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    Agric BK - 1

    Uploaded by

    Farai

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    CPS FORM 1 Chitsinde A Learner's book RY raele lela Agriculture 1 ici Curriculum, a ae . < e - ff Farakeza S$ = Matshazi L CONSULTUS PUBLISHING SERVICES 41515 Tourle Road, Ardbennie, Harare ‘Agriculture 1 - Learner's Book CPS 201 ts te Edited by: Mivazvita Patricia Madondo Sophia Gwakuka ‘Cover design: MasimbaT, Madondo Cover artwork: Wisdom H. Tayengwa Illustrated by: Danson Zinengeya ‘Textand design layout: Victor Mupangami Printed by: ORT Printing Sewices Pictures Paahay- Fo 26, Fg 27. Fg 226 Table 21, Fg 21059 233,Fi 47, ig 56, Fig 57, Fa $8, Fg 511,Fi 5.12. Fig 5.16, Pape 57 ged carats page 729 74.9bGe 75,9 7.13.97. 16 Fg, 7.17F497 19, F987, Fig 31,9987, 98, pag ig 108 Fig 1012 Fi 114i 10.16 Fi 1016 Fig 1015, Fg 1022 Dreamstime 19 Fg2) 922,23 Fi 2 Table 2.1 Bsa. mesone and Santon Fig 5), Fg 521 F 710 Toble 75 Table 719. Fag 7.1, Fg 7.13,F 718 Fig 81,7 82. F983. Fig 86 996.7 3, FGBG. Fig B9, Fig 95,Fig 96, Fig 9.1, a S.12F 93,6934, F9 95 Fg 56,F998,Fig9.10.Fa920 3 ‘ive Common: F24. 747,745 Fg ?9abe3 Fg 31, ig 48 Table 710 Tale 7.19, F096 75. Fig 7121 ‘Musi Tinashe Madonde fg 43, Fig 52m, Fg, Fi 510g 61,Fg 62 Danson Zinengeye Fig 4), Fg 42 Aesley Mache: Fg 28 Mancere Alam Fig a9 Fay elt hs been made to iace the. Jorsathe pope arangemenwllbeappreiaed eve of unintentional omsso cia tentiona omissions or extra, any information este. tt ie record no ay be repro stored in a Borie ori shen nou beutngcrne ee oe annie nny CPS Agriculture 1 Learner's book Wildlife management Wildlife refers to living forms of life that are neither human nor domesticated. These are animals and plants that grow without the purposeful interference of man. The animals and plants grow in their natural settings or éawironment. The wildlife includes mammals, birds and fish that are found in the natural forest. According to the Parks and Wildlife Act, wildlife includes, “all things growing (fauna or flora) or produced without the care of ‘man and brought forth asisted by nature” If wildlife is ‘not allocated space and properly managed, the species becomes endangered orentinet. The state allocates land for wildlife s0 it can grow and thrive without interfering with human cecupation and human activites. Most of wildlife in Zimbabwe is found in game parks, game eserves, rivers, sanctuaries and natural conservancies or nature reserves. Crop and livestock production ind livestock are the basis of food for hum fer priority to 1 Crops beings. As such, the state gives gr production of crops and livestock. Adequate land allocated for the production of crops and livestock not just to meet the national need, but to also cater for expor needs. Livestock requires extensive grazing land. A | Jand in Zimbabwe is allocated for agricultural acti Protected areas Protected area is land chosen by national auth: as scientific reserves. The public has limited acces: the protected areas. The areas include places such « national parks, natural monuments, nature reserves and wild life sanctuaries. Protected areas are protected law in Zimbabwe. They are well distributed throu, the country as shown in the map below NP National Pak Fo. Protect reas isk Wistnadoata NP @ were Different land use forms in Zimbabwe Notional aks A2 Farms rt land se forms tn 2 Factors limiting land use in Zimbabwe Ri ctor influencing agricultural activities and forms of land use in Zimbabwe Distribution patterns of rainfall vary from place to place Areas receiving same amount of rainfall nd distribution ofall is the major pattems are classified into natural farming regions. Activites in each natural farming region tally with the ‘amount of rainfall received. Terrain and slope can also have an influence on 3 activities. Mountainous areas and steep sloping areas are difficult to raise erops or rear animals. Such areas will best he used for forestry and tea production if rainfall is adequate, Such mountainous found inthe eastern highlands stretching from Nya Chimanimani areas. Wattle and pine fas used for forestry are trees usually grown. Land survey to determine main agricultural activities | in the local community Go out in the local community and record various sericulturalsctvities being practised 2. Discuss the forms of landuse you have- observed. in your land survey. | Land tenure and used by an individual. It is also known as property og aa mercial This and ownership sytem is common in comment farming eas, in both large scale and small seale commercial froming areas. An individual,» gr0¥? Company has property rights and fl contol of the lands and the natural resources found on the land as enshrined in the couniry’s laws. The individual is limited in ‘hanging he use of land such a from farming to housing projets, contol over public water that pases through the land, felling or lumbering of indigenous trees ond ‘control of wildlife, among others. The individual holds proof of ownership of the land in the form of legal documents called title deeds, Title deeds cam be used as collateral security when borrowing money or taking @ Joan from bank. The owner of the land, inthis ease, ean sell the land Leasehold A farm owner who has property rights lets out farm to ‘another farmer to carryout farming activities on his/her farm, The farmer utilising the land for farming purposes signs a lease contract, The contract states the period from when the land is to be used and how the land is to be used among other things. The owner of the farm is called a landlord while the farmer utilising the land is called a tenant, The tenant pays an agreed sum of money to the landlord forthe use of the land, The amount and frequency of payment depends on the contract signed between the two parties, Communal ‘Communal land is owned by the state. The state President holds all powers allowing occupation and use of the land according to the country’s laws and regulations, The: President gives power to Rural District Councils to. distribute land to qualifying people. The person given {and does ‘not have property rights or title. If the state feu hana beds fr le pues, tie person is relocated elsewhere and is usually compensat forthe relocation. oar Resettlement model ‘Iisa programme by the Zimbabwean . government bome ‘ut ofthe desire to resetle landless Zimbabweans, The teen officially started in 1980 following the House Agreement of 1979. The purposes of Eo ee romreme wae: to: * Tedhice poverty among rural families and Workers by providing them with a \ = oe adequate land for ‘inreate the contribution of agriculture to the la the namber of agriculture ‘economy by increas producers @ promote environment land «¢ remove the imbal ually sustainable use of the Jance in land ownership groups of individuals The following individuals or groups benefit in the resettlement programm families selected from overpoput: # communal fi villages, including ex-farm and ex-mine w earmarked 10 or certificates in agricultur «people with traini ‘who have proven records in agriculture * women + indigenous people looking forward to makin living in agriculture Landreform programshave resulted inanew dispensa of farmers called Al and A2 farmers resettled in f white commercial farms. These farmers are ‘year leases by the state Historical background to land tenure Importance of land Land is the backbone of human life. It is the medi for plants, a source of underground water ‘Animals and humans live and survive on pro the land. Most of the wars world-over conce This shows 1d ownership and distribution land is very important, socially, economically sn politically. The following are some of the import: land: * People live on land, Thus, land isa national heritaze which can be passed on to future generations. Land cartes the most valuable mineral resour such as gold, diamond and many other prec ‘minerals. These minerals and many mor buried deeply in the soil E a agriculture activities are done on | Growing of crops and rearing of animals depen! on the amount of land specified for the activitics Shortage of land for the aforementioned activities negatively affects the activities Wildlife that can be used as building materials. Providing food to the nation, providing medicine» bringing in foreign currency and many other 18 all found on the land, for example, grass gro’ fn the land. Some species of grass can 88 medicine, thaiching Find should therefore be used with care so that ed or made unproductive. on the same grass can be used for : ‘Wind is a pollinating agent for crops such as maize, sorghum and millet, Wind carries with it potlen grains from the anthers to the stigmas of the plants resulting in fenilisation, Wind also helps to coo! the plants by increasing the rate of evapostranspiration (water loss though leaves). High rates of evapo-transpiration results in plants taking in more water from the soil ‘subsequently resulting in the cooling of the plant. Wind algo blows away hot humid air surrounding the plant, thereby reducing the incidence of fimgal infection to plants. Harmful effects of wind on plants When is travelling at high speeds, it causes destruction to the plants. Plants are broken down and flowers are blown away. Some fruits are also blown ‘away prematurely. ‘The blowing away of flowers results in poor yield in ‘rops such as beans and soya beans. Bean and soya bean yield is dependent on number of flowers. Winds also increase the rate of water loss by plants though evapo-transpiration. The plants wilt and dry out when plants lose more water than is available, Strong ‘winds also carry the top soil away leaving infertile soil that is not good for plant growth and good yields. Winds ‘can spread diseases and pests as they move from one ‘rea to another. Fungal spores are carried from one plant to the other while pests like armyworm and locusts are ‘blown from one place to the other. Winds result in uneven distribution of water when using sprinkler irigation. Most of the wateris deposited in the windward direction leaving the other side with litle water. Planting of ‘windbreaks sometimes reduces the effects of wind by reducing the speed of wind and diverting its direetion from the crop. ‘Temperature ‘Temperature refers to the degree of hotness or coldness ‘of the atmosphere. It is measured in degrees Celsius CC) or fahreinheight. Temperature is measured by an ‘instrument called the sin’s thermometer, The instrument ‘is made up of two thermometers, that is the Maximum and Minimum thermometers, Maximum thermometer measures the highest temperature of the atmosphere ‘while the minimum thermometer measures the lowest ‘temperature of the day. ‘The maximum and minimum ‘emperatures recorded for day give us the average daily temperatures. The average daily temperature is achieved y adding the maximum and the minimum temperatures then divide by 2, Maximum temperature + minimum temperature 2 average daily temperature The six’s thermometer is illustrated in the diagram below with the maximum and minimum temperatures clearly indicated, Minin Maximum \ Celcius Fabrentcit Fi, 1.4 Sts thermometer Atmospheric temperature is important for its direct influence on crop and animal growth. Cold temperatures result in slow plant growth, reduced animal activity and breeding, Extremely high temperatures result in death of plants and may favour animal diseases or pests that spread diseases. Atmospheric temperature also influences the temperatures of the soil which in tum influences germination of seeds, microbial activities, nutrients and water uptake. Successful seed germination formost field crops takes place in optimum temperatures that range from 15-35°C. Microorganisms (microbes) that five in the soil and carry out important processes such as decomposition of organic matter and fixation of nitrogen, function best when soil temperatures are average or optimum. Effects of high temperatures Very high temperatures of above 30°C cause crops to wilt and die, Excessive temperatures couse plants to Jose water through evapotranspiration. High rates of evapotranspiration cause plants to drop their flowery and fruits leading to low yields. In animals, high temperatures cean cause heat strokes, Animals breathe rapidly failing to imbabwean community Jaws enacted, barring stipulated ‘production fromthe indigenous Zi ue to poor soils and retrogressive them from practicing agriculture beyond the level. Land reform ~ The 3% Chimurenga In the year 2000, Zimbabwe embarked on the fast- track land reform programme which was also called the Third Chimurenga. In this programme, the disgruntled ‘communal farmers forcibly took land from the ‘white farmers who were owning large tracts of land at the expense of the majority of the Zimbabwean population, Colonial rule policy had resulted in this unfair distribution of land between the setters and the ‘Afficans, The government intervened by regularising the land redistribution process. The reason for the Third (Chimurenga were to: * comect. the imbalances in distribution between the blacks and the whites * increase agricultural productivity by peasant farmers through giving more productive land to indigenous farmers * create employment forthe black Zimbabweans as farmers * involve indigenous farmers in producing export agriculture products continued land Resettlement Aicr land acquisition, people were setted on the pieces of lands following two major resetlement models, The ‘models are: Al Resettlement model Farmers are allocated land of approximately 12-15 acres for farming. They are settled in villages headed by a Village chairman, Each village is also allocated separate ‘raring land. in addition to the farming area. Land in this category is govemed by permits issued by the ‘government. The permits will operate in the same way as the communal type of customary tenure. A2 Resettlement model All land under the A2 model is the large scale ‘Sommercial farming. The goverment issues ‘9B-yearlease to the farm owners. The farmers are charged ‘eatals for the land in their custody. The farm owners iso pay levies, fees and other charges as determined by Poitese omacl where the farm is located. The ci ake required to vila 5-year developmen Fae eovermment before beng allowed to lease Environmental factors fluencing agriculture ‘Agriculture is affected by environmental factors sntal factors include weather and climate environmet 1d diseases. These factors affect cr well as soil, ps and animal production Weather and climate Weather and climate are important determinants of success of failure of agricultural production. Ext conditions harm both plants and animals. Wea affect soil performance, pattems and climate and diseases prevalence. Wind, temperature, sain‘, humidity and sunshine ate some of the climatic f that affect agriculture, Wind It is important to study wind in agriculture becaus affects a number of important agricultural activities nd « processes, | Wind is air in motion or moving air. Wind moves fon an area of high pressure to areas of Jow pressure, Win! 1 speed is measured using an instrument called 2 c anemometer and is measured in knots or kilomett hour. Wind direction is another component of wind is important. Wind direction is shown or measured usinz @ wind vane and the units of measurement are car points. Direction of the wind is associated with rains. ° Winds blowing froma certain direction canbe associated swith bearing rains. Farmers can therefore predict rains ftom wind directions and time their operations such asf fertilizer application | The figure below shows a cup ancmometer and wind n vane fi Gg, 1.3 Wind wane and cup anemometer — EE Discussion on importance of land as a national heritage 1. Discuss the importance of land as a heritage to your community, 2. Discuss how you would advise people in your community on the most appropriate ways of managing land. Discussion on pre-colonial land tenure + Tn groups, outline the advantages and disadvantages of pre-colonial land tenure. . Compare the pre-colonial tenure system with the current tenure systems, Establish how this has improved in efficiency in agricultural production. Pre-colonial land tenure Long ago people used o live anomadic life. They initially relied on gathering fruits and hunting of wild animals for food. People then started taming the wild animals and ‘growing crops, a process known as domestication. When the animals and plants were fully domesticated, people would move from place to place herding their animals as nomads. The most common animals which were kept were cattle, goats and sheep, which provided them with food and clothing. People later abandoned nomadic life in favour of a semi sedentary type of life. Crops were grown under shifting cultivation. Shifting cultivation is a form of agricultural practice whereby people would grow crops but would ‘not stay permanently in one place. Shifting cultivation involved the following stages: * Clearing of the forest and bushes: this involved cutting down of trees and slashing down tall ‘grasses, Burning the cut down bushes and slashed grasses to produce ash which was dug.into the soil to improve soil fertility. * Planting and caring for the crop. ‘* Moving to new land after the land has lost its ‘The main crops that were grown were mostly from the grass family which included finger millet and pearl millet. After staying on apieve of land for about 3-4 years ‘or when the land had lost its fertility, people moved to a ‘new piece of land. Shifting cultivation was done purely 10 provide food for the family, hence it was subsistence Colonial land tenure When the white settlers occupied Zimbabwe between the periods 1890 to 1920, they brought with them a cchange in the land tenure, The British South African ‘Company (BSAC) took land and cattle from indigenous people in Matebeleland and Mashonaland, Land was now occupied on racial grounds and the occupation was as follows: Africans 24.000 000 acres BSAC 48.000 000 acres Individual white settlers 13 000 000 acres Private Companies 9000 000 acres Land allocation as per the 1930 Land Apportionment Act Land was allocated as follows: Native Reserves 29.000 000 acres Native purchase 8.000 000 acres European Areas 49 000 000 acres Unassigned 6000 000 acres Forest 3.000.000 acres ‘The statistics show that white settlers constituted less than 1% of the population but settled and used 45% of the total land of Zimbabwe. This meant that 99% of the native population were squeezed on limited land which ‘was infertile and not fit for agricultural production. Most of the land that was occupied by the white setters was in the high rainfall area and suitable for farming. Effects of colonial rule on land ownership Colonial settlers secured productive land for themselves and their families. This meant thatthe few whites took the bigeest portion of the land and the majority indigenous Zimbabweans were allocated less, infertile land, which was infested with pests and diseases. Most indigenous Zimbabweans were employed by the setlers who now ‘owned large tracts of land as farm workers, earning very Tow wages. The black Zimbabweans were also forced to reduce the number of animals they owned. This was done to disempower them. There was less agricultural ‘move and may even die, Poultry birds are most affected ‘by high temperatures especially broilers. ‘Maleanimals become temporarily infertile, because, high ‘temperatures reduce sperm production and libido, and ‘pregnant female animals tend to lose their pregnancies. ‘Sperm production requites an optimum temperature of about 4 to 6 degrees celcius below body temperature, In some eases, the female animal may go on heat without boeing noticed because of high temperatures. The missed female animal heats result in lost chances of conception. ‘This results in low numbers of pregnancies per year per animal, High temperatures result in reduced animal appetite ‘Animals tend to go off feed because of excessively high {emperatures. Low feeding rate results in animals fling to grow af expected growth rates. This may prolong the production cycle leading to farmers experien production losses. Effects of low temperatures ‘Temperatures of belaw 5°C are not suitable for both plant and animal production. The most effects are felt when temperatures fall to sub-zero degrees Cel Wier freezes at (°C, turning into frost. Most plants are ‘susceptible to frost, for example, tomatoes and tobacco seedlings among others Effects of fost are # It damages bot plants and animals differently depending on their ability o withstand ftost Plans And animals can di from frostbite (frost damage) * Most ffuits are discoloured while potaioes and ‘onions show brown patches. Brown patching on Teaves reduces the photosynthetic area. Reduced photosynthetic areas result. in less glucose being manufactured and the plant is starved of farbobydrates, thereby affecting the resultant Yield. The discolourations on fruits reduces the ‘quality of the fruit which eventually results in the fruits fetching low prices on the market. Plant frost protection ‘When growing crops, itis advisable to grow varieties of -copstiat arenot susceptible frost damage in frost prone a ean be obtained from Agriculture and E Ofer (AREX) or varies that ae suitable 68 area tis aso important w avoid growing ci Te susceptible to frost attack during known frest ‘Frost buries help in diverting cold ait that Accumulate and cause injury t0 ero 'soil management such as mulching, watering a aS ‘manuring helps in reducing frost damage to tubers, roots of crops, Too much air inthe soil encourage jy. ‘Airis a poor conductor of heat, hence the soil ren cold and more susceptible to frost formation. .\, " all conditions that lead to the building up of air soil. Air ereates very good conditions for frost build, ‘When weather conditions are such that frost expected, farmers are encouraged to light up fires «i, meters from the plants, which will provide heat toy, air and possibly avert frost. Sprinkling water on i plant also helps to reduce effects of frost, Farmers a encouraged to camry out farming in greenhouses da winter which reduces the effect of low temperature on plants, Effects of low temperature on animals Low temperatures cause death of animals, particula young animals. Chicks, piglets and calves are 1 prone to death in low temperatures. Animals ea of food with litle growth witnessed the food is mostly used to produce heat to prc animals from cold, hence litle energ to growth and production of products such as milk: Providing the animals with housing units tht wind draughts out and providing the animals with set | sourte like an infra-red lamp will reduce the effects of low temperatures. is apportioned Rainfall Rain is one of the major environmental that affect agriculture in Zimbabwe throi reliability, distribution, eff iis effects of seasonal length is measured using a rain aillimetres per hour factor hit renes, y a nd quality. Rainfall auge and is express intensi device = Pg. 1.5 Rain gauge Agriculture is heavily affected by rainfall when it falls inadequately or in excessive amounts. All plants and animals need water in regular or moderate amounts to ‘survive, Little rainfall causes drought which can kill both plants and animals resulting in low productivity in agriculture. When there is a drought, plants including animal herbage wilt and die. Animals are left without Water to drink and without enough food during drought periods. Animals will die from hunger and thirst. When plants di, there is less soil cover by plants or shed from leaves. This exposes the soil to raindrop splash and wind erosion. On the other hand, excessive wet conditions uc to heavy rain encourages the spread of fungal infections in both plants and animals. Wet conditions encourage the breeding of internal and external parasites offlivestock. Excessive rains cause floods that can wash away plants and animals, resulting in food shortages. Low rainfall can be counteracted by harvesting rain and using the harvested water to irrigate agricultural crops and supplying enimals with drinking water to avert death of both animals and crops. Rain water harvesting can be done through dam construction and use of gutters fitted 40 roof tops that feed rain water to resevoirs. Humidity Humidity refers to the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, Humidity is measured using an instrument called hygrometer and it is measured as a percentage. A ‘hygrometerismade up of a wet and dry bulb thermometer illustrated in the diagram below. ieee temperature depression Pg. 1.6.A wet and dry bulb thermometer (aygrometer) Effects of humidity on crops Damp conditions encourage the breeding of fungal spores. The fungal spores can be transported from ne plant to the other causing a rapid spread of fungal infections in both plants and animals. The spread of fungal diseases can be controlled through growing Varieties of crops that are r. tant to fungal infections, Optimum spacing also allows adequate air movement Within the field, enabling moist air to be removed from plant surfaces thus reducing incidence of fungal infection. If all fails, farmers are encouraged to spray the affected area with a fungicide Effects of humidity on plants High humidity is good in that it reduces the rate of water loss through evapotranspiration and evaporation from plant surface and soil surfaces, respectively. On the other hand, low humidity increases the rate of water loss from plant and soil surfaces. This results in accelerated drying of crops resulting in poor grades of yield. High humidity can also result in the rotting of erops at harvesting and delayed moisture loss from the harvest. Delayed moisture loss translates to a delay in marketing. An extra cost is incurred when the harvest has to be dried artificially, using driers Hot and humid conditions are not favourable to animal production foot rot and pneumonia, among others. High humidity encourages the breeding of external parasites which affect the animal by introducing a host of pathogens into the animal. The animal consequeatly suffers from a host of diseases. Animals are affected by diseases such as Light is 4 measure of tolal solar energy delivered by sunlight to a given location. It is important to discuss sunshine as itis responsible for the release of sunlight ‘energy. Sunshine is a measure of the energy delivered by sunlight on a particular location over a period of time, It is expressed in hours per day. Sunshine is measured by an instrument called sunshine recorder. The most commonly used being a Campbel illustrated bellow. ‘Fig. 1.7 Campbell Stokes recorder (Sunshine recorder) Ds Sunshine duration is important in agriculture because it greatly influences agricultural activities. Sunshine duration is a measure of day length (photoperiod), wd 4s crop production in that it governs ee ec or plant is exposed to light energy which is important for the process of photosynthesis Photosynthesis manufactures food for the plant consequently affecting the production of flowers and ‘eventually plant yield. Some plants require Jong hours of exposure to daylight in order to produce flowers and eventually good yields, while others require short hours ‘of exposure to daylight in order to produce good yield. ‘Sunshine is also important in the flowering of trees and curing of the fruits. Sunlight intensity also influences the process of transpiration, because, the opening of ‘stomatal pores which releases water to the atmosphere is ‘controlled by amount of sunlight. ‘Animals produce products depending on the number of hours they are exposed to light, for example, | produce eggs when they are exposed to light energy for periods not less than 12 hours. Ifthe length of the day is Jess than 12 hours, it is encouraged to provide the light ‘antfcially o enbance production. Soil Soil is a complex mixture of rock minerals, organic matter, air and water. I is a home for many soil living ‘organisms that are important to agriculture. The importance of soil ‘© The soil provides nutrients to crop. The nutricats are absorbed by the plant roots buried in the soil ‘© It provides air and water for healthy plant growth, ‘© It supports plants by acting as a medium on which plants are anchored through the roots, * The sol isthe growing medium that provides food to animals that eat plants which grov on the soil ‘The type of soil is important in deciding which crops {to grow. Most crops require fertile loam soils. Different ‘tops grow well in different soils. The soil texture (fineness or coarseness) and structure (soil particle ‘rangement also needs to be considered when growing green fleshy plants eaten by animals. End of chapter questions 1. Select a form of land use from the following: A. economies B. marketing CC. forestry D. weeding 2. Land tenure refers to: ‘A. buying of land B. selling of land C. ownership of land D. discovery of land 3. Which land tenure system has a tenant? A. ficehold B. leasehold C. resettlement D. communal 4. Which resettlement model has a 99-year lease? rl |b Withcbommenta factor was seo dvde Zimbabwe into natural ei? Pe keesiity B. wind Co seeahe D. rainfall 6. Which region is diversified? Ai cy 7. Plants can be protected from frost by: A, constructing wind barriers ‘burning fires C. digging wells a 8 Wind speed is measured using 3: A. cup anemometer C. hygrometer : transplants? inimise the effects of temperature on young, 9 How cana fame minnie lets of tere ‘D. manuring B, thermometer D, barometer ern sey Production of drought tolerant crops sn Mean aeaual PEA | emivinensive livestock produc reson | of 122-C Lert fodder feed. Ret ceat | 1 erops grown are mai ae Mopar -1S:C {+ Comnnon

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