Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering – I

Chapter 2

The Earth, its interiors and Geologic Structures

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Geotechnical Engineering Chair

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Outline
Introduction: The Earth
» Origin of the Earth
• Geological Time Scale
» Anatomy of the Earth
» Plate Tectonics

Geologic Structures
» Folds
» Faults
» Discontinuities

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Geological Time Scale
• GTS is a system of chronological dating that classifies geological strata in time.

• Used to describe the timing and relationships of events in geological history.

• Used by geologists, paleontologists, earth scientists.

• Developed through the study and observation of layers of rock and relationships as well as the times
when different organisms appeared, evolved and became extinct through the study of fossilized
remains and imprints.

• Watch this video

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rWp5ZpJAIAE

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Anatomy of the Earth
 Crust:
 Continental crust (25-40 km)
 Oceanic crust (~6 km)
 Mantle
 Upper mantle (650 km)
 Lower mantle (2235 km)
 Core
 Outer core: liquid (2270 km)
 Inner core: solid (1216 km)
 Evidence on the Structure and Composition of the Earth

1. Mathematical computation

– Avg. density of earth is 5.5 g/cc

– Rocks on the surface of the Earth have an avg. density of 2.7 g/cc

– Implying the interior should be composed of materials which are denser than the crust.

– Based on this the earth is modeled as 3 layers of different density.

2. Meteorites and xenoliths

– Meteorites are wandering fragments of planetary matter. Three major types have been recognized.

– Stony meteorites: composed of silicate representing the surface of the earth.

– Iron-Nickel Meteorites: composed of iron-nickel alloys assumed to represent the central part of the
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earth.
 Evidence on the Structure and Composition of the Earth
• Stony-Iron meteorites: composed of silicate and iron nickel alloys representing the intermediate part of
the earth.

• Xenoliths are materials coming from a depth of 100km within magma, during volcanic
eruptions. Composed of heavy silicate of magnesium and iron.

3. Earthquake (seismic) waves

– Different kind of waves (surface waves, body waves) travel at different velocities.

– High velocity in solids and low in fluids.

– A sharp change of velocity is observed at depth 40 km and 2900 km (seismic

discontinuities called Mohorovicic and Gutenberg Discontinuities) indicate fundamental
changes in the property of the materials. 7
 Anatomy of the Earth
 The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the outer core is molten, with about
10% sulphur (S). The inner core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid.

 Because no S-wave has been observed to travel through the material below this boundary for a
thickness of approximately 2300 km, it has been inferred that the core comprises two layers.
 The 2300-km thick outer layer which is in a molten state and an 1100-km thick inner layer which is
solid.
 It is known that the pressure increases toward the center of the earth. So does the temperature.
The liquid outer layer versus the solid inner layer is rationalized by recognizing that the melting
point of the material increases (with pressure) at a faster rate than the temperature as the center
of the earth is approached.

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Anatomy of the Earth
 Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which is composed of iron (Fe),
magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At
over 1000 degrees C, the mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner.
Comprises 82% of the Earth’s volume.

 The mantle can be thought of having three different layers. The separation is made
because of different deformational properties in the mantle inferred from seismic
wave measurements.

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 Anatomy of the Earth
1. The upper layer is stiff. It is presumed that if the entire mantle had been as stiff, the outer shell of the
earth would stay put. This stiff layer of the mantle and the overlying crust are referred to as the
lithosphere. The lithosphere is approximately 100-km thick.

2. Beneath the lithosphere is a soft layer of mantle called the asthenosphere. Its thickness is inferred to
be several times that of the lithosphere. One may think of this as a film of lubricant, although film is not
exactly the word for something so thick. It is assumed that the lithosphere can glide over the
asthenosphere with little distortion of the lithosphere
3. The mesosphere is the lowest layer of the mantle. Considering the vagueness in defining the lower
boundary of the asthenosphere it would be expected that the thickness and material properties of the
mesosphere are not well known. It is expected to have a stiffness somewhere between those of the
lithosphere and the asthenosphere.
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 Anatomy of the Earth
 The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is composed of the least dense

calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na) aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is

rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.

 The shell of the earth, the crust, can be said to have two different thicknesses: oceanic crust

and continental crust.

 Continental crust is thicker (10-65 km), lighter (2.7g/cc) and made up of older (up to 3.8 Ga)

granitic rocks.

 Oceanic crust is thinner (5-8km), denser (3.0 g/cc) and made up of young (<180 Ma) basaltic
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rocks.
Anatomy of the Earth
 The eggshell analogy for the crust is not an exaggeration. It is paper thin compared
with the radius of the earth which is approximately 6400 km.
 The total weight of the continental crust is less than 0.3% of the weight of the earth.

 Variations in the crust thickness are compensated by the weight of the water and the
differences in the specific gravities of the crust under the oceans (3.0 to 3.1) and
under the continents (2.7 to 2.8).
 If one thinks of the crust as virtually floating on the mantle, one is less likely to
wonder why the earth does not wobble as it rotates about its axis.

 The weight of the crust plus the mantle has a reasonably uniform distribution over the
globe.
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 Anatomy of the Earth
 The Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho), is considered to be the boundary
between the crust and the mantle. In that zone, the P-wave velocity has been
observed to increase from approximately 6 to approximately 8 km/sec.

 The Gutenberg Discontinuity occurs within Earth’s interior at a depth of about

2900 km below the surface. P waves decrease in velocity while s waves disappear
completely. The unit above this discontinuity is solid, the unit below is liquid
(molten)

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 Plate Tectonics
• Continental drift and Sea-floor Spreading: earlier theories.

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Plate Tectonics
• Plate Tectonics Theory: outer-portion of the Earth (Lithosphere) is composed of rigid units
called plates which move slowly over a weaker material (asthenosphere). They don’t
undergo significant internal deformation.

• Plates move apart, slide past one another, or converge toward each other.

• New crust forms, lava outpours, continent drift, mountains formed, earthquake occur, rocks
metamorphosis, segment of crusts become faulted, folded and destroyed.

• 7 major plates and ~20 minor plates.

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 Plate Tectonics Theory

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Plate Tectonics
• Boundaries between plates is characterized by long, narrow zones of
structural, seismic or volcanic activities.

• 3 main types of plate boundaries.

o Divergent plate boundaries

o Convergent plate boundaries

o Transform plate boundaries

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 Divergent Plate
Transform Plate Converging Plate
Plate Tectonics
• Divergent Plate boundary
– Mid-Atlantic ridge, Great East African Rift System, Pacific-Atlantic Ridge, Atlantic-
Indian Ridge
• Convergent Plate Boundaries
– Oceanic crust-Oceanic Crust Collision (Marian trench, Japanese trench)
– Oceanic Crust-Continental Crust Collision (Andes mountain belts)
– Continental Crust-Continental Crust Collision (Himalayas mountain)
• Transform Plate Boundaries
– San Andreas Fault

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Geologic Structures
• Any feature in rocks that results from deformation, such as folds, joints and faults.

• Usually the result of the powerful Tectonic Forces that occur within the earth. These
forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains.

• The two most important features that are produced when strata are deformed by
earth movements are folds and faults, that is, the rocks are buckled or fractured,
respectively.

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Geologic Structures
• A Fold is produced when a more or less planar surface is deformed to give
a waved surface.

• Simple folds are divided into two types, that is, Anticlines (convex
upward) and Synclines (concave upward).

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 Geologic Structures
• The crestal line of an anticline is the line that joins the highest parts of the fold, whereas the trough line
runs through the lowest parts of a syncline.

• The amplitude of a fold is defined as the vertical difference between the crest and the trough, whereas
the length of a fold is the horizontal distance from crest to crest or trough to trough.

• The hinge of a fold is the line along which the greatest curvature exists and can be either straight or
curved. However, the axial line is another term that has been used to describe the hinge line.

• The limb of a fold occurs between the hinges, all folds having two limbs.

• The axial plane of a fold is commonly regarded as the plane that bisects the fold and passes through the
hinge line.

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 Ptygmatic Folds Box Folds
Overturned Folds

Recumbent Folds
Refolded Folds Chevron Folds
Geologic Structures
• A Fault is a fracture which movement has occurred parallel to the
fracture.
• Faults can be classified based on
o The direction in which movement took place along the fault plane,
o The relative movement of the hanging and foot wall,
o The attitude of the fault in relation to the strata involved,
o The fault pattern.

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 Geologic Structures
• Faults based on the direction in which movement took place along
the fault plane is considered.

Dip-slip fault Strike-slip fault Oblique-slip fault

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 Geologic Structures
• Faults based on the relative movement of the hanging and foot wall,

Reverse fault
Wrench fault
Normal fault

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 Geologic Structures
• Faults based on the attitude of the fault in relation to the strata
involved,

Dip/Cross fault Oblique fault

Strike fault

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Geologic Structures
• Faults based on the pattern produced

o Parallel fault

o Radial fault

o Peripheral fault

o Echelon fault

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Geologic Structures
• When a series of normal faults run parallel to one another with their downthrows all
on the same side, the area involved is described as being step faulted.

A fault may not be observable, its

effect may be reflected in the
topography.

Faults provide paths of escape and

Are frequently associated with
mineralization, silicificaation and
igneous phenomena.
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Geologic Structures
• Discontinuity represents a plane of weakness within a rock mass
across which the rock material is structurally discontinuous.

• Not necessarily planes of separation, and mostly have little or no tensile

strength.

• Vary in size from small fissures to huge faults.

• Common discontinuities are Joints and Bedding Planes.

• Planes of cleavage, schistosity, fissures faults : also discontinuities.

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 Geologic Structures
• Joints: fractures along which little or no displacement has occurred and are presented within all types of

rocks.

• Joint sets: group of joints that run parallel to each other.

• Joint system: two or more joint sets that intersect at a more or less constant angle.

• Systematic joints: joints that are planar, parallel or sub-parallel.

• Nonsystematic joints: joints orientation is irregular.

• Master joints: penetrate several rock horizons and persist for hundreds of meters.

• Major joints: smaller joints with well-defined structures.

• Minor joints: do not transcend bedding planes.

• Micro joints: minute fractures occurring in finely bedded sediments, few mm in size. 36
Geologic Structures
• Bedding Planes
o The surface that separates each successive layer of a stratified rocks
from its preceding layer.

o a plane of stratification.

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