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The matter of laws is organized in like this: firstly there are presented the
laws that rule the macroscopic theory of electromagnetism (in Chapter 2), and
then a few of the conclusions and consequences derived from the laws’ system
(in Chapter 3). In paragraph 3.5 there are presented the units of the electric and
magnetic quantities, and in Chapter 4 there is presented the use of these laws for
some significant problems computation.
The laws of macroscopic theory of electromagnetism represent a set
of mathematical equations coherent from the point of respecting the truth
criteria, completeness and non-contradiction, relation that connect the
quantities which characterize the electromagnetic field and the
electromagnetic state of the bodies in variable regime, gathering in a
mathematical “shape” the electromagnetic field phenomenology.
During the presentation of each law, after the statement and the comment
of its mathematical formulation, we follow to mark out its physical significance
and its most important consequences, firstly in variable regime, then in various
particular regimes: quasi-stationary regimes (in which the variations in time of
some of the quantities are sufficiently slow so they can be neglected), steady
state (stationary) regimes (in which the quantities are time-invariant, but there
are energy transformations) and static regimes (which are stationary regimes
without energy transformations).
ΨΣ = qVΣ . (2.1.1)
33
dA = dAext D
(VΣ ) ρv
dv
(Σ )
Figure 2.1.1
If the electric charge from domain (VΣ ) has the volume distribution
density ρ v (see Figure 2.1.1), then relation (2.1.1) can be explicitly written:
∫ D ⋅ dA = ∫ D ⋅dAext = ∫ ρ v ⋅ dv (2.1.2)
(Σ ) (Σ ) (VΣ )
relation which, being true for any arbitrary considered domain (VΣ ) ,
imposes the equality of the integrands:
div D = ρ v , (2.1.4)
expression which represent the local form of the electric flux law for
continuity domains.
Electric flux law emphasizes one of the causes that generates electric
field, namely charged bodies.
div D = 0
Figure 2.1.2
34
It is well-known that, for any field vector, the points from the space in
which the divergence is nonzero they represent end points of field lines (starting
point if the divergence is positive, and, respectively, end points id the
divergence is negative). It results that the lines of the electric field produced
by charges are open curves, starting from the positive charged bodies and
ending on the negative charged bodies (see Figure 2.1.2).
Because this relation is valid for any space domain (VΣ ), it results the
local form for continuity domains of the magnetic flux law:
div B = 0. (2.2.3)
According to relation (2.2.3), the magnetic flux density field vector is a
solenoidal one (without sources). This fact underlines, on one hand, the non-
existence of the magnetic charges similar to electric charges and, on the other
hand, inexistence of some points – extremity of magnetic field lines.
Therefore the magnetic field lines are not open curves.
An immediate consequence of the magnetic flux law magnetic flux
through any open surface bounded by the same closed curve is the same.
In order to prove this statement one will consider an arbitrary closed
( )
curve (Γ ), and any two arbitrary open surfaces S Γ, j and (S Γ, k ) , which rest on
curve (Γ ) - see Figure 2.2.1.
35
dA j = dA ext
(SΓ , j )
dA k = −dAext (Σ )
(SΓ ,k )
(Γ ) dl
Figure 2.2.1
By convention we associate the line oriented element dl with each of the
area oriented elements dA k and dA j according to the right corkscrew rule, we
write the relation (2.2.2) for the closed curve (Σ ) , reunion of the open surfaces
( )
S Γ, j and (S Γ, k ) . In these conditions, the integral on (Σ ) will be the sum of the
( )
integral on S Γ, j and (S Γ, k ) :
∫ B ⋅ dA j = ∫ B ⋅ dAk = ∫ B ⋅ dAk
(S Γ, j ) (S Γ, k ) (S Γ )
(2.2.5)
for any open surface (S Γ ) which sits on the closed curve (Γ ), which shows that
the magnetic flux has a unique value through all open surfaces bounded by
the same closed curve.
Moreover, the vector identity
(
div curl A = 0 ) (2.2.6)
allows the introduction of a new quantity, called magnetic vector potential and
denoted by A with relation:
curl A = B. (2.2.7)
36
As vector A is uniquely determined only if we know its divergence, it is
common that in stationary regime to adopt the calibration condition
div A = 0 (2.2.8)
This shows that magnetic flux through an open surface depends only
on the closed curve that bounds it.
Statement: For any point and for any time moment, between magnetic
flux density vector B , magnetic field strength vector H and magnetization
vector M exists the following relation:
( )
B = µ0 ⋅ H + M . (2.3.1)
B = µ0 ⋅ H + µ0 ⋅ M t + µ0 ⋅ M p (2.3.2)
and emphasizes as magnetic field generating cause the bodies that have
permanent magnetization.
37
2.4. Temporary magnetization law
Statement: For any point and for any time moment, temporary
magnetization M t depends on the magnetic field strength H :
Mt =Mt H . ( ) (2.4.1)
M t = χm ⋅ H , (2.4.2)
B = µ0 ⋅ H + µ0 ⋅ M t + µ0 ⋅ M p = µ0 ⋅ H + µ0 ⋅ χ m ⋅ H + µ0 ⋅ M p =
(2.4.3)
= µ 0 ⋅ (1 + χ m ) ⋅ H + µ 0 ⋅ M p .
38
in which the quantity µ 0 ⋅ M p = I p is called magnetic polarization.
Ip B = μ⋅ H + I p
μ⋅ H B = μ⋅H
H H
By the values of their relative permeability values, the materials are being
ordered as follows:
• diamagnetic materials (that have a µ r slightly less than one);
• paramagnetic (that have a µ r slightly more than one);
• ferromagnetic materials (with very big µ r , touch four figures and which,
care, from certain pair of values, they lose their linear character).
In the table below there are presented values of the relative permeability
for a couple of diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials, observing that for all of
them one can consider µ r ≅ 1.
Hydrogen 1-0.063∙10-6
Copper 1-08.8∙10-6
Water 1-9∙10-6
Zinc 1-12∙10-6
Halite 1-12.6∙10-6
39
Name of diamagnetic material µr
Silver 1-19∙10-6
Mercury 1-25∙10-6
Bismuth 1-176∙10-6
Azoth 1+0.013∙10-6
Air 1+0.4∙10-6
Oxygen 1+1.9∙10-6
Aluminum 1+23∙10-6
Platinum 1+360∙10-6
M t = χ m ⋅ H x + χ m ⋅ H y + χ m ⋅ H z
x xx xy xz
M t y = χ m yx ⋅ H x + χ m yy ⋅ H y + χ m yz ⋅ H z (2.4.7)
M t z = χ m zx ⋅ H x + χ m zy ⋅ H y + χ m zz ⋅ H z .
40
χ m χ m xy χ m xz
xx
χm = χ m yx χ m yy χ m yz , (2.4.8)
χ m χ m zy χ m zz
zx
The law of temporary magnetization can be shortly written as
Mt = χm ⋅H (2.4.9)
B = µ0 ⋅ H + µ0 ⋅ M t + µ0 ⋅ M p = µ0 ⋅ H + µ0 ⋅ χ m ⋅ H + µ0 ⋅ M p =
( )
(2.4.10)
= µ0 ⋅ 1 + χ m ⋅ H + µ0 ⋅ M p = µ0 ⋅ µ r ⋅ H + µ0 ⋅ M p = µ ⋅ H + I p ,
Ip
B = μ⋅H + I p
B = μ⋅H
H
μ⋅H
Relation (2.4.10) has the vector interpretation from Figure 2.4.2,a with
the particular case in Figure 2.4.2,b corresponding in which M p = 0.
Bx µ xx µ xy µ xz H x I p x
B y = µ yx µ yy µ yz ⋅ H y + I p y , (2.4.11)
B µ
z zx µ zy µ zz H z I p
z
41
we remark the fact that the matrix corresponding to the tensor µ is symmetrical
and positive defined. There are three orthogonal directions, called principal
magnetization directions, having the unit vectors u1 , u 2 , u 3 , for which the
scalar components of vectors B = B1 ⋅ u1 + B2 ⋅ u 2 + B3 ⋅ u 3 ,
H = H1 ⋅ u1 + H 2 ⋅ u 2 + H 3 ⋅ u 3 and I p = I p ⋅ u1 + I p ⋅ u 2 + I p ⋅ u 3 after
1 2 3
these three directions satisfy the matrix relation:
B1 µ1 0 0 H1 I p1
B = 0 µ 0 ⋅ H + I .
2 2 2 p2 (2.4.12)
B3 0 0 µ 3 H 3 I p
3
B = f (H ) . (2.4.13)
H
0
Figure 2.4.3
♦ One notices there are nonlinear materials (such as for example some
iron, nickel, cobalt alloys) for which the dependence of the relationship
between the magnetic flux density and the magnetic field strength cannot be
expressed (and not even approximated) analytically. These materials present a
specific phenomenon called magnetic hysteresis, which expresses the fact that
a functioning point from the curve which gives the dependence B = B(H )
has coordinates dependent on the succession of states followed to arrive in
that specific point, so it depends on the historical realizations of that state.
42
Below we present, from the qualitative point of view, this phenomenon
(see Figure 2.4.4). Starting from an initial state in which the material is not
magnetized, state corresponding to point O(0;0) in the plane (H ; B ) and
applying a magnetic field with increasing magnetic field strength, one notices
first a nonlinear increase of the magnetic flux density followed by a
saturation plateau until point A1 (H max ; Bmax ) . On this plateau, an increase of
the magnetic field strength does not lead to significant increases of the magnetic
flux density. OA1 curve is called first magnetization curve.
Figure 2.4.4
When the magnetic field strength is decreased, the values of the magnetic
flux density do not coincide to those corresponding to the first magnetization
curve for the same values of H . The decrease of the magnetic flux density is
realized by applying an increasing magnetic field but opposite as direction to the
initial one. To magnetic field cancellation it corresponds a non zero remanent
magnetic flux density – the functioning point A2 (0; Br ) . The magnetic field that
cancels the magnetic flux density is called coercive magnetic field –
functioning point A3 (− H c ;0 ).
43
The continuation of decreasing magnetic field strength until value − H max
is reached brings the functioning point A4 (− H max ;− Bmax ) in a point
A1 symmetric with respect to the origin of the coordinate system axis. Then, if
the magnetic field is increased, the functioning points are being placed on the
curve A4 A5 A6 A1 which is symmetric to curve A1 A2 A3 A4 with respect to the
origin. In this way the hysteresis cycle closes.
Ferromagnetic materials magnetize following irreversible evolutions,
which for a given value of H corresponding in principle three possible values
for B , corresponding to the first magnetization curve OA1 , to the descending
part A1 A2 A3 A4 or to ascending part A4 A5 A6 A1 of the hysteresis cycle.
B
µ r ,s = = tg α ; (2.4.14)
µ0 ⋅ H P
• dynamic relative permeability µ r, d , equal to the trigonometric tangent of the
angle between the trigonometric tangent in point P and the OH axis:
∆B
µ r ,d = lim = tg β ; (2.4.15)
∆H →0 µ 0 ⋅ ∆H
∆H > 0 P
• reversible relative permeability µ r, rev , equal to the trigonometric tangent
between the median of the secondary cycle and the OH axis:
∆B
µ r ,rev = lim = tg γ , (2.4.16)
∆H →0 µ 0 ⋅ ∆H
∆H < 0 P
with γ < Max {α ; β }.
44
According to the width of the hysteresis cycle, the ferromagnetic materials
can be divided into two big categories:
o soft magnetic materials, characterized by narrow cycles, respectively small
coercive fields (see dependence (a) from Figure 2.4.5);
o hard magnetic materials, characterized by wide cycles, respectively big
coercive fields (see dependence (b) from Figure 2.4.5).
0 H
Figure 2.4.5
The curves from Figure 2.4.5 gives us only a qualitative information, that
do not make out the real magnitude order of the ratio between the widths of the
hysteresis cycles. For comparison, we present below the values of the remanent
flux density (Br ) and of the coercive field (H c ) for a few of the soft
ferromagnetic materials, respectively for hard magnetic materials.
(B r ) (H c )
Name of the soft ferromagnetic material
[T ] [ A / m]
Super Malloy (79% Ni; 15% Fe; 5% Mo; 0.5% Mn) 0.6 0.4
Perm alloy (78.5% Ni; 21.5% Fe) 0.6 4
Pure Iron 1.4 4
Nickel – Zinc Ferrite 0.13 10
45
(Br ) (H c )
Name of the hard ferromagnetic material
[T ] [ A / m]
Electrotechnical Steel (with 4% Si) 1.8 40
Manganese – Zinc Ferrite 0.15 20
Steel (cu 1% C) .7 5∙103
Chrome Steel, Wolfram Steel 1.1 5∙103
Alnico (12% Al; 20% Ni; 5% Co; 63% Fe) 0.73 34∙103
Oerstit (20% Ni; 30% Co; 20% Ti; 30% Fe) 0.55 65∙103
Cobalt Ferrite 0.16 90∙103
Barium Ferrite 0.35 200∙103
Cobalt – Platinum Alloy (77% Pt; 23% Co) 0.45 260∙103
One can notice that, for both categories, the magnitude order of the
remanent flux densities is the same, while the values of coercive fields are
slightly different. For example, taking into consideration two materials with the
same value of the remanent flux density, manganese – zinc ferrite from the soft
materials category and cobalt ferrite from the hard materials category, one can
notice a ratio between the widths of the hysteresis cycles, expressed by the ratio
of their coercive fields, of 1/4.500.
Finally, it’s important to mention that the completion of a hysteresis
cycle is accompanied by energy transfer from the magnetic field to the
ferromagnetic body, the volume density of this energy being proportional to
the cycle’s area (as Warburg theorem proves, theorem that will be presented in a
following chapter of this book).
We also remember that the properties of the ferromagnetic material
are greatly influenced by temperature, these properties even disappearing
for certain limit values of temperature, proper for each material, called
Curie points. Curie point for cobalt is 1,137 0 C , for iron is 7530 C , and for
0
nickel is 376 C . Increasing the temperature over the Curie point value
leads to the transformation of ferromagnetic materials into paramagnetic
materials.
46
2.5. The electric field constitutive law
(the connection law between electric flux density, electric field
strength and electric polarization)
Statement: For any point and for any time moment, between electric
flux density vector D , electric field strength vector E and polarization
vector P there is the following relation:
D = ε 0 ⋅ E + P. (2.5.1)
As for the magnetic constitutive law, this law has only local form.
Expressing the electric polarization vector P by its two components,
namely the temporary P t and the permanent component P p , the electric
constitutive law has the following form:
D = ε 0 ⋅ E + Pt + Pp (2.5.2)
Statement: For any point and for any time moment, temporary
electric polarization P t depends on electric field strength E :
()
Pt = Pt E . (2.6.1)
P t = ε 0 ⋅ χ e ⋅ E, (2.6.2)
47
where the proportionality coefficient χ e is a material numeric (non-
dimensional) constant called electric susceptibility, and the electric constitutive
law becomes
D = ε 0 ⋅ E + Pt + Pp = ε 0 ⋅ E + ε 0 ⋅ χ e ⋅ E + Pp = ε 0 ⋅ (1 + χ e ) ⋅ E + Pp . (2.6.3)
The numeric quantity
ε r = 1+ χ e (2.6.4)
is called relative permittivity, and the numeric quantity
ε = ε0 ⋅εr (2.6.5)
is called the absolute permittivity or electric constant.
Using these notations, the electric constitutive law has the form
D = ε ⋅ E + P p. (2.6.6)
Pp D =ε ⋅E + Pp
E D =ε ⋅E
E
ε ⋅E
48
Name of the material Aggregation state εr
H2 1.0003
Air 1.0006
O2 1.0006
CO Gaseous 1.0007
CO2 1.001
CH4 1.001
C2H6 1.0015
Nitrobenzene (180 C ) 36
Pressboard 3.4÷4.3
49
Name of the material Aggregation state εr
Ebonite 2.5÷5.0
Rubber 3.0÷6.0
Quartz glass 4.0÷4.2
Porcelain 5.0÷6.5
ClNa Solid 5.5
Mica 5.0÷7.0
Glass 5.5÷8.0
SO4K2 8.35
Diamond 16.5
♦ For linear and anisotropic materials, one can notice that, if a three-
orthogonal coordinate system is taken into consideration, in each point from the
space, each scalar component of temporary electric polarization vector depends,
in principle, on all scalar components of electric field strength vector. In a
Cartesian coordinate system, for example, if E = E x ⋅ i + E y ⋅ j + E z ⋅ k ,
P t = Pt x ⋅ i + Pt y ⋅ j + Pt z ⋅ k and
D = Dx ⋅ i + D y ⋅ j + Dz ⋅ k , then
Pt = ε 0 ⋅ χ e ⋅ E x + ε 0 ⋅ χ e ⋅ E y + ε 0 ⋅ χ e ⋅ E z
x xx xy xz
Pt y = ε 0 ⋅ χ e yx ⋅ E x + ε 0 ⋅ χ e yy ⋅ E y + ε 0 ⋅ χ e yz ⋅ E z (2.6.7)
Pt z = ε 0 ⋅ χ e zx ⋅ E x + ε 0 ⋅ χ e zy ⋅ E y + ε 0 ⋅ χ e zz ⋅ E z .
χe χ e xy χ e xz
xx
χ e = χ e yx χ e yy χ e yz , (2.6.8)
χe χ e zy χ e zz
zx
the temporary electric polarization law can be shortly written
50
Pt = ε 0 ⋅ χ e ⋅ E (2.6.9)
D = ε 0 ⋅ E + Pt + P p = ε 0 ⋅ E + ε 0 ⋅ χ e ⋅ E + P p =
( )
(2.6.10)
= ε0 ⋅ 1+ χ e ⋅ E + P p = ε0 ⋅ε r ⋅ E + P p = ε ⋅ E + P p ,
Pp
D =ε ⋅E + Pp
D =ε ⋅E
E
ε ⋅E
E
Dx ε xx ε xy ε xz E x Pp x
= ε
y yx
D ε yy ε ⋅
yz y
E + Ppy , (2.6.11)
D ε
z zx ε zy ε zz E z Pp z
51
Dx ε 1 0 0 E x Pp x
D y = 0 ε2 0 ⋅ E y + Pp y . (2.6.12)
D 0
z 0 ε 3 E z P
pz
dΦ S Γ
uΓ = − . (2.7.1)
dt
B dA
(S Γ )
E
(Γ ) dl
Figure 2.7.1
The electromagnetic induction law has the above form only with the
condition that the reference direction of the closed curve (Γ ) (the reference
direction of the oriented line element dl ) and the direction of the normal to
the surface (SΓ ) (the oriented area element dA ) are associated according to
right corkscrew rule (see Figure 2.7.1).
52
For moving media, the integration domains follows the bodies in their
movement, and the derivative with respect to time of the magnetic flux is a
substantial derivative and it is computed using the following relation:
∂B
d
dt (S∫ )
B ⋅ dA = ∫ ∂t + w ⋅ div B + curl B × w (
⋅ dA, ) (2.7.3)
Γ (S Γ)
∫ E ⋅ dl = ∫ (curl E )⋅ dA (2.7.4)
(Γ ) (S Γ )
and
Taking into account the local form (2.2.3) of the magnetic flux law, one
obtains a new integral form of the electromagnetic induction law:
uΓ = ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫
∂B
∂t
(
⋅ dA − ∫ B × w ⋅ dl.) (2.7.6)
(Γ ) (S Γ ) (Γ )
Relation (2.7.6) emphasizes the physical significance of the law: the time
variable magnetic field produces (induces) an electric field by the
electromagnetic induction phenomenon. Therefore, the electromagnetic
induction is a physical phenomenon, unlike electric flux density D and
magnetic induction B , which are physical quantities.
Moreover, relation (2.7.6) allows the decomposition of the emf into two
components:
uΓ = ut + um , (2.7.7)
with
∂B ∂B
ut = − ∫ ∂
⋅ dA = ∫ −
∂
⋅ dA (2.7.8)
Γ )
(S Γ ) t (S t
53
called emf induced by transformation and, respectively,
( )
u m = − ∫ B × w ⋅ dl = ∫ (w × B ) ⋅ dl (2.7.9)
(Γ ) (Γ )
We remark that the sum from relation (2.7.7) does not depend on the
reference system chosen for the movement, while the separation into two
components depends in general on the adopted reference system.
The reference system of the emf can be arbitrary chosen. To determine
the real sense of the induced emf, Lenz formulated his famous rule: the real
direction of emf is such that its effects oppose the generating causes.
Therefore, the minus sign from relation (2.7.1) does not have to be
assimilated from mathematical point of view with Lenz’s law, this coming from
the adopted convention when we associate the direction for dl with the direction
of dA according to the corkscrew rule.
For continuity domains the equality:
∂B
∫ (curl E )⋅ dA = − ∫
−
∂t
+ curl(w × B
)
⋅ dA (2.7.10)
(S Γ ) (S Γ )
is valid for any surface (S Γ ) and it imposes the equality of the integrands:
curl E = −
∂B
∂t
(
+ curl w × B . ) (2.7.11)
Relation (2.7.11) represents the local form for continuity domains of the
electromagnetic induction law.
( )
For media at rest w = 0 it results the local form
54
∂B
curl E = − (2.7.12)
∂t
and, respectively, the integral form
∂B
uΓ = − ∫ ∂t
⋅ dA. (2.7.13)
(S Γ )
curl E = 0 (2.7.14)
and, respectively, the integral form
uΓ = ∫ E ⋅ dl = 0. (2.7.15)
(Γ )
E = − grad V . (2.7.16)
Figure 2.7.2
55
The integral form of the electromagnetic induction law in stationary
regime allows the demonstration of the following theorem: the voltage drop
between two points M k and M j from space (arbitrary point) does not
depend on the paths (integration curve) between them.
Indeed (see Figure 2.7.2), let consider two paths (arbitrary) between M k
and M j , represented by the open curves (C1 ) and (C2 ) , whose reunion is the
closed curve (Γ ) .
According to relation (2.7.15) it results that
Mj Mk Mj Mj
uΓ = ∫ E ⋅ dl = ∫ E ⋅ dl + ∫ E ⋅ dl = ∫ E ⋅ dl − ∫ E ⋅ dl = 0 (2.7.17)
(Γ ) Mk Mj Mk Mk
(C1 ) (C 2 ) (C1 ) (C 2 )
that is
Mj Mj
∫ E ⋅ dl = ∫ E ⋅ dl = u M k M j . (2.7.18)
Mk Mk
(C1 ) (C 2 )
Mj
( )
V M j = VM j = VM 0 − ∫ E ⋅ dl. (2.7.19)
M0
56
M0 M0
u P j P0 = ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫ (grad V ) ⋅ dl =
Mj Mj
( )
M0
∂V ∂V ∂V
=− ∫ ∂x ∂y
⋅ i + ⋅ j +
∂z
⋅ k ⋅ dx ⋅ i + dy ⋅ j + dz ⋅ k =
(2.7.20)
Mj
M0 M
∂V ∂V ∂V 0
Mj
= − ∫ ⋅ dx + ⋅ dy + ⋅ dz = − ∫ dV = V = VM j − VM 0 ,
Mj ∂x ∂y ∂z Mj
M0
57
2.8. The magnetic circuit law (Ampère law)
dΨSΓ
u mΓ = iSΓ + . (2.8.1)
dt
The term iSΓ is also called turn and it is denoted by Θ S Γ .
By rewriting relation (2.8.1) one obtains the integral form of the law:
d
∫ H ⋅ dl = ∫ J ⋅ dA + dt ∫ D ⋅ dA (2.8.2)
(Γ ) ( SΓ ) ( SΓ )
which has the above presented form only if the association between the
reference direction of the orientation the oriented line element dl and the
oriented area element dA is according to the corkscrew rule (as for the
electromagnetic induction law).
For moving media, the integration domains follows the bodies in their
movement, following a similar path as the one described for the electromagnetic
induction law, and the integral developed form of magnetic circuit law is
obtained:
∫ H ⋅ dl = ∫ (curl H )⋅ dA = ∫ J ⋅ dA +
(Γ ) ( SΓ ) ( SΓ )
∂D
+ ∫ (
+ w ⋅ div D + curl D × w ⋅ dA = )
(SΓ ) ∂t
(2.8.3)
∂D
= ∫ J ⋅ dA + ∫ ⋅ dA +
(S ) (S ) ∂t
Γ Γ
58
respectively,
u m Γ = i S Γ + id S + iv S + iRS . (2.8.4)
Γ Γ Γ
i SΓ = ∫ J ⋅ dA; (2.8.5)
( SΓ )
∂D
id S =
Γ ∫ ∂t ⋅ dA , (2.8.6)
(S )
Γ
where
∂D
= Jd (2.8.7)
∂t
is the displacement current density;
ivS =
Γ ∫ (w ⋅ div D )⋅ dA = ∫ w ⋅ ρ v ⋅ dA , (2.8.8)
( SΓ ) ( SΓ )
where
w ⋅ ρv = J v (2.8.9)
i RS =
Γ ∫ [curl (D × w)]⋅ dA = ∫ (D × w)⋅ dl . (2.8.10)
( SΓ ) (Γ )
The magnetic circuit law emphasizes two causes that can generate the
magnetic field: conducting bodies transited by conduction currents and/or
time variable electric fields (by displacement currents, convection and
Roentgen currents).
59
For continuity domains, the equality (2.8.3), true for any surface (SΓ ) ,
results in:
curl H = J +
∂D
∂t
( )
+ w ⋅ ρ v + curl D × w , (2.8.11)
relation that represents the local form of the magnetic circuit law.
( )
For stationary media w = 0 the local form becomes:
∂D
curl H = J + (2.8.12)
∂t
and it shows that the closed lines of the magnetic field surrounds the
conductors transited by conduction currents, respectively the lines of the
time variable electric field that generate them.
In steady state regime the magnetic circuit law becomes the Ampère
theorem, and it has the local form:
curl H = J (2.8.13)
and, respectively, the global form
u mΓ = is Γ . (2.8.14)
In the particular cases of the point from the space for which the vector
field H is a non-rotational ( curl H = 0 ), according to the vector identity which
states that the curl of the gradient of any scalar field is zero, the scalar quantity
Vm can be introduced, called scalar magnetic potential, using the relation:
H = − grad Vm . (2.8.15)
60
dqVΣ
iΣ = − . (2.9.1)
dt
By rewriting the relation (2.9.1) one obtains the integral form of the law:
d
∫ J ⋅ dA = ∫ J ⋅ dAext = − dt (V∫ )
ρ v ⋅ dv (2.9.2)
(Σ ) (Σ ) Σ
(Σ ) dv
ρv
(VΣ )
Figure 2.9.1
For moving media, the time derivative from relation (2.9.2) is a
substantial derivative, which is computed using the relation:
∂ρ
d
∫ ρ v ⋅ dv = ∫ v + div w ⋅ ρ v ( ) ⋅ dv, (2.9.3)
dt (V )
Σ (V ) ∂t
Σ
such that the developed integral form of the electric charge conservation law
becomes:
∂ρ v
∫ J ⋅ dA = ∫ − ∂t − div w ⋅ ρ v ( ) ⋅ dv, (2.9.4)
(Σ ) (VΣ )
61
∂ρ v
∫ (div J )⋅ dv = ∫ − ∂t − div w ⋅ ρ v ( ) ⋅ dv , (2.9.5)
(VΣ ) (VΣ )
in which
w ⋅ ρv = J v (2.9.6)
( )
For stationary media w = 0 the local form of the law is:
∂ρv
div J = − . (2.9.9)
∂t
In steady state regime the local form becomes:
div J = 0 , (2.9.10)
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2.10. The constitutive law of electric conduction
J=J E .( ) (2.10.1)
(
J = σ ⋅ E + Ei , ) (2.10.2)
F el = q0 ⋅ E (2.10.3)
63
opposite direction to the electric field strength E (because q0 < 0 ) and a non
electric nature one F neel having the direction of the field. The electron will
move under the action of the non zero resulting force
F neel
F el + F neel = q0 ⋅ E + F neel = q0 ⋅ E + ≠ 0 . (2.10.4)
q 0
The term
F neel
= Ei (2.10.5)
q0
has the dimension of an electric field strength and it is named impressed
electric field strength. Impressed electric field is a quantity that captures
from the electric point of view the non electric nature actions upon the
charge carriers from the conductors, in their heterogeneous areas of the
chemical-physical properties.
Function on the cause nature that generate them, the impressed electric
fields can be of mechanical, thermal, chemical, etc. nature, and function of
space repartition of heterogeneities, the impressed electric fields can be
surface or interface (contact) ones.
Relation (2.10.2) can be also written under the form:
E + Ei = ρ ⋅ J, (2.10.6)
ρ = σ −1. (2.10.7)
64
In the table below there are presented the values of the resistivity ρ ad of
the resistivity temperature variation coefficient α for a few of conducting
materials.
65
• semiconductors, with average values for resistivity (respectively for
conductivity) and with exponential shape for their temperature dependence;
• conductors, with very small values for resistivity (respectively very high
values for conductivity); a perfect conductor is the material for which
ρ = 0.
R M2
uf ub
e
M1
66
Integrating the local form of the constitutive law of the electric conduction
along the axis (C ) of the conducting section, between the extremities M 1 and
M 2 of this section, one obtains:
∫ (E + E i )⋅ dl = ∫ E ⋅ dl + ∫ E i ⋅ dl = ∫ (ρ ⋅ J )⋅ dl =
M2 M2 M2 M2
M1 M1 M1 M1
(C ) (C ) (C ) (C )
M2 M2 M2
(2.10.10)
i dl
= ∫ (ρ ⋅ J ) ⋅ dl = ∫ ρ ⋅ ⋅ dl = i ⋅ ∫ ρ ⋅
A A
M1 M1 M 1
(C ) (C ) (C )
because the vectors J and dl are omo-parallel, and the electric conduction
current strength is the same along the conductor. In this relationship the
following quantities are underlined:
• electric voltage along the conductor (line?):
M2
uf = ∫ E ⋅ dl ; (2.10.11)
M1
(C )
So, the integral form of the constitutive law of electric conduction for
filiform conductors is:
u f + e = R ⋅i (2.10.14)
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▪ The reference directions for global quantities u f , e and i that appear
in relation (2.10.14) are associated using the convention depicted in the
graphical representation from Figure 2.10.1,b. Because in general the
reference directions are arbitrary chosen, they can be optionally chosen; if one
uses other reference directions that the one presented in Figure 2.10.1,b, the
integral form of the constitutive law of electric conduction changes by changing
the corresponding signs of the terms with changed reference directions.
▪ In the particular case of the steady state regime, one proved that the voltage
does not depend on the path and, as a consequence, the voltage along the path
u f is equal to the voltage ub computed along any open curve (Cb ) having as
extremities the point M 1 and M 2 (called terminals in the electric circuit
theory); the electric voltage
M2
ub = ∫ E ⋅ dl (2.10.15)
M1
(Cb )
is called the terminals voltage, and the integral form of the constitutive law of
electric conduction becomes
ub + e = R ⋅ i . (2.10.16)
We remark that the sign of the dot product shows the real direction of
the transferred power: from the field toward the conducting body if p > 0 ,
respectively from the conducting body towards the field if p < 0 .
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From relation (2.10.6) and (2.11.1) one can obtain a new expression of the
local form of the law, for linear and isotropic conductors:
( )
p = ρ ⋅ J − Ei ⋅ J = ρ ⋅ J − E i ⋅ J .
2
(2.11.2)
The two terms from the right side of equation (2.11.2) have the following
interpretation:
2
• Term ρ ⋅ J is positive and it represents the power volume density
irreversibly transferred by the electromagnetic field of the conductor.
• Term E i ⋅ J has the direction imposed by the orientation of the two vectors
E i and J ; if γ is the smallest angle between the two vectors, then we can
have the following situations: γ ∈ [0;π 2 ) , so E i ⋅ J > 0 and the power is
transferred from the impressed electric field sources (of the conductor) to
( ]
the electromagnetic field or γ ∈ π ;π , so E i ⋅ J < 0 and the power is
2
transferred from the electromagnetic field to impressed electric field
sources (of the conductor) or γ = π 2 and there is no power transfer
between the electromagnetic field and the conductor.
The integral form of the law is obtained by first integrating the local form
(2.11.1) on domain (VΣ ) in which the electric conduction process takes place.
The total power transferred by the electromagnetic field to the carrying current
conductors from (VΣ ) is
P= ∫ p ⋅ dv = ∫ (E ⋅ J ) ⋅ dv, (2.11.3)
(VΣ ) (VΣ )
and the energy corresponding to this phenomenon, between two time moments
t1 and t 2 , is
t2 t2
(
W = ∫ P ⋅ dt = ∫ ∫ E ⋅ J ⋅ dv ⋅ dt . ) (2.11.4)
t1 t1
(VΣ )
The measure units I.S. for the quantities p , P and W are, respectively,
Watt per cubic meter ( W / m 3 ), Watt ( W ) and Watt multiplied by
second (W ⋅ s ).
For a filiform conductor in steady state regime (see Figure 2.10.1,a),
taking into account that dv = A ⋅ dl , it results that the integral relation (2.11.3)
takes the particular form
69
P= ∫ (E ⋅ J ) ⋅ dv = ∫ E ⋅ J ⋅ dv = ∫ E ⋅ J ⋅ A ⋅ dl =
(VΣ ) (VΣ ) (VΣ )
(2.11.5)
=i⋅ ∫ E ⋅ dl = u f ⋅ i = ub ⋅ i = Pb ,
(C )
that shows that the power transferred by the electromagnetic field to the
conducting section in the electric conduction process is equal to the power Pb
called received power at terminals.
Regarding the physical significance, the law characterizes the thermal
effect of the electromagnetic field, referring to heat producing phenomenon
(Joule-Lenz effect) which is associated to the electric conduction current
flow through the conductors, that corresponds to the transformation of
electromagnetic energy into caloric energy.
where F0 is a universal constant called Faraday’s constant, that has the value
C
F0 = 96,484.6 , (2.12.2)
ech.gram
A is the mol’s mass of the deposited substance, and v is valence of a ion from
the deposited substance.
The ratio A / v is called the chemical equivalent, and its values are
presented in the table below.
70
Atomic mass Valence Chemical
Substance equivalent A / v [g ]
A[g ] v
Aluminum 1 1 1
Oxygen 16 2 8
Aluminum 27 3 9
Magnesium 24 2 12
Iron 3 55.9 3 18.6
Nickel 58.6 2 29.3
Cooper 2 63.2 2 31.6
Zinc 68.8 2 34.4
Potassium 39 1 39
tin 117.4 2 58.7
Cooper 1 63.2 1 63.2
Gold 196.1 3 65.4
Platinum 194.4 2 97.2
Mercury 199.8 2 99.9
Plumb 206.4 2 103.2
Silver 107.7 1 107.7
The physical significance of the electrolysis law is that it shows the mass
transport phenomenon associated to electric current flow through certain
substances.
The electrolysis process has many practical applications such that electro-
metallurgy (metal extraction from ore, metal refining, substance preparation
etc.) and galvanotechnics (galvanostegy – the coating of some object by nickel
plating, chrome plating, cadmium plating a.s.o and galvanoplasty – object
shape reproduction).
71