1

CHAPTER 3: MOBILE RADIO

PROPAGATION
LARGE-SCALE PATH LOSS
 Radio Wave Propagation
2

 The radio channel places a fundamental limitation on the

performance of wireless communication systems
 The path between transmitter and receiver is either
 Simple line-of-sight or

 Severely obstructed by buildings, mountains, and foliage

 Unlike wired channels that are stationary and predictable,

radio channels are extremely random and time varying
 Even the speed of motion impacts how rapidly the signal
level fades as a mobile terminal moves in space
 Modeling is difficult in mobile radio system and is typically
done in a statistical fashion or based on measurements for
specific system
 Radio Wave Propagation …
3

 Electromagnetic (EM) wave propagation mechanisms can

generally be attributed to reflection, diffraction, and
scattering
 E.g., in urban areas there is no direct line-of-sight path
between transmitter and receiver and high rise buildings
cause severe diffraction loss
 Due to multiple reflections from various objects, EM waves
travel along different paths of varying lengths
 The interaction between those waves causes multipath
fading at a specific location
 Strength of the wave decreases as the distance between the
transmitter and receiver increases
 Radio Wave Propagation …
4

 Propagation models
 Large-scale path loss model
 Small-scale fading model
 Large-Scale Path Loss Model
5

 Predicts the average received signal strength at a given

distance from the transmitter
 Useful in estimating the coverage area of an antenna
 Characterize signal strength over large transmitter-
receiver (T-R) separation distance
 Several hundreds or thousands of meters
 Typically, the local average received power is
computed by averaging signal measurements over a
measurement track of 5λ to 40λ
 For cellular system in 1~2 GHz, this corresponds to 1~10m
 Small-Scale Fading Model
6

 Focus on signal strength variation in close spatial

proximity to a particular location
 Characterize the rapid fluctuations of the received
signal strength over
 Very short travel distances (a few wavelengths) or
 Short time durations (in the order of seconds)

 The received power may vary by 30-40 dB when the

receiver is moved by fraction of a wavelength
 This is because the received signal is a sum of many
contributions (with random phases) coming from different
directions
Example: Small and Large-Scale Fading
7

 Signal variations in an indoor radio communication system

 Signal fades rapidly as the receiver moves
 By more than 20 dBm

• However, the local

average signal
decays much more
slowly with distance
(smoothed line)
• Depends on terrain
and obstructions
 Small- and Large-Scale Fading …
8

 This Chapter covers large-scale propagation and

presents a number of common methods used to
predict received power in mobile communication
systems

 Chapter 4 treats small-scale fading models and

describes methods to measure and model multi-path
in the mobile radio environment
 Free Space Propagation Model
9

 Predicts received signal strength when the transmitter and

receiver have a clear, unobstructed line-of-sight path between
them
 E.g., Satellite communication and microwave line-of-sight radio links
 Free space model predicts the received power decay as a function of
the T-R separation distance raised to some power (i.e., a power law
function)
 The power received by the receiver antenna at a distance d is
given by the Friis free space equation
2
   1 (3.1)
Pr ( d ) = Pt Gt Gr  
 4d  L
 Where Pt: transmitted power; Pr: received power; Gt, Gr: antenna gains;
L: system loss factor; : wavelength in meters
 Free Space Propagation …
10

 System loss factor L is not related to propagation

◼ Results from line attenuation, filter losses, antenna losses
◼ L  1 (L=1 indicates no loss in the system)

 The gain of an antenna

4Ae
G= (3.2)
2
 where Ae: the effective aperture related to the physical size of
antenna
 The wavelength is related to the carrier frequency
c 2c
= = (3.3)
f c
 where f: the carrier frequency in Hertz
c: the carrier frequency in radians per second
c: the speed of light in meters/sec
 Higher frequency => higher gain for the same size antenna
 Free Space Propagation …
11

 Equation (3.1) implies that the received power decays

with distance at a rate of 20dB/decade or with square
of T-R separation
 Isotropic radiator
 An ideal antenna which radiates power with unit gain
uniformly in all direction
 Often used to reference antenna gains in wireless systems
 Effective isotropic radiated power (EIRP)=PtGt
Represents the maximum radiated power available from a
transmitter in the direction of maximum antenna gain, as
compared to an isotropic radiator
 Free Space Propagation …
12

 In practice, effective radiated power (ERP) is used instead of

EIRP to denote the maximum radiated power as compared
to a half-wave dipole antenna
 Since a dipole antenna has a gain of 1.64 (linear) or
2.15dB above an isotropic antenna, the ERP will be 2.15 dB
smaller than the EIRP for the same transmission system
 I.e., ERP = EIRP – 2.15

 Antenna gains are given in

 dBi : dB gain with respect to an isotropic source, which is 0 dB
 dBd : dB gain with respect to a half-wave dipole antenna
 Free Space Propagation …
13

 Path loss: Represents signal attenuation as a positive quantity

measured in dB
 Is defined as the difference in dB between the effective transmitted
and received power
 For free space Pt  Gt Gr 2 
PL( dB ) = 10 log = −10 log  2 
(3.4) Pr  ( 4 ) 2
d 

 which is valid only in the far-field (or Fraunhoffer region) of transmitting

antenna region 2
2D
That is, the far-field distance df =
 
 where D is the largest physical linear dimension of antenna
 Additionally, df must satisfy df >>D and df >> 
 Free Space Propagation …
14
 Equation (3.1) does not hold for d=0
 Hence, large-scale propagation models use a close-in distance,
d0, as a known received power reference point
 The received power Pr(d) at any distance d>d0 may be related
to Pr(d0) at d0
 The value Pr(d0) may be
 Predicted from Equation (3.1) or
 Measured in the radio environment by taking the average received
power at many points located at d0 from the transmitter
 d0 must be chosen such that
 It lies in the far-field region, that is, d0  df
 It is smaller than any practical distance used in the mobile
communication system
 Free Space Propagation …
15
 At a distance greater than d0
d 
2
(3.5)
Pr (d ) = Pr (d 0 ) 0  d  d0  d f
d 

 Pr changes by many orders of magnitude over a

typical coverage area of several kilometers
 Often measured in dBm or dBW

 In units of dBm, the received power is given by

 P (d )  d  (3.6)
Pr (d ) dBm =10 log  r 0  + 20 log 0  d  d0  d f
 0.001W  d 
 where Pr(d0) in units of watts
 Free Space Propagation …
16
 For practical system using low-gain antennas in 1~2 GHz
region, d0 is typically chosen to be
 1m in indoor environments
 100 m or 1 km in outdoor environments

 Example: Find the far-field distance for a base station

antenna with maximum dimension of 1m and 900 MHz
operating frequency
 Solution: Given
 Largest dimension of antenna, D = 1m
 Operating frequency f = 900 MHz, =c/f = 1/3 = 0.33 m
 Far-field distance is obtained as
2(1) 2
df = = 6m
0.33
 Free Space Path Loss – Example
17

 If a transmitter produces 50 watts of power,

express the transmit power in units of
a) dBm, and
b) dBW
c) If 50 watts is applied to a unity gain antenna with a
900 MHz carrier frequency,
i. Find the received power in dBm at a free space
distance of 100 m from the antenna.
ii. What is Pr (10 km)?
 Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna
 Free Space Path Loss – Solution
18
 Power and Electric Field – Example 2
19

 For a BS, let Pt = 10 W, fc=900 MHz, Gt=2, Gr=1

 The MS is at a distance of 5 km
 What is the received power in dBm?

 Pt Gt Gr 2   10  2  1 (0.33) 2 
Pr ( d ) = 10 log  = 10 log 
 ( 4 d ) 2
  ( 4 ) 2
 (5000 ) 2


Pr ( d = 5000m) = − 92.6dBW = −62.6dBm

 Power and Electric Field – Example 3
20

 For a BS, let Pt = 500 mW, fc=900 MHz, Gt=2, Gr=1

 The MS is at a distance of 10 km
 What is the received power in dBm?
 Pt Gt Gr 2   0.5  2  1 (0.33) 2 
Pr ( d ) = − 10 log  = 10 log 
 ( 4d )  ( 4 )  (10000)
2 2 2
 

Pr ( d = 10000m) = − 111.6dBW = −81.6dBm

 Can the mobile work at this power level?

 It depends on the receiver sensitivity of the MS
 Sensitivity is the minimum required power level for a GSM phone
to pick up the signal and work
 Typical GSM mobile station sensitivity < -100 dBm
 Power and Electric Field
21

 Power flux density, Pd, is defined as the amount of power that travels
through a given area
 If a far-field concept and has unit of in watts/m2
 Assumes an ideal (point) radiator
• In free space
2
E
Pd = W / m2

• Where =120 = 377 is intrinsic
impedance of free space and |E| is the
radiating electric field
• Idea: An antenna “captures” some
of this power, depending on how
large the antenna is
• Called the effective antenna aperture,
2
 Power and Electric Field …
22

 Received power at distance d is given by

  
2 2
 Gr 2  E
Pr (d ) = Pd Ae = Pd   = Ae = Pt Gt Gr  
 4    4d 
 This relates the electric field |E| to received power
in watts P (d ) =
V 2 [Vant / 2]2 Vant
= =
2
Watts
r
Rant Rant 4 Rant
 The received power can also be written as
• Where V is the rms voltage induced
at the input of a receiver and Rant is
the resistance of the matched
receiver
 Power and Electric Field – Example 1
23

 Assume a receiver is located 10 km from a 50 W

transmitter. The carrier frequency is 900 MHz, free
space propagation is assumed, Gt = 1, and Gr = 2.
Find
a) The power at the receiver
b) The magnitude of the E-field at the receiver antenna
c) The rms open circuit voltage at the antenna assuming
that the receiver antenna has a purely real
impedance of 50  and is matched to the receiver
 Power and Electric Field – Solution
24
 Propagation Mechanisms
25

 In wireless com., multiple signals arrive at the

receiver, but with less power than indicated by the
Friis equation
 Thereceived power varies strongly (5-25 dB) even for
small changes in antenna position, center frequency,
and time

 There is a large effect caused when the path length

increases by orders of magnitude
 This is due to reflection, diffraction, scattering, etc
 Reflection
26

 Happens when EM wave impinges on an object which has

very large dimensions as compared to wavelength 
 E.g., the surface of the earth, building, walls, etc.

 When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges

upon another medium having different electrical
properties
 Electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted
waves are related to the incident wave by Fresnel
reflection coefficient, 
  is a function of material properties, polarization, angle of
incidence, and frequency
 Reflection …
27

 If the plane wave is incident on a perfect dielectric

 Part of the energy is transmitted into the secondary medium
 Part of the energy is reflected back into the first medium
 No loss of energy in absorption

 If the second medium is a perfect conductor

 All incident energy is reflected back into the first medium

 The electric waves can be represented as a sum of two

orthogonal polarization components
 E.g., vertical and horizontal, or left-hand and right-hand circular
 Incident and perpendicular planes
1. Incidence plane: Contains incident, reflected, & transmitted waves
2. Perpendicular plane: Normal to plane of incidence
 Overview
28

 Introduction
 Free Space propagation
 Power and Electric Field
 Propagation mechanisms
 Reflection and ground reflection model
 Diffraction
 Scattering

 Empirical path-loss models

 Outdoor propagation models
 Indoor propagation models
 Ground Reflection (2-Ray) Model
29
• Free space propagation model is inaccurate in practice
• LOS and reflection from the ground is also important

MS

Base Station
 Ground Reflection Model …
30

 How the MS receives signal from the BS?

 Reasonably accurate model for
 Height > 50 m (i.e., tall towers)
 BS and MS are separated by certain distance (several kilometers)
 Considers two paths: Direct LOS & ground reflected
 In most mobile communication systems
 T-R separation distance is at most a few tens of kilometers
 The earth may be assumed to be flat
 Energy at the receiver is the vector sum of direct, ELOS, and ground
reflected, Eg components
 Vector sum => phase difference
 Important parameters: ht, hr, distance d
 Method of Image
 Using method of image, the path difference  is
31

2ht hr
 = d "−d ' = (ht + hr ) + d − (ht − hr ) + d 
2 2 2 2

d
• Approximation results
from Taylors series and
valid when d >> ht +hr

• Phase d/c , and time

delay d are given by
2 c
 = =
 c
and
 
d = =
c 2f c
 ∆ can be expanded using a Taylor series expansion

32
 which works well for d >> (ht + hr), which means
and are small

33
 Ground Reflection Model …
34

 : Path difference between LOS & ground reflected paths

 Idea:  is used to compute time delay d and phase difference

 Assumptions
 d >> ht and hr ==> i = 0 = 0
 Perfect ground reflector do that  = -1 and Et = 0 (valid for i
small)
 The reflected path travels longer than the direct path

 Total received E-field, ETOT, is

k
ETOT (d , t ) = ELOS (d ' , t ) + E g (d " , t ) 
d2
2
hh 
 Total received power, Pr is given by Pr = Pt Gt Gr  t 2r 
 d 
 Ground Reflection Model …
35

 From the power formula

 The received power falls off with distance raised to the 4th
power or
 At a rate of 40 dB per decade
 This is much more rapid path loss than in free space
 Good news: d increases => interference decrease, however
the LOS cease to be dominant
 The received power is independent of frequency
 Heights ht and hr can be used to control the received
power as the gains are usually fixed
 The path loss expressed in dB is
PL(dB) = 40 log d − (10 log Gt + 10 log Gr + 20 log ht + 20 log hr )
 Diffraction - Fresnel Zone Geometry
36

 Diffraction: occurs when radio path is obstructed (shadowed) by

a surface that has sharp irregularities (edges)
 Received power decreases rapidly as a receiver moves deeper into an
obstructed region
 However, diffracted field still exists and often has sufficient strength to
produce a useful signal
 Diffraction explains how radio signals travel without LOS in
urban environment as well as curved surface of the earth
 Diffraction can be explained by Huygen’s principle
 All points on a wavefront (including bending) can be considered as
point sources for the production of secondary waves
 At each point, the wave field is effectively re-radiating in all directions
 The re-radiations enable EM waves to “bend” around objects
 Scattering
37

 Received signal in a mobile radio environment is often

greater than predicted by reflection and diffraction models
 Because when a radio wave impinges on a rough surface, the
reflected energy is spread out (diffused) in all directions due to
scattering

 Scattering occurs when dimensions of objects in the medium

are smaller or comparable to  and when number of
obstacles per unit volume is large, e.g., millimeter waves
 Small objects, rough surfaces, foliage, street signs, lamp posts

 Scattering causes transmitted energy to be radiated in many

directions
 Scattering …
38

 When is a surface considered rough?

 Surface protuberance for a given angle of incidence

hc =
8 sin  i
 where i is, again, the angle of incidence
 A surface is considered rough if its protuberance h is greater then hc
 Scattering has two important effects
1. Rough surface scattering reduces power in the reflected wave
2. Scattering causes additional multipath to be received in directions
other than the specular direction (very useful phenomena)
 Scattering …
39

 If the surface is rough, then the reflected wave has a

modified reflection coefficient
rough =  S 
 Where  is flat surface reflection coefficient
 The scattering loss factor S is given as
   h sin  i  2 
 S = exp − 8  
    

 Where h is the standard deviation of the surface height

about the mean surface height
 Summary: Reflection, Scattering and
Diffraction
 At the receiver vector addition of direct, reflected, and
diffracted signals occurs

40
 Summary: Reflection, Scattering and
41
Diffraction
 As a MS moves through a coverage area, these 3
mechanisms have an impact on the instantaneous
received signal strength
 If a mobile has a clear LOS path to the BS, then
diffraction and scattering will not dominate the
propagation
 If a mobile is at a street level without LOS, then
diffraction and scattering will probably dominate
the propagation