Studytheme 2.21 - Copper and Copper Alloys

2.
21 COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS

Copper and copper alloys offer a unique combination of properties, among which the most important are
high electrical and thermal conductivity, strength and good corrosion resistance (copper alloys are resistant
to fresh and salt water, alkaline solutions and many organic chemicals). Other useful attributes include
spark resistance, wear resistance, low magnetic permeability, pleasing colour, good machinability and ease
of fabrication. In addition, copper is nonmagnetic and can be welded, brazed and soldered, and is easily
finished by plating or lacquering. Certain of the basic properties of copper can be improved by suitable
alloying.
The greatest single use of copper results from its high electrical conductivity. Copper is widely used for the
manufacture of electrical conductors and electrical equipment and is also the accepted electrical
conductivity standard of the engineering world with a rating of 100%. Copper and its alloys are highly
favoured for architectural applications such as decorative furnishings and roofing. Its good corrosion
resistance also makes copper ideally suited for water tubing, valves, fittings, heat-exchangers, chemical
equipment and bearings. One potential disadvantage is that copper and its alloys react with sulphur and
ammonia compounds, and are rapidly attacked by ammonium hydroxide solutions.
2.21.1 The classification of copper and its alloys:

Many common metals are alloyed with copper, mostly within the limits of solid solubility. The principal
alloying elements in copper are aluminium, nickel, silicon, tin and zinc. Small quantities of other elements
are also added to improve mechanical properties, corrosion resistance or machinability; to provide
response to strengthening heat treatments; or to deoxidise the alloy. Copper and copper alloys are
classified into nine major groups based on the most important alloying element(s):
1. Coppers – 99.3% copper minimum.
2. High-copper alloys - up to 5% of alloying elements.
3. Copper-zinc alloys (brass).
4. Copper-tin alloys (phosphor or tin bronze).
5. Copper-aluminium alloys (aluminium bronze).
6. Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronze).
7. Copper-nickel alloys (cupronickels).
8. Copper-nickel-zinc alloys (nickel silvers).
9. Special alloys.
These alloys can be further divided into wrought and cast alloy categories, as shown in Table 2.21.1. The
compositions and physical properties of selected wrought copper alloys are given in Table 2.21.2. Copper
and copper alloys are generally classified using a five-digit number according to the unified numbering
system (UNS). Copper alloys C1XXXX to C7XXXX are wrought alloys, and C8XXXX to C9XXXX are cast alloys.
Therefore an alloy manufactured in both wrought and cast forms can have two numbers depending on the
method of manufacture.
The physical properties of copper alloys, such as the melting temperature range, coefficient of thermal
expansion, and the electrical and thermal conductivity, are important for welding, brazing and soldering.
The thermal conductivities of copper and copper alloys shown in Table 2.21.2 indicate that the addition of
alloying elements drastically decreases the conductivity of copper alloys. The conductivity will significantly
affect the welding procedures used for the alloy.
2.21.1.1 Commercially pure coppers:

Most of the copper used for electrical conductors contains more than 99.9% copper and is identified as
oxygen-free high-conductivity copper (OFHC) or electrolytic tough-pitch copper (ETP). The oxygen-free
coppers (UNS C10100 to C10800) contain a maximum of 10 ppm oxygen and a minimum of 0.01% total of
other elements. It is produced by melting and casting under a reducing atmosphere that prevents oxygen
contamination. No deoxidising agent is introduced in the production of OFHC copper, but oxygen can be
absorbed from the atmosphere during heating at high temperatures. Absorbed oxygen can produce
Welding Metallurgy NSW700

Study Theme 2.21- Page | 1
problems during subsequent welding or brazing operations. Oxygen-free copper has excellent ductility and
is readily joined by welding, brazing or soldering. Silver may be added to oxygen-free copper to increase
the elevated temperature strength without changing the electrical conductivity. Silver increases the
allowable creep stress and prevents appreciable softening of cold-worked copper during short-term
elevated temperature exposure. The silver addition does not affect the joining characteristics. Oxygen-free
copper is often used in electronic tubes or similar applications because it makes a perfect seal to glass.
Table 2.21.1. Classification of copper and copper alloys.
Category Description Range of UNS numbers

Wrought alloys
Copper Copper-99,3% minimum C10100 - C15760
High-copper alloys Copper-96,0 to 99,2% C16200 - C19750
Brasses Copper-zinc alloys C20500 - C28580
Leaded brasses Copper-zinc-lead alloys C31200 - C38590
Tin brasses Copper-zinc-tin alloys C40400 - C49080
Phosphor bronzes Copper-tin alloys C50100 - C52400
Leaded phosphor bronzes Copper-tin-lead alloys C53200 - C54800
Aluminium bronzes Copper-aluminium alloys C60600 - C64400
Silicon bronzes Copper-silicon alloys C64700 - C66100
Miscellaneous bronzes Copper-zinc alloys C66400 - C69950
Cupronickels Copper-3 to 30% nickel C70100 - C72950
Nickel silvers Copper-nickel-zinc alloys C73150 - C79900
Cast alloys
Coppers Copper-99,3% minimum C80100 - C81200
High-copper alloys Copper-94 to 99,2% C81300 - C82800
Red brasses Copper-tin-zinc & copper-tin-zinc-lead C83300 - C83810
Semi-red brasses Copper-tin-zinc & copper-tin-zinc-lead C84200 - C84800
Yellow brasses Copper-tin-zinc & copper-tin-zinc-lead C85200 - C85800
Manganese bronze Copper-zinc-iron alloys C86100 - C86800
Silicon bronzes and silicon brasses Copper-zinc-silicon alloys C87300 - C87900
Tin bronzes Copper-tin alloys C90200 - C91700
Leaded tin bronzes Copper-tin-lead alloys C92200 - C94500
Nickel-tin bronzes Copper-tin-nickel alloys C94700 - C 94900
Aluminium bronzes Copper-aluminium-iron and copper- C95200 - C95900
aluminium-iron-nickel alloys
Cupronickels Copper-nickel-iron alloys C96200 - C96900
Nickel silvers Copper-nickel-zinc alloys C97300 - C97800
Leaded coppers Copper-lead alloys C98200 - C98840
Special alloys C99300 - C99750
Electrolytic tough-pitch coppers contain minimal impurities and between 0.02 and 0.05% residual oxygen.
It is commonly used for roofing, gutters, downspouts, automobile radiators and gaskets, kettles, vats,
pressure vessels, and distillery and other process equipment. The oxygen in oxygen-bearing copper is
usually present in the form of eutectic cuprous oxide (Cu2O) globules throughout the wrought forms.
Although this condition does not affect mechanical properties or conductivity, it makes ETP copper
susceptible to embrittlement when heated in the presence of hydrogen. Hydrogen rapidly diffuses into the
metal, reducing the oxides and forming steam at the grain boundaries. The metal will rupture when
stressed. When oxygen-bearing coppers are heated to high temperatures, the Cu2O tends to concentrate
in the grain boundaries causing a major reduction in strength and ductility. After working and annealing,
the interdendritic network is destroyed, and the strength is improved. Fusion welding of oxygen-bearing
copper for structural applications is not recommended. Embrittlement will be less severe with a rapid
solid-state welding process such as friction welding. Appropriate silver brazing procedures and soft
soldering can be used successfully to join oxygen-bearing copper.

Table 2.21.2. Nominal compositions, melting points, relative thermal conductivities and weldabilities of wrought
coppers and copper alloys that are commonly arc welded.
b
Relative Weldability
Melting
UNS No. Alloy name Nominal composition, % thermal
point, °C a
GTAW GMAW SMAW
conductivity
OCF and ETP coppers
C10200 Oxygen-free copper (OFC) 99.95 Cu 1083 100 G G NR
C11000 Electrolytic tough-pitch copper (ETP) 99.9Cu-0.04O2 1083 100 F F NR
Deoxidised coppers
C12000 Phosphorus-deoxidised copper, low P (DLP) 99.9Cu-0.008P 1083 99 E E NR
C12000 Phosphorus-deoxidised copper, high P (DHP) 99.9Cu-0.02P 1083 87 E E NR
Beryllium coppers
c
C17500 High-conductivity beryllium copper, 0.6% 96.9Cu-0.6Be-2.5Co 1068 53-66 F F F
c
C17000 High-strength beryllium copper, 1.7% 98.3Cu-1.7Be 982 27-33 G G G
c
C17200 High-strength beryllium copper, 1.9% 98.1Cu-1.9Be 982 27-33 G G G
Low-zinc brasses
C21000 Gilding, 95% 95Cu-5Zn 1066 60 G G NR
C22000 Commercial bronze, 90% 90Cu-10Zn 1043 48 G G NR
C23000 Red brass, 85% 85Cu-15Zn 1027 41 G G NR
C24000 Low brass, 80% 80Cu-20Zn 999 36 G G NR
High-zinc brasses
C26000 Cartridge brass, 70% 70Cu-30Zn 954 31 F F NR
C26800 Yellow brass, 66% 65Cu-35Zn 932 30 F F NR
C28000 Muntz metal, 60% 60Cu-40Zn 904 31 F F NR
Tin brasses
C44300 Admiralty brass 71Cu-28Zn-1Sn
d 934 28 F F NR
C46400 Naval brass 60Cu-39.25Zn-0.75Sn
d 899 30 F F NR
Special brasses
C67500 Manganese bronze A 58.5Cu-39Zn-1.4Fe-1Sn-0.1Mn 888 27 F F NR
C68700 Aluminium brass, arsenical 77.5Cu-20.5Zn-2Al (0.06As) 971 26 F F NR
Nickel silvers
C74500 Nickel silver, 65-10 65Cu-25Zn-10Ni 1021 12 F F NR
C75200 Nickel-silver, 65-18 65Cu-17Zn-18Ni 1110 8 F F NR
Phosphor bronzes
C50500 Phosphor bronze, 1.25% E 98.7Cu-1.3Sn (0.2P) 1077 53 G G F
C51000 Phosphor bronze, 5% A 95Cu-5Sn (0.2 P) 1049 18 G G F
C52100 Phosphor bronze, 8% C 92Cu-8Sn (0.2P) 1027 16 G G F
C52400 Phosphor bronze, 10% D 90Cu-10Sn (0.2P) 999 13 G G F
Aluminium bronzes
C61300 Aluminium bronze D, Sn stabilised 89Cu-7Al-3.5Fe (0.35Sn) 1046 14 G E G
C61400 Aluminium bonze D 91Cu-6/8Al-1.5/3.5Fe-1Mn max 1046 17 G E G
C63000 Aluminium bonze E 82Cu-10Al-5Ni-3Fe 1054 10 G G G
Silicon bronzes
C65100 Low-silicon bronze B 98.5Cu-1.5Si 1060 15 E E F
C65500 High silicon bronze A 97Cu-3Si 1027 9 E E F
Cupronickels
C70600 Copper nickel, 10% 88.6Cu-9/11Ni-1.4Fe-1.0Mn 1149 12 E E G
C71500 Copper nickel, 30% 70Cu-30Ni 1238 8 E E E
a
Based on the thermal conductivity of C10200 as 100. Carbon steel has a conductivity of 13 on this scale.
b
E = excellent, G = good, F = fair, NR = not recommended.
c
In the precipitation-hardened condition.
d
Alloys C44300 and C46500 contain a nominal amount of 0.06% As; alloys C44400 and C46600 a nominal amount of 0.06% Sb; and alloys
C44500 and C46700 a nominal amount of 0.06% P.

2.21.1.2 Temper designation of copper and copper alloys:
Since copper and most copper alloys are homogeneous single-phase materials, they are not susceptible to
heat treatment, and their strength may be altered only by cold working. There are two general classes of
temper for non-heat treatable wrought copper alloys: cold-worked and soft or annealed. The different
cold-worked tempers shown in Table 2.21.3 are obtained by cold-working the annealed material by a
specific amount. The percentage reduction for strip is based on thickness difference and for wire on area
difference.
Table 2.21.3. Cold-worked temper designations.
Approximate % reduction by cold working
Description
Strip Wire
Quarter hard 10.9 20.7
Half hard 20.7 37.1
Three-quarter hard 29.4 50.0
Hard 37.1 60.5
Extra hard 50.0 75.0
Spring 60.5 84.4
Extra spring 68.7 90.2
2.21.1.3 Copper alloys:

The most important commercial copper alloys are classified as follows:
I. Brasses - alloys of copper and zinc.
A: Alpha brasses – alloys containing up to 36% zinc.
1. Yellow alpha brasses – 20 to 36% zinc.
2. Red brasses – 5 to 20% zinc.
B. Alpha + beta brasses – 54 to 62% copper.
II. Bronzes – up to 12% of alloying element.
A: Tin bronzes.
B: Silicon bronzes.
C. Aluminium bronzes.
D. Beryllium bronzes.
III. Cupronickels – alloys of copper and nickel.
IV. Nickel silvers – alloys of copper, nickel and zinc.
These alloys are briefly considered below.
• Brasses:
Brasses are essentially alloys of copper and zinc, with small amounts of other elements such as lead, tin or
aluminium. Variations in composition will result in the desired colour, strength, ductility, machinability,
corrosion resistance, or a combination of such properties. The portion of the Cu-Zn phase diagram
applicable to commercial brass alloys is shown in Figure 7.1. The solubility of zinc in the FCC α-phase
increases from 32.5% at 903°C to about 39% at 454°C. The β-phase is BCC and undergoes ordering,
indicated by the dot-dash line in Figure 2.21.1. The ordering reaction is so rapid that it cannot be
prevented by quenching. The addition of zinc to copper increases both the strength and ductility of the
alloys. The best combination of strength and ductility is obtained in 70Cu-30Zn brass.
− Alpha brasses: The alpha brasses contain up to 36% Zn and possess relatively good corrosion resistance
and working properties. The colour of alpha brass varies from red to yellow according to the copper
content. The yellow alpha brasses (20 to 36% Zn) combine good strength with high ductility and are
suited for drastic cold-working operations. These brasses are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking
(season cracking) after cold-working, particularly in ammonia atmospheres, and to dezincification. The
most widely used yellow alpha brasses are cartridge brass (70Cu-30Zn) and yellow brass (65Cu-35Zn).

Typical applications of these alloys include rivets, springs, fasteners, plumbing accessories, ammunition
components and lamp fixtures. The red alpha brasses contain between 5 and 20% zinc and generally
have better corrosion resistance than yellow brasses. The red brasses are not susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking or dezincification. The most common red brasses are gilding metal (95Cu-5Zn),
commercial bronze (90Cu-10Zn), red brass (85Cu-15Zn) and low brass (80Cu-20Zn). Typical applications
of red brasses include coins, medals, costume jewellery, rivets and screws, and it is also used as a base
for articles to be gold-plated or highly polished.
Figure 2.21.1. The Cu-rich portion of the Cu-Zn phase diagram.

− Alpha + beta brasses: The dual-phase alpha + beta brasses contain from 54 to 62% copper.
Consideration of Figure 2.21.1 shows that these alloys will consist of two phases, α and β’. The beta
phase is harder and more brittle than alpha and therefore these alloys are more difficult to deform. At
elevated temperature the beta phase becomes very plastic, and since most of these alloys may be
heated into the single-phase beta region, they have excellent hot-working properties. The most widely
used alpha + beta brass is Muntz metal (60Cu-40Zn), which has high strength and excellent hot-working
properties. Additions of lead, tin and manganese improve the hot-working properties. Typical
applications of the alpha + beta brasses are valve stems, brazing rods, architectural work, condenser
heads and ship-sheathing.
• Bronzes:
The term bronze was originally applied to copper-tin alloys, however, the term is now used for any copper
alloy, with the exception of copper-zinc alloys, that contain up to approximately 12% of the principal
alloying element. Commercial bronzes are primarily alloys of copper and tin, aluminium, silicon or
beryllium. In addition they may contain phosphorus, lead, zinc or nickel.
− Tin bronzes: The tin bronzes are generally referred to as phosphor bronzes since phosphorus is always
present as a deoxidiser in castings. The usual range of phosphorus contents is between 0.01 and 0.5%,
and that of tin between 1 and 11%. The copper-rich portion of the Cu-Sn phase diagram is shown in
Figure 2.21.2. The β-phase forms as a result of a peritectic reaction at 798°C. At 586°C, the β-phase
undergoes a eutectoid reaction to form the eutectoid mixture (α+γ). At 520°C, γ also undergoes a
eutectoid reaction to (α+δ). The diagram also predicts the decomposition of the δ-phase, but this
reaction is so sluggish that the ε-phase is nonexistent in commercial alloys. There is a considerable
decrease in the solubility of tin in the α-phase. The precipitation of the δ- or ε-phases due to this
change in solubility is so slow that, for practical purposes, the solvus line is as indicated by the vertical
dotted line. The phosphor bronzes are characterised by high strength, toughness, high corrosion
resistance, low coefficient of friction, and freedom from stress corrosion cracking. They are used
extensively for diaphragms, bellows, bushings, clutch disks and springs. Zinc is sometimes used to
replace some of the tin. The result is an improvement in the casting properties and toughness, with
little effect on the wear resistance. Lead can be added to tin bronze to improve machinability and wear
resistance.

Figure 2.21.2. The Cu-rich portion of the Cu-Sn phase diagram.
− Silicon bronzes: The copper-rich portion of the Cu-Si phase diagram is shown in Figure 2.21.3. The
solubility of copper in the α-phase is 5.3% at 852°C, and decreases with temperature. The eutectoid
reaction at 554°C is very sluggish, so that commercial silicon bronzes, that generally contain less than 5%
silicon, are single-phase alloys. Silicon bronzes are the strongest of the work-hardenable copper alloys.
They have mechanical properties comparable to those of mild steel and corrosion resistance comparable
to that of copper. The Si-bronzes are used for tanks, pressure vessels, marine construction and hydraulic
pressure lines.
Figure 2.21.3. The Cu-rich portion of the Cu-Si system.
− Aluminium bronzes: The Cu-rich portion of the Cu-Al system is shown in Figure 2.21.4. The maximum
solubility of aluminium in the α-phase is approximately 9.5% at 566°C. The β-phase undergoes a
eutectoid reaction at 566°C to form the (α+γ2) mixture. Most commercial aluminium bronzes contain
between 4 and 11% aluminium. Those alloys containing up to 7.5% aluminium are usually single-phase,
while those containing between 7.5 and 11% aluminium are two-phase alloys. Other elements such as
iron, nickel, manganese and silicon are frequently added to aluminium bronzes. The single-phase
aluminium bronzes show good cold-working properties and good strength combined with corrosion
resistance to atmospheric and water attack. They are used for condenser tubes, corrosion-resistant
vessels, nuts and bolts, and protective sheathing in marine applications. The dual-phase aluminium
bronzes can be heat treated to obtain structures similar to those in steel. Figure 2.21.5(a) shows the
structure of primary α and granular eutectoid (α+γ2), representative of an as-cast 10% aluminium bronze.

On furnace cooling from above the eutectoid temperatures, a lamellar structure resembling pearlite is
formed (Figure 2.21.5(b)). If the dual-phase alloy is quenched from temperatures in the range of 815°C to
870°C, a needle-like structure resembling martensite is formed (Figure 2.21.5(c)). The quenched
structures are tempered to increase strength and hardness. Heat-treated aluminium bronzes are used
for gears, blades, pump parts, bearings, and drawing and forming dies.
Figure 2.21.4. The Cu-rich portion of the Cu-Al phase diagram.
Figure 2.21.5. Structures of aluminium bronze. (a) As-cast 10% Al-bronze showing primary α and granular
eutectoid, (b) furnace-cooled Al-bronze showing lamellar eutectoid, and (c) quenched Al-bronze showing a
martensitic β structure.
− Beryllium bronze: The solubility of Be in the α-phase decreases from 2,1% at 866°C to less than 0,25%
at room temperature. Such a change in solubility is always indicative of age-hardening possibilities.
The optimum mechanical properties are obtained in an alloy containing approximately 2% beryllium. A
typical heat treatment cycle for this alloy would be a solution anneal at 790°C, followed by water
quenching, cold-working, and finally an aging heat treatment at 315°C. Aging allows the precipitation
of very fine γ-phase particles throughout the α matrix. Beryllium bronzes are used for parts requiring a
combination of excellent formability in the soft condition with high yield strength and creep resistance
in the hardened condition (many springs); parts requiring corrosion resistance, high strength and
relatively high electrical conductivity (contact bridges, surgical instruments, diaphragms, bolts and
screws); and hard parts that will wear well against hardened steel (firing pins, dies, nonsparking tools).

• Cupronickels:
These are Cu-Ni alloys that contain up to 30% nickel. Cu and Ni are completely soluble, so all cupronickels
are single-phase alloys. They are not susceptible to heat treatment and may have their properties altered
only by cold-working. The cupronickels have high resistance against corrosion fatigue and high resistance
against the corrosive and erosive action of rapidly moving sea water. They are widely used for condenser,
distiller, evaporator, and heat exchanger tubes for naval vessels and coastal power plants.
• Nickel silvers:
These are essentially ternary alloys of copper, nickel and zinc. Commercial alloys are produced with the
following range of compositions: copper 50 to 70%, nickel 5 to 30%, and zinc 5 to 40%. The nickel silver
alloys containing more than 60% copper are single-phase alloys that show only fair hot-working properties,
but are ductile and easily worked at room temperature. The addition of nickel to Cu-Zn alloys gives it a
pleasing silver-blue colour and good corrosion resistance to food chemicals, water and the atmosphere.
These alloys make excellent base metals for plating with chromium, nickel or silver. They are used for
rivets, screws, zippers and costume jewellery.
The nickel silvers containing between 50 and 60% copper are dual phase (α+β) alloys. They can be readily
hot-worked and are less susceptible to stress corrosion cracking than binary Cu-Zn alloys of the same Zn
content. Typical applications of the dual-phase nickel silvers include springs and contacts in telephone
equipment, resistance wire, and surgical and dental equipment.
2.21.2 The welding metallurgy of copper and copper alloys:

In manufacturing, copper is often joined by welding, and arc welding is the most important of the joining
processes employed. Gas welding was the first fusion process to be applied successfully to commercially
pure copper, with joints of acceptable strength being possible in phosphorus-deoxidised copper. More
recently, inert gas shielded processes, using argon, helium or nitrogen as shielding gas, have greatly
broadened the applicability of fusion welding to copper alloys. Coated electrode welding of pure copper,
brass and cupronickel has not been successful in practice and, although satisfactory tin bronze and
aluminium bronze electrodes are available, these are mainly used for weld overlays and dissimilar metal
joints. Arc welding can be performed by SMAW, GTAW (including the pulsed-current mode), GMAW
(including the pulsed-current and fine-wire modes), PAW and SAW. In all processes, the dominant factors
establishing weldability are the thermal conductivity, and the alloy type with reference to the solidification
range and low-melting point constituents.
The copper alloys which are most frequently arc welded are listed in Table 2.21.2, which gives the alloy
number using the UNS system, the nominal composition, its melting point, relative thermal conductivity,
and relative weldability employing GTAW, GMAW or SMAW. GTAW is the most commonly used arc
welding process for joining copper and copper alloys. It features the intense localised heat input that is
needed in joining the high conductivity alloys, good control and ready automation. Its variant, PAW, is used
where tip life is an important consideration, as in automated processes. It can be used with or without
filler metal, but autogenous welding is limited to thin sections. Sections up to 12.7 mm can be welded by
GTAW, but a more common limit is 3.2 mm. When welding thin sections where heat input is critical, the
pulsed-current mode may be employed. For section thicknesses greater than 12.7 mm, GMAW is the
preferred process. It features high heat input and high deposition rates. When used in out-of-position
welding, pulsed GMAW is preferred.
SMAW is employed because of its simplicity, versatility and ability to reach relatively inaccessible joints, the
mobility of the equipment and the availability of filler metal. Generally labour costs are higher than for
GMAW, where speeds are typically faster by a factor of four. When welding high-conductivity coppers,
even with preheat, GMAW is preferred.
Because of the reduction in strength, formation of oxides, or volatilisation of elements that often
accompanies arc welding, brazing is often selected for joining Cu alloys.

2.21.2.1 Effect of alloying elements on welding:
Several alloying elements have pronounced effects on the welding behaviour of copper and copper alloys.
Small amounts of volatile, toxic alloying elements are often present in copper and its alloys and, as a result,
the use of an effective ventilation system to protect the welder and to recover dust, fumes and mists is
more critical than for ferrous metals.
• Free-machining additives: Low melting elements such as lead, tellurium and sulphur, that are
sometimes added to copper alloys to improve machinability, make them susceptible to hot cracking in
welding. The adverse effect on weldability begins to be evident at about 0.05% of the additive and is
more severe with larger additions. Lead is the most harmful of these alloying elements with respect to
the weldability of copper-based alloys. Free-machining copper alloys (that usually contain between 0.5
and 4% lead) are not ordinarily welded and are not listed in Table 2.21.2.
• Zinc: Zinc reduces the weldability of all the brasses and nickel silvers shown in Table 2.21.2,
approximately in proportion to the amount present. Zinc has a low boiling point and vapourises during
welding. Toxic vapours are emitted when these alloys are welded. Efficient forced ventilation is
mandatory, and a recovery system should be used to condense the fumes. Vapourisation during
welding can lead to porosity, which can be minimised by increasing the travel speed and by using filler
metal with a low zinc content.
• Tin: Tin increases susceptibility to hot cracking during welding in amounts of about 1 to 10%, as in the
phosphor bronzes and tin brasses, and thus reduces weldability. Compared with zinc, tin is less volatile
and much less toxic. During welding, the tin may oxidise preferentially to the copper, and the strength
of the weld may be reduced because of oxide entrapment. Tin oxide, however, is readily fluxed.
• Beryllium, aluminium and nickel: Be, Al and Ni form tightly adherent oxides that must be removed by
cleaning before welding. Formation of these oxides on the heated copper alloy must be prevented by
gas shielding or by fluxes, in combination with selection of the appropriate type of welding current.
Nickel oxides do not interfere with arc welding to the same extent as the oxides of beryllium and
aluminium. Thus, the nickel silvers and cupronickels are less sensitive to the type of welding current
used.
• Oxygen: Oxygen as a gas or in the form of cuprous oxide may cause porosity and reduce the strength
of welds made in alloys that do not contain enough phosphorus or other deoxidisers. Most copper
alloys that are welded contain deoxidising elements (usually P, Si, Al, Fe or Mn) that preferentially
combine with oxygen. These deoxidisers are also included in filler metals. The soundness and strength
of arc welds made in commercial coppers depend on the cuprous oxide content. Soundness increases
as the oxide content decreases. Best results are obtained for deoxidised coppers, because they are free
from cuprous oxide and contain residual phosphorus.
• Silicon: Silicon has a beneficial effect on the weldability of copper-silicon alloys because of its
deoxidising and fluxing action. This effect, combined with low thermal conductivity, makes silicon
bronzes the most weldable of the copper alloys by arc processes.
• Phosphorus: Phosphorus does not adversely affect weldability in the amounts normally present in
copper alloys. It is beneficial to certain coppers and copper alloys as a strengthener and deoxidiser.
When added to brass, phosphorus inhibits dezincification. Phosphorus has a low boiling point and may
vapourise during welding.
• Cadmium: Cadmium in copper (up to 1.25%) poses no serious problem during arc welding. However, it
evaporates fairly easily from copper at the welding temperature, thereby creating porosity and a
potential health hazard. A small amount of cadmium oxide may form in the molten weld metal but is
easily fluxed away.
• Chromium: Chromium, like beryllium and aluminium, can form a refractory oxide on the molten weld
pool. Arc welding should be performed using a protective atmosphere over the weld pool.

• Iron and manganese: Iron, which is present in some special brasses, aluminium bronzes and copper
alloys in amounts of 1.4 to 3.5%, does not significantly affect the weldability of these alloys.
Manganese, which is present in some of these alloys in lower concentrations than iron, has no
measurable effect on welding.
Copper and copper alloy welds may be susceptible to solidification cracking, softening in the HAZ, and the
formation of lack of fusion defects and porosity. These potential problems are considered in the following
sections.
2.21.2.2 The effect of high thermal conductivity:

The high electrical and thermal conductivity of copper and certain high-copper alloys has a marked effect
on weldability. Table 2.21.2 shows the relative thermal conductivities of copper and copper alloys, based
on the conductivity of alloy C10200. During welding, heat is rapidly conducted away from the weld into the
base metal and may promote incomplete fusion in welds. In welding commercial coppers and lightly
alloyed copper materials, the type of current and shielding gas must be selected for maximum heat input to
counteract the rapid heat dissipation from the weld region.
Rapid thermal conductivity may give rise to defects such as cold shuts and lack of side-wall fusion in
welding pure copper, particularly if the side-wall section thickness is 25 mm or more. In order to increase
the heat input per current increment (ampere), nitrogen is sometimes added as a shielding gas for both
GTAW and GMAW. With nitrogen shielding and GTAW, 5 mm copper may be joined in one pass without
preheat, as compared with 3 mm thickness under argon shielding. With pure nitrogen shielding, the
transfer characteristics of gas metal arc welds are poor, but with Ar-30%N2 mixtures, the good penetration
of nitrogen shielding is combined with the good transfer characteristics of argon.
If the heat input is still inadequate, preheat will reduce the heat input requirements necessary for good
fusion. Preheat temperatures of up to 600°C have been used for welding thick copper sections. Such
preheats require insulation of the article to be welded and protective clothing for the welder. Even the less
conductive copper alloys may require preheating (depending on the section thickness), in spite of the
concentrated heat input of arc welding processes. The interpass temperature should be the same as that
for preheating. Copper alloys are not postweld heat treated as often as alloy steels, but they may require
controlled cooling to minimise residual stress and hot shortness.
The high thermal conductivity of pure copper makes resistance spot and seam welding impractical,
although resistance butt welding with high-capacity machines is possible and is practised for joining wire
bar. The lower-copper alloys have much lower thermal conductivities, however, and normal resistance
welding is possible.
2.21.2.3 Solidification cracking:

Copper alloys with wide solidification temperature ranges, such as Cu-Sn and Cu-Ni alloys, are susceptible
to solidification cracking at the solidification temperatures. The low melting interdendritic liquid solidifies
at a lower temperature than the bulk dendrite and shrinkage stresses produce interdendritic separation
during solidification. Copper and copper alloys are also rendered brittle and sensitive to hot cracking if
excessive amounts of low-melting impurities, notably bismuth and lead, are present. In general, it is
necessary to restrict bismuth and lead contents to low values to avoid hot shortness in the working of
copper and copper alloy products, such that the contaminants do not normally give rise to welding
problems. However, single-phase aluminium bronze is notably sensitive to cracking during fusion welding.
Hot cracking can be minimised by reducing restraint during welding, by preheating to slow the cooling rate
and to reduce the magnitude of the solidification stresses, by minimising the heat input and interpass
temperature, and by reducing the size of the root opening and increasing the size of the root pass.
2.21.2.4 Porosity:
At the typical weld pool temperatures that have been measured in weld pools of gas tungsten arc welded
copper (1350°C at 100 A, and 1890°C at 450 A) the affinity of copper for oxygen is low, while it does not

react with nitrogen at all. However, both gases may dissolve in the liquid metal. When oxygen and
hydrogen are present simultaneously in the liquid metal or in the solid at elevated temperatures, the steam
reaction may occur according to equation (2.21.1):
Cu2O + H2 = 2Cu + H2O …(2.21.1)
Much of the porosity to which fusion welds in copper are subject has been ascribed to the steam reaction.
In addition, it is responsible for the intergranular embrittlement and cracking of the HAZ in tough-pitch
copper welds made by the oxyacetylene process. Hydrogen generated by the combustion of the acetylene
diffuses into the HAZ and reacts with Cu2O. The steam nucleates at the grain boundaries and causes the
observed failures.
The effect of nitrogen additions to argon shielding gas on porosity for two materials (OFCH and ETP copper)
is shown in Figure 2.21.6. It is sometimes stated that nitrogen is insoluble in liquid copper, whereas the
results in Figure 2.21.6 clearly indicate a significant degree of nitrogen absorption. The use of argon-
nitrogen mixtures is desirable in the GMAW of copper to increase the heat input rate. Addition of strong
nitride-formers, such as titanium and aluminium, makes it possible to produce sound welds in such
atmospheres.
Figure 2.21.6. The effect of the nitrogen content of argon-nitrogen atmospheres of total pressure 1 atm on the
porosity of gas metal arc welds in OFHC copper.
Figure 2.21.7 shows the effect of hydrogen additions for the same materials and welding parameters as in
Figure 2.21.6. The ETP copper is more severely affected by hydrogen than the OFHC type, as would be
expected from equation (2.21.1). However, note the difference in scale of both porosity and gas additions
in Figures 2.21.6 and 2.21.7. The slope of the line for OFHC copper in Figure 2.21.7 is the same as that for
ETP copper in Figure 2.21.6. The effect of water vapour is shown in Figure 2.21.8. In this case there is little
difference between the two materials, suggesting that the water vapour is dissociating into hydrogen and
oxygen in the arc and recombining in the liquid metal. These results support the view that, in the absence
of deoxidants, the steam reaction is a potent cause of porosity in copper welds.
The effect of oxygen is shown in Figure 2.21.9. Up to a partial pressure of 0.1 atm, oxygen reduces the
amount of porosity. Above this level, porosity increases again. Carbon dioxide has a similar effect. The
amount of oxygen present in the shielding gas due to atmospheric contamination is certainly below 0.1 atm
partial pressure, so this element is not likely to promote porosity in copper welds.
Cracking in the HAZ of copper welded by the oxyacetylene process may be prevented by the addition of
between 0.02 and 0.10% phosphorus to the plate material. However, the weld metal itself is rarely free
from porosity, and as a result, the tensile strength of as-welded oxyacetylene welds in phosphorus
deoxidised copper is substantially lower than that of the parent metal. Gas welds in copper are frequently
hammered or rolled to remove distortion, and this treatment improves their tensile strengths.
Inert gas shielded welding does not cause porosity in the base metal, whether or not it contains
phosphorus. The weld metal itself, however, is grossly porous unless it is deoxidised. Phosphorus is not
adequate for this purpose, and a combination of either silicon and manganese, or titanium and aluminium,
is added to filler wires and electrodes. Even using such powerful deoxidants, porosity may still occur in
SMAW, particularly at restarts. Phosphorus-deoxidised plate is usually specified for GTAW or GMAW.
Shielding gases are argon, helium or nitrogen, the latter being used where higher heat input rates are
required. There is little difference between argon and nitrogen shielding as regards the incidence of
porosity, but helium-shielded welds appear to be somewhat less sensitive to this type of defect. Tunnelling
porosity, which is associated with turbulence in the weld pool, may occur in GMAW if the current is too
high (over 350 A for nitrogen shielding, and over 450 A for argon shielding).
Figure 2.21.7. The effect of the hydrogen content of argon-hydrogen atmospheres of total pressure 1 atm on the
porosity of gas metal arc welds in copper.
Figure 2.21.8. The effect of water vapour in argon shielding gas on the porosity of gas metal arc welds in copper.
Figure 2.21.9. The effect of the oxygen content of argon-oxygen mixtures at a total pressure of 1 atm on the porosity
of gas metal arc welds in copper.
Copper alloys containing deoxidising elements - aluminium bronze, tin bronze and silicon copper - are not
subject to porosity and may be welded without special additions to the filler metal. Cupronickels, however,
suffer from the same type of porosity as commercially pure copper and require deoxidised electrodes.

Brasses are difficult to weld because of volatilisation of zinc and this effect, apart from interfering with
visibility during welding, may also be associated with weld porosity.
2.21.2.5 Softening in the HAZ during welding:

Copper alloys are often hardened by mechanical cold-working, and any application of heat tends to soften
them. The HAZ of these welds will be softer and weaker than the adjacent base metal. The HAZ tends to
hot crack in severely cold-worked material. In practice, softening is a time-temperature dependent
process, so that using a minimum preheat and interpass temperature can keep softening of the HAZ to a
minimum.
Precipitation hardening in copper alloys is obtained when copper is alloyed with beryllium, chromium,
boron, nickel-silicon and zirconium. For optimum results, components to be precipitation hardened should
be welded in the annealed condition, followed by the precipitation heat treatment. Welding, brazing or
soldering of precipitation hardened material may result in a reduction in mechanical properties due to
overaging.
2.21.3 Alloys and welding procedures:
2.21.3.1 Commercially pure coppers:

Two types of commercially pure copper are commonly used for electrical transmission lines: electrolytic
tough-pitch (ETP) copper and oxygen-free high-conductivity (OFHC) copper. Bare copper electrodes and
rods (ERCu) with a minimum copper content of 98% (refer to Table 2.21.4) are used to weld these materials
with the GMAW, GTAW, PAW and sometimes the oxyfuel gas welding processes. Covered electrodes (ECu)
for SMAW are used with DC electrode positive, and require a welding current that is 30 to 40% higher than
that normally required for carbon steel electrodes of the same diameter.
Table 2.21.4. Filler metals for the fusion welding of copper alloys.
Covered electrodes Bare wire Common name Base metal applications
ECu ERCu Copper Copper
ECuSi ERCuSi-A Silicon bronze Silicon bronzes, brasses
ECuSn-A ERCuSn-A Phosphor bronze Phosphor bronzes, brasses
ECuSn-C ERCuSn-A Phosphor bronze Phosphor bronzes, brasses
ECuNi ERCuNi Copper-nickel Copper-nickel alloys
ECuAl-A2 ERCuAl-A1 Aluminium bronze Aluminium bronzes, brasses, silicon bronzes,
manganese bronzes
ERCuAl-A2 - Aluminium bronzes, brasses, silicon bronzes,
manganese bronzes
ECuAl-B ERCuAl-A3 Aluminium bronze Aluminium bronzes
ECuNiAl ERCuNiAl - Nickel-aluminium bronzes
ECuMnNiAl ERCuMnNiAl - Manganese-nickel-aluminium bronzes
RBCuZn-A Naval brass Brasses, copper
RBCuZn-B Low-fuming brass Brasses, manganese bronzes
RBCuZn-C Low-fuming brass Brasses, manganese bronzes
RBCuZn-D - Nickel-silver
Oxygen-free copper (OFHC) has excellent ductility and is readily joined by welding, brazing or soldering. Arc
welds in oxygen-bearing coppers (ETP) are not very satisfactory, as they usually contain defects and at best
have undesirably high electrical resistance due to the use of deoxidised filler metal. Cold pressure welding
is applicable to rod and is used to make cold joints in electrical conductors. Appropriate silver brazing
procedures and soft soldering can be used successfully to join oxygen-bearing copper. The process
generally used for joining copper in electrical conductors is thermit welding, using a mixture of copper
oxide and aluminium for the exothermic reaction. The mixture is held in a graphite crucible, with a steel
disc covering the exit hole. It is ignited and in a very short time a pool of molten copper is formed, which
melts the retaining disc and flows out into a mould surrounding the joint. The liquid copper has sufficient
superheat to melt the joint faces and produce sound welds. A collar of metal is left around the joint for
strength and to ensure good electrical conductivity.
General guidelines for welding commercially pure coppers:

• When welding commercial coppers, the type of current and shielding gas should be selected to provide
maximum heat input to the joint. Depending on the section thickness, preheating of the base metal
may be required to compensate for the high thermal conductivity of copper. When preheat is used, the
base metal adjacent to the joint should be heated uniformly to the specified temperature, and the
preheat temperature should be maintained until the joint is completed. When welding is interrupted,
the joint area should be preheated before welding is resumed.
• Due to the high fluidity of molten copper, welding should be performed in the flat position whenever
possible. The flat or horizontal positions should be used for depositing fillet welds in corner joints or T-
joints whenever feasible. Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) with small diameter rods and low welding
currents or pulsed gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is preferred for all out-of-position welding.
• Backing strips or backing rings are recommended to control root penetration and fusion in groove
welds. Copper with the same or similar composition as the base metal or removable ceramic backing
should be used.
• In welding commercial coppers for applications requiring good electrical conductivity (such as busbars),
large root faces should be used to increase the contact area at the joint line.
• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW) or plasma arc welding (PAW) are
preferred for welding commercial coppers. Pulsed current welding may be used to control weld pool
fluidity. Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is generally used only in non-critical applications.
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding:

• Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is preferred for joining commercial copper in sections up to 3.2 mm
in thickness. These sections may be welded with a square edge preparation, with or without the
addition of filler metal. GTAW is preferred for welding oxygen-free copper in thicknesses up to 13 mm.
• For copper sections of more than 3.2 mm in thickness, the joint should be grooved and filler metal
added. Recommended joint designs for GTAW of copper are shown in Figure 2.21.10.
• Direct current, electrode negative polarity is generally used with type EWTh-2 thoriated tungsten
electrodes, sharpened to a recommended included angle of 60°.
• Deoxidised bare copper rods, classified as ERCu according to ANSI/AWS A5.7: Specification for copper
and copper alloy bare welding rods and electrodes should be used for GTAW of commercial copper.
The electrical conductivity of ERCu rods is approximately 30 to 40% IACS.
• Argon, helium or mixtures of argon and helium are recommended as shielding gas for GTAW of copper.
Argon shielding gas is preferred for GTAW of copper sections up to 1.5 mm thick, whereas helium is
preferred for sections over 1.5 mm in thickness and for machine welding of thin sections. A mixture
consisting of 75% helium and 25% argon may be used as alternative for helium, or for welding in
positions other than flat. Small amounts of nitrogen may be added to argon shielding gas to increase
the effective heat input.
• Stringer beads or narrow weaves are recommended when welding copper. Wide oscillation of the arc
is undesirable due to the risk of atmospheric contamination at the edges of the joint.
• The first bead deposited in a multiple-pass weld should penetrate to the root of the joint and should be
sufficiently thick to allow enough time for weld metal deoxidation and to prevent cracking of the weld
bead due to distortion.
• Electrode extension beyond the gas nozzle should be limited to the amount required for good visibility
of the weld pool.
• The forehand or the backhand welding technique may be used for welding copper, but forehand

welding is preferred for all welding positions. Although a greater number of passes may be required to
fill the joint, forehand welding produces a smaller and more uniform bead than the backhand
technique.
Figure 2.21.10. Joint designs for GTAW and SMAW of commercial coppers.
• For GTAW of sections greater than 3.2 mm in thickness, preheating of the base material is required.
Typical preheat temperatures and recommended welding conditions for GTAW of copper are shown in
Table 2.21.5. These conditions should serve as a guide for establishing welding procedures, and should
be adjusted to produce the desired weld bead shape in any particular application.
The interpass temperature is the same as the preheat temperature.
• The travel speed should be controlled to provide optimal bead shape. Excessive welding speeds result
in welds that are very convex in shape, causing underfill along the edges of the joint and very poor
fusion on subsequent weld passes.
Gas Metal Arc Welding:

• Gas metal arc welding (GMAW) is recommended for joining deoxidized coppers in section thicknesses
exceeding 3.2 mm, and for welding oxygen-free copper in thicknesses greater than 13 mm (GTAW is
preferred for welding oxygen-free copper up to 13 mm in thickness).
• Direct current, electrode positive polarity is used for GMAW of commercial coppers.
• GMAW of commercial coppers should be done in the flat position using spray transfer whenever
possible. A longer, wider gas shield is required for spray transfer due to the high heat input. Fillet
welds should be deposited in the flat or horizontal positions whenever feasible. Out-of-position
welding should be performed using pulsed spray transfer with small- to medium-diameter wires.
GMAW is not recommended for overhead welding due to poor bead contour.
• Deoxidised bare copper wire, classified as ERCu according to ANSI/AWS A5.7: Specification for copper
and copper alloy bare welding rods and electrodes should be used for GMAW of commercial copper.
• Argon or an argon-helium shielding gas mixture (usually containing 75% argon and 25% helium) is
recommended for GMAW of copper. Argon is preferred for GMAW of section thicknesses less than 6.4
mm. The argon-helium mixture is used for welding thicker sections since preheat requirements are
lower, joint penetration is better and filler metal deposition rates are higher.
• Welds should be deposited as stringer beads or narrow weave beads. Excessive weaving may result in
oxidation at the edges of the weld.

Table 2.21.5. Nominal conditions for GTAW of commercial coppers using EWTh-2 electrodes, ERCu Filler metal and
Direct current, electrode negative polarity.
Section Root Electrode Welding rod Shielding Gas flow Number of
Current Travel speed Preheat
thickness opening diameter diameter gas* rate passes
Butt joints – square groove
1.6 mm 0 mm 1.6 mm None Ar 7 L/min 110-114 A 0.30 m/min None 1
3.2 mm 0 mm 2.4 mm None Ar 7 L/min 175-225 A 0.28 m/min None 1
3.2 mm 3.2 mm 2.4 mm 2.4 mm Ar 7 L/min 175-225 A 0.28 m/min None 1
4.8 mm 4.8 mm 3.2 mm 3.2 mm He 15 L/min 190-225 A 0.25 m/min 95°C 1
Butt joints - 60° single V-groove, 1.6 mm root face
9.5 mm 1.6 mm 4.8 mm 4.8 mm He 19 L/min 280-320 A ⋅⋅⋅ 260°C 2
Butt joints - 60° double V-groove, 3.2 mm root face
Lap joints – fillet welded (use of filler metal optional for thicknesses of 6.4 mm or less)
1.6 mm 0 mm 1.6 mm 1.6 mm Ar 7 L/min 130-150 A 0.25 m/min None 1
3.2 mm 0 mm 2.4 mm 3.2 mm Ar 7 L/min 200-250 A 0.23 m/min None 1
4.8 mm 0 mm 3.2 mm 3.2 mm He 15 L/min 200-250 A 0.20 m/min 95°C 1
6.4 mm 0 mm 3.2 mm 3.2 mm He 15 L/min 250-280 A 0.18 m/min 150°C 1
9.5 mm 0 mm 4.8 mm 4.8 mm He 19 L/min 300-340 A ⋅⋅⋅ 260°C 3
Outside corner joints – square groove
Outside corner joints - 50° single-bevel-groove, 1.6 mm root face
Inside corner joints – square groove, fillet welded
T-joints – fillet welded
* Mixtures of Ar and He may also be used.
• Recommended joint preparations for GMAW of commercial coppers are shown in Figure 2.21.11. A
square-groove joint is recommended for single-pass GMAW of copper up to 3 mm in thickness, or for
one-pass-per-side welding of copper sections of up to 6 mm thick. A copper backing bar should be used
in joints with no root opening, and a grooved copper backing bar in joints with root openings of up to
1.6 mm. Single V-groove joints are recommended for section thicknesses between 3 and 13 mm. Filler
metal shall be deposited from one side using multiple passes. The root shall then be back gouged to
sound metal before the last pass is welded from the back of the joint. When the section thickness
exceeds 13 mm, double V-grooves or double U-groove joints shall be used. Whenever possible,
welding shall be performed by depositing multiple passes, alternating between opposite sides of the
joint to control distortion.
• For sections greater than 6.4 mm in thickness, preheating of the base material is required. Typical
preheat temperatures and recommended welding conditions for GMAW of copper are shown in Table
2.21.6. These conditions should serve as a guide for establishing welding procedures, and should be
adjusted to produce smoothly contoured welds that blend smoothly with the base metal.
• The forehand welding technique is recommended for welding in the flat position. For vertical welding,
upward progression should be used.

Figure 2.21.11. Joint designs for gas metal arc welding of commercial coppers.
• In order to avoid excessive porosity when welding oxygen-free copper (UNS number C10200), heating
and welding cycles should be kept as short as possible.
Plasma Arc Welding:

• Commercial coppers can be welded using the plasma arc welding (PAW) process. PAW is comparable
to GTAW, and all information given for GTAW generally applies to the PAW of coppers. PAW has the
advantage that constriction of the arc gives rise to higher arc energies than GTAW at comparable
current levels.
• PAW may be performed autogenously (without filler metal) or with filler metal, depending on the base
metal thickness. ERCu filler metal should be used, with argon, helium or argon-helium mixtures as
orifice and shielding gas. Hydrogen should not be added to either gas for welding copper.
• Plasma arc welding of coppers may be performed using the melt-in technique or keyhole technique.
The two techniques may also be combined when welding thick sections.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding:

• Problems with porosity and low-strength welds due to oxygen absorption restrict the useful application
of shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) for commercial coppers. In addition, the electrical conductivity
of welds is severely reduced, making SMAW unsuitable for any application requiring good electrical
conductivity. SMAW of commercial coppers is therefore restricted to flat-position welding in non-
critical applications.
• Covered electrodes, classified as ECu according to ANSI/AWS A5.6: Specification for covered copper and
copper alloy arc welding electrodes should be used for SMAW of commercial coppers. These electrodes
are designed for direct current welding with electrode positive polarity.
• SMAW of coppers requires larger root openings, wider groove angles, more tack welds and higher
preheat and interpass temperatures than carbon steels of comparable thickness. The welding current
required for ECu electrodes is 30 to 40% higher than normally required for carbon steel electrodes of
the same diameter.
2.21.3.2 Copper-zinc alloys (brass):

For joining considerations, brasses may be divided into three groups:
(1) low-zinc brasses (maximum zinc content of 20%) have good weldability,
(2) high-zinc brasses (more than 20% zinc) have only fair weldability, and
(3) leaded brasses are considered unweldable, but can be brazed or soldered satisfactorily (the presence of lead
makes brass very sensitive to hot cracking).

Brasses can be joined by arc welding, oxyfuel gas welding, resistance welding and friction welding
processes. The thermal conductivity decreases with increasing zinc content, so that high-zinc brasses
require lower preheat temperatures and heat input than low-zinc brasses. Since zinc vapourises from the
molten weld metal, zinc fuming is the major problem when welding brasses, especially high-zinc brasses.
Phosphor bronze filler metal (ERCuSn-A) provides a good colour match with some brasses, but silicon
bronze (ERCuSi-A) filler metal reduces zinc fuming. Aluminium bronze filler metal (ERCuAl-A2) can be used
to provide good joint strength, but is not effective in controlling zinc fuming so that welds tend to be
porous.
Manganese bronzes are weldable provided that the lead content is low. Gas shielded welding processes
are recommended. Manganese bronzes can be brazed or soldered with special fluxes.
2.21.3.3 Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronze):

In the stressed condition, these alloys are subject to hot cracking. Welding procedures are designed to
prevent cracking. Hot peening of each layer of a multiple-pass weld will reduce welding stresses and the
likelihood of cracking. Phosphor bronze weld metal tends to flow sluggishly because of its wide melting
range. Preheating to 175°C to 200°C and maintaining this interpass temperature improves fluidity when
welding thick sections. The maximum interpass temperature should not exceed 200°C to avoid hot
cracking. Preheat is not essential when using GMAW spray transfer. For maximum weld ductility, postweld
heat treatment at 480°C, followed by rapid cooling to room temperature, is recommended. Welding of
leaded copper-tin alloys is not recommended, but lower lead alloys can be welded using the SMAW
process. Inert gas shielded processes are not recommended for leaded alloys because the welds will
contain porosity. These alloys may be brazed or soldered if not excessively strained during solidification.
2.21.3.4 Copper-aluminium alloys (aluminium bronze):

Aluminium bronze is one of the more difficult materials to fabricate and weld owing to its susceptibility to
hot cracking. Alloys containing less than about 8% aluminium are hot-short and difficult to weld. The type
most frequently specified is the single-phase Cu-7Al-2.5Fe alloy. Except for single-pass welds in thin
material, the use of a matching filler metal for welding this type of aluminium bronze is impractical. Even if
cracking can be avoided, multiple-pass welds may suffer embrittlement due to heat treatment of the weld
deposit by subsequent runs. A duplex filler material containing about 10% aluminium is, however, virtually
free from any tendency to crack. A composition that has been successfully used for inert gas shielded
welding is nominally 10% aluminium, 2.5% iron and 5.5% nickel. Duplex weld deposits may be subject to
dealuminification in corrosive service, and this risk may be reduced by applying a single-phase capping run
to the weld.
Single-phase alloys containing more than 8% aluminium, and duplex alpha-beta aluminium bronzes have
good weldability, but nickel-aluminium bronze is susceptible to cracking when welded. Therefore,
procedures for welding heavy sections recommend the use of a nickel-free filler metal (ECuAl-A2 or ERCuAl-
A2, see Table 2.21.4) to fill the joint because of its greater ductility. The final pass should be made with a
nickel-aluminium bronze electrode (ECuNiAl or ERCuNiAl). Nickel-aluminium bronze welds should be
temper annealed for service in corrosive environments.
2.21.3.5 Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronze):

Silicon bronzes have good weldability due to their low thermal conductivity, good deoxidation of the weld
metal by the silicon, and the protection offered by the resulting slag. These alloys may be welded by the
inert gas shielded processes and give sound, ductile joints with mechanical strength equal to that of the
parent metal. Silicon bronzes may exhibit hot shortness at temperatures between 800°C and 950°C, and
under conditions of restraint this may result in cracking of fusion welds. In general, however, these alloys
present few welding difficulties. They are not subject to porosity in fusion welding and may be welded
using all the major welding processes. Generally, the welding speed is high, and preheating rarely
necessary, while the energy requirements for resistance welding are much lower than for other copper
alloys: a reflection of their higher electrical resistance compared with copper.

2.21.3.6 Cupronickels:
Cupronickels are mainly used in sheet form for fabricated work, and are readily weldable with the gas
shielded arc welding processes. Preheat is not required, and the interpass temperature should not exceed
175°C. Cracking is not a serious problem and porosity is minimised by using a deoxidised filler. If colour
match is not required or a matching filler metal is not available, the deoxidised 70Cu-30Ni composition
should be used. A suitable deoxidant is titanium. Sulphur and phosphorus levels should preferably be kept
to a minimum to ensure sound welds.
2.21.3.7 Nickel silvers:

The welding metallurgy of nickel silvers is similar to that of brass. These alloys are seldom welded. Nickel
silvers are frequently used in decorative applications where colour match is important. No zinc-free filler
metals are available that provide a good colour match.

Table 2.21.6. Nominal conditions for gas metal arc butt welding of commercial coppers using ERCu Filler wire and Direct current, electrode positive polarity.
Shielding gas
Workpiece Root opening (with Electrode Current Preheat
Weld types for butt joints Root face (grooved Cu Gas flow rate Voltage Travel speed Number of passes
thickness Cu backing) diameter (DCEP) temperature
backing)
Square groove
3.2 mm 3.2 mm 0 mm 1.6 mm Ar 15 L/min 310 A 27 V 0.75 m/min None 1
(Cu backing)
Square groove
3.2 mm 3.2 mm 0-1.6 mm 1.6 mm Ar or 75Ar-25He 15-16.5 L/min 325-350 A 28-33 V ⋅⋅⋅ None 1
(grooved Cu backing)
6.4 mm 6.4 mm 0 mm 2.4 mm Ar 15 L/min 460 A 26 V 0.50 m/min 95°C 2
Square groove
6.4 mm 6.4 mm 0 mm 2.4 mm Ar 15 L/min 500 A 27 V 0.50 m/min 95°C 1
75°-90° single V-groove 6.4 mm 3.2 mm 0-3.2 mm 1.6 mm Ar or 75Ar-25He 15-16.5 L/min 400-425 A 32-36 V ⋅⋅⋅ 200-260°C 2
(grooved Cu backing) 12.7 mm 0-3.2 mm 0-3.2 mm 1.6 mm Ar or 75Ar-25He 15-16.5 L/min 425-450 A 35-40 V ⋅⋅⋅ 425-480°C 4
9.5 mm 4.8 mm 0 mm 2.4 mm Ar 15 L/min 500 A 27 V 0.35 m/min 200°C Special sequence
90° single V-groove 9.5 mm 4.8 mm 0 mm 2.4 mm Ar 15 L/min 550 A 27 V 0.35 m/min 200°C Special sequence
(grooved Cu backing) 12.7 mm 6.4 mm 0 mm 2.4 mm Ar 15 L/min 540 A 27 V 0.30 m/min 200°C Special sequence
12.7 mm 6.4 mm 0 mm 2.4 mm Ar 15 L/min 600 A 27 V 0.25 m/min 200°C Special sequence

Studytheme 2.21 - Copper and Copper Alloys

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Studytheme 2.21 - Copper and Copper Alloys

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21 COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS

2.21.1 The classification of copper and its alloys:

2.21.1.1 Commercially pure coppers:

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

Category Description Range of UNS numbers

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

2.21.1.3 Copper alloys:

These alloys are briefly considered below.

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

Figure 2.21.1. The Cu-rich portion of the Cu-Zn phase diagram.

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

Figure 2.21.3. The Cu-rich portion of the Cu-Si system.

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

Figure 2.21.4. The Cu-rich portion of the Cu-Al phase diagram.

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

2.21.2 The welding metallurgy of copper and copper alloys:

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

2.21.2.2 The effect of high thermal conductivity:

2.21.2.3 Solidification cracking:

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

2.21.2.5 Softening in the HAZ during welding:

2.21.3 Alloys and welding procedures:

2.21.3.1 Commercially pure coppers:

General guidelines for welding commercially pure coppers:

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding:

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Gas Metal Arc Welding:

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

Plasma Arc Welding:

Shielded Metal Arc Welding:

2.21.3.2 Copper-zinc alloys (brass):

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

2.21.3.3 Copper-tin alloys (phosphor bronze):

2.21.3.4 Copper-aluminium alloys (aluminium bronze):

2.21.3.5 Copper-silicon alloys (silicon bronze):

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

2.21.3.7 Nickel silvers:

Welding Metallurgy NSW700

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