STANDING WAVE POWER REFLECTED %

 Waves apparently seen in one position varying  %Pref = (Γ)2 x 100

only in amplitude
 Waves created due to phase difference of
ABSOLUTE POWER %
incident wave and reflected wave characterized
by a point of maxima and minima distribution of  %Pabs = 100% - %Pref
voltage and current 
RETURN LOSS
 It is the reflection of signal power resulting from
the insertion of a device in a transmission line
or optical fiber.
 It is usually expressed as a ratio in dB relative to
the transmitted signal
 RL (dB) = 20 log10 |𝚪|

STANDING-WAVE RATIO (SWR)

 Defined as the ratio of the maximum voltage to
the minimum voltage or the maximum current
to the minimum current.
 Also called VOLTAGE SWR (VSWR) or CURRENT
SWR (ISWR)
 SWR, is a measure of the mismatched between
the load impedance and the characteristic
impedance of a trans line.
ANTINODE  For a transmission line terminated in either
 The point along the trans line where voltage or short or open circuit, the reflection coefficient is
current is maximum 1 (WORST CASE), and the SWR is infinity (also
NODE worst case)
 The point along the trans line where voltage or  VSWR = ISWR
current is minimum 𝑽𝑴𝑨𝑿 𝑰 𝑴𝑨𝑿 𝑬𝒊+𝑬𝒓
 SWR = = =
𝑽𝑴𝑰𝑵 𝑰 𝑴𝑰𝑵 𝑬𝒊−𝑬𝒓
REFLECTION COEFFICIENT Where:
 Also called coefficient of reflection VMAX = Ei + Er
 A vector quantity that represents the ratio of VMIN = Ei – Er
reflected voltage to incident voltage or
reflected current to incident current 𝒁𝒐 𝒁𝑳
𝑬𝒓 𝑰𝒓 𝒁𝑳−𝒁𝒐  VSWR = 𝒐𝒓
 𝚪 = 𝑬𝒊 = = 𝒁𝑳 𝒁𝟎
𝑰𝒊 𝒁𝑳+𝒁𝒐
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒇 NOTE: WHICHEVER IS LARGE IT
 𝚪𝟐 = 𝑷𝒊𝒏𝒄 IS THE NUMERATOR
Where:
Γ = refection coefficient (unitless)
Ei = incident voltage (V) 𝟏+ |𝚪|
Er = reflected voltage (V)
 𝑺𝑾𝑹 =
𝟏− |𝚪|
Ii = incident current (A) NOTE: ONLY THE MAGNITUDE NO
Ir = reflected current (A)
ANGLE INCLUDED
NOTE: OPEN CIRCUIT = 1
SHORT CIRCUIT = = -1
 INPUT IMPEDANCE
𝒁𝑳+𝒁𝒐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝜸𝒔
 𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 𝒁𝒐[ ]
𝒁𝒐+𝒁𝒐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝜸𝒔
Where:
SAMPLE PROBLEM: γ = propagation constant
s = distance from the load

(LOSSLESS LINE)
𝒁𝑳+𝒋𝒁𝒐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝒔
 𝒁𝒊𝒏 = 𝒁𝒐[ ]
𝒁𝒐+𝒋𝒁𝒐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝒔
Where:
Β = phase shift constant

Physical length: m, yard, ft, in.

Electrical length: wavelength, degrees

 Zin = Zo = ZL
 SHOERTED LINE
 Zin(sc) = j Zo tanβs
 Zin(sc) = JxL = JxC
= j(2𝝅)(f)(L)
𝒋
=
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪

 OPEN LINE
 Zin(oc) = -j Zo cotβs
 Zin(oc) = -JxL = -JxC
= -j(2𝝅)(f)(L)
−𝒋
=
𝟐𝝅𝒇𝑪
SPECIAL LENGTH (ZIN)
𝟏
1. L =𝟒λ
𝒁𝒐𝟐
Zin =
𝒁𝑳

𝟏
2. L =𝟐λ
Zin = ZL

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE (BRIDGE

MEASUREMENT)
 Z0 =√(𝒁𝒔𝒄)(𝒁𝒐𝒄)
 1. CABLE JACKET
- The tough outer covering on the cable
- Protect the fiber
2. STRENGTH MEMBER / STRENTHENING FIBERS
- Aramid fiber or Kevlar used to pull the cable, also
used to stiffen the cable to prevent kinking.
- Increase the tensile strength of the cable
3. COATING
- A material that protects the core and cladding
from moisture
4. CLADDING
-protects the core and ensure that light wave
will stay within the core.

HISTORY OF FIBER OPTICS

1850 JOHN TYNDALL – demonstrated that light can
be guided along a curved stream of water using
QUARTER WAVE TRANSFORMER MATCHING
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (incident angle
 Quarter wavelength piece of transmission line
θi = reflective angle θr)
specified line impedance used to force a perfect
1880 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL – experimented
match between a transmission line and its load Photophone
resistance. 1930 JOHN L. BAIRD & C.W. HANSELL -transmitting
 Z0’ =√(𝒁𝒐)(𝒁𝒍) TC images through uncoated fiber cables.
1951 A.C.S. VAN HEEL, H.H. HOPKINS & N.S.
KAPANY – experimented the light transmission
OPTICAL FIBER CABLES through bundles of fiber.
 Higher order mode transmission line 1956 NARINDER SINGH KAPANY – coined the term
 A cylindrical dielectric waveguide made up of “fiber optics” and Father of Fiber Optics
central cylinder of glass (core) with one index of 1960 THEODORE MAIMAN – built the first optical
refraction, surrounded by an annulus (clad) with a maser (microwave amplification by stimulated
slightly different index of refraction. emission of radiation)
 It has the capacity to carry much more information 1967 K.C KAO & G.A. BOCKHAM – proposed cladded
than their metallic counterparts. fiber cables
 SCS – SILICA CORE SILICA (core and clad is glass) 1988 ANSI (American National Standard Institute)
 PCS – PLASTIC CORE SILICA (clad is plastic, core is published SONET (Synchronous Optical
glass) Network) standard
OPTICS
LIGHT TRANSMISSION
 Branch of physical science dealing with the
 Light is the same as a radio frequency radiation but
propagation and behavior of light.
at very much higher frequency.
 The light stays inside the fiber because it is totally
FIBER OPTICS
reflected by the inside surface or walling of the
 The technology of transferring information through
fiber.
a number of thin flexible glass or plastic tubes
 Light entering at a slight angle to the axis follows a
(optical fibers) using modulated light waves.
zigzag path through a series of reflections down the
length of the fiber.
CABLE COMPONENTS
INFORMATION CAPACITY
 Directly proportional to bandwidth
 Optical fiber cables have the capacity to carry
much more information than their metallic
counterparts or, for the matter, even the most
sophisticated wireless communication systems.
 Creating the optical signal involving the use of a
transmitter, relaying the signal along the fiber,
ensuring that the signal does not become too
distorted or weak, receiving the optical signal,
and converting it into an electrical signal.
 Regenerators provide light amplification

TWO TYPES OF LIGHT SOURCES FOR OPTICAL FIBER

COMMUNICATIONS

1. LEDs
 HOMOJUNCTION LEDs
 HETEROJUCTION LEDs
 BURRUS ETCHED-WELL SURFACE EMITTING
LEDs
 EDGE EMITTING LEDs
2. ILDs

RECEIVER
 LIGHT DETECTOR
1. PIN (P-TYPE INTRINSIC N-TYPE) DIODE
COMPOSITION OF THE LIGHT SPECTRUM 2. APD (AVALANCHE PHOTODIODE)
1. INFRARED 3. PHOTO TRANSISTOR
- Band of light wavelengths that are too long to be
seen by the human eye. (770 nm and 106 nm)
- Optical fiber generally operates in infrared band OPTICAL POWER
2. VISIBLE  Flow of light energy past a given point in a specified
- Band of light wavelengths to which the human eye time.
will respond. (390nm and 770 nm) 𝒅𝑸
 𝑷=
3. ULTRAVIOLET 𝒅𝒕
- Band of light wavelengths that are too short to be Where: P = optical power (W)
seen by the human eye. (10nm and 390nm) dQ = instantaneous charge (J)
dt = instantaneous charge in time (s)
FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION
 A method of transmitting information from one LIGHT INTENSITY
place to another by sending pulses of light 1. PHOTOMETRY
through an optical fiber. The light forms an  Science of measuring only light waves that are
electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated visible to the human eyes
to carry information. 2. RADIOMETRY
 The process of communicating using fiber-  Measures light throughout the entire
optics involves the following basic steps: electromagnetic spectrum
PHOTON ENERGY VELOCITY PROPAGATION
 Is a quantum of electromagnetic radiation or  In free space, electromagnetic energy, such as
packet of energy. light waves travel at approximately 3x108 m/s
 Possesses energy proportional to its frequency or 186,600 mi/s
 1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
𝒉𝒄 REFRACTION
 𝑬𝒑 = 𝒉𝒇 =  Change in direction of the wave passing from
𝛌
Where: Ep = energy of photon (J) one medium to another. (2 medium: air and
H = 6.625 x 10-34 J (Planck’s const) glass prism)
F = frequency of light (photon)  The bending of a wave when it enters a medium
= emitted (Hz) where its speed is different.
 Spectral separation of white light in a prism
TYPES OF FIBER CABLES  WHITE = Red (longest), orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet (shortest)

1. PLASTIC FIBER
 More flexible and, consequently, more rugged
than glass.
 Plastic cables are easier to install, can better
withstand stress, are less expensive and weigh REFRACTIVE INDEX (n)
60% less than glass.  The amount of bending or refraction that occurs
 However, plastic fibers have higher attenuation at the interface of two materials of different
characteristics and do not propagate light as densities is quite predictable and depends on
efficiently as glass the refractive indexes of the two material.
 Plastic fibers are limited to relatively short cable  simply the ratio of the velocity of propagation
runs, such as within a single building. of light ray in free space to the velocity of
propagation of light ray in a given material
(FIBER WITH GLASS CORE have less attenuation 𝒄 𝑽𝒄
that plastic)
 𝒏= =
𝒗 𝑽𝒑
Where: n = refractive index (unitless)
2. PLASTICS CLAD SILICA (PCS) C = 3X108 m/s = 186,600 mi/s
 Slightly better than plastic fiber v = speed light in given material (m/s)
 Less affected by radiation  𝒏 = √𝜺r
 More immune to external interference Where: ε = relative permittivity / dielectric const.
3. SILICA CLAD SILICA (SCS)
 Have the best propagation characteristic and
are easier to terminate than PCS fibers
 Unfortunately, SCS fibers are the least rugged
and more susceptible to increases in
attenuation when exposed to radiation.
TYPES OF INDEXES OF REFRACTION ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
 the angle at which the propagating ray strikes
the interface with respect to the normal.
 Angle between normal line and incident ray

ANGLE OF REFRACTION
 the angle formed between the propagating ray
and the normal after the ray has entered the
second medium.
 Angle between the refracted ray and normal
line.

SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:

SAMPLE PROBLEM 2:

SNELL’S LAW CRITICAL ANGLE (θC)

 This law explained how a light ray reacts when  The minimum angle of incidence at which a
it meets the interface of two transmissive light ray may strike the interface of two media
material that have different indexed of and result in an angle of refraction of 90 degree
refraction. or greater.
 It is product of the refractive index and sine of  Light ray must be traveling from a medium of
angle of incidence of a ray in one medium is higher refractive index to a medium with a
equal to the product of the refractive index and lower refractive index. (i.e., glass into cladding)
the sine of the angle of refraction in a 𝒏𝟐
successive medium  𝜽𝑪 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )
𝒏𝟏
 n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2
where: n1 = refractive index of material 1
n2 = refractive index of material 2
sin θ1 = angle of incidence
sin θ2 = angle of refraction
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝑽𝟏 𝛌𝟏
 = = =
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝛌𝟐
 2. MULTIMODE
 Many paths propagating down the line
 There will be different velocity propagation
down the line therefore, there will be delay
and interference in the signal or dispersion
 .

λ > λc - single mode

λ < λc - multimode

NUMBER OF PROPAGATING MODES

The number of path modes possible for a multimode
fiber depends on the ff:
 Frequency of the light signal
 Refractive indexes of the core and cladding
 Core diameter

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

 Phenomenon in fiber optic system in which a
light ray propagates inside the core

θi > θc
 in this condition it will have internal reflection
 incident angle > critical angle

MODE OF PROPAGATION
 number of paths in which the signal propagates
NOTE: ONLY THE WHOLE NUMBER IS THE
1. SINGLE MODE FIBERS ANSWER, DO NOT ROUND OFF
 It transmits a single mode for all wavelengths
longer than the cut off wavelength SAMPLE PROBLEM:
 One path, one light ray propagates down the
line
 .
 ACCEPTANCE ANGLE - CORE RADIUS FORMULA:
 Defines the maximum angle in which
external light rays may strike the air or glass
interface and still propagate down the fiber

 ACCEPTANCE CONE
 The total width of the cone of acceptance is Where: 𝜏max = maximum radius of the core
twice the maximum angle from the fiber λ =wavelength
axis. N.A. =numerical aperture
 TOTAL WIDTH = 2θIN(MAX)
 HALF ACCEPTANCE CONE = θIN(MAX)

 NUMERICAL APERTURE (N.A)

 Defined as the sine of the maximum angle a
ray entering the fiber can have with the axis
of the fiber and still propagate by internal
reflection.
 The figure of merit commonly used to  MULTIMODE STEP-INDEX FIBER
measure the magnitude of the acceptance - Core diameter = 50 to 100um
angle - More than 1 path
 N.A. = sin θIN(MAX) - With core and cladding
-
 N.A. = √(𝒏𝟏)𝟐 − (𝒏𝟐)𝟐

INDEX PROFILE

2. GRADED-INDEX FIBER
- Core diameter = 50 to 85um
- There is NO CLADING and the refractive index of
the core is NONUNIFORM
- It is the highest in the center of the core and
TWO BASIC TYPES OF INDEX PROFILE decreases gradually with the distance toward the
1. STEP-INDEX FIBER outer edge.
- It has a central core with a uniform refractive index -
- An outside cladding that also has a uniform
refractive index surrounds the core.

 SINGLE STEP-INDEX FIBER

- Core diameter = 7 to 10um
- One light ray propagates
- With core and cladding
OPTICAL FIBER COMPARISON
1. SINGLE-MODE STEP-INDEX
ADVANTAGES:
 Minimum dispersion: All rays propagating
down the fiber take approximately the
same path; thus, they take approximately
the same length of time to travel down the
cable.
 Wider bandwidths and higher information
transmission rates are possible with single-
mode step-index fibers than with the other
types
DISADVANTAGES:
 Because the central core is very small, it is
difficult to couple light into and out of this
type of fiber
 Due to small central core, highly directive
light source, such as laser is required to
couple light into a single-mode step-index
fiber.
 It is expensive and difficult to manufacture.
2. MULTIMODE STEP-INDEX
ADVANTAGES:
 Relatively inexpensive and simple to
manufacture
 Easier to couple light into and out because
they have a relatively large source to fiber
aperture.
DISADVANTAGES:
 light rays take many different paths down
the fiber which results in a large difference
in propagation times.
 The bandwidth and rate of information
transfer rates possible with this type of
cable are less than that possible wit the
other types of fiber cables
3. MULTIMODE GRADED INDEX FIBERS
-Easier to couple light into ad out of than single
mode step index but are more difficult than a
multimode step index fiber.
 The mechanical interface used to house the
light source and attach it to the cable is
seldom perfect.
4. CABLE TO LIGHT DETECTOR INTERFACE LOSS
 Prevents a small percentage of the power
leaving the cable from entering the light
detector.
5. CABLE TO LIGHT SOURCE INTERFACE LOSS

6. SPLICING LOSS
 If more than one continuous section of cable
is required, cable sections can be fused
together (spliced).
 Splicing – connecting two fiber optics
7. CABLE BENDS
 When an optical cable is bent, at too large
an angle, the internal characteristic of the
cable can change dramatically.
 No 90 degree bends.
LINK BUDGETS / POWER BUDGET CALCULATION
 Generally calculated between a light source and
a light detector.
 The useful power available in the receiver
depends on transmit power and link losses
 Receive power is represented as:
 Pr = Pt x total losses
Where: Pt = transmit power
SAMPLE PROBLEM 1:

TYPICAL LOSSES OF OPTICAL FIBER LINKS

1. CABLE LOSSES
 Depend on cable length, material and
material purity.
2. CONNECTOR LOSSES
 Mechanical connectors are sometimes used
to connect two sections of cable.
3. SOURCE TO CABLE INTERFACE LOSS
SAMPLE PROBLEM 2: SAMPLE PROBLEM 5:

SAMPLE PROBLEM 3:

SAMPLE PROBLEM 4:
SUMMARY OF FORMULA