Name: Murad Ali

Roll no:Cd600370
Course: Management Strategies in Educational Institutions (8615)
Semester:Spring,2021
Level: Bed (1.5 Year)

ASSIGNMENT No. 1

Q. 1 Elaborate different functions of management with their role in

education
Educational management refers to the
administration of the education system in which a group combines human and
material resources to supervise, plan, strategise, and implement structures to
execute an education system. Education is the equipping of knowledge, skills,
values, beliefs, habits, and attitudes with learning experiences. The education
system is an ecosystem of professionals in educational institutions, such as
government ministries, unions, statutory boards, agencies, and schools. The
education system consists of political heads, principals, teaching staff, non-
teaching staff, administrative personnel and other educational professionals
working together to enrich and enhance. At all levels of the educational
ecosystem, management is required; management involves the planning,
organising, implementation, review, evaluation, and integration of an institution.
Scope

Co-curricular activities
 Co-curricular activities help students maintain
a holistic education, expressing their interests and talents. The activities help
foster a sense of social integration, and add a sense of commitment and belonging
to one's community and country. Co-curricular activities include science-oriented
talent-development programmes, clubs and societies, sports, uniformed groups,
and visual- and performing-arts groups. Co-curricular activities may also include
advocacy, botany, personal-care, innovation, research-methodology and current-
affairs groups.

Curriculum planning and development

Curriculum planning and development involves "the

design and development of integrated plans for learning, and the evaluation of
plans, their implementation and the outcomes of the learning experience". It
designs and reviews curriculum, promotes teaching and assessment strategies
aligned with curriculum, formulates special curriculum programmes, creates
clear, observable objectives, and generates useful assessment rubrics.

Curriculum development can be described as a

three-stage process encompassing planned, delivered and experienced
curriculum. It may be shaped by pedagogical approaches contributed by theorists
and researchers, such as John Dewey, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner,
and Albert Bandura.

Preschool

Curriculum development at the preschool level is based on

several schools of thought. The Kindergarten was established by Friedrich
Fröbel in Germany in 1837. Froebel described three forms of knowledge which he
viewed as essential to all learning: knowledge of life, which includes an
appreciation of gardening, animals and domestic tasks; knowledge of

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mathematics, such as geometry; and knowledge of beauty, which includes colour
and shape, harmony and movement. The goals of Froebel's kindergarten are to
awaken a child's physical senses through learning experiences and provide a
common ground for individuals to advance.

Margaret and Rachel McMillan were social reformers in

England who spent their lives trying to address poverty and founded the Open-
Air Nursery School and Training Centre in London. Their goals were to provide
loving care, health support, nourishment and physical welfare to
children. Assistance was provided to parents to aid them in caring for, and
interacting with, their children. Pedagogical models on how to engage and interact
with young children were provided. The pedagogical principles of the Nursery
School may be found in educational frameworks requiring teachers to nurture and
teach a curriculum which covers an exploration of the world, aesthetics, music
and movement, and literacy.

John Dewey formulated the theory of progressive

education.His progressive-education philosophy embraces the idea that children
should be taught how to think. Dewey was opposed to assessments, since they
cannot measure whether or not a child is educated. The school community should
offer learning opportunities which are interesting and meaningful and prepare
individuals to live in a democratic society. Children learn through doing,
cooperation, problem-solving and collaboration, with the teacher acting as a
guide. Projects in Dewey's curriculum encourage exploration, self-discovery and
sensorial experiences which provide a holistic approach, focuses on the children's
interests, and are developmentally appropriate.

Montessori education was developed by Maria Montessori,

who believed that children go through sensitive periods known as "windows of
opportunity". Everything in a Montessori classroom enhances and develops a

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child's growth. Materials address children's interests and the natural
environment.The learning environment is focused on the child. The curriculum
trains children to be responsive, and promotes a desire for skills mastery.

Waldorf education, created by the Austrian

philosopher Rudolf Steiner, focuses on the whole child: body, mind, and
spirit. The curriculum is designed to provoke thought processes, develop
sensitivity, and enhance creative and artistic fluency.The Waldorf curriculum
consists of storytelling, aesthetics (arts), practical work, imaginative play, and
discovery of nature. Modern schools adopting Waldorf education are independent
and self-governing.

The Reggio Emilia approach developed in the small north-

Italian city of Reggio Emilia. Influenced by constructivist theories and the
progressive-education movement, it is committed to uphold the rights of
individuals. Key concepts in a Reggio Emilia school include a child's right to
education, the importance of interpersonal relationships amongst children,
teachers and parents, and children's interactions in work and play. Its curriculum
emerges from the children's interest, and is developed through projects and
inquiry.Each individual plays an important role in the school, and parental
involvement is a key aspect of the child's learning and development.

Primary education

Curriculum development at the primary level focuses on the

foundations of subjects, covering subject disciplines, knowledge skills and
character development. Subject disciplines are the cores and foundations of
language, science, humanities, the arts, technology, and social studies. Knowledge
skills are personal skills and attributes such as communication, critical thinking,
teamwork and judgement, which are developed through learning experiences
based on the school's pedagogical practices. Character development, according
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to Elliot Eisner, is the implicit curriculum: the school's hidden agenda.Character
traits and attributes include resilience, self-discipline, empathy and compassion,
focusing on the social and emotional development of each student. The
curriculum development is a springboard towards personal and social capability,
ethical and intercultural understanding, and sound moral judgement.

Secondary education

Curriculum development varies at the secondary level,

based on the course (or stream) in which a student is enrolled. Curriculum focuses
on core subjects such as language, mathematics, science and the
humanities. Learning experiences, strategic goals, national frameworks and
school philosophy are also considered in curriculum development; schools
consider values and progressive skills in the development of a holistic
curriculum. Elective and vocational programmes are offered, which include social
studies, art and music, design, and technology and computer studies. Specialized
schools integrate programmes with corporate partners in information and
communication technology, entrepreneurship, art, design, media and Da Vinci
Learning. Enhanced programmes in sports, arts, and language are also offered.

Tertiary education

Curriculum at the tertiary education level involves specific

course design and development. Griffith University describes planning as based
on previously-collected evidence; the process also involves assessment,
technologically-informed learning and discipline-based capabilities. The process
aims to prepare students for the workforce while enhancing their understanding of
a subject. Griffith University considers four key elements in curriculum
development: learning analytics, external peer review, peer-based professional
learning and professional learning workshops.

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Educational technology

Educational technology involves the integration,

planning, implementation and management of information and communications
technology (ICT) for effective learning and teaching. The educational-technology
branch of an education system conceptualizes and develops ICT in education,
integrating it with curriculum frameworks, staff development and management.

The focus of educational technology has shifted to online and web-based

applications, learning portals, flipped classrooms and a variety of social networks
for teaching and learning. Although educational technology includes ICT, it is not
limited to hardware and educational theoretics. It encompasses several domains
including collaborative learning, learning theory, linear learning, online portal
learning, and (where mobile technologies are used) m-learning. These domains
contribute to a personalized learning model and promote self-directed learning, as
students take charge of their education.

Q. 2 How managers really work under guidance of functions described by

Fayol?

Henri Fayol was one of the first theorists to define

functions of management in his 1916 book “Administration Industrielle et
Generale”. Henri Fayol identified 5 functions of management, which he labelled:
planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating and controlling. Henri Fayol
theorized that these functions were universal, and that every manager performed
these functions in their daily work.Henri Fayol also identified 14 general
principles of management and organizing, which can be read about in the
article: What are Henri Fayol’s 14 Principles of Management? In part, these 14
principles give normative guidance on how managers might master and execute
their 5 managerial functions effectively.

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Planning

Managers must plan for future conditions, develop strategic

objectives and secure the achievement of future goals. Therefore, managers must
evaluate future contingencies affecting the organization, and shape the future
operational and strategic landscape of the company.

Organizing

Managers must organize the workforce in an efficient manner

and structure and align the activities of the organization. Managers must also train
and recruit the right people for the job, and always secure a sufficiently skilled
and educated workforce.

Commanding

Managers must supervise subordinates in their daily work, and

inspire them to achieve company goals. Likewise it is the responsibility of
managers to communicate company goals and policies to subordinates. The
commanding of subordinates should always be consistent with company policies,
and every manager should treat subordinates in line with the standards of the
company.

Coordinating

Managers must harmonize the procedures and activities

performed by the company, meaning that every activity of each organizational
unit should complement and enrich the work of another.

Controlling

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 Managers must control that company activities are in line with
general company policies and objectives. It is also the responsibility of the
manager to observe and report deviations from plans and objectives, and to make
initiatives to correct potential deviations.

The five functions theory of Henri Fayol is a very normative

and functional view on management, and the theory might not fully convey the
managerial complexities faced by managers in their daily work. As such, Henry
Fayol’s five functions focus very little on informal relationships between
managers and subordinates, and do not touch very much upon how to develop and
maintain a motivated workforce.

The 5 functions put forward by Henri Fayol may therefore

not completely represent the total complexity faced by managers, and the
normative approach may be too rigid to illustrate which functions managers need
to perform in modern contemporary companies and organizations. However, the 5
functions presented by Henri Fayol give a structured overview of several tasks
needed to be performed by all managers, which gives managers an initial
overview of which main functions they should be focusing on in their daily work.

Other theorist such as Frederick Herzberg and Elton

Mayo focused more of their attention to trying to explain how people are
motivated, and on which motivational factors can secure a satisfied and motivated
workforce.

Henri Fayol's Principles of Management

Early Management Theory

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 Today's managers have access to an amazing array of
resources which they can use to improve their skills. But what about those
managers who were leading the way forward 100 years ago?

Managers in the early 1900s had very few external resources

to draw upon to guide and develop their management practice. But thanks to early
theorists like Henri Fayol (1841-1925), managers began to get the tools they
needed to lead and manage more effectively. Fayol, and others like him, are
responsible for building the foundations of modern management theory.

Background

Henri Fayol was born in Istanbul in 1841. When he was 19,

he began working as an engineer at a large mining company in France. He
eventually became the director, at a time when the mining company employed
more than 1,000 people.

Through the years, Fayol began to develop what he

considered to be the 14 most important principles of management. Essentially,
these explained how managers should organize and interact with staff.

In 1916, two years before he stepped down as director, he

published his "14 Principles of Management" in the book "Administration
Industrielle et Générale." Fayol also created a list of the six primary functions of
management, which go hand in hand with the Principles.

Fayol's "14 Principles" was one of the earliest theories of

management to be created, and remains one of the most comprehensive. He's

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considered to be among the most influential contributors to the modern concept of
management, even though people don't refer to "The 14 Principles" often today.

The theory falls under the Administrative Management school of thought (as
opposed to the Scientific Management school, led by Fredrick Taylor ).

Fayol's 14 Principles of Management

Fayol's principles are listed below:

1. Division of Work – When employees are specialized, output can increase

because they become increasingly skilled and efficient.
2. Authority – Managers must have the authority to give orders, but they
must also keep in mind that with authority comes responsibility.
3. Discipline – Discipline must be upheld in organizations, but methods for
doing so can vary.
4. Unity of Command – Employees should have only one direct supervisor.
5. Unity of Direction – Teams with the same objective should be working
under the direction of one manager, using one plan. This will ensure that
action is properly coordinated.
6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest – The
interests of one employee should not be allowed to become more important
than those of the group. This includes managers.
7. Remuneration – Employee satisfaction depends on fair remuneration for
everyone. This includes financial and non-financial compensation.
8. Centralization – This principle refers to how close employees are to the
decision-making process. It is important to aim for an appropriate balance.

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9. Scalar Chain – Employees should be aware of where they stand in the
organization's hierarchy, or chain of command.
10. Order – The workplace facilities must be clean, tidy and safe for
employees. Everything should have its place.
11. Equity – Managers should be fair to staff at all times, both maintaining
discipline as necessary and acting with kindness where appropriate.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel – Managers should strive to minimize
employee turnover. Personnel planning should be a priority.
13. Initiative – Employees should be given the necessary level of freedom to
create and carry out plans.
14. Esprit de Corps – Organizations should strive to promote team spirit and
unity.

Q. 3 Define process capability. How this process help in education

management?

Process
capability
compares the
output of an in-
control process
to the
specification
limits by
using capability
indices. The
comparison is
made by

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forming the
ratio of the
spread between
the process
specifications
(the
specification
"width") to the
spread of the
process values,
as measured by
6 process
standard
deviation units
(the process
"width").

Process
Capability
Indices

A process We are often required to compare the output of a stable process with
capability index the process specifications and make a statement about how well the
uses both the process meets specification. To do this we compare the natural
process variability of a stable process with the process specification limits.
variability and
A process where almost all the measurements fall inside the
the process
specification limits is a capable process. This can be represented
specifications to
determine

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whether the
pictorially by the plot below:
process is
"capable"

There are several statistics that can be used to measure the capability of
a process: Cp, Cpk, and Cpm.

Most capability indices estimates are valid only if the sample size used
is "large enough". Large enough is generally thought to be about 50
independent data values.

The Cp, Cpk, and Cpm statistics assume that the population of data
values is normally distributed. Assuming a two-sided specification,
if μ and σ are the mean and standard deviation, respectively, of the
normal data and USL, LSL, and T are the upper and lower specification
limits and the target value, respectively, then the population capability
indices are defined as follows.
Definitions of Cp=USL−LSL6σ

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various process Cpk=min[USL−μ3σ,μ−LSL3σ]
capability Cpm=USL−LSL6σ2+(μ−T)2−−−−−−−−−−−√
indices
Sample Sample estimators for these indices are given below. (Estimators are
estimates of indicated with a "hat" over them).
capability C^p=USL−LSL6s
indices C^pk=min[USL−x¯3s,x¯−LSL3s]
C^pm=USL−LSL6s2+(x¯−T)2−−−−−−−−−−−√
The estimator for Cpk can also be expressed
as Cpk=Cp(1−k), where k is a scaled distance between the midpoint of
the specification range, m, and the process mean, μ.
Denote the midpoint of the specification range
by m=(USL+LSL)/2. The distance between the process mean, μ, and
the optimum, which is m, is μ−m, where m≤μ≤LSL. The scaled
distance is
k=|m−μ|(USL−LSL)/2,0≤k≤1.
(The absolute sign takes care of the case when LSL≤μ≤m). To
determine the estimated value, k^, we estimate μ by x¯. Note
that x¯≤USL.
The estimator for the Cp index, adjusted by the k factor, is
C^pk=C^p(1−k^).
Since 0≤k≤1, it follows that C^pk≤C^p.
Plot To get an idea of the value of the Cp statistic for varying process
showing Cp for widths, consider the following plot.
varying process
widths

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 This can be expressed numerically by the table below:

Translating USL−LSL 6σ 8σ 10σ 12σ

capability into Cp 1.00 1.33 1.66 2.00
Rejects 0.27 % 64 ppm 0.6 ppm 2 ppb
"rejects" % of spec used 100 75 60 50
where ppm = parts per million and ppb = parts per billion. Note that the
reject figures are based on the assumption that the distribution is
centered at μ.
We have discussed the situation with two spec. limits,
the USL and LSL. This is known as the bilateral or two-sided case.
There are many cases where only the lower or upper specifications are
used. Using one spec limit is called unilateral or one-sided. The

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 corresponding capability indices are
One-sided Cpu=allowable upper spreadactual upper spread=USL−μ3σ
specifications and
and the Cpl=allowable lower spreadactual lower spread=μ−LSL3σ,
corresponding where μ and σ are the process mean and standard deviation,
capability respectively.
indices Estimators of Cpu and Cpl are obtained by
replacing μ and σ by x¯ and s, respectively. The following relationship
holds
Cp=Cpu+Cpl2.
This can be represented pictorially by

Note that we also can write:

Cpk=min(Cpl,Cpu).
Confidence Limits For Capability Indices
Confidence Assuming normally distributed process data, the distribution of the
intervals for sample C^p follows from a Chi-square distribution

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indices and C^pu and C^pl have distributions related to the non-
central t distribution. Fortunately, approximate confidence limits
related to the normal distribution have been derived. Various
approximations to the distribution of C^pk have been proposed,
including those given by Bissell (1990), and we will use a normal
approximation.
The resulting formulas for 100(1−α)% confidence limits are given
below.
Confidence Limits for Cp are
Pr{C^p(L1)≤Cp≤C^p(L2)}=1−α,
where
L1L2==χ2α/2,νν−−−−−−√,χ21−α/2,νν−−−−−−−√,
and ν= degrees of freedom.
Confidence Approximate 100(1−α) % confidence limits for Cpu with sample
Intervals size n are:
for Cpu and Cpl Cpu(lower)=C^pu−z1−β19n+C^2pu2(n−1)−−−−−−−−−−−−⎷
and
Cpu(upper)=C^pu+z1−α19n+C^2pu2(n−1)−−−−−−−−−−−−⎷,
with z denoting the percent point function of the standard normal
distribution. If β is not known, set it to α.
Limits for Cpl are obtained by replacing C^pu by C^pl.
Confidence Zhang et al. (1990) derived the exact variance for the estimator
Interval for Cpk of Cpk as well as an approximation for large n. The reference paper is
Zhang, Stenback and Wardrop (1990), "Interval Estimation of the
process capability index," Communications in Statistics: Theory and
Methods, 19(21), 4455-4470.

The variance is obtained as follows.

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 Let

c=n−−√[μ−(USL+LSL)/2]σ
d=(USL−LSL)/σ
Φ(−c)=∫−c−inf12π−−√exp−5z2dz.
Then
Var(C^pk)
=(d2/36)(n−1)(n−3)
−(d/9n−−√)(n−1)(n−3){2π−−√exp(−c2/2)+c[1−2Φ(−c)]}
+[(1/9)(n−1)/(n(n−3))](1+c2)
−[(n−1)/(72n)]{Γ((n−2)/2)Γ((n−1)/2)}2
∗{dn−−√−22π−−√exp(−c2/2)−2c[1−2Φ(−c)]}2.
Their approximation is given by:
Var(C^pk)=n−1n−3−0.5{Γ((n−2)/2)Γ((n−1)/2)}2,
where
n≥25,0.75≤Cpk≤4,|c|≤100,andd≤24.
The following approximation is commonly used in practice
Cpk=C^pk±z1−α/219n+C^2pk2(n−1)−−−−−−−−−−−−⎷.
It is important to note that the sample size should be at least 25 before
these approximations are valid. In general, however, we need n≥100 for
capability studies. Another point to observe is that variations are not
negligible due to the randomness of capability indices.
Q. 4 Describe the importance of SWOT analysis in decision making.

SWOT is an important acronym for individuals and organizations alike in the

business world and it stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats.

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SWOT analysis is a useful technique to assess these four attributes which play a
crucial role in an organization.

Strengths and weakness refer to internal factors such as (current processes,

human resources, physical and financial resources etc.)
while opportunities and threats focus on external factors such as (market trends,
economic trends, pollical and economic regulations etc.).

Four elements of SWOT analysis

1. Strengths: These are factors which distinguish an organization from its

competitors. These are special positive traits, such as a strong brand image,
loyal customer base, or a unique technology which provides a clear advantage
to the organization compared to rivals.
A SWOT analysis can be instrumental in identifying an organization’s Unique
Selling Proposition (USP for short) that forms the basis for the company’s
strength, and keeps the business ahead of its competitors in the market.

2. Weakness: Like strengths, weaknesses are internal factors in a business.

Identifying these can help identify areas of improvement. Doing this lets
organizations design measures to rectify and control their weak points, which
in turn help the company grow.
Like strengths, weaknesses such as low brand value, unused turnover or lack
of capital are strong attributes that impact and influence future course of
action.

3. Opportunities: These are external factors that are open and available to be
used by the organization for its benefit. Organizations must have a good eye

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 to identify and analyze prevailing opportunities in the market to be able to
proactively exploit them. Such tactics can provide an organization with an
edge in the market, allowing it to realize its future growth trajectory.

4. Threats: Like opportunities, these are external or outside factors that

negatively impact business. Threats can come in many forms — financial
downturns, supply chain problems, stringent government regulations or shifts
in market requirements etc. which are outside the control of an organization.
Hence, it is crucial to anticipate threats in advance and take necessary
precautions to avoid falling victim to such external events. A strong business
continuity plan is key to minimize the impact of these negative external
factors.

The Importance of SWOT Analysis

A SWOT analysis helps evaluate where a company stands in a

competitive market and what steps need to be taken for further strategic planning,
helping decision makers draw a future roadmap for the company.

Here are some key points that make it especially useful for companies:

 A SWOT analysis helps organizations get visibility on their current status,

letting them understand and measure overall business performance.

 It lets a business analyze their strength, which in turn can help them better
penetrate the market to meet business targets.

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 It lets organizations get visibility on their weaknesses and potential areas of
improvement. This information helps them plan for and mitigate future
roadblocks, ensuring long term growth of business.

 By leveraging its SWOT analysis, a business can create a strategic plan to

meet desired objectives and adapt to changing market conditions.

 It lets businesses understand and better identify internal and external

factors and their positive and negative impacts on the business. This
information can help businesses be more proactive by helping them take
appropriate actions in a dynamic market to maintain momentum.

In conclusion, SWOT is an important tool to understand the

health of an organization. It allows decision makers to identify not only where an
organization stands, but also where they need to improve. This gives them the
ability to be a proactive player in the market while helping them remain
competitive.

Stakeholder management is a key part of project management.

Q. 5 Describe the concept of strategic decision making plays important role

for working in educational institutions.

Decision making is one of the basic management activities.

At the top level of businesses there are strategic decisions that unlike tactical and
operational decision making is more complicated, more complex and the
consequences of strategic decisions are long‐term character.

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 It was found that effective strategic decision making
significantly increases performance, success, and survival of small and very small
corporations. Insight into the process of strategic decision‐making small
corporations is therefore important professional experience and literature. It
presents a topic that received insufficient attention in comparison with the process
of strategic decision making in large enterprises.

The following reasons brought us to explore the strategic decision‐making process

in small corporations:

 Strategic decision making in small corporations is significantly

complicated by limited sources given by their organizational structure
which represents low number of employees, they have few or no
permanent employees, they have limited capital assets and simple
technologies and processes, they do not have the capacity to use
economies of scale, and they suffer from how to gain financial sources and
how to survive in competition of bigger businesses.
 They are economically important, and they represent a high share of all
the businesses.
 They are labor‐intensive, informal, simple, and flexible; they are highly
motivated to be successful following their ownership, lack of bureaucracy,
and continuity thanks to the possibility of succession.
 They remain unrepresented in professional literature of the strategic
decision making, thus there is an opportunity for further research in this
area.

Research on strategic decision making was and mostly is

focused on large businesses. There, we found a big research gap in the way the

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small corporations make their strategic decisions considering their difficult source
limitation. We focused on small enterprises and mainly on micro‐enterprises.

Theoretical background

Strategic decision making deals with poorly structured

decision‐making problems for which there is no clear procedure on how to solve
them, leading to the decision .
The strategic decision for the company is considered to be
the choice of the overall strategic orientation of the company which is followed
by the decomposition of strategic decisions and consequently the tactical nature.
Effective strategic decisions are the result of a gradual, step‐by‐step on‐going
analysis of information.
Strategic decisions are intended to provide a competitive
advantage and try to change the overall scope and direction of the company. They
are important for organizational health and survival .
In most businesses, however, strategic decision making is
not about making those decisions. This is the documentation of the options which
have already been made and often random. Therefore, leading companies
reviewed approach to policy‐making, so that their decisions are better and faster.
Solving strategic problems affects a large number of factors both inside the
company and its surroundings. Many of them cannot be accurately quantified,
exist between the complex and varying bond, and are difficult to interpret the
information necessary for decision . Adoption and implementation of strategic
decisions is fundamental not only for large but also for small and micro‐
corporations, because they increase their performance .

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 Many theoretical models and approaches as well as the
studies conducted in strategic decision making are focused primarily on large
enterprises. Among the strategic decision of large and small corporations,
however, there are some differences that result from the specific small
corporations.

In a large enterprise, strategic decision covers three

groups of people. They are business owners focused on the board or supervisory
board, top management, and strategic management department. Among them,
there is some division of labor. The process of strategic decision making takes
place mostly in teams, whose composition is heterogeneous in terms of education,
gender, age, experience, and functional jurisdiction. Top teams work to bring
many ideas, constructive criticism, and influence other managers and also prevent
the action of various cognitive errors, deviations from rationality, and personality
traits of managers. Therefore, it is a large‐scale enterprise that is more difficult for
the head of the senior team to dominate the process of strategic decision making.

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