2.

23 ALUMINIUM AND ALUMINIUM ALLOYS

2.23.1 Physical metallurgy of aluminium and its alloys:
Aluminium is a light-weight metal, its density (2.70 g/cm3) being about one third that of steel or copper.
Certain aluminium alloys have better strength-to-weight ratios than high-strength steels. Aluminium has an
FCC crystal structure and moderate corrosion resistance (except in strong alkaline solutions). Its corrosion
resistance derives from the formation of a naturally occurring oxide layer. The corrosion resistance of
aluminium and its alloys can be improved through anodising (an electrochemical process during which an
adherent oxide layer is developed on the surface of the aluminium). The thickness and uniformity of the
oxide layer is much greater than that occurring naturally and in addition can be dyed to produce decorative
effects.
Aluminium is nonmagnetic and nonsparking. The nonmagnetic characteristic makes aluminium useful for
electrical shielding purposes such as bus-bar housings or enclosures for electrical equipment. Its
nonsparking characteristic makes it less hazardous around flammable or explosive substances. Aluminium
has excellent thermal and electrical conductivity. Although the electrical conductivity of aluminium on a
volume basis is only about 61% that of copper, its light weight makes it more suitable as an electrical
conductor in many industrial applications. Aluminium is also nontoxic, which accounts for its use in
cookware, water storage containers and for food wrapping (aluminium foil). One of the most important
characteristics of aluminium is its good formability, machinability and workability. It can be cast by any
known method, rolled to any desired thickness, stamped, drawn, spun, hammered, forged, and extruded to
almost any conceivable shape.
One of the major drawbacks of aluminium alloys is their poor wear resistance in applications where there is
metal-to-metal contact. The wear resistance can be markedly improved by hard-coating aluminium alloys.
This is an electrochemical process similar to anodising, except that the coating obtained is much thicker and
harder. It provides a relatively thick (0.05 to 0.25 mm) ceramic-like layer that is integrally bonded to the
metallic substrate.
Commercially pure aluminium (more than 99.0% aluminium) is suitable for applications where good
formability or very good resistance to corrosion (or both) is required and where high strength is not
essential. It has been used extensively for cookware, foil, wire and as a paint pigment. Pure aluminium has
a tensile strength of only about 83 MPa. However, substantial increases in strength can be obtained by:
• strain hardening from cold work,
• solid solution strengthening due to alloying, and
• precipitation hardening.
These mechanisms can be used either individually or in combination to achieve various property levels.
The principal alloying elements used in aluminium alloys are copper, silicon, magnesium, zinc, manganese
and chromium. Some alloys, properly heat treated, approach tensile strengths of 700 MPa.

2.23.1.1 Alloy and temper designations:

Aluminium alloys may be grouped into those alloys that are wrought and those that are cast. A four-digit
system of numerical designations developed by the Aluminium Association of America is used to identify
wrought aluminium and wrought aluminium alloys. The first digit indicates the alloy group as shown in
Table 2.23.1 and graphically in Figure 2.23.1. The second digit refers to modifications of the original alloy or
impurity limits; with zero being used for the original alloy, and integers 1 through 9 for alloy modifications.
In the 1XXX group for minimum aluminium purities of 99.0% and greater, the last two digits are the same as
the two digits to the right of the decimal point in the minimum aluminium percentage when it is expressed
to the nearest 0.01%. For example, 1060 indicates a material of 99.6% minimum aluminium purity and no
special control on individual impurities. The 2XXX to 7XXX series classify aluminium alloys by major alloying
elements. In these groups, the last two digits serve only to identify the different aluminium alloys in the
group. The 8XXX and 9XXX designations have not been allocated to a specific element. The composition
designation for cast alloys is somewhat different and generally consists of a two or three-digit designation.

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 Table 2.23.1. Designations for wrought aluminium alloy groups.
Alloy composition Alloy designation
Aluminium, 99.0% and greater 1XXX
Aluminium - Copper 2XXX
Aluminium - Manganese 3XXX
Aluminium - Silicon 4XXX
Aluminium - Magnesium 5XXX
Aluminium - Magnesium - Silicon 6XXX
Aluminium - Zinc 7XXX

Figure 2.23.1. Aluminium alloy designation.

Current usage of the designation system tends to standardize on the American Unified Numbering System
(UNS), where the standard aluminium alloys are designated using the original four Aluminium Association
digits, preceded by “A9”.
The temper designation follows the alloy designation and is separated from it by a hyphen. The temper
designation is used for wrought and cast aluminium and aluminium alloys. It is based on the sequences of
basic heat treatment used to produce various tempers. The standard temper designation system consists
of a letter indicating the basic temper. Except for the annealed and as-fabricated tempers, it is more
specifically defined by the addition of one or more digits. There are four basic tempers: F (as fabricated), O
(annealed), H (strain-hardened), and T (heat treated).
• -F: as fabricated:
This temper is applied to products that acquire some temper as the result of normal manufacturing
operations. There is no guarantee of mechanical properties.
• -O: annealed, recrystallised:
This is the softest temper of wrought alloy products.
• -H: strain-hardened:
This applies to products that have their mechanical properties increased by cold working only. The –H
is always followed by two or more digits. The first digit indicates the specific combination of basic
operations as follows:
-H1: Strain-hardened only. The second digit designates the amount of cold work performed, with the numeral 8
representing the full-hard condition. Therefore, half-hard is –H14, quarter-hard is –H12, etc. Extra hard
tempers are designated by the numeral 9. A third digit is often used to indicate the degree of control of
temper or to identify a special set of mechanical properties.

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 -H2: Strain-hardened, then partially annealed. This temper is applied to products that are cold-worked to a
harder temper, and then have their strength reduced to the desired level by partial annealing. The
residual amount of cold work is designated by the same method as in the –H1 series.
-H3: Strain-hardened and then stabilised. This temper is applied only to alloys containing magnesium that are
given a low-temperature heat treatment to stabilise their properties. The degree of strain remaining after
the stabilising treatment is indicated in the usual way by one or more digits.
• -W: solution heat treated:
An unstable temper applicable only to alloys that spontaneously age at room temperature after
solution heat treatment. This designation, because of natural aging, is indicated for example, by 2024-
W (½ h).
• -T: thermally treated:
This temper applies to products thermally treated, with or without supplementary strain hardening, to
produce stable tempers. The –T is followed by the numerals 2 through 10, inclusive, designating a
special combination of basic operations. Deliberate variations of the conditions, resulting in
significantly different characteristics of the product, are indicated by adding one or more digits to the
basic designation.
-T1: Partially solution annealed and naturally aged.
-T2: Annealed (cast products only).
-T3: Solution heat treated and then cold-worked.
-T4: Solution heat treated and then naturally aged to a substantially stable condition.
-T5: Artificially aged only. Applies to products which are artificially aged after an elevated temperature rapid-
cool fabrication process, such as casting or extrusion.
-T6: Solution heat treated and then artificially aged.
-T7: Solution heat treated and then stabilised. This applies to products where the temperature and time
conditions for stabilising are such that the alloy is carried beyond the point of maximum hardness,
providing control over grain growth and/or residual stress.
-T8: Solution heat treated, cold-worked and then artificially aged.
-T9: Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and then cold-worked.
-T10: Artificially aged and then cold-worked, then the same treatment as –T5 but followed by cold-working to
improve the strength.
For example, the overall designation 6063-T6 would refer to a specific aluminium alloy containing
magnesium and silicon as its principal alloying elements, which was strengthened by solution annealing and
artificial aging.

2.23.1.2 Aluminium alloys:

Aluminium alloys exploit various strengthening mechanisms. Pure aluminium relies on cold work for
limited strengthening. In the non-hardenable (non-heat treatable) alloys, cold working and solid solution
strengthening are used as strengthening mechanisms. The main members of this group are the 1XXX,
3XXX, 4XXX and 5XXX alloys. The remaining alloys (i.e. the 2XXX, 6XXX and 7XXX alloys) are hardenable
through precipitation strengthening. These alloys may also be cold worked to provide additional
strengthening. Softening due to recrystallization may cause softening in the HAZ during welding.
Precipitation strengthening is produced when finely dispersed second phase particles are formed in an alloy
on controlled heat treatment. A precipitation hardenable alloy displays considerable solid solubility at
elevated temperatures (characterised by the presence of a single phase). On cooling the solubility
decreases rapidly and the formation of a second phase is predicted from the phase diagram at the alloy
composition. A typical precipitation hardening heat treatment includes the following steps:
• Solution annealing: The alloy is heated to a temperature where the alloying element is soluble in the solid state
and a single phase is present.
• Quenching: The alloy is quenched from the solution annealing temperature to keep the alloying element in
solution and prevent the formation of the second phase.
• Ageing: The alloy is reheated to a lower temperature within the two-phase field, facilitating the precipitation of
the second phase as finely distributed particles.

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The nominal composition and mechanical properties of some wrought aluminium alloys are shown in Table
2.23.2.
Table 2.23.2. Nominal compositions and typical mechanical properties of some popular wrought aluminium alloys.

Alloy Nominal composition, % Typical mechanical properties

and Tensile Yield
temper Si Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ni Elongation Hardness
strength strength
2014 0,8 4,4 0,8 0,4 - - -
-O 186 MPa 35 MPa 18% 45 BHN
-H14 428 MPa 290 MPa 20% 105 BHN
-H18 483 MPa 414 MPa 13% 135 BHN
2017 0,8 4,0 0,5 0,5 0,1 - -
-O 179 MPa 69 MPa 22% 45 BHN
-T4 428 MPa 276 MPa 22% 105 BHN
2024 0,5 4,5 0,6 1,5 0,1 - -
-O 186 MPa 76 MPa 22% 47 BHN
-T4 469 MPa 324 MPa 16% 120 BHN
3003 0,6 - 1,2 - - - -
-O 110 MPa 41 MPa 40% 28 BHN
-H14 152 MPa 145 MPa 16% 40 BHN
4032 12, O,9 - 1,0 - - 0,9
-T6 5 380 MPa 317 MPa 9% 120 BHN
5005 0,4 - - 0,8 - - -
-O 124 MPa 41 MPa 30% 28 BHN
-H34 159 MPa 138 MPa 8% 41 BHN
5050 0,4 - - 1,2 - - -
-O 145 MPa 55 MPa 24% 36 BHN
-H34 193 MPa 166 MPa 8% 53 BHN
5052 - - - 2,5 0,2 - -
-O 5 193 MPa 90 MPa 30% 47 BHN
-H34 262 MPa 214 MPa 14% 68 BHN
5083 - - 0,7 4,5 - - -
-O 290 MPa 145 MPa 22% -
6061 0,6 0,2 - 1,0 0,2 - -
-O 5 5 124 MPa 55 MPa 30% 30 BHN
-T6 311 MPa 276 MPa 17% 95 BHN
6063 0,4 0,1 0,1 0,7 0,1 0,1 -
-O 90 MPa 48 MPa - 25 BHN
-T6 242 MPa 214 MPa 12% 73 BHN
7075 0,5 1,5 - 2,5 0,3 5,5 -
-O 228 MPa 104 MPa 16% 60 BHN
-T6 573 MPa 504 MPa 11% 150 BHN
7178 0,5 2,0 - 2,7 0,3 6,8 -
-O 228 MPa 104 MPa 16% -
-T6 607 MPa 538 MPa 11% -

• Aluminium-copper alloys (2XXX series):

Copper is the major alloying element in aluminium alloys. It provides the basis for precipitation hardening
in both cast and wrought alloys and is also employed to decrease shrinkage porosity during the
solidification of cast alloys. The aluminium-rich portion of the binary aluminium-copper phase diagram is
shown in Figure 2.23.2. The maximum solubility of copper in aluminium is 5.65% at 548°C, and the
solubility decreases to 0.45% at about 200°C. Therefore, alloys containing between about 2.5 and 5%
copper will respond to heat treatment by age hardening. The θ phase is an intermediate alloy phase whose

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composition corresponds closely to the compound CuAl2. Solution treatment is carried out by heating the
alloy into the single-phase (Al) region, followed by rapid cooling. Subsequent aging allows precipitation of
the θ-phase, thus increasing the strength of the alloy. These alloys may contain small amounts of silicon,
magnesium, manganese, chromium and zinc. The 2XXX series alloys are very difficult to weld without
cracking. Controlling the magnesium levels may improve the weldability somewhat.

Figure 2.23.2. Aluminium-rich end of the binary Al-Cu phase diagram.

The three most widely used wrought Al-Cu alloys are 2014, 2017 and 2024 (see Table 2.23.2). The oldest of
all the heat treatable aluminium alloys is duralumin (2017) containing 4% copper. This alloy is widely used
for rivets in aircraft construction. Duralumin is a natural-aging alloy, which is refrigerated after solution
treatment to prevent aging. The rivet is formed in the ductile solution treated condition. Subsequent
return of the material to room temperature causes precipitation of the θ-phase, increasing the hardness
and strength. Alloy 2014 has higher copper and manganese contents than 2017 and is susceptible to
artificial aging. In the artificially aged temper, 2014 has higher tensile and yield strengths, and lower
elongation than 2017, and is used for heavy-duty forgings, aircraft fittings and truck frames. Alloy 2024,
containing 4.5% copper and 1.5% magnesium, develops the highest strengths of any naturally aged
aluminium-copper type alloy. Its higher magnesium content makes it more difficult to fabricate. Typical
uses of 2024 are aircraft structures, rivets, hardware, truck wheels and screw-machine products.
• Aluminium-manganese alloys (3XXX series):
The aluminium-rich portion of the aluminium-manganese phase diagram is shown in Figure 2.23.3. The
maximum solubility of manganese in aluminium is 1.82% at the eutectic temperature of 658°C. Although
the solubility decreases with decreasing temperature, alloys in this group are generally not age-hardenable.
Because of its limited solubility, manganese is not used as a major alloying element in any casting alloys and
is used in only a few wrought alloys. One of the alloys in this group is the popular 3003 alloy (see Table
2.23.2), which has good formability, very good corrosion resistance and good weldability. Typical
applications are utensils, food and chemical handling and storage equipment, gasoline and oil tanks,
pressure vessels and piping.
• Aluminium-silicon alloys (4XXX series):
The aluminium-rich portion of the aluminium-silicon system is shown in Figure 2.23.4. The maximum
solubility of silicon in the α solid solution is 1.65% at the eutectic temperature of 577°C. Although the
solvus line shows decreasing solubility at lower temperatures, these alloys are generally not heat-treatable.
Wrought alloy 4032 (see Table 2.23.2), containing 12.5% silicon, has good forgeability and a low coefficient
of thermal expansion. It is used for forged automotive pistons. Aluminium-silicon alloys have excellent
castability and corrosion resistance, and find application in a range of welding consumables.

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 Figure 2.23.3. Aluminium-rich portion of the aluminium-manganese system.

Figure 2.23.4. The aluminium-rich portion of the aluminium-silicon alloy system.

• Aluminium-magnesium alloys (5XXX series):

The aluminium-rich portion of the Al-Mg system is shown in Figure 2.23.5. Although the solvus line shows a
considerable drop in the solubility of magnesium in aluminium with decreasing temperature, most
commercial wrought alloys in this group contain less than 5% magnesium, and with low silicon contents are
not hardenable. The wrought alloys are characterised by good weldability, good corrosion resistance and
moderate strength. Alloy 5005 is used for architectural extrusions, alloy 5050 for tubing and automotive
gas and oil lines, alloy 5052 for aircraft fuel and oil lines, and alloy 5083 for marine and welded structural
applications.

Figure 2.23.5. Aluminium-rich portion of the aluminium-magnesium phase diagram.

• Aluminium-silicon-magnesium alloys (6XXX series):

Magnesium and silicon combine to form magnesium silicate (Mg2Si), which in turn forms a simple eutectic
system with aluminium. The aluminium-rich portion of the Al-Mg2Si system is shown in Figure 2.23.6. The
precipitation of Mg2Si after artificial aging (temper -T6) allows these alloys to reach their full strength.
Magnesium and silicon are usually present in the correct ratio to form magnesium silicate. These alloys are
characterised by excellent corrosion resistance and are more workable than other heat-treatable alloys.

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Typical applications include aircraft landing mats, canoes, furniture, vacuum-cleaner tubing, bridge railings
and architectural applications. Al-Mg-Si casting alloys provide a desirable combination of castability,
extrudability, pressure-tightness, strength and corrosion resistance. Alloys are readily weldable.

Figure 2.23.6. Aluminium-rich portion of the Al-Mg2Si phase diagram.

• Aluminium-zinc alloys (7XXX series):

The aluminium-rich portion of the Al-Zn phase diagram is shown in Figure 2.23.7. The solubility of Zn in
aluminium is 31.6% at 275°C, decreasing to 5.6% at 125°C. Commercial wrought alloys contain zinc,
magnesium and copper with smaller additions of manganese and chromium. Alloys 7075, 7079 and 7178
develop the highest strengths obtainable in aluminium alloys. The susceptibility of these alloys to stress
corrosion cracking is minimised by the addition of chromium and proper heat treatment. They are used in
applications requiring high strength and good corrosion resistance, such as aircraft structural parts. Al-Zn
casting alloys provide high mechanical properties without solution heat treatment, combined with fair
casting characteristics, good corrosion resistance and very good machinability. These alloys are difficult to
weld successfully due to a high cracking tendency.

Figure 2.23.7. The aluminium-rich portion of the Al-Zn phase diagram.

2.23.2 The welding metallurgy of aluminium and aluminium alloys:

Aluminium and its alloys are used extensively in many industries, such as domestic appliances, hospitals,
aerospace applications, road transport, storage tanks and fabrications of all sizes. Welding is an important
fabrication process in many of these applications. Certain characteristics of aluminium distinguish it from
other metals in terms of welding behaviour. These characteristics include:

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• No colour change before melting:
Aluminium shows no colour change whilst being heated. This unusual characteristic persists up to the melting
point. A liquid or wet appearance is the welder’s first indication that the metal is melting. This is important
from a safety point of view.
• Low melting point:
Pure aluminium melts at about 660°C, with most commercial aluminium alloys melting at even lower
temperatures.
• Excellent thermal conductivity:
Aluminium and its alloys conduct heat away from the welded area three to five times faster than steel. Heat is
therefore applied rapidly to bring the alloy to its welding temperature and the intense heat of an electric arc is
well suited for aluminium welding. Heavy aluminium sections are best preheated in order to reduce the overall
effect of rapid heat loss. Generally, preheating will improve the quality of GTAW and GMAW welds. The high
thermal conductivity of aluminium and the rapidly solidifying weld pool make these alloys particularly
susceptible to profile imperfections.
• High thermal expansion:
Aluminium and its alloys expand about twice as much as mild steel during heating. The expansion of the parent
metal adjacent to the weld during heating may alter the root opening on butt joints. The combined effects of
parent metal contraction away from the weld and weld shrinkage on cooling may create high residual tensile
stresses that will increase susceptibility to cracking. Excessive restraint during cooling may also contribute
towards cracking. Three factors determine the amount of distortion in aluminium welds: the weld preparation,
the number of weld passes, and the welding speed. For example, a square-butt weld with two weld passes will
distort far less than a wide “V” with multiple passes. Increasing the welding speed reduces parent metal
expansion and contraction, thereby minimising distortion. Special care should be exercised in designing jigs and
fixtures to ensure adequate support during welding. If jigs are not used to align the faces to be welded, tack
welds have to be used to limit misalignment.
• High melting point of aluminium oxide:
A self-generating, inert and tenacious aluminium oxide layer is always present on the surface of aluminium. This
oxide melts at about 2050°C and has a significant influence on the welding processes that can be used for joining
aluminium. For fusion welding to occur, the oxide layer must first be removed. Welding fluxes are not used for
this function since they are not strong enough to remove the oxide efficiently, have poor electrical properties,
and can leave corrosion products in the area to be welded. Instead, oxide removal is achieved by the cleaning
action of the arc, with inert shielding gas to prevent re-oxidation. The cleaning action of the arc should not be
regarded as sufficient. It is still necessary to clean the areas to be welded and to strip off the oxide layer
immediately prior to welding.
The properties and performance of aluminium welds are determined by many factors, including the alloy
composition, the temper of the base metal, the filler metal used, the welding process, the rate of cooling,
joint design and the use of postweld mechanical and thermal treatments.
Pure aluminium, aluminium-manganese and aluminium-magnesium alloys may be joined by most fusion
welding processes, but the use of such processes for higher-strength alloys is limited by susceptibility to
solidification cracking and by a reduction in the tensile strength of the HAZ. Porosity may also be a problem
during SMAW and GMAW, and higher-strength alloys may fail by stress corrosion cracking. These factors
are considered in the following sections.

2.23.2.1 Solidification cracking of aluminium welds:

Solidification cracking is very prevalent in aluminium alloys due to the high stresses generated across the
weld due to the high thermal expansion coefficient of aluminium (twice that of steel) and the significant
contraction that occurs on solidification (typically 5% more than in equivalent steel welds). Solidification
cracks form in the centre of the weld, usually extending along the centerline during solidification (as shown
in Figure 2.23.8). Solidification cracks may also be present in the weld crater at the end of a weld run.
• The mechanism of solidification cracking in aluminium alloys:
Solidification cracking of aluminium and its alloys is associated with intentionally added alloying elements,
rather than with the presence of low-melting impurities as in steel and stainless steel. The relationship
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between the composition and hot cracking susceptibility of aluminium welds is illustrated in Figure
2.23.9(a) for the case of aluminium-silicon alloys, and the corresponding section of the Al-Si binary phase
diagram in shown in Figure 2.23.9(b). It is evident from Figure 2.23.9(a) that the degree of cracking rises to
a maximum at about 0.5% silicon and then decreases rapidly as the alloy content increases. This
corresponds to the composition on the phase diagram where solidification takes place over the widest
temperature range.

Figure 2.23.8. Centreline solidification crack in a hardenable aluminium alloy.

Figure 2.23.9. (a) The length of cracking in restrained binary aluminium-silicon alloys as a function of silicon content.
(b) The equilibrium Al-Si phase diagram (solid lines) and the nil-ductility temperature on cooling (broken lines).

Mechanical testing of aluminium-silicon alloys in the region of the melting temperature yielded the results
shown in Figure 2.23.10. The results show that, on cooling from the liquidus, a crack sensitive 1% silicon
alloy (Figure 2.23.10(a)) acquires mechanical strength before it has any ductility, and there is a considerable
temperature range over which it is very brittle. A 12% silicon alloy (Figure 2.23.10(b)) is not crack sensitive,
and correspondingly has a very narrow brittle temperature range, as would be expected from an alloy close
to the eutectic composition (such alloys solidify over a very narrow temperature range).

Figure 2.23.10. The mechanical properties of aluminium-silicon alloys heated to temperatures close to the solidus: (a)
aluminium - 1% silicon, and (b) aluminium - 12% silicon.

In an alloy with a wide solidification range that is cooled from the liquidus temperature, the growing
crystals are at first separated by liquid and the alloy has no strength. As the temperature decreases, the
volume of solid increases relative to that of the liquid, and at some point (the coherence temperature) the
growing crystals meet and cohere. However, a limited amount of liquid remains down to the eutectic

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temperature, causing the metal to be brittle. At the same time, the solid phase contracts and is subjected
to tensile stresses which may be high enough (depending on the level of restraint) to cause failure of the
weak, brittle matrix. The risk of cracking is greatest when a critically small volume of liquid is present below
the coherence temperature. If the volume of eutectic phase present is relatively large, incipient cracks are
healed by liquid that flows in from the weld pool. Such healed cracks may sometimes be seen in
macrosections of aluminium welds.
Solidification cracking is severe with weld metal of the 3-4%Mg – 1%Si (Mg2Si) type of composition and
fusion welding of this alloy with matching filler metal is only practicable under conditions of very low
restraint. The higher strength hardenable alloys are also prone to solidification cracking, particularly the
Cu-Mg-Zn alloys used for aircraft applications such as 7075, 7079 and 7178. The Si-Cu-Mn-Mg types, such
as 2024 and 2219, are not quite as susceptible, while the Mn-Mg-Zn alloys such as 7005, although subject
to cracking under unfavourable conditions, are generally regarded as weldable.

• Avoiding solidification cracking in aluminium welds:

The properties of aluminium welds are influenced by the composition of the weld and the rate of
solidification. The solidification rate in turn depends on the welding process and technique, and all the
factors affecting the heat input and heat transfer away from the molten pool. A higher rate of solidification
generally produces a finer microstructure with greater strength and less tendency for hot cracking.
The composition of the weld metal depends on the base metal and filler metal chemical compositions and
the amount of dilution during welding. When welding nonhardenable aluminium alloys, the chemical
composition of the filler metal is generally similar to that of the base metal. The hardenable alloys possess
a much wider solidification temperature range and are more sensitive to hot cracking. A dissimilar filler
metal with a lower solidus temperature than the base metal is generally employed so that the hardenable
base metal is allowed to completely solidify and develop some strength along the fusion line before weld
solidification stresses develop. Many of the filler metals used are nonhardenable and depend on dilution
with the base metal to give a weld metal composition responsive to postweld heat treatment. These welds
do not exhibit the high ductilities characteristic of welds in nonhardenable alloys. Also, depending on the
filler metal used, the as-welded strength may be considerably lower. The chemical compositions of filler
metals used for GMAW and GTAW of aluminium alloys are shown in Table 2.23.3. Filler wires containing
5% silicon or 12% silicon may be used, the latter being the eutectic composition of the Al-Si binary system.
The Al-Mg and Al-Mg-Mn alloys, such as 5554, 5356 and 5183, are employed more frequently since they
provide an optimum combination of mechanical properties, corrosion resistance and crack resistance.
Table 2.23.3. Chemical composition requirements for filler metal for GMAW and GTAW of aluminium alloysa. (Balance
Al).

AWS Otherb
Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti
classification Each Total
c c
ER1100 0.05-0.2 0.05 - - 0.1 - 0.05 0.15
ER2319d 0.20 0.30 5.6-6.8 0.2-0.4 0.02 - 0.1 0.1-0.2 0.05 0.15
ER4043 4.5-6.0 0.8 0.3 0.05 0.05 - 0.1 0.2 0.05 0.15
ER4047 11-13 0.8 0.3 0.15 0.1 - 0.2 - 0.05 0.15
ER4145 9.3-10.7 0.8 3.3-4.7 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.2 - 0.05 0.15
ER5183 0.40 0.4 0.1 0.5-1.0 4.3-5.2 0.05-0.25 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15
ER5356 0.25 0.4 0.1 0.05-0.2 4.5-5.5 0.05-0. 0.1 0.06-0.2 0.05 0.15
ER5554 0.25 0.4 0.1 0.5-1.0 2.4-3.0 0.5-0.2 0.25 0.05-0.2 0.05 0.15
ER5556 0.25 0.4 0.1 0.5-1.0 4.7-5.5 0.05-0.2 0.25 0.05-0.2 0.05 0.15
e e
ER5654 0.05 0.01 3.1-3.9 0.15-0.35 0.2 0.05-0.15 0.05 0.15
a
Single values shown are maximum percentages.
b
Beryllium shall not exceed 0.0008%.
c
Silicon plus iron shall not exceed 0.95%.
d
Vanadium content shall be 0.05 to 0.15%. Zirconium content shall be 0.10 to 0.25%.
e
Silicon plus iron shall not exceed 0.45%.

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An additional means of increasing the cracking resistance of aluminium-alloy weld metal is grain
refinement. The total grain boundary area in any given volume of weld metal is, to a reasonable
approximation, inversely proportional to the grain diameter. Therefore, when the grain size is reduced, the
residual grain boundary liquid films are also reduced and the probability of intergranular cohesion is
increased. It has been shown that in coarse grained alloys the residual liquid is present as a continuous
grain boundary film, whereas in fine grained material it is dispersed in globular form. Figure 2.23.11 shows
the results of cracking tests on an Al-2Zn-2Mg alloy with various addition elements. This alloy is intended
to represent the weld metal composition obtained when welding an Al-Zn-Mg alloy with 5% Mg filler,
assuming about 40% dilution. There is a linear relationship between grain size and crack length. The finest
grain size and the shortest crack lengths were obtained with the addition of small amounts of Ti and B.
However, the grain refining effect of these additions are nullified by the presence of about 0.2% Zr, and
since zirconium is added to Al-Mg-Zn alloys to improve stress corrosion cracking resistance, Ti and B
additions cannot be used to reduce crack sensitivity.

Figure 2.23.11. The relation between mean grain size and crack length in an Al-2Zn-2Mg alloy with and without
addition elements.

• Other types of cracking:

Liquation cracking in the HAZ may occur when welding high-strength aluminium alloys of the Duralumin
type or the 6XXX and 7XXX series alloys. This type of cracking is caused by the presence of low melting
constituents in the heat-affected zone structure and is associated with relatively low heat input rates. It
may be overcome by using low-melting-point filler metal or by increasing the welding speed. Cracking has
also been observed well below the solidus (at about 200°C) in high-strength aluminium alloys. This is due
to the formation of intergranular films at or near the solidus. The intergranular constituents cause
embrittlement, which manifests itself as low-temperature cracking. Liquation cracking can be controlled by
using a filler metal with a lower melting temperature than the parent metal (6XXX alloys may be welded
with 4XXX filler metal). The 4XXX consumables should, however, not be used to weld high magnesium
alloys (such as 5083) as excessive amounts of magnesium-silicide may form at the fusion boundary,
decreasing ductility and increasing crack sensitivity.

2.23.2.2 Porosity in aluminium welds:

Aluminium weld metal is very susceptible to the formation of porosity, particularly in the presence of
hydrogen. Hydrogen dissolves endothermically in aluminium, whereas oxygen and nitrogen both combine
with the metal to form oxides or nitrides. Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) is one of the most stable of these
compounds, and the concentration of free oxygen in the weld pool is likely to be very low. The influence of
these diatomic gases (N, O and H) are considered below.

• Nitrogen:
Figure 2.23.12 shows the nitrogen content of gas metal arc welds made with pure aluminium electrode
wire in nitrogen-argon mixtures. Whereas with GMAW using steel wire, the nitrogen content of the weld
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metal increases with nitrogen partial pressure up to a saturation level, there is no clear evidence of such a
limiting value for aluminium. As with steel, however, at low nitrogen partial pressures the nitrogen content
of the weld decreases with increasing current. The relative porosity of these welds is shown in Figure
2.23.13, from which it can be seen that small amounts of nitrogen in the arc atmosphere generate porosity
at 300 A but not at 170 A or 240 A. Thus, nitrogen contamination could result in porosity in high-current
gas metal arc welding.

Figure 2.23.12. The effect of nitrogen partial pressure in nitrogen-argon shielding gas mixtures of total pressure 1 atm
on the nitrogen content of gas metal arc welds in pure aluminium.

Figure 2.23.13. The effect of nitrogen partial pressure in nitrogen-argon shielding gas mixtures of total pressure 1 atm
on the porosity of gas metal arc welds in pure aluminium.

• Oxygen:
The dissociation pressure of Al2O3 increases with temperature, so that the solubility of oxygen in liquid
aluminium would likewise be expected to increase with temperature. If this is the case, alumina particles
will form in the weld pool on cooling and act as nuclei for gas pores. Such nuclei have indeed been found in
hydrogen pores.
Prior to 1898, when the first effective gas welding flux was developed, the refractory oxide film that forms
on aluminium prevented fusion welding. Fluxes are used for gas welding, brazing and soldering, and are
typically mixtures of halide salts. They act by penetrating between the oxide and the liquid metal surface,
and then dispersing and partially dissolving the film. In soldering, a reaction flux containing stannous
chloride or zinc chloride may be used; these salts are reduced by aluminium to tin and zinc, respectively, to
provide all or part of the solder. A similar formulation is used for aluminium electrode coatings. The
residue from such fluxes is corrosive to aluminium and must be removed by water washing and, in extreme
cases, by acid pickling.
Fluxes are not permitted in inert gas shielded processes. When operated with electrode positive polarity, a
cathode forms on the weld surface and disperses the oxide film. GTAW with electrode negative polarity is

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possible using a helium shield. For high quality welds, the butting edges are cleaned by scraping, scratch-
brushing or pickling prior to welding, but commercially acceptable welds have been produced without
these precautions. The surfaces of such welds are oxidised, but the oxide layer may be removed by scratch-
brushing.

• Hydrogen:
Porosity is often an inherent feature of gas metal arc welds, as shown in Figure 2.23.14. The main cause is
the absorption of hydrogen in the weld metal. The molten weld metal exhibits a high solubility for
hydrogen. During solidification of the weld, hydrogen precipitates out of the solidifying molten aluminium
and may become entrapped in the solid weld metal as porosity. Figure 6.23.15 shows the influence of
hydrogen partial pressure in a hydrogen-argon shielding gas mixture on the porosity levels in pure
aluminium welds. The increase in porosity can be attributed to the fall in solubility of hydrogen from the
liquid metal temperature to the solidification temperature.

Figure 2.23.14. Hydrogen porosity in an aluminium weld.

Figure 6.23.15. The effect of hydrogen partial pressure in hydrogen-argon mixtures on porosity of pure aluminium.

There are many potential sources of hydrogen in the welding of aluminium. The first is the oxide film,
which is hydrated to some degree, and on which an adsorbed film of moisture is invariably present when
the metal is exposed to the atmosphere. In GTAW, evaporation of the oxide also evaporates any adsorbed
or combined moisture that may be present, thus providing a mild source of contamination in the arc
column. The surface effect is more serious in GMAW, where a fine electrode wire with high surface-to-
volume ratio is fed continuously into the arc. Hydrocarbon contamination and lubricant residue on the
wire surface is an important potential source of hydrogen. Cleanliness of the wire is therefore of prime
importance in the GMAW process. Faulty equipment or improper gas shielding also permits atmospheric
contamination during inert gas shielded welding. Coated electrodes contain moisture in the coating, and
under some conditions corrosion of the core wire under the coating may occur. The degree of
contamination, and correspondingly the weld porosity, may be minimised by using electrodes as soon as
possible after manufacture, by storing in a dry place, and by drying before welding. Regardless of the
welding process, the material to be welded must be clean and dry.

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Porosity in the form of large continuous cavities or long continuous holes may occur from the use of
excessive currents in GMAW with short-circuiting transfer. This defect (tunnelling) is due to the high
current causing turbulence in the weld pool. It may be overcome by limiting the current per pass, by using
a gravitational transfer technique, or by improving inert gas shielding. The risk of both hydrogen porosity
and tunnelling in high current welding may be reduced by operating with larger diameter wires.
The main effect of porosity is to reduce the strength of the weld metal, and in designing welded aluminium
structures or pressure vessels a joint efficiency factor corresponding to the anticipated weld quality must
be used. Radiographically sound welds can generally be produced in aluminium alloys by means of the
inert gas shielded processes, provided that adequate attention is paid to the cleanliness of the workpiece
and welding materials, and that the work is performed in a fabrication shop. In site welds, some degree of
porosity is to be expected because it is difficult to fully implement the necessary precautions.

2.23.2.3 Mechanical properties of aluminium welds:

Sound fusion welds in annealed pure aluminium or any of the annealed nonhardenable alloys made with
electrodes of matching composition have strength levels almost equal to that of the parent metal. When
work-hardened plate is welded, the HAZ may be fully or partially annealed, thus irreversibly reducing the
strength. Some grain growth is also likely to occur in the HAZ. Since the metal is annealed by the initial
welding operation, repeated welding during a repair operation does not further reduce the strength except
as influenced by a possible wider HAZ. For this reason, the minimum annealed strength of the base metal is
generally considered as the minimum strength of butt welds in the nonhardenable alloys. This effect may
be minimised by using the GTAW process with helium shielding and electrode negative polarity, which
reduces the width of the HAZ. Very little change in microstructure across the welded joint and excellent
ductility are exhibited by welds in nonhardenable alloys. These welds are capable of developing extensive
deformation prior to fracturing. The higher strength 5XXX series alloys are particularly favourable because
of the closer matching of strength and ductility in the various zones across the welded joint. The
aluminium-manganese-magnesium alloys (such as 5083, 5086 and 5456) have found wide application in
welded construction due to their high annealed strength and good ductility.
The hardenable alloys contain alloying elements that exhibit a marked change in solubility with change in
temperature. The high strengths of the hardenable aluminium alloys are obtained by controlled solution
heat treatment, followed by quenching and then aging, either at room temperature, or more commonly, at
elevated temperatures. During the aging treatment, the hardness and tensile strength increase because of
precipitation and the formation of locally strained regions. Heating at temperatures higher than the
optimum aging temperature result in over-aging – the precipitates increase in size and the matrix is
softened. The hardenable alloys are normally welded in the aged condition, in which they have a
controlled amount of hardening microconstituents precipitated from solid solution. The heat from welding
causes resolution of the hardening microconstituents in the HAZ, followed by uncontrolled precipitation
upon cooling. This overaging in the HAZ lowers the strength adjacent to the weld.
The response to welding of these alloys is much more complex than observed for the nonhardenable alloys,
because the effect depends on the peak temperature and time at temperature to which the metal is
exposed (as shown in Figure 2.23.16). Thus, variations in metallurgical structure will vary with distance
from the fusion line.
Immediately adjacent to the weld metal, the base metal is heated to a sufficiently high temperature to
rapidly dissolve any precipitates. These solid-solution zones will possess intermediate strength and be
quite ductile. Next to this zone will be a region that has been subjected to temperatures in excess of the
precipitation hardening temperature but below the solution annealing temperature. This zone will exhibit
varying degrees of overaging and softening depending on the temperature and time at the overaging
temperature. The portion of overaged or partially annealed material closest to the solid-solution-zone will
generally possess the lowest strength. Postweld aging treatments have little effect on the strength of this
zone. The entire weld must be solution annealed and aged to match the properties of the base metal. It is
recommended that hardenable alloys are welded with fast methods that rapidly dissipate heat in order to
minimise the degree of overaging and reduction in strength in the HAZ. The hardenable alloys generally
exhibit lower weld ductility in the as-welded condition than do the nonhardenable alloys.
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 Figure 2.23.16. Hardness profiles (Rockwell E) of the HAZ of gas tungsten arc welds on 6061-T6 using various heat
inputs.

Figure 2.23.17(a) shows the hardness distribution in the HAZ of a gas tungsten arc welded Al-0.4Si-0.6Mg
alloy 6063, initially in the fully hardened (-T6) condition, together with the peak temperature reached
during the weld thermal cycle. As discussed earlier, there is a fully softened zone adjacent to the fusion
boundary, an intermediate zone where the hardness increases with distance from the fusion boundary, a
third zone where the hardness is slightly harder than in the surrounding metal, and beyond this the
unaffected base metal. Figure 2.23.17(b) shows the same HAZ after heating at 180°C for 8 hours. The
relative amount of β’ precipitation is also plotted. The β’ phase consists of fine rod-like particles of Mg2Si
that normally contribute towards the age-hardening effect. Comparing these two diagrams, it is evident
that, adjacent to the fusion boundary, the material has been fully solution annealed and has been
rehardened by the aging treatment. Further from the fusion boundary, there is a drop in hardness that is
associated with over-aging. About 15 mm beyond the fusion line, the hardness is fully recovered.

Figure 2.23.17. (a) Hardness distribution in the HAZ of a gas tungsten arc weld in Al-Si-Mg alloy 6063-T5. The peak
temperature during the weld thermal cycle is also shown. (b) Hardness recovery due to aging the weld shown in (a) for
8 hours at 180ºC.

If the base metal is welded in the solution annealed (-T4) condition, postweld aging can most effectively be
employed to improve as-welded strengths. This procedure is most effective for low heat input processes or
techniques that avoid excessive precipitation aging. A typical example of this effect is shown in Figure
2.23.18.
Various devices are used to overcome weld softening in medium-strength hardenable alloys. One method
is to make allowance for this effect in the design stress used. The ASME code, for example, permits a
design stress of 72 MPa for an unwelded Al-Mg-Si alloy, and 41 MPa for the same alloy in the welded
condition. It is sometimes possible in structural applications to place the weld in a region of low stress. In
pipework, special pipes with thickened ends may be used for welding, the extra thickness being sufficient to
compensate for softening.
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Figure 2.23.18. Hardness profiles of the HAZ of 6061-T4 and –T6 starting material in the as-welded (AW) and postweld
aged (PWA) conditions.

The behaviour of the weldable 7XXX Al-Mg-Zn alloys, such as 7005, is different in that, first there is no over-
aging effect and, secondly, age-hardening occurs at room temperature. Thus, the properties of the HAZ
may be almost fully recovered either by natural (room temperature) or artificial (elevated temperature)
aging of the joint. These alloys have increased strength and good ductility.
Both Al-Mg-Si and Al-Mg-Zn type alloys can be welded with 5% Mg filler, and the weld metal, in addition to
being resistant to solidification cracking, has tensile properties that match or are close to those of the
parent metal. This is not the case with the higher strength aircraft alloys of the Al-Cu-Mg-Zn type, such as
7075, 7079 and 7178. A filler metal that combines matching strength with adequate resistance to cracking
has not yet been developed. These alloys also suffer from liquation cracking and reduction of strength in
the HAZ and are not normally welded. The older Al-Cu-Si-Mn-Mg aircraft alloys, 2014 and 2024, are less
sensitive and it is possible to obtain acceptable properties after welding. Indeed, this type of alloy is
fabricated by welding in aerospace applications.
In recent years there has been much interest in the development of Al-Li alloys. These alloys contain
additions of copper, magnesium, lithium, zirconium and, in some cases, silver. All the addition elements
contribute to the age-hardening process, and in the fully heat-treated condition their tensile properties and
fracture toughness values equal, and sometimes exceed those of the 7XXX series. At the same time, their
susceptibility to solidification cracking is similar to that of alloy 2024, so that welding is possible.
The high-strength heat-treatable aluminium alloys are in general susceptible to stress corrosion cracking in
relatively mild environments such as weak chloride solutions or even in natural atmospheric exposure.
Unwelded material is protected by cladding with Al-1Zn, which is anodic to the base material. Most stress
corrosion cracking failures in Al-Zn-Mg welds have been found in locations remote from the welds. The Al-
5Mg alloy may be susceptible to stress corrosion cracking due to the precipitation of the β phase at slightly
elevated temperatures. Al-Mg-Si hardenable alloys and the nonhardenable alloys other than the higher Al-
Mg types, do not suffer this type of attack.

2.23.2.4 Corrosion resistance of aluminium welds:

Many aluminium alloys can be welded without reducing their resistance to corrosion. In general, the
joining method does not affect corrosion resistance unless the residual flux residue is not completely
removed after using the oxyfuel gas or SMAW processes.
The excellent corrosion resistance of the nonhardenable alloys is not changed appreciably by welding. For
installations involving prolonged elevated temperature service (above 150°C), however, limitations are
placed on the amount of cold work that is permissible for some of the 5XXX series alloys, particularly those
with higher magnesium contents, which may show susceptibility to stress corrosion cracking.
The 2XXX and 7XXX series hardenable alloys containing substantial amounts of copper and zinc may have
their corrosion resistance reduced by the heat of welding. Grain boundary precipitation in the HAZ of these
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alloys creates an electrical potential different from the remainder of the weld and, in the presence of an
electrolyte, selective corrosion at the grain boundaries may take place. In the presence of stress, this
corrosion can proceed rapidly. Postweld heat treatment provides a more homogeneous structure and
improves the corrosion resistance of the hardenable alloys. If the assembly cannot be solution annealed
and aged after welding, improved corrosion resistance is observed if the original material is welded in the -
T6 temper rather than in the -T4 temper.
The corrosion resistance of welded assemblies fabricated of clad material is superior to that of welded
assemblies in nonclad material. Paint protection is recommended when welded joints of bare 2XXX or
7XXX series alloys are employed in outdoor environments.

2.23.3 Joining methods:

Aluminium and aluminium alloys may be joined by fusion welding, resistance welding, high-energy density
welding, solid-state welding, brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding. Fusion welding was first
accomplished by the oxyacetylene process, but the inert gas shielded processes (GTAW and GMAW) have
almost entirely replaced other arc welding processes for aluminium. These gas shielded arc welding
processes result in optimum weld quality and minimum distortion, and require no flux.
Fusion welding is mainly used for pure aluminium, the nonhardenable Al-Mn and Al-Mg alloys, and the Al-
Mg-Si and Al-Zn-Mg hardenable alloys. The higher strength aluminium alloys of the Al-Cu-Mg and
Duralumin types, that are specified mainly for aircraft structures, are difficult to fusion weld effectively.
Such alloys are normally joined by riveting, although a few fabricators employ spot welding as a joining
method, and fusion welding is applied to space vehicle construction in certain cases. Some of the welding
processes used for joining aluminium are considered below.

2.23.3.1 Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW):

Aluminium can be gas tungsten arc welded using conventional AC or square-wave AC, or DC with the
electrode either negative (DCEN) or positive (DCEP). Gas tungsten arc welding with an AC power source is
used for a wide variety of applications. During the electrode positive half-cycle, oxide is removed from the
aluminium surface but the electrode tends to overheat, while the electrode negative half-cycle allows the
electrode to cool. With the sinusoidal AC output there is a high restriking voltage as the workpiece
becomes positive, with a delay in arc re-ignition which may result in extinction of the arc and, if the arc is
maintained, a power imbalance between the two half-cycles (the current is higher when the electrode is
negative) that can overload the power source in transformer type machines. Older power sources
therefore use a high-frequency arc igniter and some means of compensating the imbalance. The
electronically controlled power sources that are now available produce a square-wave with a sufficiently
fast response to maintain the arc so that this problem does not arise. The power source is designed to
produce DC power and rapidly shift the polarity to produce a square alternating wave form. Also, it is
possible to change the balance between the two half-cycles within limits. Increasing the duration of the
electrode negative half-cycle reduces the heat load on the electrode, while increasing the electrode
positive duration makes the cleaning action more effective. The square-wave shape enhances arc re-
ignition during polarity reversal, but present equipment with lower open-circuit voltages (OCV) requires
high frequency superimposed continuously. AC is used with argon shielding gas, or a mixture of argon and
helium with 50% or more argon. Helium and helium-rich mixtures are seldom used in AC welding since the
oxide removal action of the arc is lessened. Pure tungsten or zirconiated tungsten electrodes that form
spherical tips are recommended for AC GTAW.
DCEN welding was once considered unsuitable for welding aluminium because of the absence of any arc
cleaning action. DCEN welding may be used with either argon or helium shielding, and has been applied to
high-speed tube welding and for coil-joining welds in the production of aluminium strip. A shielding gas of
100% helium and thoriated tungsten electrodes have proven advantageous for many automatic welding
operations and is useful for applications where deep penetration and a high heat input rate are required.
Since there is less tendency to heat the electrode, small electrodes can be used for a given welding current.
This contributes to keeping the weld narrow. The use of DCEN provides a greater heat input rate than can
be obtained with AC. Greater heat density is developed in the weld pool, which results in a weld that is
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deeper and narrower. The cost of helium, however, is a limitation to the use of this process. The surface
appearance of DCEN welds differs from that of AC welds that are usually clean and bright. DCEN welds are
dulled by a surface oxide film that is easily removed by light wire brushing. There is no arc cleaning action
using DCEN and thorough preweld cleaning of the base metal is necessary.
DCEP welding provides good surface cleaning action and permits welding of thin aluminium sections with
sufficient current to maintain a stable arc. Argon shielding should be used because helium or argon-helium
mixtures would contribute to electrode overheating. The weld bead tends to be wide and penetration is
shallow.
2.23.3.2 Gas metal arc welding (GMAW):
The ability of GMAW to deposit large quantities of weld metal in a short period of time has played a large
part in the increased use of aluminium since the late 1940’s. The GMAW process is operated with DC
electrode positive, and the cathode has the same effect of cleaning the surface as with GTAW. Argon is
generally preferred as a shielding gas when welding thinner metal, mainly because of its lower arc heat. In
addition, argon results in a smoother and more stable arc than helium. Helium, because of its greater arc
heat, is capable of producing the deep penetration desirable in weld deposits in thicker metal. The bead
profile with helium shielding is wider and less convex than with argon shielding. Argon-helium mixtures
take advantage of the higher arc heat of helium without the disadvantages associated with pure gas.
Mixtures ranging between 50 and 75% helium are used.
At medium current levels, the weld pool is roughly semi-circular in cross-section, but as the current
increases, a finger-shaped projection develops in the centre of the fusion bead. This finger-shaped
penetration is undesirable in that it is intolerant to misalignment between the electrode and the centreline
of the joint, and is thus more subject to lack of fusion defects along the centreline. This problem may be
avoided by using helium or a helium-argon mixture as shielding gas. With helium shielding, the pool cross-
section remains semi-circular at high currents.
Spray transfer produced by either a constant-current arc or by a pulsed-current arc is used for almost all
GMAW of aluminium alloys. The globular and short-circuiting transfer modes are generally not
recommended for GMAW of aluminium because fusion with the base metal may be incomplete.
The amount of spatter during welding may be more severe with electrodes that contain low vapour
pressure elements. The aluminium-magnesium alloy electrodes (ER5XXX) commonly cause the most
spatter. The vapour pressure of magnesium tends to cause disintegration of the droplets as they separate
from the electrode tip. This produces small spatter balls that are often thrown clear of the arc.
2.23.3.3 Resistance welding:
Resistance spot welding has been employed for joining sheet aluminium, for example in the automobile
industry. Aluminium, however, is an intrinsically difficult material to spot weld. The presence of a
refractory oxide film on the metal surface can cause uncontrolled variations in the surface resistance, and
standardised cleaning methods are necessary. The electrical and thermal conductivities are high, so that
high current welding transformers are required. The volume changes on solidification and cooling
necessitate careful and rapid control of electrode loading. The temper of an aluminium alloys affects its
weldability. Aluminium alloys in the annealed condition are more difficult to resistance weld consistently
than are alloys in the hardened condition due to deeper indentations, distortion and increased tip pickup.
Electrode life and weld consistency are improved when welding the harder tempers. However, in spite of
these disadvantages, spot welding has been used for a number of years as a means of joining sheet metal.
Any of the aluminium alloys may be spot welded, including the hardenable Al-Cu alloys.
2.23.3.4 Laser beam welding (LBW):
In welding aluminium alloys, the reduction in total heat input associated with LBW can have a beneficial
effect. The much narrower welds and HAZ's exhibited by laser beam welds compared to arc welds result in
a much smaller volume of metal becoming overaged or annealed when joining aged or strain-hardened
material. This is turn results in laser beam welds generally exhibiting higher yield and tensile strengths in
transverse tensile testing than arc welds of equal thickness.

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There is also a disadvantage to a very narrow HAZ; the mechanical property mismatch (i.e. the weak HAZ
compared to the stronger base material) is highly localised. In applications involving plastic deformation,
the deformation strains are localised in the HAZ. As a consequence, transverse tensile tests of laser beam
welds typically exhibit low elongation, because deformation is concentrated in the HAZ. This can be a
problem when forming components that have been laser welded; failure occurs in the HAZ.
The major difficulty with LBW of aluminium is that the aluminium does not couple well with the
wavelengths of the light emitted by the solid-state Nd:YAG and the CO2 lasers. The laser beam energy
tends to be reflected rather than absorbed by the aluminium, which does not contribute to the energy
required to melt the metal. On polished aluminium surfaces, as much as 90% of the laser energy is
reflected. Additionally, once a weld pool and keyhole is established, the reflectivity goes down
dramatically, resulting in a power density that is too high. Early LBW control systems were unable to
accommodate this change in reflectivity, but control systems have been developed that can vary the energy
input to compensate for the reflectivity change when the keyhole is established. Another way of reducing
the reflectivity of aluminium is to modify the surface by mechanical or chemical roughening, deposition of
various absorptive paint-on coatings, or anodising and dyeing the aluminium surface.
These difficulties make aluminium more difficult to laser weld than other common structural materials.
Despite these difficulties, the aerospace industry is successfully welding 2XXX and 6XXX series alloys in
many applications. The automotive industry has reported preliminary success in the LBW of thin gauge
(0.76 to 2.0 mm) 2XXX and 5XXX alloy sheet. Although the general application of LBW to aluminium alloys
requires further process and equipment development, the use of LBW for aluminium alloys is increasing at
a moderate rate.

2.23.3.5 Other joining processes:

Cold pressure welding is used in joining aluminium for certain special applications, notably cable sheathing,
and ultrasonic welding has important applications in microjoining.
There are a number of applications for which it is necessary to join aluminium to either carbon steel or
austenitic chromium-nickel steel. These include cryogenic equipment, anode assemblies, busbars and
cooking utensils. Fusion welding is not practicable because of the formation of brittle intermetallic
compounds, and joints are made by soldering, brazing, diffusion bonding or friction welding. For parts of
semi-circular symmetry, friction welding is usually the best technique; sound joints can be made although
brittle compounds may be present at the interface.
For certain applications of complex form (for example automotive radiators and core-type plate heat
exchangers), brazing is used for joining aluminium. Aluminium-silicon alloys may be employed as the
brazing filler metal and in some cases it is convenient to use sheet aluminium clad with the brazing alloy,
the whole assembly being dipped in a bath of molten flux to make numerous joints simultaneously. Fluxes
are normally corrosive and special procedures may be necessary for their removal. Potassium
fluoroaluminate-based fluxes are, however, relatively non-corrosive.
Aluminium may be soldered to itself and to carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel alloys and copper alloys.
Zinc or zinc-cadmium solders used with zinc chloride flux give joints of relatively good corrosion resistance,
but the melting range is high for solder, 333 to 415°C. The tin-zinc eutectic mixture (91Sn-9Zn) melts at
about 200°C and gives joints suitable for atmospheric exposure provided they are covered by paint. Lower-
melting solders generally have low strength and poor corrosion resistance.

2.23.3.6 Filler metal selection:

Recommended filler metals for various base metal combinations are shown in Table 2.23.4.

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 Table 2.23.4. Recommended filler metals for various aluminium base metal combinations.

6101A
1350 6070
1060 6261
Base 1070A 6060
5042 7017 EN43100
metal to 3103 3105 5005 5182 5154 6463
5251 5086 5454 5456 7020 EN44100
base 1145 3004 5020 5083 5254 6005
5052 7005 EN46100
metal 1100 6061
1200 6063
3003 6351
6082

1350
1060
1070A
3103
1100 4043 4043 4043 5356 5356 4043 4043 5356 4043 5356 4043
1145
1100
1200
3003

3105
4043 4043 4043 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 4043 5356 4043
3004

5005
4043 4043 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 4043 5356 4043
5020

5042
5251 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 4043
5052

5182
5183 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5183 5356
5083

5086 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 5356

5154
5356 5356 5356 5356 5356 4043
5254

5454 5554 5356 5356 5356 4043

5456 5556 5356 5556 5356

6101A
6070
6261
6060
6463
4043 5356 4043
6005
6061
6063
6351
6082

7017
7020 5356 4043
7005

EN43100
EN44100 4043
EN46100

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