version you want to restore.

TYPES OF ANIMATION:

1.CEL ANIMATION
● Cel animation is also known as Traditional animation, Classical animation,
Hand-drawn animation, and 2D animation.
● It is an animation technique in which the creation of 2D drawings on sheets of
transparent plastic is done by hand.
● These plastic sheets are called cels (from celluloid material they are made of).

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2.PATH ANIMATION

○ The process of animating one or more objects moving along a defined

three-dimensional path through the scene is known as path animation.
○ The path is called a motion path, and is quite different from a motion trail, which
is used to edit animations.
○ Path-based animations are faster to produce as the software fills in frames
automatically.
○ Cel-based animation allows the author to control every aspect of the animation
while path-based animations are limited to the automatic generation of cells
between two states.

3. 2D vs 3D ANIMATION

A 2D object can only be measured in height and width and exists on a 2D space,
like a piece of paper, while a 3D object has a surface, casts a shadow, and can be measured by length,
width, depth, or weight.

For example, 2D is a circle drawn on the wall and 3D is a soccer ball.

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COMPUTER ASSISTED ANIMATION
Computer-assisted animation is common in modern animated films. Recent films such as
"Beowulf" were created using computer-assisted animation. These techniques enhance modern
animated films in ways not seen in film history.

Definition

● Computer-assisted animation is animation that could not be completed without using a

computer.
● Functions like in-betweening and motion capture are examples of computer-assisted
animation.
● The computer is used to make the animation process quicker and easier. Usually involves
2-D images Can be hand-drawn and scanned into the computer. Can be drawn directly
into the computer using graphics tablets.
● The images are positioned into keyframes containing the most important movements
● Tweening is then performed by the computer to create images between keyframes.
● Even though computers are now used extensively, many traditional steps are still used
such as Storyboarding ,Pencil Testing, Keyframes ,Tweening.

Transformations

● Since animation involves movement or change of imagery objects they have to

transformed in various ways. Three of the basic transformation are: translation, rotation
and scaling.
● Translation involves moving an object in straight lines in any direction on the screen.
● Rotation implies changing the orientation of an object by rotating it through some angles
in the clockwise or counter-clockwise directions.
● Scaling implies enlarging or shrinking whole or part of an object.
● Uniform scaling keeps the aspect ratio intact, i.e. scales the height and width by equal
proportions while non-uniform scaling distorts the object by changing the aspect ratio

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PRINCIPLES OF ANIMATION

The principles are:

1. Timing
2. Ease In and Out (or Slow In and Out)
3. Arcs
4. Anticipation
5. Exaggeration
6. Squash and Stretch
7. Secondary Action
8. Follow Through and Overlapping Action
9. Straight Ahead Action and Pose-To-Pose Action
10. Staging
11. Appeal
12. Slow-out and Slow-in
Simply memorizing these principles isn’t the point. No one will care whether or not you know this list.
It’s whether or not you truly understand and can utilize these ideas that matter. If you do, it will show
automatically in your work.

1. Timing

● Timing is the essence of animation.

● The speed at which something moves gives a sense ofwhat the object is, the weight of an object,
and why it is moving.
● Something like an eyeblink can be fast or slow. If it’s fast, a character will seem alert and awake.
● If it’s slow thecharacter may seem tired and lethargic.J. Lesseter’s example. Head that turns left
and right.
● Head turns back and forth really slow: it may seem as if the character is stretching hisneck (lots
of in between frames).
● A bit faster it can be seen as saying "no" (a few in between frames)

● Really fast, and the character is reacting to getting hit by a baseball bat (almost none in between
frames).

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2. Ease In and Out (or Slow In and Out)

● Ease in and out has to do with gradually causing an object to accelerate, or come to
rest,from a pose.
● An object or limb may slow down as it approaches a pose (Ease In) or gradually start to
move from rest (Ease Out).For example, a bouncing ball tends to have a lot of ease in and
out when at the top of its bounce.
● As it goes up, gravity affects it and slows down (Ease In), then it starts its downward
motion more and more rapidly (Ease Out), until it hits the ground.
● Note that this doesn’t mean slow movement. This really means keep the in between
frames close to each extreme.

3. Arcs

● In the real world almost all action moves in an arc.

● When creating animation one should try to have motion follow curved paths rather than
linear ones. It is very seldom that a character or part of a character moves in a straight
line.
● Even gross body movements when you walk somewhere tend not be perfectly straight.
When a hand/arm reaches out to reach something, it tends to move in an arc.
● Simple example – Kicking a ball

4. Anticipation

● Action in animation usually occurs in three sections. The setup for the motion, the actual
action and then follow-through of the action.

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● The first part is known as anticipation.
● In some cases anticipation is needed physically.
● For example, before you can throw a ball you must first swing your arm backwards.
● The backwards motion is the anticipation, the throw itself is the motion.
● Anticipation is used to lead the viewers eye to prepare them for the action that follows.
● Longer period of anticipation is needed for faster actions.
● Example, a character zips off screen leaving a puff of smoke.
● Usually just before the zip, there is a pose where the characters raises a leg and bends both
arms as if he’s about to run.
● That’s the anticipation pose for the off screen run.
● Generally, for good clear animation, the viewer should know what is about happen
(anticipation), what is happening (the actual action itself) and what happened (related to
follow through).

5. Exaggeration

● Exaggeration is used to accent an action. It should be used in a careful and balanced

manner, not arbitrarily.
● Figure out what the desired goal of an action or sequence is and what sections need to be
exaggerated.
● The result will be that the animation will seem more realistic and entertaining.
● One can exaggerate motions, for example an arm may move just a bit too far briefly in an
extreme swing.
● Generally when animating to dialogue, one listens to the track and picks out areas that
sound like they have more stress or importance, and then tends to exaggerate poses and
motions that fall at those times.
● The key is to take something and make it more extreme in order to give it more life, but
not so much that it destroys believability.
● Example: exaggerating the lamp proportions to give a sense of dad and son.

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6.SQUASH AND STRETCH

● This action gives the illusion of weight and volume to a character as it moves. Also
squash and stretch is useful in animating dialogue and doing facial expressions.
● How extreme the use of squash and stretch is, depends on what is required in animating
the scene.
● Usually it's broader in a short style of picture and subtler in a feature.
● It is used in all forms of character animation from a bouncing ball to the body weight of a
person walking.
● This is the most important element you will be required to master and will be used often.
7.SECONDARY ACTION
● This action adds to and enriches the main action and adds more dimension to the character
animation, supplementing and/or re-enforcing the main action.
● Example: A character is angrily walking toward another character. The walk is forceful,
aggressive, and forward leaning.
● The leg action is just short of a stomping walk. The secondary action is a few strong
gestures of the arms working with the walk.
● Also, the possibility of dialogue being delivered at the same time with tilts and turns of
the head to accentuate the walk and dialogue, but not so much as to distract from the walk
action.
● All of these actions should work together in support of one another.
● Think of the walk as the primary action and arm swings, head bounce and all other actions
of the body as secondary or supporting action.
8. FOLLOW THROUGH AND OVERLAPPING ACTION

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● When the main body of the character stops all other parts continue to catch up to the main
mass of the character, such as arms, long hair, clothing, coat tails or a dress, floppy ears or
a long tail (these follow the path of action).
● Nothing stops all at once. This is follow through. Overlapping action is when the
character changes direction while his clothes or hair continues forward.
● The character is going in a new direction, to be followed, a number of frames later, by his
clothes in the new direction.
● "DRAG," in animation, for example, would be when Goofy starts to run, but his head,
ears, upper body, and clothes do not keep up with his legs.
● In features, this type of action is done more subtly. Example: When Snow White starts to
dance, her dress does not begin to move with her immediately but catches up a few frames
later.
● Long hair and animal tail will also be handled in the same manner.
● Timing becomes critical to the effectiveness of drag and the overlapping action.
9. STARIGHT AHEAD AND POSE TO POSE ANIMATION
● Straight ahead animation starts at the first drawing and works drawing to drawing to the
end of a scene.
● You can lose size, volume, and proportions with this method, but it does have spontaneity
and freshness. Fast, wild action scenes are done this way.
● Pose to Pose is more planned out and charted with key drawings done at intervals
throughout the scene.
● Size, volumes, and proportions are controlled better this way, as is the action.
● The lead animator will turn charting and keys over to his assistant.
● An assistant can be better used with this method so that the animator doesn't have to draw
every drawing in a scene.
● An animator can do more scenes this way and concentrate on the planning of the
animation. Many scenes use a bit of both methods of animation.
10.STAGING
● A pose or action should clearly communicate to the audience the attitude, mood, reaction
or idea of the character as it relates to the story and continuity of the story line.

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● The effective use of long, medium, or close up shots, as well as camera angles also helps
in telling the story.
● There is a limited amount of time in a film, so each sequence, scene and frame of film
must relate to the overall story.
● Do not confuse the audience with too many actions at once. Use one action clearly stated
to get the idea across, unless you are animating a scene that is to depict clutter and
confusion.
● Staging directs the audience's attention to the story or idea being told.
● Care must be taken in background design so it isn't obscuring the animation or competing
with it due to excess detail behind the animation.
● Background and animation should work together as a pictorial unit in a scene
11.APPEAL
● A live performer has charisma.
● An animated character has appeal.
● Appealing animation does not mean just being cute and cuddly.
● All characters have to have appeal whether they are heroic, villainous, comic or cute.
● Appeal, as you will use it, includes an easy to read design, clear drawing, and personality
development that will capture and involve the audience's interest.
● Early cartoons were basically a series of gags strung together on a main theme.
● Over the years, the artists have learned that to produce a feature there was a need for story
continuity, character development and a higher quality of artwork throughout the entire
production.
● Like all forms of story telling, the feature has to appeal to the mind as well as to the eye.

12.SLOW-OUT AND SLOW-IN

● As action starts, we have more drawings near the starting pose, one or two in the middle,
and more drawings near the next pose.
● Fewer drawings make the action faster and more drawings make the action slower.
Slow-ins and slow-outs soften the action, making it more life-like.
● For a gag action, we may omit some slow-out or slow-ins for shock appeal or the surprise
element. This will give more snap to the scene.

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SOME ANIMATION TECHNIQUES
1.ONION SKINNING
● Onion skinning, in 2D computer graphics, is a technique used in creating animated
cartoons and editing movies to see several frames at once.
● This way, the animator or editor can make decisions on how to create or change an image
based on the previous image in the sequence.
● In traditional animation, the individual frames of a movie were initially drawn on thin
onionskin paper over a light source.
● The animators (mostly inbetweeners) would put the previous and next drawings exactly
beneath the working drawing, so that they could draw the 'in between' to give a smooth
motion.

2.MOTION CYCLING
Cycle animation is used to create a sequence that can be repeated over and over like flags
waving, character running, etc. This technique is applicable to computer animation and 2D animation

3.Masking in animation

○ Masking is one of the important feature of flash, it can be defined as placing one layer
over another so to animate the second layer with the help of the first one.

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○ This technique is mainly used in animating text and objects. When objects on both the
layers overlap, only that part are visible in animation.

4.ADDING SOUND
Sound is important because it engages audiences: it helps deliver information, it increases
the production value, it evokes emotional responses, it emphasizes what's on the screen and is
used to indicate mood.

5.FLIPBOOK ANIMATION
● An animation flipbook uses a series of static images, which progress gradually in position
from one page to the next.
● These images then create the impression of movement when you flick through the pages
in sequence. Flipbooks vary in complexity.

6.ROTOSCOPING and BLUE SCREENING

● Rotoscope animation describes the process of creating animated sequences by tracing
over live-action footage frame by frame.
● Though it can be time consuming, rotoscoping allows animators to create life-like
characters who move just like people in the real world.
● Blue screen technique is one of the most common types of scene setting used in
filmmaking.
● It involves placing actors and foreground objects in front of a large blue screen while
filming.
● This technique is also called chroma key.
7.COLOR CYCLING

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● Color cycling, also known as palette shifting or palette animation, is a technique used in
computer graphics in which colors are changed in order to give the impression of
animation.
● This technique was mainly used in early computer games, as storing one image and
changing its palette required less memory and processor power than storing the animation
as several frames.
8.MORPHING
● Morphing is an effect which sees one shape or object transform into another in a seamless
transition.
● There are different approaches, but the fundamental meaning of morphing remains the
same.
● Morphing involves image processing techniques like warping and cross dissolving.
● Morphing is a special effect in motion pictures and animations that changes (or morphs)
one image or shape into another through a seamless transition.

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ANIMATION ON THE WEB:

● The World Wide Web developed in the early 1990s, was initially created to serve
hypertext documents but later on support for animated files was included in Web pages.
● The biggest obstacles in the use of animations on the Web are bandwidth limitations, the
differences in platforms and browser support.
● Typically Web based animations involve computer files that must be completely
downloaded to the client machines before playback.
● This can take a long time depending on the file size, which is usually large as it contains
a series of images.
● A way around this problem is streaming, which is the capability of specially formatted
animation files to begin playback before the entire file has been completely downloaded.
● As the animation plays the rest of the file is downloaded in the background. Another
problem with Web animation is that once the animation has been delivered to the user, the
user must have the proper helper application or plug-in to display the animation.
● Several formats exist today like GIF animation, based on extensions to GIF specifications,
QuickTime animation, based on QuickTime movie format, Java animation based on Java
programming language, Shockwave animation based on Macromedia Director/Flash file
format, etc.

a.The Shockwave Format

Macromedia Director

● Macromedia's Shockwave technology for Director was one of the first animation plug-ins
for browsers
● . Shockwave enables Director authors to publish interactive, multimedia content on the
Web.
● Director is a popular 2D animation and interactive multimedia authoring tool, which is
used in CD-ROM publishing, broadcast video and film, interactive ads, kiosks,
presentations, games, courseware, etc.
● To create Shockwave animations for the Web you will need the Director authoring
program for Windows.

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● Shockwave animations created on either Windows or Mac can play back in any browser
that supports the Shockwave Plug-in. To be played via the browser, the Director movie
must be saved in the Shockwave format which uses the DCR file extension.
● It can then be inserted in an HTML document using the <EMBED> tagEMBED
SCR-MyMovie.dce WIDTH 160 HEIGHT - 120 PLUGINSPACE
"http://www.macromedia.com/shockwave/download">
● To view the animation the user must have the Shockwave Player integrated as a plug- in
with the browser. The Shockwave player displays the final product as an inline animation
within the Web page.

Macromedia Flash

● Macromedia Flash animation sequences can be saved in the Shockwave format which
uses the SWF extension and played back on a Shockwave player.
● The Shockwave player can either be a standalone player program or integrated into the
browser as a plug-in. An SWF file contains most of the graphics and motion information
as vectors which reduces its file size and can be used easily over the Internet in Web
pages.
● To insert SWF movies in HTML pages also requires use of the EMBED tag
● <EMBED SCR-"MyMovie.swf" WIDTH 160 HEIGHT - 120
PLUGINSPACE-"http://www.macromedia.com/shockwave/download"> SWF is an open
format which means that anyone can implement players or application software to support
SWF without paying royalties.

b.Client-Pull Animation

● In Client-Pull animation an HTML page gives the browser instructions to request and load
another document automatically which contains the next frame of the animation.
● This feature is like a slideshow-Web pages are displayed one after the other with a
specified time delay in between.
● Client pull is executed by a refresh command written into the <META> tag of a HTML
document. During a client-pull sequence the browser reads this header information which

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instructs it to keep track of the time elapsed between pages retrieved with the help of the
PC's internal clock.
● <META HTTP-EQUIV="refresh" CONTENT="0.5:URL http://www.abc.com/
page2.html">
● The META tag with the Refresh command does two things:
○ first, it indicates the time before the next page request is sent or the same page
reloads, here 0.5 seconds,
○ second, it indicates a location, typically a URL, from where the next page is to be
loaded, here page2.html.
● If the next document also has a refresh command the browser will simply repeat the
process.
● A client pull sequence may continue for as long as the site designer wants.
● The last page will simply not have a Refresh command in the tag, A user may stop the
process manually by clicking the browser's Stop button.
● Client pull animation might be slow due to the need to load a whole page everytime rather
than a single cell of animation.

c.Server-Push Animation

● Server-push animation requires a CGI (Common Gateway Interface) script that tells the
server when to automatically serve a new document or image.
● The HTML source code for a server push animation looks like this: <IMG
SRC="http://www.abc.com/animation.cgi">
● When the browser recognizes the IMG tag it makes a single request to the server for a file.
But rather than retrieving an image file, the HTML tag gives directions to a CGI script
that runs the animation.
● The CGI script sends a series of images to the client as if it was transferring a single file.
Each new frame that arrives at the client replaces the previous one, thereby giving the
illusion of fluid motion.

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SPECIAL EFFECTS

Atmospheric Effects

➢ Many 3D computer graphics images have a distinctive crystal-clear quality.

➢ Sometimes this clarity is intended by the artist but sometimes it is not desirable
and creates an appearance of unreality and falseness.
➢ In the real world the perceived colors of objects change depending on the distance
of the objects from the viewer.
➢ This is produced by the scattering of the light rays by the tiny air molecules of the
atmosphere.
➢ Because they typically render only surfaces, 3D computer rendering programs
often have difficulty handling this sort of atmosphene effect.
➢ To address this problem, some higher-end software packages offer techniques such
as rain, snow, fog and haze.
➢ These permit you to define various atmospheric parameters interactively from a
menu window The program includes these parameters in the color calculations
when it renders the final frame.
➢ In using an atmospheric rendering system you normally specify the color of the
atinosphere and the distance at which that color completely overrides the colors of
objects.
➢ The simplest kind of atmospheric effect varies according to depth along the
Z-axis.
➢ For example to render a scene with a reddish haze you might specify that the RGB
components of the color of the haze are (200, 100, 100) and that objects at a
distance of 1000 meters are completely obscured by this reddish haze.
➢ These mean that an object at a distance from the eye of 100 meters is one-tenth
obscured.
➢ Some systems also allow you to define an atmospheric fog that obscures objects
along the vertical or Y-axis.
➢ This effect can be useful for example in rendering mountains.
➢ In most cases the density of atmospheric hazes do not change linearly.

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➢ The fog enveloping a mountain rather than dissipating in a linear fashion as it
moves up the mountain, instead may not dissipate at all up to a certain height, then
dissipate very quickly for a while, then more slowly and so on.
➢ A technique provided by some systems for handling this kind of irregularity
involves what is known as a density map, a black-and- white picture that you
create before you render frames.
➢ The variation in the pixel brightness in the density map controls the variation in
the atmospheric density in the final rendering
➢ Some systems offer a variation of the density map technique over time where the
vertical direction in the map denotes variation over a spatial axis and the horizontal
direction of the map as variation over time.
➢ You do this by interpreting each column of pixels as the density map for a specific
moment in time.
➢ Thus, a vertical density map that varies in the horizontal direction can be used to
animate vertical fog over time.
➢ Thus the first column of the map might define fog density in frame 1 of an
animation while the last column of the map might define fog density in the last
frame of the animation.

Particle Systems

● Many phenomena like smoke, gas, steam, fire and clouds cannot be modeled easily as
surfaces.
● The particle system technique found on many 3D system packages handles these types of
phenomena that consist of masses of molecule-sized particles rather than surfaces Here
you do not model individual surfaces rather you define the number of particles in the
system.
● Defined to exist and move in a three-dimensional space, these particles which are too
small to be seen individually, and will become visible only if present in sufficient
numbers.

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● When the rendering program processes the model information for a given frame, it looks
at each pixel of screen space and calculates whether enough particles are present at that
location to be visible. If so, pixels are colored appropriately and rendered.
● In defining a particle system, you normally have several parameters under your control.
One parameter is the number of particles, another is the color of the particles, which often
can be animated as well.
● For example you can make the color of a fire particle change as it moves away from the
center of the flame.
● You can also control the movement of the particles. Rather than a generic particle system,
most 3D systems offer specific particle systems with unique parameter sets to mimic
natural phenomena.
● For example, a 'cloud' particle system may contain parameters for controlling the
direction, the speed and randomness of movement, as well as a parameter for defining
shape of a cloud.
● A 'stream' particle system for defining a moving stream of water particles, may contain
parameters for the number and color of the particles, the direction, starting point, strength
and spread of the stream.
● Some advanced 3D packages offer particle like modeling functions.
● These functions operate on actual surfaces but manipulate surfaces like particles
● The most common of these functions is an explosion in which each surface is broken into
many small surfaces which expand outward in an exploding pattern.
● Important parameters controlling the explosion may be randomness, which ensures that
not all pieces are of uniform structure, starting location of explosion, the strength and the
influence of gravity on the pieces.

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RENDERING ALGORITHMS
● Rendering is used in both 2D and 3D computer animation.
● It is the process of getting the final assembled animation scenes or pieces out of the
computer in the format of a sequence of individual frames.
● The aim of rendering is to generate a series of individual pixel based frames or a video
clip.
1.Ray casting Algorithm
● The word algorithm means a well-thought-out, logical procedure for doing something.
● A rendering algorithm therefore is the procedure that a particular program uses to
calculate a picture.
● Most rendering algorithms in software packages use a general approach called scan-line
rendering.
● Here the program looks at each pixel one after another and calculates the color that pixel
should be rendered in.
● It allows you to see the pixels filling in one by one and line by line.
● To determine what color a given pixel should be, one common approach is a process
called ray casting (Fig).
● From the view-point of the camera a ray is cast through the first pixel of the first scan
line, as if the eye were looking through a tiny, pixel-sized window into the
three-dimensional world.
● The eye then follows the ray until the ray either hits an object or exits from the viewable
world.
● If the ray hits an object the program calculates the color of the object at the point where it
has been hit.
● This color becomes the color of the pixel through which the ray has been cast.
● The algorithm steps through all the pixels of the image in the same fashion, casting a ray
through each one and calculating its color.

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2.Shading Algorithm
● To actually calculate the color at a point, another algorithm called a shading algorithm is
used to calculate the shading of a surface.
● One simplifying assumption made by a shading algorithm is that any flat surface is the
same color at every point on the surface.
● Rendering each flat surface with only one color gives objects a faceted look and therefore
is called faceted shading.
● Faceted shading results in very fast renderings and so appears in many 3D packages.
● In order to calculate the color of a given surface any shading algorithm must know
whether the surface faces towards or away from light.
● Accordingly the surface will appear lighter or darker. frorder to determine the direction in
which the surface faces, computer graphics programs employ use the surface normal.
● A surface normal is a line perpendicular to a surface at a given point on that surface and is
represented by an arrow coming off the surface.
● For a flat surface a single surface normal suffices to indicate the orientation of the entire
surface
● Using surface normals a rendering program can calculate the exact angle at which a
surface is oriented toward the light.
● The surfaces which directly faces the light appears light, those facing away from the light
are dark. Refer Fig.

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● Although all points on a flat surface face in the same direction, a curved surface is more
complicated.
● Many normals are necessary in order to describe the orientation of a curved surface,
because each point on the surface faces in a different direction.
3 Z-BUFFER ALGORITHM.
● It is also called a Depth Buffer Algorithm.

● Depth buffer algorithm is the simplest image space algorithm.

● For each pixel on the display screen, we keep a record of the depth of an object within the
pixel that lies closest to the observer.

4.RAY TRACING ALGORITHM

The ray-tracing algorithm takes an image made of pixels. For each pixel in the picture, it shoots a
primary ray into the scene. The direction of that primary ray is obtained by tracing a line from the eye to
the center of that pixel.
5.POLYGON SUBDIVISION

There are two types of subdivision surfaces, interpolating and approximating. In the first case,
the subdivision surface will pass through the points specified in the input mesh. In the second case, the
input mesh informs, but does not completely constrain the shape of the subdivision surface.

6.ALIASING

Aliasing is an undesirable effect that is seen in sampled systems. When the input frequency is
greater than half the sample frequency, the sampled points do not adequately represent the input signal.
Inputs at these higher frequencies are observed at a lower, aliased frequency.

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MULTIMEDIA COMPRESSION
● Multimedia compression is employing tools and techniques in order to reduce the file
size of various media formats.
● With the development of World Wide Web the importance of compress algorithm was
highlighted because it performs faster in networks due to its highly reduced file size.
●  Furthermore with the popularity of voice and video conferencing over the internet
,compression method for multimedia has reached it next generation to provide smooth
service even in unreliable network infrastructure. 
● Although many methods are used for this purpose, in general these methods can be
divided into two broad categories named Lossless and Lossy methods.

MPEG-1 Audio
○ MPEG, which stands for Moving Picture Experts Group, is the name of a family of
standards used for encoding audio-visual information (e. g. movies, video, music) in a
digital compressed format.
○ MPEG-1 Layer I or II Audio is a generic subband coder operating at bit rates in the range
of 32 to 448 kb/s and supporting sampling frequencies of 32, 44.1 and 48 kHz.
○ Typical bit rates for Layer II are in the range of 128-256 kbit/s, and 384 kb/s for
professional applications.

MPEG-1 Layers I and II (MP1 or MP2) are perceptual audio coders for 1- or 2-channel audio
content.

● Layer I has been designed for applications that require both low complexity decoding and
encoding.
● Layer II provides for a higher compression efficiency for a slightly higher complexity.
● Using MPEG-1 Layer I one can compress high quality audio CD data at a typical bitrate
of 384 kb/s while maintaining a high audio quality after decoding.
● Layer II requires bit rates in the range of 192 to 256 kb/s for near CD quality. A Layer II
decoder can also decode Layer I bitstreams.

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MPEG-1 Layer 3 (or MP3) is a 1- or 2-channel perceptual audio coder that provides excellent
compression of music signals.

● Compared to Layer 1 and Layer 2 it provides a higher compression efficiency.

● It can typically compress high quality audio CD data by a factor of 12 while maintaining
a high audio quality.
● In general MP3 is appropriate for applications involving storage or transmission of mono
or stereo music or other audio signals.
● Since it is implemented on virtually all digital audio devices playback is always ensured
● Thanks to its low complexity decoding combined with high robustness against cascaded
encoding/decoding and transmission errors, MPEG-1 Layer II is used in digital audio and
video broadcast applications (DVB and DAB).
● It is also used in Video CD, as well as in a variety of studio applications.
● Layer 3, or as it is mostly called nowadays ”mp3”, is the most pervasive audio coding
format for storage of music on PC platforms, and transmission of music over the Internet.
● Mp3 has created  a new class of consumer electronics devices named after it, the mp3
player.
● It is found on almost all CD and DVD players and in an increasing number of car stereo
systems and new innovative home stereo devices like networked home music servers.
● Additionally, Layer 3 finds wide application in satellite digital audio broadcast and on
cellular phones.
● MPEG-1 Layer 3 was standardized for the higher sampling rates of 32, 44.1 and 48 kHz
in MPEG-1 in 1992..
● Figure 1 shows a high level overview of the MPEG-1 Layers I and II coders.
● The input signal is transformed into 32 subband signals that are uniformly distributed over
frequency by means of a critically sampled QMF filterbank.
● The critically down sampled subband signals are grouped in a so called allocation frame
(384 and 1152 subband samples for Layer I and II respectively).
● By means of Adaptive PCM, these allocation frames are subsequently quantized and
coded into an MPEG-1 bitstream.
● At the decoder side, the bitstream is decoded into the subband samples which are
subsequently fed into the inverse QMF filterbank.

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Figure 1 – High level overview of MPEG-1 Layers I and II coder

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MPEG-1 VIDEO

● The MPEG-1 video part provides efficient encoding of non-interlaced video at around 1,15
Mbit/s with roughly VHS video quality.
● MPEG-1 video compression is based on the fact that there is a lot of overlap between the
different pictures (frames).
● Only the difference between pictures is coded. MPEG-1 also uses prediction techniques to
compensate for motion, e.g to predict where a ball is which goes from side of a picture to the
other side in a number of pictures.
I-frames (intra frames) are index frames that consume the most amount of data - because other frame
types reference back to them, which in turn means a video has to start with an I frame

P-frames(predicted frames) are reference frames that look backwards in the file for redundancies
(repeats of data -- such as the same colored background) in previous frames

B-frames(bi-directionally predicted) are bi-directional frames that look forward and backwards for
redundancies.

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MPEG-2 AUDIO
● he MPEG-2 audio andard was designed for applications ranging from digital HDTV television
transmission to Internet downloading.
● It uses lower sampling frequencies (16 kHz, 22,05 kHz, 24 kHz) providing better sound quality
at low bit rates (below 64 Kbps/channel).
● The MPEG-2 standard encompasses the MPEG-1 standard using the same coding and decoding
principles as MPEG-1.
● It is thus, backward compatiblog to MPEG-1 and also known as MPEG-2 BC (Backward
Compatible).
● The MPEG-2 audio standard was approved by the MPEG committee in November 1994, and is
specified in ISO/IEC 13818-3.
● It uses a 5 channel approach (3 front and 2 surround" channels) and achieves a combined bit rate
of 384 Kbps.
● The MPEG-2AAC (advance audio coding) format codes stereo or multichannel sound at 64
Kbps/channel.
● It is specified in the ISO/IEC 13818-7 standard and finalized in April 1997. MPEG-2 AAC is not
backward compatible with MPEG-1.
● By lifting the constraint of compatibility better performance is achieved compared to MPEG-2
BC.
● MPEG-2 AAC support standard sampling frequencies of 32, 44.1 and 48 kHz as well as other
rates from 8 to 96 kHz yielding maximum data rate of 48 Kbps and 576 Kbps.
MPEG-2 BC
● A backward compatible extension of MPEG-1 to multichannel sound with support fo five
full bandwidth channels and one low frequency channel, referred to an 5.1 channel
● .This part of the standard is known as MPEG-2 BC and can be read and decoded by an
MPEG-1 decoder. MPEG-2 BC has the standard three layer structure of MPEG-1.
● When decoding an MPEG-2 BC stream, an MPEG-1 decoder will combine all the
multi-channels into two stereo channels.
● Due to the compatibility MPEG-1 audio can be used together with MPEG-2 video and
conversely MPEG-2 BC audio can be used with MPEG-1 video.

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● When the MPEG-2 audio standard was published in 1995, it was discovered there were
scopes of improvements on certain functionalities.
● Accordingly a second edition of the MPEG-2 BC was developed with some minor
corrections, involving improvements in crosstalk and the low frequency channel.
● Other than these certain editorial changes have been made improving readability and
clarity.
MPEG-2 AAC
● A new coding scheme which is not backward compatible with MPEG-1, known as
Advanced Audio Coding (AAC).
● Due to removal of compatibility constraints, MPEG- 2 AAC is considered to be an
improved standard compared to MPEG-2 BC providing very high audio quality at 64
Kbps/channel for multichannel operation.
● It provides support for 48 main audio channels, 16 low frequency effects (LFE) channels
and 16 multi-lingual channels MPEG-2 AAC implements three different coder complexity
and performance schemes called profiles.
● These are Main Frofile, Low Complexity Profile and Scalable Sampling Rate Profile.
● The LC profile is the simplest and uses the least processing and memory resources, the
Main profile improves upon the LC with backward prediction while the SSR profile
provides for a scalable decoder.
● The main application areas for MPEG-2 AAC are Internet audio, audio for digital
television and radio, and portable playback devices, MPEG-2 AAC can be considered as a
successor of the MP3 as it can provide the same quality sound with larger compression
factors.
● One of the competing standards to MPEG-2 AAC is Dolby AC-3, both of which are based
on transform coders.
● In April, 2003, Apple Computer brought mainstream attention to AAC by announcing
that its iTunes and iPod products would support songs in AAC-format (via a firmware
update for older iPods), and that customers could download popular songs in this format
via the iTunes Music Store.
● AAC has now become so associated with Apple hardware and software that people are
commonly of the mistaken belief that AAC expands to Apple Audio Codec. MPEG-2

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audio has been further improved in the MPEG-4 standard to form the High Efficiency
AAC (HE-AAC) standard.

MPEG-2 VIDEO

MPEG-2 formally referred to as ISO/IEC specification 13818 and was completed in 1994. Specifically
the MPEG-2 was developed to provide video quality not lower than and upto HDTV quality.

Its target bit rates are 2 to 15 Mbps and it is optimized at 4Mbps The basic coding structure of MPEG-2
video is the same as that of MPEG-1, that is, interframe and intraframe compression with I, Pand B
frames, The most important features include:

● Field/Frame Prediction Modes for Supporting Interlaced Video Here each frame
consists of two fields, a top field and a bottom field. Each field can bepredicted from
either field of the previous anchor frame.
● Field/Frame DCT Coding Syntax Allows adaptive selection whether DCT isto be
applied at the field level or the frame level.
● Pan Provides for parameters used to display a specified rectangle within a frame thereby
including the option for panning For example a 4:3 region may be used to pan a 16:9
frame.
● Scalability MPEG-2 has several scalability features which includes spatial
scalability(allows multi-resolution coding), temporal scalability (allows multiple field
interlacing),SNR scalability (encoding at multiple quality levels).
● Error Concealment Features for concealing errors in a noisy channel environment.

Levels

The standard provides for four levels of video resolutions:

● Low Based on the SIF resolution of 352 by 288 pixels, it is compatible with MPEG-1.format
and produces VHS-quality. The audio is CD-quality and the bitrate is upto 4 Mbps,

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● Main Based on a resolution of 720 by 576 pixels, it produces studio quality video and audio.
The bit rate is about 20 Mbps with 4:2:2 chroma sub-sampling scheme.
● High 1440 Based on a resolution of 1440 by 1152 pixels, it produces HDTV quality audio and
video. The bit rate is about 80 Mbps with 4:2:2 chroma sub-sampling scheme.
● High Based on a resolution of 1920 by 1152 pixels, it provides quality for wide screenHDTV,
with a bit rate of about 100 Mbps with 4:2:2 chroma sub-sampling scheme
Profiles
● Simple profile: This is for low cost and low delay applications, allowing frame sizes up to SD
resolution (ITU-R Rec. BT.601) and frame rates up to 30 Hz. Usage of B frames is not allowed.
● Main profile: This is the most widely used MPEG-2 profile, defined for SD and HD resolution
applications in storage and transmission, without providing compatible decoding of different
resolutions. All interlaced-specific prediction modes as well as B frames are supported.
● SNR Scalable profile: Similar to Main profile, but allows in addition SNR scalability invoking
drift at the base layer; resolutions up to SD are supported.
● Spatial scalable profile: Allows usage of (drift free) spatial scalability, also in combination with
SNR scalability.
● High profile: Similar to Spatial Scalable profile, but supporting a wider range of levels, and
allowing 4:2:2 chrominance sampling additionally. This profile was primarily defined for
upward/downward compatible coding between SD and HD resolutions, allowing embedded
bitstreams for up to 3 layers with a maximum of two different spatial resolutions.

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UNIT-V

QUESTIONS
SECTION A
1. CODECS stands for _______.
2. MPEG stands for _________.
3. _________ is the process of generating an image from a model by means of computer program.
4. Define Animation.
5. What is Tweening.
6. What is Aliasing.
7. A set of still images is called __________.
8. SECAM is a _______.
9. __________ animation is also known as sprite animation.
10. _______ coding technique is known as predictive coding technique.
SECTION B
1. Describe the various audio and video standards.
2. Explain the cell animation.
3. How to edit video? Explain.
4. Explain the Rendering algorithm.
5. Explain the method to generate YC signals from RGB..
6. Explain various video signal formats.
7. Discuss the roles of I,P and B frames of MPEG-1 video standard.
8. Explain about television broadcasting standards.
9. Explain the Principles of Animation.
10. Discuss about Special Effects.

SECTION C
1. Describe how rendering algorithms helps to create special effects.
2. Explain briefly about: i) Video Editing ii) Analog Video Camera.
3. Explain the concepts of video editing.
4. Discuss any four rendering algorithms.
5. Discuss the various principles of animation.
6. Discuss about MPEG-1 audio standard.
7. Explain the following: i) Video signal format ii) PC video iii) Video file format.
8. Describe in detail about the following: i) MPEG-1 Audio ii) MPEG-1 Video.
9. State the principle of animation and explain how animation is carried on the web.
10. Describe in detail about the following: i) MPEG-2 Audio ii) MPEG-2 Video.

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