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Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 39 (2000) pp. 1358–1364
Part 1, No. 3A, March 2000
°2000
c Publication Board, Japanese Journal of Applied Physics

Numerical Study of the Effects of Frequency in Inductively Coupled Plasma

Using Particle-in-Cell/Monte Carlo Simulation
Jin-Sung O H and Toshiaki M AKABE
Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, Keio University,
3-14-1 Hiyoshi Kohoku-ku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan

(Received September 3, 1999; accepted for publication December 20, 1999)

The effects of induction frequency on inductively coupled plasma (ICP) have been investigated in a collision-dominated
region in Ar under a constant dissipated power using the particle-in-cell/Monte Carlo (PIC/MC) simulation. The plasma density,
potential, electron energy distribution and mean electron energy are discussed as a function of the applied frequencies of
6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz and 100 MHz at pressure of 100 mTorr and 300 mTorr.
KEYWORDS: PIC/MCS, ICP, induction frequency, electron energy distribution, temporal mean energy characteristics

advantages of particle models such as the PIC/MC is the pos-

1. Introduction
Inductively coupled plasma (ICP) is used in Al and poly-
Si plasma etching for ultra large scale integrated (ULSI) cir-
cuit fabrication. In ICP reactors, the plasma is generated
by applying an induction radio frequency (rf) current across
a coil wound around a cylinder. The basic mechanism of
ICP has been studied by numerous theoretical1–5) and exper-
imental procedures.6–8) One of the successful method of the
modeling is the relaxation continuum model (RCT)1, 5) which
is a self-consistent technique based on the continuum equa-
tions coupled with Maxwell’s equation. The other is a ki-
netic model such as Particle-in-Cell/Monte Carlo (PIC/MC)
simulation.9–11) The PIC models of rf glow discharge pro-
vide the kinetic information self-consistently by calculation
of the motion of charged superparticles such as electrons and
ions using Lorentz’s force equation with electric and magnetic
fields solved by Poisson’s and Maxwell’s equations on a spa-
tially discrete mesh simultaneously. The PIC/MC simulation
is a method in which a PIC model coupled with Monte Carlo
treatment is applied to collision events of neutral-electrons
and neutral-ions.
The induction frequency is one of the design parameters
that sustains the plasma efficiently. The general effects of
frequency on the discharge can be considered as follows. 1)
Frequency can change the spatial distribution of species and
spatial potential across the discharges. 2) Temporal variation
of the energy and density can change as a function of the in-
duction frequency.12) Most of the commercial plasma etching
and deposition reactors operates at 13.56 MHz, which is an
FCC-licensed industrial frequency. Recently, plasma reactors
maintained by a different frequency have been developed. A
number of early investigations of the effects of the frequency
on Ar discharge have been published.13, 14) They concerned
the effects of frequency on the excitation and ionization tem-
peratures and revealed that the excitation temperature is lower
when the induction frequency is increased. Another effect is
that the dissipated power requirements of discharge are influ-
enced by the choice of the induction frequency. Kitamura et
al.15) investigated the influence of driving frequency on the
net excitation, ionization rate, power density and plasma den-
sity of an Ar capacitively coupled plasma (CCP) over the fre-
quency range from 13.56 MHz to 100 MHz using the RCT
model.
The objective of this work is to investigate the effects of
frequency on Ar ICP using PIC/MC simulation. One of the
sibility of calculating the electron energy distribution (eed,
f (ε)), which provides information on the electron kinetics.
Surendra and Graves16) reported electron energy distribution
function to examine the nature of power deposition to elec-
trons in CCP using PIC/MC simulation. We discussed the
effects of the induction frequency on ICP, particularly the
plasma density, ionization rate, mean electron energy and
eed, f (ε) in the collision-dominated region at pressures of
100 mTorr and 300 mTorr, as a function of the applied fre-
quencies of 6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz and 100 MHz.
The dissipated power into the ICP is kept constant.
2. Model Description
2.1 PIC model description
The modeling was performed for ICP generated in the re-
actor shown in Fig. 1 with Ar. The simulation was based
on the one-dimensional cylindrical PIC/MC algorithm.9) A
ribbon-shaped induction coil antenna which is wound at one
turn per cm around a cylinder with 0.025 m diameter is pow-
ered by an rf generator at induction frequencies of 6.78 MHz,
13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz and 100 MHz. The external rf cur-
rent, I (t) = I0 sin(ωt), applied to the coil generates an
rf magnetic field B z (r, t) and an azimuthal electric field
z
r
Conductor
RibbonShaped
Coil
R 0 = 0.025 m
RF Current
I = I 0 sin ( ω t )
Fig. 1. ICP reactor used in the present study.

1358
 Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 39 (2000) Pt. 1, No. 3A J.-S. O H and T. M AKABE 1359

E θ (r, t). In this work, we consider the electrons and Ar+ netic field B generated from the external coil current I (t) =
ions as charged particles in Ar. PIC/MC simulation begins I0 sin(ωt) are obtained by solving Maxwell’s equations.
with an equal number of 2.5 × 104 pseudo electrons and ions,
rot B = µ0 I, (6)
each with weight W , uniformly distributed in the cylindrical
spatial grid. The number of nodes in the spatial grid is 50 and the magnetic field induces the electric field E expressed
(uniform spacing, 1r) in one dimension, and the time step is by
1500 steps per rf cycle. ∂B
In the PIC simulation the charged particles are taken into rot E = − , (7)
∂t
account within a mathematical mesh, and Maxwellian ve-
where µ0 is the permeability. As shown in the present re-
locity distribution is used for determining the initial particle
actor in Fig. 1, the magnetic and electric fields have the axial
distribution. The simulation cycle starts by transferring the
component of Bz and the azimuthal component of E θ , respec-
charged particles from the computer particle position (ri ) to
tively. These fields are expressed by the basic relations
the grid position (R j ) in order to form a charge density on the
grid using the cloud-in-cell interpolation method. The grid Bz (r, t) = µ0 s I0 sin ωt (8)
charge density ρ j is obtained from the charges qi located at
position ri as follows: and
X
ρ(R j ) = qi S(R j − ri ), (1) 1
i
E θ (r, t) = − rωI0 cos ωt, (9)
2
where S(R j − ri ) is the shape factor, which means that the where s is the number of coil turns per unit length, which is
part assigned to the jth grid is (R j +1 −ri /1r) and the part as- kept constant at 1 turn per cm in the present study. The va-
signed to the ( j +1)th grid is (ri − R j /1r). After determining lidity of the expressions of E θ and Bz can be discussed using
the charge density, the electrostatic potential at each grid is skin depth. The influence of the plasma current on the exter-
calculated by solving Poisson’s equation. The radial electric nal electromagnetic field is estimated by using the skin depth
field E r (r, t) is determined by the potential at each grid point. δ = (2/µ0 ωσ )1/2 . The plasma conductivity can be written
The particles move within the computer time 1t to a new par- as σ (r, t) = n e (r, t)e2 /m e (Rm + jω), where m e is the elec-
ticle position using Lorentz’s force equation. The computed tron mass and Rm the momentum transfer collision rate of
fields are interpolated from the grid back to each individual the electron on the order of 4 × 108 s−1 at 300 mTorr in Ar.
particle position using the same cloud-in-cell method. The Then, δ is approximately 0.59 m at a typical n e = 1016 m−3
boundary condition for the potential is zero at the reactor wall, and 100 MHz frequency in the present study. The skin depth
and at the central z axis it is determined by solving Gauss’s is much greater than the cylindrical radius of 0.025 m.
law as follows.
µ ¶
1 2.3 Poisson equation and power dissipation
Q zero = 2π(1r/2)E r , (2) The effect of particle motion appears in the form of current
2
µ ¶ density J on the mesh points. However, the charge density
1 8(0) − 8(1)
Er = (3) calculated according to eq. (1) and the current density only
2 1r approximately satisfy the continuity equation. At any mesh
where Q zero is the total charge on the zero grid and 8 is the point the continuity equation must be satisfied. Using the con-
plasma potential. The boundary conditions for the electron tinuity equation,
and ion densities are zero at the reactor wall, and are given ∂ρ
at no spatial gradients at the central z axis due to the axial + ∇ · J = 0, (10)
∂t
symmetry.
we solve the following Poisson’s equation
The spatial position and velocity are updated once per com-
putation time by solving Lorentz’s force equation, given by 1
∇ 2 8(r, t + 1t) = − ρ(r, t + 1t) (11)
eqs. (4) and (5), for each particle. The equations of motion ²o
· ¸
are 1 ∂ρ(r, t)
d ri =− ρ(r, t) + 1t (12)
= vi (4) ²o ∂t
dt 1
and =− [ρ(r, t) − 1t∇ · J] (13)
²o
dv i qi We define the J current density for each mesh as follows:
= [E(ri ) + v i × B], (5)
dt mi X 1 S(R j − r i ) + S(R j − r i )
n n+1
n+1/2
where vi is the velocity, ri is the position, m i and qi are the Jj = qi v i n+ 2 ,
2
mass and the charge of the particle, respectively. The rear- i
ranged particles form the updated charge density again. The (14)
particles that move beyond the boundaries are eliminated. In where i, j and n denote a particle, the mesh point and the time
our simulation, this is the only loss process of the charged step, respectively. The current density at the midpoint of the
n+1/2
particles due to a low recombination rate. mesh, J j +1/2 is obtained at center of mesh as follows.
n+1/2 1 n+1/2 n+1/2
2.2 Maxwell’s equation J j +1/2 = [J + J j +1 ] (15)
2 j
The azimuthal electric field E θ (r, t) and induced mag-
1360 Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 39 (2000) Pt. 1, No. 3A J.-S. O H and T. M AKABE

driven by the induction frequencies of 6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz,

−19
10 Qm 27.12 MHz and 100 MHz under gas pressures of 100 mTorr
Qi and 300 mTorr, until the periodic steady state is reached. In
3 order to investigate the influence of the driving frequency,
Cross Section (m2)

−20 we keep the dissipated power constant at 30 Wm−1 (±3%)

10
and 35 Wm−1 (±1%) for 100 mTorr and 300 mTorr, respec-
Q ex tively. Under these external conditions, the skin depth is much
3
greater than the reactor radius.19) Figures 3(a) and 3(b) show
−21
10 the time-averaged space potential and radial electric field E r
at different frequencies from low to very high frequencies of
3 6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz and 100 MHz, under pres-
−22 sure of (a) 100 mTorr and (b) 300 mTorr. The plasma potential
10
has a maximum value of 15.5–16.5 V and the radial electric
3 field has a peak of 8 × 103 Vm−1 at the reactor wall.
Figures 4(a) and 4(b) show the ion densities at 100 mTorr
−1 0 1 2 and 300 mTorr, respectively. The ion density shows almost
10 3 10 3 10 3 10
the same profile independent of the induction frequency at
Electron Energy (eV) 100 mTorr, while the ion density decreases with increasing the
Fig. 2. Collision cross section of electrons in Ar.

(a)
16
In a collision-dominated ICP, the electrons accelerated by
8
the electric field are the dominant heating sources. We calcu-

Electric Field (10 V m )

14 100 MHz 27.12 MHz
late the ohmic heating power deposition from the radial and 7

1
13.56 MHz
azimuthal electric fields separately. The power deposited into 12 6.78 MHz 6
Potential (V)

the discharge per unit axial length z = 1 m, is given by

3
10 5
P j = 2πr zq J j · E j , (16)
8 4
where E j denotes the electric field on grid j and q denotes
the charge. We calculate the time-averaged mean energy of 3
6
electrons by
2
X n
εi S(R j − r i ) 4
hε j (r)i = , (17) 1
i =1
n 2
0
where εi = 1/2m i (vr 2 + vθ 2 + vz 2 ) and n is the number of
superparticles. 0.00 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Radial position (m)
2.4 Monte Carlo description
Monte Carlo treatment is used to determine the type of (b) 100 MHz
collision between electrons and neutrals, and between ions
16
and neutrals during the particle movement time 1t. We 8
considered the elastic, excitation and ionization collisions of
Electric Field (10 V m )

14 27.12 MHz
the electrons,17) and the elastic scattering and the charge ex- 6.78 MHz 7
1

13.56 MHz
change collisions of the ions.18) The collision probability is 12
6
Potential (V)

determined by the null collision method for each time step.

3

The electron collision cross sections are shown in Fig. 2. The 10 5

null collision frequency is obtained by the following total col-
8 4
lision frequency νc ,
s 
3
2ε X 6
νc = max  Ng Q j (ε) , (18) 2
me j
4
1
where Q j (ε) is the jth cross section, Ng the gas pressure and 2
m e the electron mass. Hence, the collision probability is given 0
by
0.00 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
P = 1 − exp[−νc 1t]. (19) Radial position (m)
3. Results and Discussion Fig. 3. The time-averaged space potential and radial electric field distribu-
tions in Ar at (a) p = 100 mTorr and 30 Wm−1 and (b) p = 300 mTorr and
3.1 Plasma Parameters 35 Wm−1 for induction frequencies of 6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz
We have simulated temporal development of the ICP and 100 MHz.
 Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 39 (2000) Pt. 1, No. 3A J.-S. O H and T. M AKABE 1361

applied frequency at 300 mTorr. The electron density profiles
are quite similar except in the positive ion sheath as shown
in the box of Fig. 4(a). In the present ICP with the density of
1016 m−3 , the energy gain of electrons depends on the induced
azimuthal electric field E θ (r, t), while the loss of the elec-
tron density by diffusion to the wall, is controlled by E r (r, t)
which is shown in Fig. 3. In a periodic steady state, the effec-
tive electric field of the electron with energy ε is given in the
external radio frequency with angular frequency ω as
E0
E eff (ε) =  Ã
√ ω
2 1 +
νm (ε)
where E 0 is the amplitude of the azimuthal electric field, and
νm (ε) the total collision frequency. The relationship between
the driving frequency ω and the collision frequency νm (ε) is,
however, much more complicated than for the system given in
eq. (20), because the electron energy distribution (eed) has the
proper characteristics under the energy dependence of νm (ε)
which is intrinsic to the feed gas. Here, we can say that the
plasma density in Ar-ICP is more influenced by the induction
frequency at 300 mTorr and 35 Wm−1 . This is mainly caused
by the decrease of the net ionization rate based on the grad-
ual decrease of the high energy component of the eed with
increasing induction frequency.
3.2 Dependence of mean electron energy, eed and net ion-
!2 1/2 , (20) ization rate on frequency
Figures 5(a) and 5(b) show the time-averaged spatial pro-

file of the electron mean energy hε(r)i at 100 mTorr and
300 mTorr, respectively. The electrons are mostly heated and
generated in the vicinity of the static wall sheath with high
E θ (r), and these electrons migrate into the inner bulk plasma.
As a result, the electron mean energy has a spatial distribu-
tion with a peak at the boundary between the bulk plasma and

(a) (a)
3.0 100 MHz
Electron mean energy <ε >(eV)
2.0

27.12 MHz
m3 )

100 MHz 13.56 MHz

1.6 2.6
6.78 MHz
16

27.12 MHz
13.56 MHz
Ion Density ( x 10

1.2 6.78 MHz

2.2
4
0.8
Ne, Np( 10 15 m3 )

3
Np

2 Ne
1.8

0.4 1

0
0.023 0.024
Position (m)
0.025
1.4

0.00 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

0.00 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Radial position (m) Radial position (m)
(b) (b)
2.0 3.0
Electron mean energy <ε >(eV)

6.78 MHz
m3 )

13.56 MHz
1.6 27.12 MHz 2.6 100 MHz
16
Ion Density ( x 10

27.12 MHz
1.2
2.2 13.56 MHz
100 MHz

0.8
6.78 MHz
1.8
0.4

1.4

0.00 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025

0.00 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
Radial position (m)
Radial position (m)
Fig. 4. The time-averaged ion density distribution as a function of ra-
dial position in Ar at (a) p = 100 mTorr and 30 Wm−1 and (b) Fig. 5. The time-averaged mean electron energy in Ar at (a) p = 100 mTorr
p = 300 mTorr and 35 Wm−1 for induction frequencies of 6.78 MHz, and 30 Wm−1 and (b) p = 300 mTorr and 35 Wm−1 for induction frequen-
13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz and 100 MHz. cies of 6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz and 100 MHz.
1362 Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 39 (2000) Pt. 1, No. 3A J.-S. O H and T. M AKABE

the wall sheath, reflected by the azimuthal field E θ (r) and
by the radial potential distribution 8(r) as shown in Fig. 5.
We have discussed the falling-off of the mean electron en-
ergy near the reactor wall and the cooling effect in the cen-
tral region due to the collisions in the previous paper.20) The
peak value is approximately 3 eV, independent of the external
induction frequency in the collision-dominated region. The
difference in the mean energy between the center and the
peak position becomes large with decreasing induction fre-
quency. That is, the difference of hεi is 0.4 eV and 1.2 eV for
100 MHz and 6.78 MHz, respectively, at 300 mTorr as, shown
in Fig. 5(b). Since the total collision rate between the electron
and the neutral RT is almost the same value of 4 × 108 s−1
at 300 mTorr and 1.3 × 108 s−1 at 100 mTorr, the number of
collisions within one rf cycle is larger at a low induction fre-
quency than at a high induction frequency. Therefore, the col-
lisional cooling effect of electrons in the central region is large
in a low-induction-frequency discharge. The phenomenon at
300 mTorr is much more clear than at 100 mTorr due to the
greater number of collisions.
Figures 6(a) and 6(b) show the eed at the frequencies
of 6.78 MHz and 100 MHz at 300 mTorr as a function of
the
R ∞ radial position. The distribution is normalized to unity,
0 f (ε)dε = 1. The distribution at the very high frequency
of 100 MHz has characteristics almost independent of the po-
sition, except for the high-energy tail, as compared with those
at the low frequency of 6.78 MHz. The eed at the lower
frequency of 6.78 MHz changes its shape as a function of
position consideratively. The position dependence of hε(r)i
shown in Fig. 5 reflects these characteristics of eed. All of
the eeds exhibit non-Maxwellian distribution in the collision-
dominated region.
Figure 7(a) and 7(b) give the time-modulated mean elec-

(a)

Electron mean energy < ε( t ) >(eV)

(a)
3.15

2 6.78 MHz
−1
3.10
13.56 MHz
10 27.12 MHz
5 0.02 m 3.05 100 MHz
f e ( ε ,r)

2 0.01 m 0.015 m
3.00
−2 0.005 m
10
2.95
5

2 2.90
−3
10 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π

5 10 15
ωt
Electron Energy ( eV ) (b)
Electron mean energy < ε( t ) >(eV)

(b) 3.10
6.78 MHz
2
13.56 MHz 27.12 MHz
−1 3.05
10
100 MHz
5
3.00
f e ( ε ,r)

2
0.02 m
−2 2.95
10
0.015 m
5 0.01 m
2.90
0.005 m
2
−3 2.85
10 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 ωt
Electron Energy ( eV ) Fig. 7. The temporal variation of the electron mean energy in Ar at
r = 0.02 m for (a) 100 mTorr and 30 Wm−1 and (b) 300 mTorr and
Fig. 6. The electron energy distribution in Ar at p = 300 mTorr and 35 Wm−1 as a function of induction frequencies of 6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz,
35 Wm−1 for induction frequencies of (a) 6.78 MHz and (b) 100 MHz. 27.12 MHz and 100 MHz.
 Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 39 (2000) Pt. 1, No. 3A J.-S. O H and T. M AKABE 1363

(a) (b)

Λ i (r,t) [1021m−3s −1]

Λ i (r,t) [1021m−3s −1]

1.5 1.3

0.8 0.7

0.0 0.0
0.025 0.025

0 0
Po 0.0125 Po 0.0125
sit 74 sit
ion ion 37
[m s] [m s]
] ime
[n ] e[n
0 148 T 0 74 Tim

(c) (d)

Λ i (r,t) [1020m−3s −1]

Λ i (r,t) [1020m−3s −1]

8.8 7.6

4.4 3.8

0.0 0.0
0.025 0.025

0 0
Po 0.0125 Po 0.0125
sit sit
io 18.5 io 5
n[ n[
m m s]
] s] ] e[n
e[n 10 Tim
0 37 Tim 0

Fig. 8. Spatiotemporal net ionization rate in Ar at 300 mTorr and 35 Wm−1 for induction frequencies of (a) 6.78 MHz, (b) 13.56 MHz,
(c) 27.12 MHz and (d) 100 MHz.

tron energy hε(t)i at 100 mTorr and 300 mTorr, respectively
at the position of 0.02 m as a function of frequency. hε(t)i has
sinusoidal time dependence with two peaks and a finite delay
with respect to E 2θ (t) during one period. The amplitude of
hε(t)i decreases with increasing applied induction frequency,
synchronized with the external azimuthal field. The phase de-
lay is larger at 100 mTorr than at 300 mTorr because of the
lack of collisional energy relaxation time.21, 22) It is much
more marked with increasing frequency. The time constants
for the rise and fall of hε(t)i are almost equal at frequencies
of 6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz and 27.12 MHz, while the profile
is asymmetric at the high frequency of 100 MHz as shown
in Fig. 7. If the time required for electrons to lose energy
through collisions is long compared to the undulations of the
applied rf field, the mean electron energy does not respond
to instantaneous changes in the field over one cycle and is
instead determined by the average electric field. When colli-
sions are so frequent that the electron energy may decay to-
ward zero in a quarter cycle without continuous power input,
the mean electron energy will respond to the instantaneous
field intensity, as shown in Fig. 7.
Next, we discuss the temporal behavior of the high-energy
component of electrons with energy greater than the ioniza-
tion threshold, 15.8 eV, in terms of the net ionization rate.
Figures 8(a), 8(b), 8(c) and 8(d) show the net ionization
rate at 300 mTorr for the induction frequencies of 6.78 MHz,
13.56 MHz, 27.12 MHz, and 100 MHz, respectively. It is
found that the electron is temporally heated by the influence
of time-varying E θ (r, t). The temporal variation becomes
strong with decreasing induction frequency. This is caused
by the relationship between the collisional energy relaxation
time for ionization and the external induction frequency.21, 22)
Under the condition of ω ≤ RT at the induction frequencies of
6.78 MHz, 13.56 MHz and 27.12 MHz, the distributions are
completely modulated within one period, as shown in Figs.
8(a)–8(c). The net rate at 100 MHz is more randomly modu-
lated as a function of time, as shown in Fig. 8(d), due to the
lack of collisions during one period. The temporal modula-
tion of the net ionization rate at 100 mTorr is small in ampli-
tude because of the low number of collisions.
4. Conclusions
The influence of the induction frequency on the collision-
dominated ICP has been investigated in Ar under constant
power dissipation by PIC/MC simulation. We found that as
the induction frequency increases, the plasma density and the
mean electron energy decrease gradually at 300 mTorr and
35 Wm−1 . The mean electron energy as a function of ωt has
a sinusoidal time dependence with a finite phase delay with
respect to E 2θ (t). The net ionization rate was modulated more
completely within one rf period as decreasing induction fre-
quency. The collisional cooling effect of the central penetrat-
1364 Jpn. J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 39 (2000) Pt. 1, No. 3A
ing electron is stronger at a lower induction frequency and at
300 mTorr due to the increasing number of collisions.
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