See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/305920968

The use of desalination concentrate as a potential substrate for microalgae

cultivation in Brazil

Article  in  Algal Research · August 2016

DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.08.003

CITATIONS READS

5 129

3 authors, including:

Ângelo Paggi Matos Elisa Helena Siegel Moecke

Federal University of Santa Catarina Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina (Unisul)
28 PUBLICATIONS   148 CITATIONS    32 PUBLICATIONS   187 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Chemical Composition of Microalgae View project

Non-thermal plasma application on algal biomass View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Ângelo Paggi Matos on 12 October 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

ALGAL-00657; No of Pages 4
Algal Research xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Algal Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/algal

The use of desalination concentrate as a potential substrate for

microalgae cultivation in Brazil
Ângelo P. Matos ⁎, Elisa H.S. Moecke, Ernani S. Sant'Anna
Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Av. Admar Gonzaga 1346, Itacorubi, 88034-001 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Desalination concentrate produced by inland desalination plants can potentially provide water and nutrients for
Received 31 March 2016 algal growth. Several studies have been conducted in Brazil to explore the use of desalination concentrate as an
Received in revised form 22 June 2016 alternative medium for microalgae cultivation. This review describes examples of microalgae cultured in desali-
Accepted 1 August 2016
nation concentrate and evaluates the effects of desalination concentrate on algal biomass productivity, lipid con-
Available online xxxx
tent, lipid productivity, protein, and fatty acids composition.
Keywords:
© 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Microalgae
Inland desalination wastewater
Biomass composition
Lipid productivity
Biofuels

1. Introduction
Microalgae are promising sources of biomass, bioproducts, and bio-
fuel and have become an extensive area of research [1–4]. One of the ad-
vantages of some microalgae species is their high content of lipids and
the composition of their fatty acids, mainly medium-chain carbon (C16
and C18), triacylglycerols (TAG), which can be chemically converted
into biodiesel [5]. The majority of commercially available biofuels in
Brazil are currently bioethanol derived from sugar cane and biodiesel
derived from oil crops, including soybean [6]. It has been proposed to
derive biofuels from the cultivation of algae, because of their ability to
grow well in marginal water resources and in non-agricultural land,
and because of their greater photosynthetic efficiency compared with
land plants. In addition, using algae cultures as a source for biofuels
will reduce the need to compete with resources utilized in conventional
agriculture [2,3].
Several microalgae species can effectively grow in wastewater con-
ditions through their ability to utilize abundant organic carbon and in-
organic N and P [7]. Most of the research on algal wastewater
treatment has come from the analysis of laboratory-based small scale
and pilot pond-scale cultures [8]. A wide range of studies have analyzed
the growth of microalgae under a variety of wastewater conditions, in
particular growth in multiple municipal, industrial and agricultural
wastewaters [2,9,10]. These studies have mainly been focused on eval-
uating the ability of algae to remove N and P, and in some instances
metals, from wastewater. In Brazil, desalination concentrate (DC) as a
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: matos.a@posgrad.ufsc.br, angelosotam@gmail.com (Â.P. Matos).
source of water and nutrients is of special interest for utilizing and
recycling inland desalination wastewater, which is loaded with microel-
ements useful for algal biomass production [11]. Experimental studies
on the use of DC as an alternative medium for microalgae, particularly
studies that also assess variables that determine maximal algal biomass
production and biochemical composition, will have significant benefits
for the evaluation of wastewater-grown microalgae in Brazil.
This mini-review summarizes the main results of studies in Brazil on
the use of DC as an alternative medium for microalgae cultivation with a
focus on the physicochemical characteristics of DC, the impact of this
medium on algal growth, biomass productivity, and biochemical com-
position (protein, lipids and fatty acids composition) are discussed. In
addition, the effects of N/P ratio and salinity parameters in the optimum
DC concentration for three microalgae species (Chlorella vulgaris, Spiru-
lina (Arthrospira) platensis and Nannochloropsis gaditana) are also
discussed.
2. Combining desalination concentrate and microalgae cultivation
2.1. Desalination of brackish groundwater in Brazil
South America has huge natural inland salts deposits in arid zones. In
Brazil, inland deposits of brackish waters are common in the Northeast
of Brazil that has a semi-arid climate and recurrent droughts. This part
of Brazil is an exceptional example of inland desalination and brine
management, partially because of a massive governmental program
launched in 2004 named ‘Água Doce’ (Fresh Water) that has benefitted
150,000 inhabitants of the semiarid region of Brazil [12].

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2016.08.003
2211-9264/© 2016 Published by Elsevier B.V.

Please cite this article as: Â.P. Matos, et al., The use of desalination concentrate as a potential substrate for microalgae cultivation in Brazil, Algal
Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2016.08.003
2 Â.P. Matos et al. / Algal Research xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Desalination through reverse osmosis is the most suitable solution to
provide water supply in the semiarid region of Brazil. It is estimated that
there are 1500 desalination installations in this part of Brazil [13]. All de-
salination technologies produce a stream of fresh water and a highly
concentrated stream of minerals and contaminants [13,14]. In the semi-
arid region of Brazil, DC from inland desalination of brackish groundwa-
ter is mainly used for aquaculture (fish farming), for hydroponic and soil
cultivation (lettuce, tomatoes, beetroot, cotton and sunflower) and for
direct irrigation of halophyte forage shrubs (Atriplex nummularia) [12,
15,16]. The fact that part of the DC flow can be used for algaculture is
an additional and promising opportunity to exploit the valuable compo-
nents in desalination wastewater.
It is well known that microalgal growth is influenced by environ-
mental parameters, such as salinity [17]. A change in salinity in algal cul-
tivation can have positive effect on the metabolism of algae [18],
especially on important cell membrane constituents, such as lipids and
fatty acids [19]. The salt concentration influences algae via effects on os-
motic stress, salt stress, and cellular ionic ratios [20]. Each microalgal
strain grows optimally at a specific salinity, but some microalgae can
take advantage of different salinities. For example, the halophilic
chlorophyte genus Dunaliella viridis can grow at low (0.3 M NaCl) and
at high (2.3 M NaCl) salinity [18].
2.2. Desalination concentrate and algal cultivation
Desalination concentrate is rich in inorganic minerals, such as Cl−,
Na+ and Ca2+, contains other nutrients (N and P) and trace elements
necessary for microalgae growth, including Si, K+, Mg+ 2, Fe+3, and
electrical conductivity normally ranges from 4.0 to 5.5 mS cm− 1
(Table 1). Since it is known that DC contains abundant amounts of min-
eral salts, DC has been tested for stimulating microalgae growth [11,21,
22]. To be able to assess the applicability of DC as a culture medium for
algal cultivation, the desalination wastewater needs to be mixed with a
conventional medium, since some microalgae cannot grow in DC due to
the high mineral salts strength. For example, cultivation of freshwater
Chlorella vulgaris, which cannot grow normally in DC, was performed
in dilutions of 25%, 35%, 45% and 55% DC mixed with Bold Basal Medium
(BBM) [22]. DC concentrations below 25% had no effect on C. vulgaris
growth compared to cultivation in control medium (BBM), both yield-
ing a maximum biomass concentration of 0.40 g L−1. However, incubat-
ing C. vulgaris with the higher DC concentrations of 35–55%
(conductivities between 2.0 and 2.8 mS cm−1) resulted in growth-salt
stress, and a proportional decrease in biomass yield (to 0.27 and
0.13 g L−1). Thus, the optimal DC concentration for C. vulgaris growth
is 25% (~1.6 mS cm−1) and at higher concentrations growth is reduced,
probably due to the high Na+ and Cl− concentrations in DC. In addition,
small quantities of ammonia and sulphate have been detected in DC that
may affect C. vulgaris growth, while DC can contain resides of pretreat-
ment and cleaning chemicals, and their reaction byproducts which
may also have adverse affects on aquatic organisms [23].
When DC was tested in the same way mixed with Paolettic Synthetic
Medium as an alternative culture medium to grow Spirulina platensis, it
was found that the optimal DC concentration for S. platensis growth is
50% DC (~ 2.5 mS cm− 1) [21]. On the other hand, marine
Nannochloropsis gaditana performed well when exposed to a high DC
concentration of 75% (~8.0 mS cm−1) [11], at which lipid productivity
(12.10 mg L−1 day−1) was higher than lipid productivity of C. vulgaris
(7.37 mg L−1 day−1) and S. platensis (6.97 mg L−1 day−1). These exam-
ples of the influence of DC on algal growth suggest that DC is a good me-
dium for marine algae strains such as N. gaditana, but that the ionic
concentration of DC is too high for the cultivation of the freshwater C.
vulgaris and S. platensis. The results of studies on the optimal DC concen-
tration for cultivation of three microalgae species are summarized in
Table 2.
Different salinities in terms of NaCl concentration in the optimum
DC medium for three algae species have been reported in the literature,
for C. vulgaris (0.01 M NaCl) [22], S. platensis (0.05 M NaCl) [21] and N.
gaditana (0.17 M NaCl) [11]. Among the three microalgae species tested
in optimum DC concentration, marine N. gaditana has better ability to
cope with osmotic changes and alterations in the salt ratios than fresh-
water algae species, because it has the capability to tolerate a broader
range of DC-salinities with a satisfactory growth. For example, when
marine N. gaditana was cultured in F/2-seawater medium (0.5 M
NaCl) and induced to a hypotonic salinity, i.e. to brackish DC medium
(0.17 M NaCl), biomass concentration and lipids enhanced from 0.71
to 0.96 g L−1 and 4.7 to 12.6%, respectively. These results suggest that
marine N. gaditana production for lipids work well when exposed to
suboptimal salinity.
Taking into consideration that microalgae generally consume the
majority of the nutrients, notably N and P, in the growth medium,
Park et al. [8] reported that in wastewaters used for algae cultivation
the N:P ratio ranges from 4:1 to almost 40:1. Matos et al. [11] reported
an initial N:P ratio for marine N. gaditana cultivation of 18:1
(415.0 mg N/22.5 mg P), which is marginally higher than the theoretical
N:P ratio of 16:1 (7.3 g N/1.0 g P) required for the growth of algae, based
on the assumption that algal biomass has the typical composition
C106H108O45N16P [9,24]. In addition, for N. gaditana growth the N:P
ratio in DC (18:1) was almost 3-fold higher than the N:P ratios in the
DC-based culture medium for the freshwater species C. vulgaris (5:1)
and S. platensis (7:1) [21,25 (Table 2)]. Given the effect of N:P ratios
on algae growth, we conclude that a culture medium based on DC is
more suitable for marine algae than freshwater algae strains.
3. Effect of desalination concentrate on algal biomass composition

Table 1 3.1. Effect of desalination concentrate on protein content

Typical compositions of groundwater and desalination concentrate (DC) obtained from
the Community of Uruçu (semiarid region of Paraíba state, Brazil).
Various studies have measured the amount of protein in Chlorella sp.
Parameters Brackish groundwater DC and C. vulgaris in culture media based on 25% DC under batch, semi-
pH 7.3 ± 0.5 8.5 ± 0.3
Electrical conductivity (EC, mS cm−1) 3.0 ± 0.8 4.5 ± 1.0
Salinity (M NaCl) ~0.02 ~0.04 Table 2
TDS (mg L−1) 1823.8 ± 94 2190.5 ± 78 Optimal physicochemical parameters of culture media based on desalination concentra-
Cl (mg L−1) 720.7 ± 35 1691.3 ± 114 tion for three different algae species.
Na (mg L−1) 464.0 ± 66 987.5 ± 110
C. vulgaris S. platensis N. gaditana
CaCO3 (mg L−1) 506.5 ± 97 985.2 ± 112
Ca (mg L−1) 74.0 ± 10 126.5 ± 21 DC proportion (%) 25 50 75
Mg (mg L−1) 77.2 ± 21 80.7 ± 10 Culture medium BBM (fresh water) Paoletti (fresh water) F/2 (seawater)
SiO2 (mg L−1) 48.2 ± 11 82.4 ± 24 EC (mS cm−1) 1.0–2.2 2.0–3.2 8.0–10.0
SO2−
4 (mg L−1) 15.6 ± 0.6 138.0 ± 14 NaCl (g L−1) 0.66 3.21 10.45
K (mg L−1) 7.0 ± 2 47.0 ± 8 Salinity (M NaCl) 0.01 0.05 0.17
NO− 3 - N (mg L
−1
) 8.2 ± 0.1 30.0 ± 5 pH 8.1–9.0 9.4–10.5 8.0–9.0
−1
NH+ 4 (mg L ) 0.59 ± 0.3 1.35 ± 0.7 N:P ratio 5:1 7:1 18:1
3− −1
PO4 - P (mg L ) 0.20 ± 0.1 0.70 ± 0.3 Reference Matos et al. [22] Volkmann et al. [21] Matos et al. [11]
Fe (mg L−1) 0.05 ± 0.1 0.13 ± 0.1
DC = desalination concentrate, EC = electrical conductivity.

Please cite this article as: Â.P. Matos, et al., The use of desalination concentrate as a potential substrate for microalgae cultivation in Brazil, Algal
Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2016.08.003
 Â.P. Matos et al. / Algal Research xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
batch and continuous culture conditions and found that the protein con-
tent ranged from 45.3% to 51.0% dry matter [22,25,26]. In one study [22],
the authors observed that intracellular protein content of C. vulgaris de-
creased from 51.6% to 15.7% when the DC concentration was increased
in the culture medium from 25% (1.2 mS cm− 1) to 55% DC
(3.5 mS cm−1). The reduced protein content in Chlorella cultures at
high DC concentrations is most likely due to a redirection of available
energy towards processes such as osmoregulation rather than towards
the synthesis of proteins [27,28].
There is significant interest in using of DC to cultivate Spirulina
platensis for agricultural purposes aimed at the production of algal bio-
mass with high protein content for human food and animal feed [12].
Studies carried out in photobioreactors with S. platensis cultured in op-
timal 50% DC, showed a protein content of 49.6% which is comparable to
the protein content (56.1%) obtained in cultures of S. platensis devel-
oped in conventional Zarrouk medium [29]. Another advantage of the
optimal DC concentration in culture media for S. platensis is that all es-
sential amino acids required for human health were found in higher
concentrations than required by the Food and Agriculture Organization,
except lysine and tryptophan [29].
With regard to the protein content in marine N. gaditana, recent
studies showed that when N. gaditana is cultured in conventional
media, the protein content is 41.6% and the lipid content is 4.9%, but
when grown in optimal 75% DC medium, the protein and lipid contents
were 27.0% and 12.6%, respectively [11]. Thus, the protein content de-
creased 1.5-fold, while the lipid content increased 2.5-fold compared
to cultivation in a conventional medium. The shift from protein produc-
tion to accumulation of lipids is a typical response of algae to stress con-
ditions, such as nutrient depletion or salt-osmotic stress (e.g. [27,30]).
3.2. Effect of desalination concentrate on lipid content and fatty acids
composition
A number of recent laboratory-based studies have examined the ef-
fects of DC on the lipid content of microalgae, grown either in small
batches and semi-continuous cultures or in continuous
photobioreactors [11,21,22]. Reasonable lipid accumulation was report-
ed in DC-grown microalgae, ranging from low (b 10% dry matter) to
moderate (15–20% dry matter) lipid content, which in some cases trans-
lated to a relatively high lipid productivity when coupled to high bio-
mass productivity [11]. Lipid productivities of C. vulgaris, S. platensis,
and N. gaditana cultured in optimal DC concentration are shown in
Table 3. A recent study [11] found that the lipid content in N. gaditana
cells increased from 5.9% to 12.6% dry matter when the DC concentra-
tion increases from 25% to 75% DC in the culture medium. More impor-
tantly, at higher DC concentrations N. gaditana tends to synthesize more
saturated fatty acids (SFAs, C14:0 and C16:0) accompanied with a lower
production of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs, C18:2, C18:3 and
C20:5 ɷ3). For example, increasing the DC concentration from 0% (con-
trol test) to 100% DC in the culture medium for N. gaditana, the percent-
age of palmitic acid (C16:0) increased from 29.4% to 53.4%, and the
percentage of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5 ɷ3) dropped from
12.2% to 0.2% of the total fatty acids. Functionally, increased intracellular
lipid content and higher SFAs in N. gaditana can be explained by an
adaptive osmoregulatory mechanism to cope with rapid or gradual
Table 3
Biomass concentration and lipid productivity of microalgae grown in different proportion
of desalination concentrate (DC).
Biomass Lipid prod.
Species DC (%) Lipid (%) Reference
(g L−1) (mg L−1 day−1)
C. vulgaris 25 0.59 ± 0.12 12.5 ± 0.2 7.37 ± 0.7 [22]
S. platensis 50 1.55 ± 0.10 4.5 ± 0.3 6.97 ± 0.8 [21]a
N. gaditana 75 0.96 ± 0.15 12.6 ± 0.5 12.10 ± 0.5 [11]
a
Modified Volkmann et al. [21].
Please cite this article as: Â.P. Matos, et al., The use of desalination concentrate as a potential substrate for microalgae cultivation in Brazil, Algal
Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2016.08.003
3
changes in salinity that are associated with algae-cell-membrane per-
meability [19].
The fatty acid profile of C. vulgaris, cultivated at optimal 25% DC in
batch and continuous autotrophic cultures [22,26], showed that the
most abundant fatty acids were (in percentage of the total fatty acids
content) α-linolenic acid (C18:3 ɷ3, 18.0–24.6%), palmitic acid (C16:0,
17.3–20.0%) and linoleic acid (C18:2 ɷ6, 9.2–15.5%). C. vulgaris cultured
in 25% DC supplemented with glucose (2.0 g L−1) under mixotrophic
and heterotrophic conditions [31], contained more oleic acid (C18:1,
31.5–35.6%) than cultures developed under autotrophic mode [22],
which is advantageous for biodiesel production [4,32]. Volkmann et al.
[21] reported that the main constituents of the lipids extracted from S.
platensis cultivation in 50% DC under photoautotrophic condition,
were palmitic acid (C16:0, 36.1%), oleic acid (C18:1, 20%) and γ-
linolenic acid (C18:3 ɷ3, ~14.0%). When marine N. gaditana was culti-
vated in optimum 75% DC medium under two-stage photoautotro-
phic-mixotrophic mode utilizing either glucose (1.0 g L−1) or glycerol
(1.0 mL L−1), C16:0 was the most abundant fatty acid found, ranging
from 50.5% to 56.8% of the total fatty acids [11]. In general, the studies
on the use of optimal DC as an alternative culture medium find that
freshwater and marine microalgae are virtually devoid of long-chain
fatty acids (e.g. C20 and C22) and show a trend towards the increased for-
mation of medium-chain (C16 and C18) fatty acid methyl esters, which is
an ideal lipid source for biodiesel production [4,32].
3.3. Reuse of desalination concentrate in microalgal cultivation
Water recycling in microalgae cultivation is desirable not only to re-
duce the water demand, but also to improve the economic feasibility of
algal biofuels that will save nutrients and energy [33–35]. An analysis of
the reuse of the medium with the optimum DC concentration (75% DC)
in successive N. gaditana cultivation cycles [11] found that the medium
could support three successive cultivation cycles of N. gaditana (each
cycle involved 7 days of cultivation, 21 days in total). It was also ob-
served that biomass productivity of N. gaditana is directly correlated
with lipid productivity, but does not necessarily correlate with lipid
content. For example, biomass (151 mg L− 1 day− 1) and lipid
(14.3 mg L−1 day−1) productivities were higher in the first cultivation
cycle (7 days of cultivation). The second cultivation cycle presented
lipid content (13.6%) higher than the first cultivation cycle (9.5%)
while the highest lipid content (14.4%) was reached in the third cultiva-
tion cycle. In the first cultivation cycle, N. gaditana cells consumed 60%
of the total N (initial concentration 415 mg L−1) and 71.1% of the total
P (initial concentration 22.5 mg L−1) available in the culture medium.
After three cultivation cycles N. gaditana cells had consumed 80% and
86%, of total N and total P, respectively. Because of N and P were totally
depleted over the course of the cultivation cycles, the lipid content
tends to increase with consecutive reuses of the recycled 75% DC medi-
um. A similar pattern was reported by Matos et al. [25] in studies on the
algal biomass productivity and lipid content of Chlorella sp. in the
recycled medium with an optimal DC concentration of 25%. These find-
ings are in good agreement with reports by Griffiths and Harrison [1],
who also found that high lipid content in microalgae does not necessar-
ily represent high lipid productivity. Lipid content alone is therefore not
a good indicator of the suitability of microalgae for biodiesel production.
In order to exploit water recycling to maximize algal biomass, lipid con-
tent and lipid productivity, we need to better understand the relation-
ship between these three parameters.
4. Concluding remarks and future directions
In our recent study on extracting lipids from dried Chlorella sp. cul-
tured in optimal 25% DC [36], we applied a single pre-treatment step
(ultrasonication) and compared the performance of dynamic hexane
extraction (using a Soxhlet apparatus) with that of dynamic Supercriti-
cal-CO2 (SCCO2) extraction. The efficiency of microalgal lipid extraction
4 Â.P. Matos et al. / Algal Research xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
was higher using Soxhlet (23.3% dry matter) than SCCO2 extraction
(4.5% dry matter). In terms of fatty acid composition, crude lipids ex-
tracted from Chlorella sp. by the Soxhlet method contained a substan-
tially higher quantity of C16:0 than the corresponding crude lipids
extracted by SCCO2. For the optimal use of DC for microalgal biofuel pro-
duction, the entire process, including the efficacy microalgal lipid ex-
traction, needs to be further investigated.
Most studies on the use of DC as a potential substrate for microalgae
cultivation in Brazil have analyzed microalgal biomass and lipid and
protein contents under laboratory conditions following microalgae cul-
tivation in batch culture flasks or photobioreactors. The microalgae
strains (C. vulgaris, S. platensis and N. gaditana) are able to grow in DC,
but require different optimum DC concentrations. In general, when
algae are exposed to optimum DC concentration, which is a “stress” con-
dition, algae decrease the production of protein and increase the syn-
thesis of intracellular lipids and saturated fatty acids. We suggest that
DC represents a good medium for marine N. gaditana, because it has
the ability to tolerate high extent of DC concentration. Nevertheless, if
100% DC is used as the culture medium for N. gaditana, algae cannot
maintain a satisfactory growth with only the mineral composition pre-
sented in DC. As such, DC needs to be supplemented or mixed with con-
ventional media.
While considerable knowledge has been gained under laboratory
conditions that have demonstrated the potential of DC as a promising
alternative culture medium, the use of DC for algal mass cultivation in
semiarid regions of Brazil needs to be validated in further investigations.
This region of Brazil has exceptional qualities to produce algae in open
raceway ponds on a pilot-scale due to its ample solar irradiance, low
seasonal variation, extensive arid lands, and abundant brackish ground-
water where algae production is proposed. According to Rogers et al.
[37], utilizing saline or brackish water will be necessary for the sustain-
able growth of algae in New Mexico, United States. Likewise, efforts
must focus on growing algae in raceway ponds, especially using avail-
able DC in the semiarid region of Brazil. Clearly, technoeconomic analy-
ses must be conducted in order to address the major cost effectiveness
needed to produce biofuel from algae in Brazil.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento
Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq/Brazil) under project number 574.716/
2008-4. AP Matos is grateful to CAPES-Brazil for providing a doctoral
scholarship. The authors wish to thank Dr. Hans Rollema for editorial
help and comments on the manuscript.
References
[1] M.J. Griffiths, S.L. Harrison, Lipid productivity as a key characteristics for choosing
algal species for biodiesel production, J. Appl. Phycol. 21 (2009) 493–507.
[2] S.M. Henkanatte-Gedera, T. Selvaratnam, N. Caskan, N. Nirmalakhandan, W.V.
Voorhies, P.J. Lammers, Algal-based, single-step treatment of urban wastewater,
Bioresour. Technol. 189 (2015) 273–278.
[3] P. Varshney, P. Mikulic, A. Vonshak, J. Beardall, P.P. Wangikar, Extremophilic micro-
algae and their potential contribution in biotechnology, Bioresour. Technol. 184
(2015) 363–372.
[4] R. Halim, M.K. Danquah, P.A. Webley, Extraction of oil from microalgae for biodiesel
production: a review, Biotechnol. Adv. 30 (2012) 709–732.
[5] R. Halim, P.A. Webley, G.J.O. Martin, The CIDES process: fractionation of concentrat-
ed microalgal paste for co-production of biofuel, nutraceuticals, and high-grade pro-
tein feed, Algal Res. (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2015.09.018.
[6] A.C.A. Costa, N.P. Junior, D.A.G. Aranda, The situation of biofuels in Brazil: new gen-
eration technologies, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 14 (2010) 3041–3049.
[7] J.K. Pittman, A.P. Dean, O. Osudenko, The potential of sustainable algal biofuel pro-
duction using wastewater resources, Bioresour. Technol. 102 (2011) 17–25.
[8] J.B.K. Park, R.J. Craggs, A.N. Shilton, Wastewater treatment high rate algal ponds for
biofuel production, Bioresour. Technol. 102 (2011) 35–42.
[9] R.J. Craggs, S. Heubeck, T.J. Lundquist, J.R. Benemann, Algal biofuels from wastewater
treatment high rate algal ponds, Water Sci. Technol. 63 (2011) 660–665.
Please cite this article as: Â.P. Matos, et al., The use of desalination concentrate as a potential substrate for microalgae cultivation in Brazil, Algal
Res. (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.algal.2016.08.003
View publication stats
[10] C. Ledda, G.I. Romero Villegas, F. Adani, F.G. Acién Fernández, E. Molina Grima, Uti-
lization of centrate of wastewater treatment for the outdoor production of
Nannochlorospsis gaditana biomass at pilot-scale, Algal Res. 12 (2015) 17–25.
[11] A.P. Matos, R. Feller, E.H.S. Moecke, E.S. Sant'Anna, Biomass, lipid productivities and
fatty acids composition of marine Nannochloropsis gaditana cultured in desalination
concentrate, Bioresour. Technol. 197 (2015) 48–55.
[12] A.S. Sánchez, I.B.R. Nogueira, R.A. Kalid, Uses of the reject brine from inland desali-
nation for fish farming, Spirulina cultivation, and irrigation of forage shrub and
crops, Desalination 364 (2015) 96–107.
[13] J.S. Menezes, V.P. Campos, T.A.C. Costa, Desalination of brackish water for household
drinking water consumption using typical plants seeds of semiarid regions, Desali-
nation 281 (2011) 271–277.
[14] L.F. Greenlee, D.F. Lawler, B.D. Freeman, B. Marrot, P. Moulin, Reverse osmosis desa-
lination: water sources, technology, and today's challenges, Water Res. 43 (2009)
2317–2348.
[15] T.M. Soares, I.J.O. Silva, S.N. Duarte, E.E.F. Silva, Destinação de águas residuárias
provenientes do processo de dessalinização por osmose reversa, Rev. Bras. Eng.
Agric. Amb. 10 (2006) 730–737.
[16] N.S. Dias, R.B. Lira, R.F. Brito, O.N.S. Neto, M.F. Neto, A.M. Oliveira, Produção de melão
rendilhado em sistema hidropônico com rejeito de dessalinização de água em
solução nutritiva, Rev. Bras. Eng. Agric. Amb. 14 (2010) 755–761.
[17] M.L. Bartley, W.J. Boeing, A.A. Corcoran, F.O. Holguin, T. Schaub, Effects of salinity on
growth and lipid accumulation of biofuel microalga Nannochloropsis salina invading
organisms, Biomass Bioenergy 54 (2013) 83–88.
[18] R.W. Davis, B.J. Carvalho, H.D.T. Jones, S. Singh, The role of photo-osmotic adaptation
in semi-continuous culture and lipid particle release from Dunaliella viridis, J. Appl.
Phycol. 27 (2015) 109–123.
[19] M. Takagi, Y.T. Karseno, Effect of salt concentration on intracellular accumulation of
lipids and triacylgliceride in marine microalgae Dunaliella cells, J. Biosc. Bioenerg.
101 (2006) 223–226.
[20] K. Kumar, S.K. Mishra, A. Shrivastav, M.S. Park, J.W. Yang, Recent trends in the mass
cultivation of algae in raceway ponds, Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 51 (2015) 875–885.
[21] H. Volkmann, U. Imianovsky, E.B. Furlong, J.L.B. Oliveira, E.S. Sant'Anna, Influence of
desalinator wastewater for the cultivation of Arthrospira platensis. Fatty acids profile,
Grasas Aceites 58 (2007) 396–401.
[22] A.P. Matos, W.B. Ferreira, R.O.C. Torres, L.R.I. Morioka, M.H.M. Canella, J. Rotta, T.
Silva, E.H.S. Moecke, E.S. Sant'Anna, Optimization of biomass production of Chlorella
vulgaris grown in desalination concentrate, J. Appl. Phycol. 27 (2014) 1473–1483.
[23] S. Lattemann, T. Hopner, Environmental impact and impact assessment of seawater
desalination, Desalination 220 (2008) 1–15.
[24] A.C. Redfield, The biological control of chemical factors in the environment, Am. Sci.
46 (1958) 205–221.
[25] A.P. Matos, L.R.I. Morioka, E.S. Sant'Anna, K.B. França, Teores de proteínas e lipídeos
de Chlorella sp. cultivada em concentrado de dessalinização residual, Ciênc. Rural,
45, 2015 364–370.
[26] A.P. Matos, R.O.C. Torres, L.R.I. Morioka, E.H.S. Moecke, K.B. França, E.S. Sant'Anna,
Growing Chlorella vulgaris in photobioreactor by continuous process using concen-
trated desalination: Effect of dilution rate on biochemical composition, Int. J.
Chem. Eng. (2014) (ID 310285, 6p).
[27] R.J. Lawton, R. de Nys, M.E. Magnusson, N.A. Paul, The effect of salinity on the bio-
mass productivity, protein and lipid composition of a freshwater macroalga, Algal
Res. 12 (2015) 213–220.
[28] A. Katz, P. Waridel, A. Shevchenko, U. Pick, Salt-induced changes in the plasma
membrane proteome of the halotolerant alga Dunaliella salina as revealed by blue
native gel electrophoresis and nano-LC-MS/MS analysis, Mol. Cell. Proteomics 6
(2007) 1459–1472.
[29] H. Volkmann, U. Imianovsky, J.L.B. Oliveira, E.S. Sant'Anna, Cultivation of Arthrospira
(Spirulina) platensis in desalinator wastewater and salinated synthetic medium:
protein content and amino-acid profile, Braz. J. Microbiol. 39 (2008) 98–101.
[30] A. Karemore, R. Pal, R. Sen, Strategic enhancement of algal biomass and lipid in
Chlorococcum infusionum as bioenergy feedstock, Algal Res. 2 (2013) 113–121.
[31] A.P. Matos, T. Silva, L.R.I. Morioka, J. Rotta, E.H.S. Moecke, E.S. Sant'Anna, Heterotro-
phic/mixotrophic/autotrophic cultivation of Chlorella vulgaris on desalination con-
centrate, Rev. Fac. Nac. Agron. 64 (2014) 955–957.
[32] S.Y. Chiu, C.Y. Kao, T.Y. Chen, Y.B. Chang, C.M. Kuo, C.S. Lin, Cultivation of microalgal
Chlorella for biomass and lipid production using wastewater as nutrient resource,
Bioresour. Technol. 184 (2015) 179–189.
[33] W. Farroq, W.I. Suh, M.S. Park, J.W. Yang, Water use and its recycling in microalgae
cultivation for biofuel application, Bioresour. Technol. 184 (2015) 73–81.
[34] O. Depraetere, G. Pierre, W. Noppe, D. Vandamme, I. Foubert, P. Michaud, K.
Muylaert, Influence of culture medium recycling on the performance of Arthrospira
platensis cultures, Algal Res. 10 (2015) 48–54.
[35] W. Farooq, M. Moon, B.G. Ryu, W.I. Suh, A. Shrivastav, M.S. Park, S.K. Mishra, J.W.
Yang, Effect of harvesting methods on the reusability of water for cultivation of
Chlorella vulgaris, its lipid productivity and biodiesel quality, Algal Res. 8 (2015) 1–7.
[36] L.R.I. Morioka, A.P. Matos, G. Olivo, E.R. Sant'Anna, Floculação de Chlorella sp.
produzida em concentrado de dessalinização e estudo de método de extração de
lipídeos intracelulares, Quim Nova 37 (2014) 44–49.
[37] J.N. Rogers, J.N. Rosenberg, B.J. Guzman, V.H. Oh, L.E. Mimbela, A. Ghassemi, M.J.
Betenbaugh, G.A. Oyler, M.D. Donohue, A critical analysis of paddlewheel-driven
raceway ponds for algal biofuel production at commercial scales, Algal Res. 4
(2014) 76–88.