CHAPTER I

Introduction
Tewodros N.
www.tnigatu.wordpress.com
tedynihe@gmail.com
 Theory of Errors and Basic Adjustment Principles

Adjustments
– Imply that the given values of the observations must be altered or
adjusted, to make them consistent with the model, leading to the
uniqueness of the estimated unknowns.
– Techniques used to adjust redundant measurements.
• Least squares method
• Other approximate adjustment techniques
– If measurements are of equal quality, or weight, the residual could be divided equally among the
observations.
– If these were not true and the different weights of the observations could be estimated, then each
observation would be assigned a residual that is somewhat different from the others.
 Introduction
• Surveying is the art of measuring distances, angles, and positions
above, on or below the earth’s surface.
• Surveying also includes the art of locating or setting out points
on the ground from a plan or a map.
• purposes:
􀂾􀂾 To determine the relative positions of points on the earth’s
surface – to locate arbitrary points, configuration of the ground,
direction and length of lines, boundary lines, etc,
􀂾􀂾 To set out the lines and grades needed for the construction of
buildings, roads, dams, and other structures,
􀂾􀂾 To calculate areas, volumes and other related quantities,
􀂾􀂾 As well as to prepare necessary maps and diagrams of an
area.
Today surveying affects almost everything in our daily lives. For
example it is being used: Application
• 􀂾􀂾 In developing databases for natural resource management.
• 􀂾􀂾 In establishing boundaries of public and private lands.
• 􀂾􀂾 In preparing navigational maps (land, air, water).
• 􀂾􀂾 To map the earth above and below the sea.
• 􀂾􀂾 In geological and geophysical studies
• 􀂾􀂾 In planning design construction erection renovation and
maintenance of engineering works.
 Types of Surveying (curvature of the earth)
• Plane surveying: is the type of surveying where the mean
surface of the earth is considered as a plane.
– For small areas less than 250 km2 plane surveying can safely be used

• Geodetic surveying: is that branch of surveying, which takes into

account the true shape of the earth (spheroid).
– Surveys employing the principle of geodesy are of hig precision and
generally extend over a large area.
 Types of Surveying (purpose)
• Preliminary survey (Data gathering) -here distances and angles are
measured to locate existing physical features on maps plans etc so
that the data can be used for further works.
• Layout survey- involves marking on the ground (using wood stakes,
iron bars, aluminum and concrete monuments, nails, spikes, etc.)
the features shown on a design plan. Example property line,
engineering works (roads, pipelines, bridges . . .)
• Control survey- used to reference both preliminary and layout
surveys. Horizontal control can be arbitrarily placed, but it is usually
tied directly to property lines, roadway center lines, or coordinated
control stations
 Types of Surveying (type of work done.)
• Land surveys – are plane surveys used for locating property lines,
subdividing land into smaller parts, determining land areas, and any other
information involving the transfer of land from one owner to another.
• Topographic surveys – preliminary surveys used to tie in the natural and
man-made surface features of an area. The features are located relative to
one another by tying them all into the same control lines or control grid.
• Route surveys – preliminary, layout, and control surveys that range over a
narrow, but long strip of land. Typical projects that require route surveys
are highways, railroads, transmission lines, and channels.
 Types of Surveying (type of work done.)
• Construction surveys – are run for locating structures and providing
required elevation points.
• Hydrographic surveys – preliminary surveys that are used to tie in
underwater features to a surface control line. Usually shorelines,
marine features, and water depths are shown on the hydrographic
map.
• Photogrammetric surveys – are run to acquire aerial photographs
for measurement and interpretation.
• Geological surveys – are run to produce information on formation
characteristics of rocks etc.
 Units of Measurement
There are two principal measurements in surveying works:
• Linear measurements: the basic unit used is the meter. Decimal fractions of
the meter are also used when accuracy is required. Other units include the
foot, the inch, the yard, the mile, etc.

• Angular measurements: even though the basic unit is the radian, the degree is
used in surveying field works. For accuracy subdivisions of the degree are
available, viz. the minute and the second.
 Scales
• The scale of a map or a plan is the ratio of a distance measured on the plan or map to its
corresponding distance on the ground. Example 1:100, 1:10,000. Scale primarily depends
on the type of the work done (the accuracy with which a distance is to be transferred from
the map or the plan). In general, scales may be categorized as follows:
For maps
a) Large scales < 1:200
b) Intermediate scales 1:2000 to 1:10,000
c) Small scales 1:10,000 to 1:100,000,000
For plans
d) Site plans 1:50 to 1:500
e) Detail plans 1:1 to 1:20
 Surveying Activities
A complete Surveying activity involves the following steps:
– Reconnaissance of the area to be surveyed,
– Planning of the survey Management and decision-making.
– Appropriate methods and instruments required are chosen,
– Field measurement,
– Office work, and
– Generally the above activities are grouped under Field work and office
work.
 Surveying Activities
• Field Work: - involves:
1. Reconnaissance of the area to be surveyed
2. Care, handling and adjustment of instrument
3. Performing measurements
4. Setting out in the field
5. Recording of measured data
 Surveying Activities
• Reference System
• To provide a suitable framework to which all surveys are referenced
it is necessary to establish horizontal datum and Vertical datum
(references). A horizontal datum is the surface to which horizontal
distances are referred and consists of an ellipsoid of revolution
approximating the figure of the earth. For the purpose of horizontal
reference the earth is approximated by an ellipsoid with semi major
axis (radius) of 6,378,137m and a semi minor axis (radius) of
6,356,752.314m.
 Reference System
• Survey Geographic reference system: This is composed of surface (ellipsoid)
divisions denoted by Geographic lines of latitude and longitude. The latitudes
run east west and are parallel to the equator .the latitude lines are formed by
projecting the latitude angles out of the surface of the earth and is measured
90 0 max N and S from the equatorial plane .The longitude lines all run N/S
converging at the poles
 Reference System
• Survey Grid reference: In this system the earth’s surface is divided in
to rectangular grid for horizontal reverence. This system is limited in
size so that no serious errors will accumulate when the curvature of
the earth is ignored.
• Survey Vertical references: A vertical datum is a surface which all
elevations and depths are referred. Although Vertical dimensions
can be referenced to any datum, the referenced datum most widely
used is that of mean sea level (msl) which is assigned an elevation of
0.000m.
Thank You!