THE SEXUAL SELF
century (1483-1546) Martin Luther, John Calvin
Sexual selfhood
 is defined as how one thinks about
himself or herself as a sexual individual.
 Human sexuality is a topic that just like
beauty is culturally diverse. This should
be understood in varied ways.
1. Historical
In Ancient Greece, it is the male that assumes
the dominant role.
The male symbol, the penis, was viewed as the
symbol of fertility and how the male body was
structured and was greatly admired.
Their wives were considered as objects to be
possessed just like property.
Women, on the other hand, were forbidden to
own property and had no legal and only
function was to bear children.
The Greek word for woman is “gyne” means –
bearer of children.
In the Middle Ages (476-1450), bore witness to
the strong influence of church particularly in
matters of sexuality.
The church decreed that all sexual acts that do
not lead to procreation were considered evil.
Women were labelled as either temptress (like
Eve) or a woman of virtue (like Virgin Mary).
In the protestant reformation of the 16th
and other Protestant leaders initiated a
movement against the Roman Catholic Church.
Protestantism believed that sexuality is a
natural part of life and that priests should be
able to marry and have families.
Martin Luther King and John Calvin believed
that the reason for sexual intimacy was to
strengthen the physical and emotional bond
between husbands and wives and not just
procreation.
By the 17th and 18th century, the Puritans, a
group of people who were discontented with
the Church of England rallied for religious,
moral and societal reformation.
They had positive view on marital sex and did
not tolerate sex outside marriage.
Premarital sex, therefore, was considered
immoral.
In the Victorian Era (1837-1901), homosexuality
and prostitution were rampant and considered
to be threats to social order.
People in this era were not comfortable in
discussing breast or buttocks, they used other
terms instead.
Through the years and in the 20th century,
interest in sexuality became more evident and
accepted in society.
The separation of church and state reduced the
influence the church had over sexual mores.
Also, the rise of feminism allowed for changes
in employment, home life, and sexual standards
for women.
Over time, cultural diversity and social norms
offered varied views on what today may be
considered as sexually normal.
2. Biological
Knowing the structures and functions of the
reproductive system is essential to the
understanding of sexuality.
In the nervous system, it is the brain that
initiates and organizes sexual behavior.
Through the process of sexual reproduction, the
next generation of human beings are created by
the fusion of the egg cell and sperm cell.
3. Sociobiological/ Evolutionary
This perspective studies how evolutionary
forces affect sexual behavior.
According to sociobiological theory, natural
selection is a process by which organisms that
are best suited to their environment are most
likely to survive.
Traits that lead to reproductive advantage tend
to be passed on, whereas maladaptive traits are
lost.
On the basis of human sexual behavior, it all
begins with physical attraction.
Beauty is more than just cultural standard.
It is primarily an evolutionary standard for
attracting the best male or female in the lot to
ensure that one’s genetic characteristics will be
passed on to the next generation.
Although survival is the goal of the evolutionary
perspective, physical attraction which ends in
sex does not mean that the attraction will be
lasting.
For what is really important in human sexual
relationships is the love, care, and responsibility
each gender has for the other.
4. Psychological
Sigmund Freud was one of the most prominent
people to explain sexuality, through his
theories.
According to him, human beings are faces with
two forces:
- sex instinct and libido (pleasure); and
- death or aggressive instinct (harm toward
oneself or towards others).
Sex instinct does not only pertain to the sexual
act rather it could also mean anything that
could give pleasure to the person.
Thus, human behavior is geared towards
satisfying the sex instinct and/or death instinct.

A person’s libido or sexual energy is located in
an area of the body at different psychosexual
stages.
These areas of pleasure are called erogenous
zones.
5. Religious
Judaism holds a positive and natural outlook
toward marital sex which they consider as
blessed by God and pleasurable for both men
and women.
Sexual connection provides an opportunity for
spirituality and transcendence.
In Islam, family is considered of utmost
importance, and celibacy within marriage is
prohibited.
Muslim men are allowed to have up to four
wives but Muslim women can only have one
husband.
Sex is permitted only within marriage and
extramarital sex is penalized.
According to Taoism, which originated in China,
sex is not only natural and healthy, but a sacred
union necessary to people’s physical, mental,
and spiritual being.
The sexual union is a way to balance male and
female energy.
In Hinduism, sexuality is seen as spiritual force,
and the act of ritual lovemaking is a means of
both celebrating and transcending the physical.
For the Roman Catholic Church, marriage is
purely for intercourse and procreation.
Pope John Paul II confirmed the idea that
married couples should engage in intercourse
only for the purpose of procreation.
They further believed that homosexual
orientation, in itself is not sinful, but
homosexual acts are immoral and sinful.
The use of birth control is strongly opposed but
they agree to natural family planning and
prohibit abortion.
Development of Secondary Sex Characteristics
and Reproductive System
1. Asexual reproduction
The simplest form of reproduction that literally
means without sex.
A single celled animal grows to a certain stage
or size and divides into two identical organisms.
Multi-celled asexual organisms have developed
several unique reproductive strategies.
For example, the jellyfish reproduces by
budding, a process where a new individual
begins to grow (bud) from the original organism
and is eventually released as a small, free
swimming organism.
2. Sexual reproduction
In organisms that reproduce sexually, there are
males and females and reproduction occurs
when partners come together.
This also involves reproductive cells, including a
female ovum (egg) and a male’s sperm.
In both male and female embryos, the tissues
that will form the structures of the internal
genitalia that are destined to develop in only
one way, either as structures in the female
reproductive system or structures in the male
reproductive system, but not both.
The seven essential features of human
reproduction are:
(1) liberation of an ovum, or egg, at a specific
time in the reproductive cycle;
(2) internal fertilization of the ovum by
spermatozoa, or sperm cells;
(3) transport of the fertilized ovum to the
uterus, or womb;
(4) implantation of the blastocyst, the early
embryo developed from the fertilized ovum, in
the wall of the uterus;
(5) formation of a placenta and maintenance of
the unborn child during the entire period of
gestation;
(6) birth of the child and expulsion of the
placenta; and
(7) suckling and care of the child, with an
eventual return of the maternal organs to
virtually their original state.
The male reproductive system essential parts
are as follows:
1. Penis – a male sexual organ consisting of the
internal root and external shaft and glans.
2. Root – the portion of the penis that extends
internally into the pelvic cavity.
3. Shaft – the length of the penis between the
glans and the body.
4. Glans – the head of the penis; richly endowed
with nerve endings.
5. Cavernous bodies – the structures in the
shaft of the penis that engorge with blood
during sexual arousal.
6. Foreskin – a covering of skin over the penile
glans.
7. Corona – the rim of the penile glans.
8. Frenulum – a highly sensitive, thin strip of
skin that connects the glans to the shaft on the
underside of the penis.
The female reproductive system essential parts
are as follows:
1. Vulva – encompasses all female external
genital structures – the hairs, fold of skin, and
the urinary and vaginal openings.
a. Mons Veneris – a triangular mound over the
pubic bone above the vulva.
b. Labia majora – the outer lips of the vulva.
c. Labia minora – the inner lips of the vulva, one
on each side of the vaginal opening.
d. Prepuce – the foreskin or fold of skin over the
clitoris.
e. Clitoris – a highly sensitive structure of the
female external genitals, the only function of
which is sexual pleasure.
f. Shaft – the length of the clitoris between the
glans and the body.
g. Glans – the head of the clitoris; richly
endowed with nerve endings.
h. Cruca – the innermost tips of the cavernous
bodies that connect to the pubic bones.
i. Vestibule – the area of the vulva inside the
labia minora.
j. Urethra – the tube through which urine
passes from the bladder to outside the body.
2. Internal Structure
a. Vagina – a stretchable canal in the female
that opens at the vulva and extends about four
inches into the pelvis.
b. Rugae – the folds of tissue in the vagina.
c. Cervix – the small end of the uterus, located
at the back of the vagina.
d. Uterus – a pear shaped organ inside the
female pelvis, within which the fetus develops.
e. Fallopian tubes – two tubes in which the egg
and sperm travel, extending from the sides of
the uterus.
f. Ovaries – female gonads that produce ova
and sex hormones.
Primary characteristics are there from birth (for
example, penises and vaginas).
Secondary sexual characteristics emerge at
puberty (such as low voices and beards in men,
and high voices and no facial hair in women).
These secondary sexual characteristics are not
used in reproduction, but are apparent in most
dimorphic species.
Hormones secreted through the hypothalamus
initiate the development of classically male or
female secondary sexual traits.
Hormones - natural substance that is produced
in the body
- influences in the way the body
grows or develops
These secondary sex characteristics can also be
known as some of the first changes in a boy are
the growth of his and growth of pubic hair.
Later, the chest becomes larger, hair grows in
the armpits, muscles grow in the arms and legs
and shoulders become larger and stronger.
In some males, hair also grows on the chest, but
generally, Asian men are less hairy and less
muscular than Caucasian men, and those from
Africa have coarser body hair.
Facial hair, which usually grows first above the
lips and later grows on the cheeks, may grow
into a mustache and beard unless the boy
shaves regularly.
The larynx (voice box) becomes larger as well,
resulting in a deeper voice.

In girls, pubic hair begins to grow, followed by
underarm hair; breasts develop, with the areola
around the nipple becoming darker.
Fat deposits around the hips and buttocks also
contribute to the female's more rounded
appearance.
With girls, the menstrual cycle begins, it may be
irregular, with some monthly cycles occurring
without ovulation.
Since 1840, menstruation has been beginning a
few months earlier every decade, possibly due
to better nutrition or to the consumption of
meat that contains hormones.
In general, girls gain less height and weight than
boys do during their teenage years.
The list below shows some of these
characteristic differences between human
males and females.
For boys, these include:
● More pronounced body hair characteristics
(beard, chest, etc.) and usually more coarse
● Heavier musculature
● Angular features (i.e. square jaw, triangular
mid region)
● Narrow hips
● Muscular pectorals (chest)
● Less fat tissue overall
● Deeper voice
● More pronounced body hair characteristics
(beard, chest, etc.) and usually more coarse
● Heavier musculature
● Angular features (i.e. square jaw, triangular
mid region)
● Narrow hips
● Muscular pectorals (chest)
● Less fat tissue overall
● Deeper voice
● More pronounced body hair characteristics
(beard, chest, etc.) and usually more coarse
Puberty is the stage of physical maturation in
which an individual becomes physiologically
capable of sexual reproduction.
The biological changes include:
(1) neurosecretory factors and/or hormones,
(2) modulation of somatic growth, and
(3) initiation of the development of the sex
glands.
The physiology of puberty includes also the
activation of the hypothalamic pituitary-gonadal
axis which induces and enhances the
progressive ovarian and testicular sex hormone
secretion.
It is also responsible for the profound biological,
morphological, and psychological changes to
which adolescent is subjected.
In addition, there are sex steroid production
which appearance and maintenance of sexual
characteristics are included as well as the
person’s capacity for reproduction.
● Puberty proceeds through five stages from
childhood to full maturity as described by
Marshall and Tanner (2006).
In both sexes, these stages reflect the
progressive modifications of the external
genitalia and of sexual hair.
Secondary sex characteristics appear at a mean
age of 10.5 years in girls and 11.5 to 12 years in
boys.
Puberty Stages (Female )
P1 Pre-pubertal
P2 Early development of sub-areolar breast bud
+/- small amounts of pubic hair and axillary hair
P3 Increase in size of palpable breast tissue and
areolar Increase amount of dark pubic hair and
axillary hair
P4 Further increase in breast size and areolae
that protrude above breast level Adult Pubic
hair
P5 Adult Stage Pubic hair with extension to
upper thigh
The prepubertal uterus is tear-drop shaped,
with the neck and isthmus accounting for up to
two thirds of the uterine volume; then, with the
production of estrogens, it becomes pear
shaped, with the uterine body increasing in
length and thickness proportionately more than
the cervix.
The rising levels of plasma gonadotropins
stimulate the ovary to produce increasing
amounts of estradiol. Estradiol is responsible for
the development of secondary sexual
characteristics, that is, growth and development
of the breasts and reproductive organs, fat
redistribution (hips, breasts), and bone
maturation. The maturation of the ovary at
adolescence correlates well with estradiol
secretion and the stages of puberty.
During puberty, plasma estradiol levels
fluctuate widely, probably reflecting successive
waves of follicular development that fail to
reach the ovulatory stage. The uterine
endometrium is affected by these changes and
undergoes cycles of proliferation and
regression, until a point is reached when
substantial growth occurs so that withdrawal of
estrogen results in the first menstruation
(menarche). Female secondary sexual
characteristics include breast development,
pubic and/or axillary hair, and menses occur
earlier than normal variations from the mean,
the terms premature.
Puberty Stages (Males)
P1 Prepubertal Testicular length less than 2.5
cm
P2 Early increase in testicular size, scrotum
slightly pigmented Few long and dark pubic hair
P3 Testicular length 3.3-4 cm Lengthening of
the penis, increase of pubic hair
P4 Testicular length 4.1-4.5 cm, increase in
length and thickening of the penis Adult
amount of pubic hair
 Secondary sexual development in boys includes
growth kinetics are enhanced from early
puberty on, this is on maximal velocity of
attaining it only around 14 to 15 years of age.
Testis increases in size, mainly at the expense of
the seminiferous tubules. Also the interstitial
(Leydig) cells develop and ensure synthesis and
secretion of testosterone. A testicular volume
of 4ml or a longitudinal diameter greater than
or equal to 2.5 cm and a slight progressive
increase in scrotal folds and pigmentation
constitute the first signs of puberty. The
increase in testicular size observed during pre
puberty and puberty results essentially from the
development of the seminiferous tubules.
The testicular volume increases throughout
puberty up to Tanner stage P4 when a
longitudinal diameter of 5.0 + 0.5 cm or a
volume of 17.6 + 4.0 ml is reached. A significant
increase of plasma testosterone is found only
between Tanner pubertal stages P3 and P4.
Dihydrotestosterone shows a pattern similar to
that of testosterone, and the proportion of
dihydrotestosterone to testosterone decreases
gradually until adulthood, when
dihydrotestosterone levels are approximately
10% of those of testosterone.
Erogenous Zones
Erogenous zones can be understood in a certain
way we understand our body. These are areas
of the human body that have heightened
sensitivity. The stimulation of these areas may
result in the foundation and production of
sexual fantasies, sexual arousal, and orgasm.
These are areas that are more sensitive than
others all over the body.
Varieties of sexual excitement may be provoked
that will classify the erogenous zones.
Erogenous zones vary from culture to culture
and over time. Essentially, these parts have high
concentration of nerve endings, that the result
is they are particularly sensitive to touch,
pressure, or vibration.
The five stages of Freud’s psychosexual theory
of development:
1. Oral stage, the child erogenous zone is the
mouth which receives gratification through
eating and sucking.
2. Anal stage, the erogenous zone is the anus in
which sexual gratification is derived from
defecation
3. Phallic stage, erogenous zone is the genitals.
Here the child experiences sexual attraction
towards the opposite sex parent. Oedipus
complex (sexual attraction of the body child
toward the mother) and Electra complex (sexual
attraction of the girl child towards the father)
4. Latency stage, sexual impulses lie dormant as
the child is occupied by social activities such as
going to school and playing.
5. Genital stage, where the erogenous zone is
again the genitals. At this time, the sexual
attraction is directed towards others, usually
one of opposite sex.
According to his theory, each stage of
psychosexual development must be met
successfully for proper development; if we lack
proper nurturing and parenting during a stage,
we may become stuck in, or fixated on, that
stage.
 Freud’s psychosexual theory has been seriously
criticized for the past few decades and is now
considered largely outdated.
However, the erogenous zones were discussed
in each of the stages of psychosexual
development, that if not outgrown will have
fixations for that certain stage.
Erogenous Zones vs Sexual Fetishes.
According to Freud, a fetish is an inappropriate
object (a shoe for example) that is substituted
for a woman and used for sexual gratification.
An erogenous zone is a body part (a foot, for
instance) that arouses sexual curiosity and
draws a man's attention to the whole female
body.
Fetishism is an individual personality disorder,
while erogenous zones are sexual preferences
shared by most men at a given time or place.
Fetishes belong to the science of
psychopathology while erogenous zones belong
to the social world of costume and fashion.
Erogenous zones was coined near the end of
the nineteenth century and used in the early
twentieth century by some psychologists to
describe how simple pressure to these parts of
the body could arouse complete orgasm in what
were defined as hysterical persons (generally
understood to be women).
Erogenous zones dealt with at some length
here, refers to a visual phenomenon associated
with clothing and body adornment.
For cultural anthropologists, erogenous zones
are those areas of the female body which men
find sexually arousing and which women alter
or adorn to attract the male eye.
Erogenous Zones vs Sexual Fetishes.
Because of this understanding, it can be noted
that culture determines their unique fixation for
erogenous zones. Examples are Asian men prize
the nape of the neck while Europeans are
fixated with waist.
In defiance of common sense, the genitals
rarely become erogenous zones.
Human increases their likeness through body
paint, cosmetics, mutilation or other
procedures like Western women paint their lips
red, enhancing resemblance to the labia;
Aristocratic Chinese women bound their feet so
it would be tiny, curled feet more closely
resembled the vulva.
More societies alter their erogenous zones to
make them more beautiful or prominent.
Human Sexual Response
One of the great qualities of a human being is
its ability to be modified by experiences. This
process is known as learning and conditioning,
which most of the aspects of human behavior,
even sexual behavior appear to be a product of
it.
Like the preferences people have of type of
individual as partners – tall, short, younger, or
varieties of partners like
heterosexual/homosexual.
 The classification of behavior as normal or
away from normal represents culture based
rather than scientifically explained.
As part of the transition from childhood to
adulthood, all adolescents experience sexual
feelings. Some act upon these feelings by
having sexual intercourse; others don’t have
intercourse but engage in behaviors stopping
short of penile/vaginal intercourse; some
engage in anal intercourse or oral sex (Remez,
2000); and others deny their sexual feelings by
focusing intensely on nonsexual pursuits.
Other adolescents are able to have socially
acceptable intercourse through early,
sometimes prearranged, marriages.
Sexual behavior among adolescents is not new
– what is new is the delay in marriage that
attends increasing educational attainment, and
non-agricultural and increasingly technological
free market societies.
Other adolescents are able to have socially
acceptable intercourse through early,
sometimes prearranged, marriages.
Sexual behavior among adolescents is not new
– what is new is the delay in marriage that
attends increasing educational attainment, and
non-agricultural and increasingly technological
free market societies.
Human Sexual Response
Advantages can be known if a person would
know how their bodies respond during each
cycle.
Men and women experience sexual arousal
very differently, not only physiologically but
psychologically.
For many women, the excitement phase has
much more of an emotional component.
Women are motivated to have sexual
responses by a need for emotional intimacy.
It is this motivation that causes them to react
to sexual stimuli and thus enter the excitement
phase.
Human Sexual Response
Excitement
 This is the body’s initial response to
sexual arousal.
 It is characterized by an increase in
heart rate and blood pressure as well as
heightened muscle tone.
Plateau
 This is the period of sexual excitement
prior to orgasm
 -It is characterized by intensification of
the changes begun during the
excitement phase.
Orgasm
 This is characterized by waves of
intense pleasure (climax), often
associated with vaginal contractions in
females and ejaculation in males.
Resolution
 In this phase the body returns to its
non-excited stage.
THE SEXUAL SELF
UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL BEHAVIOR, STIS AND
CONTRACEPTION
Chemistry of Lust, Love, and Attachment
According to anthropologist Helen Fisher (2016)
there are three stages of falling in love.
In each stage, a different set of brain chemicals
run the show.
These stages are lust, attraction, and love.
1. Lust
When people are in the stage of lust, they feel
physically attracted and drawn to their object of
affection. There are elements of mystery that
make things exciting.
Lust is driven by the desire for sexual
gratification. The evolutionary basis for this is
from people’s need to reproduce, a need
shared among all living things.
Through reproduction, organisms pass on their
genes, and contribute to the perpetuation of
their species. The hypothalamus of the brain
plays a big role in this, stimulating the
production of the sex hormones testosterone
and estrogen from the testes and ovaries.
While these chemicals are often stereotyped as
being male and female, respectively, both play a
role in men and women. As it turns out,
testosterone increases libido in just about
everyone. The effects are less pronounced with
estrogen, but some women report being more
sexually motivated around the time they
ovulate, when estrogen levels are highest.
2. Attraction
Attraction is characteristic that causes pleasure
or interest by appealing to a person’s desires or
tastes, and causes one to be drawn to the
other.
Attraction is characteristic that causes pleasure
or interest by appealing to a person’s desires or
tastes, and causes one to be drawn to the
other.
Attraction has brain pathways that controls
“reward” behavior, which explains the first few
months of a relationship. Dopamine is the main
player in the brain’s reward pathway. When it is
released, people feel good. In this case, these
things spending time with loved ones with high
levels of dopamine and related hormones
(norepinephrine) are released.
These chemicals make people energetic, and
euphoric that can lead to decreased appetite
and insomnia – which actually means a person
is so “in love” that this person cannot eat or
cannot sleep. In addition, norepinephrine plays
a large role in the fight or flight response, which
has a say when people are stressed and kept
them alert.
Brain scans of people in love have actually
shown that the primary “reward” centers of the
brain. Finally, attraction seems to lead to a
reduction in serotonin, a hormone that is
involved in appetite and mood. In the end,
everyone is capable of defining love for
themselves. And, for better or for worse, if it’s
all hormones, maybe each of us can have
“chemistry” with just about anyone.
3. Attachment
This stage involves wanting to make a more
lasting commitment to your loved one. All the
goals are dedicated to the object of affection
being a part of a person’s life. dopamine
decreases and attraction goes down.
If things are going well, it gets replaced by the
hormones oxytocin and vasopressin, which
create the desire to bond, affiliate with, and
nurture your partner. You want to cuddle and
be close and share your deepest secrets with
her. You plan and dream together.
Understanding the science of lust, attraction,
and attachment can help a person develop
more realistic expectations of their
relationships.
Most romantic relationships begin with two
individuals falling into love with each other. The
singer Robert Palmer compares love with an
addiction. This was verified in a study in which
17 participants who were madly in love were
asked to go to the lab and bring a picture of
their loved one. Participants were placed in a
brain scanner (fMRI functional magnetic
resonance imaging) which measures the neural
activity of the brain. Their brain activity was
recorded that when participants gazed at a
photo of their beloved, regions in the brain
were activated. Those parts are closely
associated with the anticipation of reward and
with focused attention. This is the dopamine
system in the brain which is the same system
involved in pleasure and addiction. Fisher, et al
(2006) concluded that, rather than defining love
as an emotion, “being in love” can be
considered a strong motivation – an addictive
craving to be with the other person (Hewstone
et al, 2015).
John Lee’s Love Styles:
1. Eros (EH-ros).
Love is based on a strong sexual and emotional
component. This type of love creates initial
excitement of a new relationship. A romantic
and passionate love which emphasizes physical
attraction and sexual desire. The Eros lover
dreams of the ideal characteristics of a partner
and usually experiences love at first sight. The
relationship, however, seldom lasts forever
because they tend to be quick to fall in and out
of love.
2. Agape (AH-gah-pay).
This is altruistic and selfless love. The person
shows his love without expecting to receive the
same in return. He considers the wishes of his
partner as more important than his own. He
may not have a perfect partner but he will
always be there to support and offer his love.
3. Storge (Store-gay).
This is love related friendship and based on
nonsexual affection. The person experiences
love as a gradual and slow process. When love
is storge, love takes time. Storge lovers do not
suddenly fall in love with an idealized lover.
Commitment, stability and comfort are their
goals.
4.Ludus.
For ludic lovers, love is just a game, something
for fun or entertainment. They do not
experience jealousy. They do not value
commitment or intimacy. They manipulate their
partners by lying, cheating and deceiving
5. Mania. commitment. It is just a friendly
relationship.
This is characterized by an intense feeling which
 Infatuation (Passion). This is associated
may lead to obsessive and possessive love
with a high degree of physiological
towards the loved one. Manic lovers always
arousal. There is only passion without
check the partner’s whereabouts. They easily
intimacy or commitment. It is usually
get jealous and their experience of love is out of
called “love at first sight” and may fade
control. They are easily taken advantage of by
quickly.
ludic lovers.
 Empty love (Commitment). This
6. Pragma. involves only commitment. A
relationship. With no intimacy and
This is a practical and business-like love. passion. Couples only stay together for
Pragmatic lovers may plan the best time to get their children or other important
married, have children, and other future plans. reasons.
Love is based on what is appropriate. It is not
intense nor out of control.
 4. Romantic love (Passion and
Intimacy). It is a combination of both
The Triangular Theory of Love by Robert passion and intimacy which may be
Sternberg present during the first phase of a
relationship. This is characterized by
 Intimacy. This includes the desire to
emotional intensity and sexual
give and receive emotional closeness,
excitement. The experience of
support, caring and sharing.
passionate love may be positive and
 Passion. This is the hot component of
negative.
love which can be described as
 5. Companionate love (Intimacy and
intensely romantic or sexual desire for
Commitment). The components are
another person usually accompanied by
both intimacy and commitment which is
physical attraction and physiological
experienced in long deeply committed
arousal.
friendship or marriage where passion
 Commitment. This is the cold
has faded. It is more durable than
component of love. It is the decision to
romantic love and may grow over time.
maintain the relationship through good
 6. Fatuous love (Passion and
times and bad times.
Commitment). A combination of
passion and commitment experienced
by a couple who spent a short time in
Several types of love based on the above courtship and suddenly decided to get
components. married.
 7. Consummate love (Passion, Intimacy,
 Liking (Intimacy). This only involves
and Commitment). There exists a
emotional intimacy and has no
healthy balance of passion, intimacy,
passionate intention for long-term
 and commitment shared by couples
considered to be ideal for each other.
Several types of love based on the above
components.
Psychological theories that would explain why
people fall in love.
1. Behavioral Reinforcement Theory.
When someone received a reward such as free
ride or other favors from another, a positive
feeling may be experienced.
The better the feeling associated with the
behavior of a person, the more likely it is for the
behavior to be repeated.
2. Physiological Arousal Theory.
This explains the most acceptable theories
about emotions: the bodies experience a
physiological change first, then people assign an
emotion to that physical sensation.
It is based on the interpretation of the brain.
For instance, when a big spider falls in front of
an individual, the stress reaction would be: the
person might gasp, the heart would pound
faster, and breathing would quicken.
The brain would interpret an emotion
associated with this experience as the feeling of
FEAR.
In another situation, a girl who happens to see
her crush walking by will have the same
experience as the person who encounters the
spider (a person might gasp, the heart and
respiratory rate would elevate): the brain would
have different interpretation in the second case,
a feeling of LOVE.
3. Evolutionary Theories.
This explains that love arose due to some
sociobiological need.
Males tend to look for young, healthy females
mates to carry their offspring.
Females prefer males who have the resources
to support them and their offspring.
Based on social psychological data from
Rosenthal (2013), the factors that would
determine with whom people fall in love are:
Physical attractiveness (though beauty is in the
eye of the beholder)
Reciprocity (people tend to like an individual
who also like them)
Proximity (being around anytime physically or
virtually)
Similarities (same age, religion, education, race,
physical attractiveness, intelligence, and socio-
economic class)
The diversity of sexual behavior:
● Human sexual behavior is any activity,
solitary, by pair or by group which includes
sexual arousal.
● Human sexual behavior may conveniently be
classified according to the number and gender
of the participants.
● Not all sexual arousal can lead to sexual
activity. Humans are constantly exposed to
sexual stimuli when seeing attractive persons or
seeing advertisement with sexual themes
through mass media.
● There is solitary behavior involving only one
individual, and there is sociosexual behavior
involving more than one person.
● Sociosexual behavior is generally divided into
heterosexual behavior (male with female) and
homosexual behavior (male with male or
female with female). If three or more
individuals are involved it is, of course, possible
to have heterosexual and homosexual activity
simultaneously.
● In both solitary and sociosexual behavior
there may be activities that are sufficiently
unusual to warrant the label deviant behavior.
The term deviant should not be used as a moral
judgment but simply as indicating that such
activity is not common in a particular society.
Since human societies differ in their sexual
practices, what is deviant in one society may be
normal in another.
● Solitary behavior – A behavior with the
intention of stimulating self that caused arousal
usually done in private. This behavior is more
common to males. There is great individual
variation in frequency. Solitary behavior
provides pleasure for self with emotional
content with sole control to the degree of
pleasure.
● One of the necessary tasks of growing up is
learning to cope with one’s sexual arousal and
to achieve some balance between suppression,
which can be injurious, and free expression,
which can lead to social difficulties. There is
great variation among individuals in the
strength of sex drive and responsiveness, so this
necessary exercise of restraint is
correspondingly difficult or easy.
The following are types of sexual orientations:
Heterosexuality – it is the attraction to
members of opposite sex.
Homosexuality – refers to a person whose
sexual orientation is toward another of the
same sex. It is the attraction to members of the
same sex.
Lesbian – is the term used to describe a woman
whose sexual and romantic attraction toward
women.
Gay - is a man whose sexual and romantic
attraction is towards other men.
Bisexual – is a person who may be sexually
oriented to both men and women
Transsexual – these are people experience a
gender identity that is inconsistent with, or not
culturally associated with, their assigned sex,
and desire to permanently transition to the
gender with which they identify, usually seeking
medical assistance.
Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD)
Sexually Transmitted Diseases(STD) are also
known as Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI),
together with venereal disease,
these are infections that are commonly spread
by sexual intercourse.
These are infections that are passed from one
person to another through sexual contact,
blood transfusion, breastfeeding, and a certain
amount of saliva.
● Most STD’s affect both men and women, but
in many cases the health problems they cause
can be more severe for women. If a pregnant
woman has an STD, it can cause serious health
problems for the baby. Antibiotics can treat
STDs caused by bacteria, yeast, or parasites.
There is no cure for STDs caused by a virus, but
medicines can often help with the symptoms
and keep the disease under control.
● Some causes of STDs are: bacteria, parasites,
yeast, and viruses. These STDs can be
dangerous, although in today’s generation it
can be treated in different ways, but if not it can
lead to Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) or
even Acquired immune deficiency syndrome or
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
The following are some examples of STIs:
1. HIV/AIDS.
 HIV stands for Human
Immunodeficiency Virus with AIDS
stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency
Syndrome.
 Thus, HIV is a virus while AIDS is a
condition or syndrome.
 HIV can lead to infections that attack
and destroy the CD4 (Tcells) of the
immune system which is the body’s
natural defense against such illness as
tuberculosis, pneumonia, and cancer.
 HIV without treatment can lead to AIDS
but not all cases of HIV develop AIDS.
Only untreated HIV may lead to AIDS.
Presently, there is no effective cure for
HIV. But the condition can be controlled
with proper medical care.
 The antiretroviral therapy (ART) is a
combination of medications that are
used to prevent HIV from replicating to
protect the body against the virus and
infection. However, ART is not a cure. It
helps those with HIV positive to live
longer and happier and lowers the risk
of advancing the condition into AIDS.
2. Genital Herpes.
 This is a sexually transmitted infection
caused by a large family of viruses of
different strains.
 These strains produce other non-
sexually transmitted diseases such as
chicken pox and mononucleosis.
 Most individuals have no or only
minimal signs or symptoms. When signs
do occur, they typically appear as one
or more blisters on or around the
genitals or rectum. The blisters break,
leaving tender sores that may take two
 to four weeks to heal the first time they
occur. Typically, another outbreak can
appear weeks or months after the first,
but it almost always is less severe and
shorter.
 The virus remains in the body for life
and the lesions may recur from time to
time. Severe or frequently recurrent
genital herpes is treated with one of
several antiviral drugs that are available
by prescription. These drugs help
control the symptoms, but do not
eliminate the herpes virus from the
body.
5. Syphilis.
3. Genital Warts.
 Genital warts (also called venereal
warts or Condylomata Acuminata) are
caused by the human papillomavirus, a
virus related to the one that causes
common skin warts.
 Certain high-risk types of HPV can cause
cervical cancer and other genital
cancers, but these are different from
the types that cause genital warts.
4. Gonorrhea.
 This a sexually transmitted infection
6. Chlamydia.
caused by bacterium Neisseria
gonorrhoeae which thrives in the moist
mucous membranes linings of the
mouth, throat, vagina, cervix, urethra,
and the anal tract.
 Most women who are infected have no
symptoms. Even when a woman has
symptoms, they can be so non-specific
as to be mistaken for a bladder or
vaginal infection. The most common
symptoms of gonorrhea are a vaginal
discharge or vaginal bleeding between
periods. Untreated cases can lead to
serious complications, including PID,
ectopic pregnancy and infertility.
 Symptoms for males are discharge from
the penis and burning sensations during
urination.
 This is a sexually transmitted infection
caused by bacterium Treponema
pallidum, a spirochete.
 If left untreated, syphilis may progress
through four phases: Primary (chancre
sores appear), Secondary (general skin
rashes occur), latent (a period that can
last for several years with no overt
symptoms), and tertiary (cardiovascular
disease, blindness, paralysis, skin ulcers,
liver damage, mental problem and even
death may occur).
 This is one of the most common
sexually transmitted infections, named
for Chlamydia trachomatis, an organism
that spreads through sexual contact and
infects the genital organs of both sexes.
 Many people with chlamydial infection,
however, have few or no symptoms of
 infection; it often goes undiagnosed and
untreated.
 Once diagnosed with chlamydial
infection, a person can be treated with
an antibiotic.
Methods of Contraception (Artificial and
Natural)
● There are a lot of reasons why people use
contraceptives. Some purposes of birth control
are to prevent pregnancy, many women choose
to use contraception because of certain health
advantages. For example, some hormonal birth
control methods may help regulate your period,
reduce acne, and/or lower endometriosis-
related pain.
● In general, with the exception of male and
female sterilization, all methods that are
appropriate for healthy adults are also
potentially appropriate for healthy, post-
pubertal adolescents. Once puberty has been
achieved, methods that are physiologically safe
for adults are also physiologically safe for
adolescents.
● In reality, contraceptive use entails
consideration of more than just medical safety.
Before discussing contraceptive options, a
person must be given the opportunity to
express their needs and to decide freely
whether they want to protect against
pregnancy or need to protect against STI/HIV.
● Once a decision is made for protection,
sexually active individual should be presented
with options that, if used consistently and
correctly, will prevent pregnancy and,
depending upon an individual’s circumstances,
prevent sexually transmissible diseases. When
selecting a method, a person should consider
the nature of their sexual relationship, sexual
behaviors engaged in, frequency of intercourse,
risk of Sexually Transmitted Infection (STI) or
even HIV, ability to comply with the use, ability
to tolerate side effects, cost, convenience,
religious beliefs and other personal factors that
may affect their decisions.
Some of the methods of contraception:
1. Hormonal method of contraception
(prevents the release of an egg or ovulation)
a. Oral Contraceptives (Pills) – These are daily
oral contraceptives. Some contain estrogen and
progesterone; others are progestin only and are
over 99% effective if used according to
instruction. Often reduces bleeding and period
pain, and may help with premenstrual
symptoms. Missing pills, vomiting or severe
diarrhea can make it less effective.
b. The Patch – It is a small patch you stick on the
skin that releases estrogen and progestogen. It
stops ovulation. It can make bleeds regular,
lighter, and less painful, however, may be seen
and can cause skin irritation.
c. The ring – The contraceptive vaginal ring is a
small plastic ring a woman inserts into her
vagina every month and releases hormones to
stop ovulation. One ring stays in for three
weeks – you don’t have to think about
contraception every day and must be
comfortable with inserting and removing it.
d. Implants - A small, flexible rod put under the
skin of the upper arm releases progestogen.
Works for 3 years but can be taken out sooner.
It requires a small procedure to fit and remove
it.
e. Injectable - An injection of progestogen.
Works for 8 or 13 weeks – you don’t have to
think about contraception during this time.
Can’t be removed from the body so side effects
may continue while it works and for some time
afterwards.
2. Barrier methods (methods that physically or
chemically block the sperm from reaching an
egg and provide a barrier between direct skin
to skin contacts)
a. Diaphragm - A flexible latex (rubber) or
silicone device, used with spermicide, is put into
the vagina to cover the cervix. Can be put in any
time before sex.
b. Cervical Caps – These are similar to the
diaphragm, though they are generally always
made of silicone. They are put into the vagina to
cover the cervix and are 92 to 96 percent
effective when used correctly.
c. Male and Female Condoms or spermicides -
For Males: A very thin latex (rubber)
polyurethane (plastic) or synthetic sheath, put
over the erect penis. For Females: Soft, thin
polyurethane sheath that loosely lines the
vagina and covers the area just outside.
Condoms are the best way to help protect
yourself from sexually transmitted infections.
3. Behavioral Methods
a. Rhythm or Calendar Method – It is a way to
determine a woman’s most fertile and interfile
times by charting the menstrual cycle. It is also
known as natural family planning or fertility
awareness.
b. Abstinence or celibacy – It refers to the
avoidance of sexual intercourse.
c. Outercourse – It is a sexual activity that does
not include the insertion of the penis into the
vagina.
d. Withdrawal – it happens when a man
removes his penis from vagina and ejaculate
outside of the woman’s body.
4. Sterilization (procedures that make an
individual permanently incapable of conceiving
or fertilizing a partner)
a. Tubal Ligation /Sterilization – It is a surgery
for women in which fallopian tubes are tied to
prevent eggs from travelling to the uterus so a
woman cannot get pregnant.
b. Vasectomy – It is an operation in which the
surgeon makes a small cut in the upper part of
the scrotum then ties or blocks the vas
deferens. Men can still have orgasm or
ejaculation after the operation
5. Intrauterine Device (IUD) – It is a small device
that is placed in the uterus by a doctor to
prevent pregnancy.
6. Emergency Contraception - It is a measure
that protects against pregnancy after
unprotected sex has already occurred. It could
be through IUD or higher dosage of pills.
 objects become powerful symbols

or icons of habit and ritual which

Consumers are often viewed as victims of can be quite separate from their

greedy companies. primary function.

But take note that everyone has free will.

I SHOP, THEREFORE, I AM. JOHN HESKETT

I HAVE; THEREFORE, I AM?  a British writer and lecturer on the

economic, political, cultural and human
value of industrial design, design
WANTS combines “need” and “desire” in the
form of a practical object that can also
Synonymous with luxuries. reflect the user’s identity and
aspirations through its form and
People buy them for reasons
decoration.
that do not warrant necessity.

NEEDS
 there is a significance and function
According to Maslow’s behind everyday things
 explains the effect of design in everyday
hierarchy of needs. life

ROLAND BARTHES
TWO THINGS TO CONSIDER IN THE PROCESS
OF ACQUIRING French theorist, was one of the first to
observe the
MATERIAL GOODS relationship that people have with
objects, and in particular
Utility
looked at the objects as signs or things
Concerned with how things serve which could be
decoded to convey messages beyond
a practical purpose. their practical value.
Significance
● In the 1950s, he popularized the field
Concerned with the meaning of Semiology. It was Barthes who
revealed that everyday
assigned to the object.

It is also concerned with how

objects are not just things but a
complex system of signs which allows
one to read meaning into
people and places. What people
increasingly produce are not material
objects, but signs.
● In Semiotic analysis, objects function
as signifiers in the production of
meaning. For example,
clothes may have a simple functional
meaning, to cover and protect the body
but also double up
as a sign. They construct a meaning and
carry a message, which as member of a
culture one can
understand.
● According to him, a sign has two
elements:
signifier which refers to its physical
form and
signified, the mental concepts it refers
to.
Hence, objects are not just things but
are reflections of the wider lives of
communication and
individuals.
THE THEORY OF THE MEANING OF
MATERIAL POSSESSION
1. Instrumental functions relate to the
functional properties of a product. For
example,
a person bought a pick-up style car for
family and business functions.
2. Social symbolic function signifies
personal qualities, social standing,
group
affiliation and gender role. For instance,
buying Iphone instead of other mobile
phones.
3. Categorical functions refers to the
extent to which material possessions
may be used
to communicate group membership or
status.
4. Self-expression functions reflect a
person’s unique qualities, values or
attitudes.
There are people who may represent
themselves by collecting objects with a
Hello
Kitty brand and the like.
OBJECTS OR MATERIALS AS PROCESS
OF SELF-EXTENSION
1. Ways of incorporating Possessions
into the Extended Self
● Sartre suggests that there are three
primary ways through
which a person learns to regard an
object as part of self.
1. One way is through appropriating or
controlling an object for
personal use
2. A second way of having an object and
incorporating it into self is
by creating it
3. The third way in which objects
become a part of self is by
knowing them.
2. Contamination
Goffman (1971, pp. 44-47) suggests six
modes of interpersonal contamination.
An important omission in this list of
modes of interpersonal contamination
is
the acquisition of possessions of
another person that have been
intimately
associated with that person.
3. Maintaining Multiple Levels of Self
The first is that the house is a symbolic
body for the family
The second important point is that the
expressive imagery of the house that is
definitional of the family is only fully
acquired during consumption.
COMMON STRATEGIES IN
PERSUADING
SOMEONE
 foot-in-door phenomenon
 door-in-the-face phenomenon
AVOID THE TRAP
Exercise intellectual
independence – be aware
how consumerism
controls your life. ignore
advertising
Consume less, live more
– stop and think about
the influences of
consumerism in your
life.
THE SPIRITUAL SELF
GIDDENS (2006)
religion is a cultural system of
commonly shared beliefs and rituals
that provide a sense of ultimate
meaning by creating an idea of reality
that is sacred, all-encompassing and
supernatural
KEY ELEMENTS OF RELIGION:
religion is a form of culture-shares all
characteristics of culture such as shared
beliefs, values that create an identity;
religion involves beliefs that take the
form of ritualized practices - all
members engage in behaviors that
identify them as members of the
community; and
religion provides a sense of purpose,
feeling that life is ultimately
meaningful.
DURKHEIM (1912)
defined religion as a unified system of
beliefs and practices relative to sacred
things, things set-apart and forbidden
beliefs and practices which unite into
one single moral community called a
Church, all those who adhere to them.
Christianity 33% population
Islam with a 21% population
Hinduism with a 14% population
Buddhism with 6% population
Chinese Traditionalism at around 6%
Judaism at only about 0.22%
Philippines
only Christian country in the South East
Asia
Filipinos show their religiosity through
participating on different religious
practices:
 Baptism
 Fiestas
 Sinakulo
 Prayer
 Fellowship
 Communion
 and other activities related to
church
ANIMISM, A BELIEF THAT ALL OBJECTS
HAVE SPIRITS
SUPERNATURAL BEING
ACCORDING TO MCCLENON (1991),
THE CONCEPT OF SUPERNATURAL HAS
BEEN SHAPED BY THE WESTERN
NOTION OF NATURE AND CAUSALITY
AND IT IS CULTURALLY SPECIFIC.
Filipinos praised the trees, plants, sun,
moon, stars and other living and non-
living things.
They also praised the spirit of their
ancestors, which is called “cult of the
dead.”
They believed on the immortality of the
soul.
The memories of the dead are
remained through carving their image
using gold and stone
This is called “larawan” or “likha” in
Tagalog, “diwata” in Bisaya and “bul-ol”
in Ifugao
They also offered sacrifices and prayers
for guidance, sympathy and beseech
Not all “anitos” are good, there are few
who are evil.
The priestess which is also called as
“baylan,” “babaylan,” or “katalona”
does the ritual or offering
Early Filipinos practiced polytheism, a
belief in many gods, which was brought
by the early Chinese and Indian
merchants
Some of their gods are Bathala, the
Almighty God, Agni, God of Fire,
Mandarangan, God o War, Sidapa, God
of Death, Lalahon, God of Harvest, and
Siginarugan, God of Hell
These beliefs are passed orally to the
next generation.
Monotheism was introduced by
Spaniards
a belief in only God, which has three
personas:
God the Father
God the Son
God the Holy Spirit.
DASKEO (2012)
many Filipinos still spice their life with
superstitious beliefs that they strongly
believe could help them cope with day-
to-day activities especially most
important events in life such as
marriage, finding a job, and moving to a
new house.
COMMON SUPERSTITIONS:
o If a person bites their tongue, it
means somebody is thinking of them;
o A girl with white spots on her
fingernails is inconstant in love;
o It is bad to sweep the floor at six
o’clock in the evening for it means
driving away good fortune and graces
o One should not open an umbrella
while inside a house; a centipede is
likely to fall from the ceiling;
o If a pregnant woman sews her dress
while wearing it, her baby will born
without hole in the rectum;
o Appearance of a comet foretells war
THE CONCEPT OF “DUNGAN” (SPIRIT
OR SOUL)
ANIMISM
Latin word Anima meaning breath or
soul
the belief that everything in nature –
living things like trees, plants, and even
non-living rocks or streams – have their
own spirit or divinity
According to the indigenous Filipinos
soul is known as Kaluluwa, Ikararuwa
or kararuwa
It is taken from the root word duwa
which means two: The soul has two
parts:
(1) physical part, where it is connected
to the body and its life, and
(2) other spiritual, where it exists on its
own
 For Ibanags, the soul is the
principle of life in man
Body is the matter; soul is the form
As long as the body and soul are one
unit, man is alive.
According to Bisayans, the Dungan may
leave the body voluntarily while the
person is asleep
Among the ancient Filipinos, when the
person is asleep, they should not be
awakened quickly in order to give
ample time for the Dungan to return to
the body.
Soul-nature
means the performance of age-old
spirit rituals many of which are still
followed in the local provinces today
Examples of these are birth, illness and
death rituals consisting of trances,
prayers, and animal sacrifices
An adult person with a healthy Dungan
properly lodged in his physical body will
have bodily health and well-being,
intelligence and good sense.
RELIGION, SPIRITUALITY, MAGIC,
WITCHCRAFT AND IDENTITY
THE FUNCTION OF RITUALS
to have a good harvest
ask for the guidance and protection
from their ancestors and unseen forces
to heal the sick
to bring good luck and to conceive.
IFUGAO RITUALS
If the two couples are planning to tie
the knot, they will ask guidance from
their ancestors
The butcher opens the body of a
sacrificial pig and they examine if the
internal organs of the pig are healthy or
not
If it is healthy, they have the approval
to tie the knot this year, if not, they
may try again in the following year
The purpose of this ritual is to study the
carcass for omens that guides them in
their decision like marriage.
(OBUSAN 2015)
Dance and chants are a very essential
part of their ritual
Rituals are usually accompanied by
dances
It is the higher symbolic form for the
Filipino
It represents the distillation of collective
memory, affect, religious piety,
humility, and purity of intention
Even a complex message can be
articulated or maybe understood
through dance
RITUALS AND CEREMONIES
MAGOS (1997)
discussed the mara-it or dangerous
zone of Panay Island
Panaynon believes in spirit beings in the
sea like siokoy (half-man, half fish sea
monster) and the mangingilaw (half
man, half monkey man eating monster)
forest which are very harmful
They also believe that the earth and the
universe have a layered structure with
spirit beings live in each layer.
Lupan-on are spirits beings who live on
land
Idalmunon are spirit beings who live
underneath the surface of the earth
tubignon are spirit beings who live in
water
These folks remind them that the earth
is sacred, inhabited by the spirit and
thus dangerous
If Panaynon uses the earth's resources
with discourtesy or greed, they will
make the spirits angry
There are necessary fishing and farming
rites to be performed regularly to gain
the favor from spirits such as daga
(bloodletting) and the samba
(communal fishing rite)
ZAMBALES RITUALS
residents of this province perform
rituals before building a house
Ms. Cristeta Acebes
Principal of Uyugan Elementary School
(2012)
“pilaton”
a list of dates, including the phases of
the moon, that would ensure the
success of any major undertaking or
activity of residents in the province
The ritual starts with:
(1) choosing which day is specified in
the Pilaton as a good day to start the
project.
(2) Burying coins in the first hole during
laying of foundation
(3) Fresh animal blood is allowed to be
dropped in the same place
akhad (anything that can be served or
cooked as food) or tudung (drinks,
usually wine) (Provincial Government of
Zambales)
RELIGION, MAGIC, AND WITCHCRAFT
RELIGION
Latin word religio
to respect or care for
It is generally defined as; “belief in,
worship of, or obedience to a
supernatural power or powers
considered to be divine or to have
control of human destiny."
SANTROCK (2014)
An organized set of beliefs, practices,
rituals and symbols that increases an
individual’s connection to a sacred or
transcendent other (God, higher power,
ultimate truth)
An organized system of beliefs,
ceremonies, rules used to worship god
an interest, a belief, or an activity
deemed to be of utmost importance to
a person or group.
Religiousness
the degree by which one is affiliated
with an organized religion in terms of
the person’s participation in the
prescribed rituals and practices,
connection with its beliefs and
involvement with its community of
believers.
Spirituality
involves experiencing something
beyond oneself in a transcendent
manner and living in a way that benefits
others and society
It could be related to a search for the
sacred.
SPIRITUAL IDENTITY
The persistent sense of self that
addresses ultimate questions about the
nature, purpose and meaning of life
It results in behavior that are consonant
with the individual’s core values
The definition of a sense of spiritual
identity focuses on the individual
construction of a relationship to the
sacred and ultimate meaning.
MAGIC
the power apparently influencing the
course of events by using mysterious or
supernatural forces
the ability to use supernatural forces to
make impossible things happen, such as
making people disappear or controlling
events in nature.
(FRANKLE AND STEIN, 2005)
Magician
a worker in the kind of magic that is on
the whole public and good, whereas a
sorcerer is generally considered an evil
figure
one who deals in matters that his or her
clients would rather keep secret and
one whose work may be downright
antisocial
 Sorcerer
  Wizard
 Necromancer
BALANG
Filipino term for a sorcerer
used to describe malignant sorcery or
familiar spirits (usually a swarm of
destructive insects, especially
carnivorous beetles)
it swarms small invisible insects residing
in bamboos that enter the body
through open space causing the
intestine, stomach, lungs, and liver to
swell during high tides and shrink
during low tides
Mambabarang
a person who practices this specific
type of sorcery or witchcraft
Binarang
the target (usually a person) of sorcery
or witchcraft.
KULAM
Tagalog word for “voodoo” or
“witchcraft”
one of the most well-known aspects of
Philippine folklore
Mangkukulam
a person who uses black magic or spells
on a victim. After the spell is cast, the
victim will experience a form of illness
which cannot be cured by modern
medicine, misfortunes to himself and
loved ones, inability to concentrate,
lack of sleep, loss of appetite, freak
accidents, and other unexplained
events.
ALBULARIO/MANANAMBAL
a Filipino practitioner of traditional
medicine
he is also a medicine man who is also
capable of performing sorcery
a Filipino witch doctor, folk healer or
medicine man
When the person feels that his ailments
and misfortunes are caused by kulam,
he consults an albulario who performs
rituals in order to defeat the spells of
the mangkukulan and bring the person
back to normalcy.
PHILIPPINE FOLKLORE CREATURES
FINDING AND CREATING MEANING
VIKTOR FRANKL
an Austrian neurologist and
psychologist founded Logotherapy
Logotherapy
based on the premise that the human
person is motivated by a “will to
meaning,” an inner pull to find a
meaning in life
THE FOLLOWING LIST OF TENETS
REPRESENTS BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
LOGOTHERAPY:
Life has meaning under all
circumstances, even the most miserable
ones.
Our main motivation for living is our will
to find meaning in life.
We have freedom to find meaning in
what we do, and what we experience,
or at least in the stand we take when
faced with a situation of unchangeable
suffering.
 Political position based on the interest
EVERYBODY CAN DISCOVER THE and perspective of one’s social
MEANING IN THEIR LIFE IN THREE organizations
DIFFERENT WAYS:
By creating a work or doing a deed  Social Organization
 Religion
By experiencing something or  Race
encountering someone  Nationality
 gender/identity
By the attitude we take toward  Language
unavoidable suffering and that  Culture
everything can be taken from a man but  Ethnicity
one thing: the last of the human  Etc.
freedoms—to choose one's attitude in
any given set of circumstances Our social surrounding is shaped by
political forces such as national policies,
political trends, and economic
THE POLITICAL SELF decisions.

Political orientation. We tend to prefer

TOPICS TO DISCUSSED:
groups based on our preferences,
The Meaning of Political Self
ideals, and interests. We want our
perception of our social surrounding to
‘Political’ and ‘Leadership’
be aligned in with our sense of self.
Theories of Leadership
Political ideas. Our organized set of
beliefs regarding social behaviours
Factors that Affects the Political Self
within our political environment.
Filipino Values, Traits and Etc.
Political attitude. Shown to be related
to behaviours related to one’s moral
Establishing Democratic Culture
reasoning.
1. The Meaning of Political Self
Identity of Filipino
A public identity that one makes and
constructs about him/herself.
Filipino identity was created primarily
Refers to how an individual engages
as a result of pre-colonial cultures,
himself to political issues and has
colonial influences and foreign traders
prejudice and knows how to be
intermixing and gradually evolving
involved in a healthy discourse without
together.
showing fallacies

You’re a Filipino if you know:
 Bahala na
 Utang na loob
 Pagiging mahiyain
 Filipino time
 Family above all things
 Saying kain po to random
people
 You keep a tabo in your
bathroom
 Take selfies on significant
places or events
 Eat with bare hands
Types of Political Self in the Philippines
Right wing (Conservatism)
Economic planning, state-based trade,
social and class-based hierarchy, no
individual property rights, state-based
religion, protectionist, nationalist, no
separation of church and state, limited
freedom of speech, limited freedom of
assembly, no right to a fair trial
People or groups that have
conservative views. That generally
means they are disposed to preserving
existing conditions and institutions. Or
they want to restore traditional ones
and limit changes.
Left wing (Liberalism)
The ideology of liberty and equality
Economic freedom, free trade,
individual liberty, property rights. They
champion essential human rights, but
not necessarily at the cost of using too
much governmental power.
The left-wing is characterized by an
emphasis on ideas such as freedom,
equality, fraternity, rights, progress,
reform and internationalism.
2. Political and Leadership
Political
It is a ubiquitous and seemingly
indispensable term in the discussion of
human affairs. We use it to speak of
quite different kinds of things –
institutions, actions, conflicts,
expenditures, types of discourse,
branch of science and such.
Leadership
An act of guiding a team of individual to
achieve a certain goal through direction
and motivation.
Leaders encourage others to take the
actions they need to succeed.
To be a great leader, it is necessary to
learn and cultivate the skills it takes to
be effective.
Each leader may have a defined
leadership styles or a mix of several
depending on the team and situation.
Leadership styles:
Transactional
Sets predetermined incentives for
reaching goals.
Transformational
Focuses on setting and achieving
company goals.
Autocratic
Focuses on setting goals based on
efficiency.
Democratic
Works to listen and incorporate team
member’s ideas.
3. Theories of Leadership
Psychological needs
DAVID MCCLELLAND
Believed that we have three
psychological needs:
- Need for power (nPow)
- Need for affiliation (nAff)
- Need for achievement (nAch)
Two Types of Motives of Social
Influence:
 NORMATIVE INFLUENCE
Based on conforming to positive
expectations of others; helps avoid
punishment. Here, you do something
only for the reason you do not want to
receive punishment.
INFORMATIONAL INFLUENCE
Based on accepting the information
obtained from others as evidence of
reality.
Three Leadership Motivation Patterns
CHAN AND DRASGOW, 2001
Affective Identity Motivation. The
motivation to lead as a result of a desire
to be in charge and lead others.
No Calculative Motivation. Those who
seek leadership positions because they
will result in personal gain.
Social Normative Motivation. The desire
to lead out of sense of duty or
responsibility.
Types of Leaders According to Path-
Goal Theory
 Instrumental. Leaders who plan
and organizes for their
subordinates.
 Supportive. Leaders who show
concern to their subordinates.
 Participative. Leaders who
allow subordinates to
participate in decision-making.
 Achievement oriented. Sets
challenges and rewards as an
achievement.
4. Factors that Affects the Political Self
Individual Factors
 Institutional Factors
 Community Factors
 Individual Factors
 Presence of dualism
  This highlights the contradiction
between self-interest and the
good of the community.
 Attitudes change
 Due to the events that sweep
the nation. Due to involvement
ion service-oriented activities.
 Institutional Factors
5. Filipino Traits And Values
 Patriotism
 Family Oriented
 Flexibility
 Adaptivity and Creativity
(Diskarte)
 Ability to Find Joy and Humor to
Everything
 Optimistic and Always Positive
 Hardworking
 Damayan (Bayanihan)
 Kinship/Camaraderie
 Unique Culture using Po And
Opo as a Sign of Respect
6. Establishing Democratic Culture
Democratic culture
Defined as the desire and ability of
individuals in a population to
participate actively, individually and
together, to the government of public
affairs affecting them.
The existence of democratic culture
within a population is characterized by
active contribution, of members of civil
society to development of: common
good, term of ‘living together’ and the
construction of collective decisions.
A democratic development of: common
good, term of ‘living together’ and the
construction of collective decisions.
culture rests on the existence with the
persons of forms of autonomy of
thought and action.
The contribution of civil society
members is not limited to individual
plan.
It requires the development dynamic
interactions (structured or
spontaneous) between members of civil
society and of adapted forms to act
together and co-responsibility, for the
construction and maintenance of the
common good.
Digital Self
Self in the cyberspace
 Digital literacy
the capabilities possessed by individuals
who are living, learning and working in
a
digital society
In the cyberspace
 People are willing to speak out
and misbehave
 Authority is minimized
 Online Disinhibition - lack of
restraint when
 you are communicating online
 TYPES OF DISINHIBITION  Exemplification

Benign Disinhibition  Intimidation

Speaking about emotions, fears and
wishes  Supplication
Showing kindness and helping others
Combating loneliness through online DO SOCIAL MEDIA MAKE US SAD?
interactions
Finding emotional support

Toxic Disinhibition
MANAGING AND
Rude language, harsh criticism, anger,
hatred, and threats
CARING FOR THE
Pornography and violence SELF
Cyber bullying
Threatening, humiliating, sprea
A. LEARNING TO BE A BETTER STUDENT
ding rumors, making fun of others
HOW LEARNING HAPPENS IN THE
Cyber harassment or exploitation HUMAN BRAIN?
Learning is simply what the brain does

Managing Toxic Disinhibition Learning is a physical process in which

new knowledge is represented by new
 Be careful about sharing brain cell connections.

 Do not hang with the wrong As a result of breakthroughs in

crowd online neuroscience research, including
neuroimaging and neuroelectric
 Consider your emotional state monitoring of neurons (brain cells)
before firing, we now can observe how the
 posting brain responds during learning.

 Consider other people’s Brain is an enormous network of

reaction neurons.

Types of Self Presentation HOW THE BRAIN LEARNS?

The brain acts as a dense network of
 Self-promotion fibre pathways consisting of
approximately 100 billion (1010)
 Ingratiation neurons. The brain consists of three
principle parts – stem, cerebellum and
cerebrum – as shown in Figure.
Of the three, the cerebrum is most
important in learning, since this is
where higher-ordered functions like
memory and reasoning occur. Each area
of the cerebrum specializes in a
function – sight, hearing, speech, touch,
short-term memory, long-term
memory, language and reasoning
abilities are the most important for
learning.
Through a network of neurons, sensory
information is transmitted by synapses
(see Figure) along the neural pathway
and stored temporarily in short-term
memory, a volatile region of the brain
that acts like a receiving centre for the
flood of sensory information we
encounter in our daily lives.
Once processed in short-term memory,
our brain’s neural pathways carry these
memories to the structural core, where
they are compared with existing
memories and stored in our long-term
memory, the vast repository of
everything we have ever experienced in
our lives. This process occurs in an
instant, but it is not always perfect. In
fact, as information races across billions
of neurons’ axons, which transmit
signals to the next neuron via synapse,
some degradation is common. That’s
why many of our memories are
incomplete or include false portions
that we make up to fill holes in the real
memory.
Neuroscientists have long believed that
learning and memory formation are
made by the strengthening and
weakening of connections among brain
cells.
Recently, researchers at the University
of California Irvine’s Centre for the
Neurobiology of Learning and Memory
proved it.
In experiments with mice, they were
able to isolate and observe the actions
of the brain while learning a new task.
Researchers found that when two
neurons frequently interact, they form
a bond that allows them to transmit
more easily and accurately. This leads
to more complete memories and easier
recall. Conversely, when two neurons
rarely interacted, the transmission was
often incomplete, leading to either a
faulty memory or no memory at all.
This research has important
implications for learning, especially
regarding how we acquire new
knowledge, store it in memory and
retrieve it when needed. When learning
new things, memory and recall are
strengthened by frequency and
recency. The more we practice and
rehearse something new and the more
recently we have practiced, the easier it
is for our brain to transmit these
experiences efficiently and store them
for ready access later. This process is
called fluency.
Another recent study at the Martinos
Center for Biomedical Imaging,
Department of Radiology,
Massachusetts General Hospital and
Harvard Medical School found that:
the structural core of the brain receives
sensory information from different
regions and then assembles bits of data
into a complete picture that becomes a
memory of an event. This memory is
strengthened by multiple sensory
inputs.
What does this neuroscience research
suggest about learning?
We need to ensure that learning
engages all the senses and taps the
emotional side of the brain, through
methods like humour, storytelling,
group activities and games.
Emphasis on the rational and logical
alone does not produce powerful
memories.
A third recent discovery at the
University of Michigan’s Biopsychology
Program confirmed that the brain
behaves selectively about how it
processes experiences that enter
through our five senses.
The brain is programmed to pay special
attention to any experience that is
novel or unusual. It does this by making
comparisons between the new
information brought through the senses
and existing information stored in our
brain’s long-term memory. When the
brain finds a match, it will quickly
eliminate the new memory as
redundant.
LEARNING IMPLICATIONS OF BRAIN
SCIENCE
Recent Brain Research Finding
 Frequency and recency of
neuron synapses increase
memory
 Emotions strengthen memory
 Learning causes changes to the
physical structure of the brain
 Memories are stored in
multiple parts of the brain
 Our brains are programmed to
focus on new and unusual
inputs
Implications for Learning
 Increase frequency through
practice and maintain fluency
through use.
 Appeal to and engage emotions
while learning
 Engaging in learning increases
our ability to learn throughout
our lives
 Engage all senses when
learning.
 Learning should tap into the
brain’s natural curiosity and
intrinsic motivation

METACOGNITION AND STUDY
STRATEGIES
Metacognition
“thinking about your own
thinking”
Cognition
thinking
Meta
beyond so the phrase means
beyond thinking
a person’s awareness of ones thoughts
and one’s ability to control it
a higher order thinking which control
the cognitive process involved in the
learning process.
METACOGNITION CONSISTS OF TWO
COMPONENTS:
Metacognitive Knowledge
The learner’s awareness of one’s ability
to understand and learn concepts, and
knowledge about one’s learning
strategies
Metacognitive Regulation
The learner’s ability to observe one’s
method of thinking, planning, evaluate
the effectiveness of the own learning
strategies and identifying the outcomes
METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE HAS
THREE TYPES:
declarative knowledge (person
knowledge)
is the understanding of ones
capacities. It is one’s subjective
assessment.
procedural knowledge (task knowledge)
it is the person’s awareness of
one’s knowledge and assessment
whether a task is easy or difficult.
strategy knowledge (conditional
knowledge)
it is the person’s ability to use
strategies to acquire information, learn
new skills or understand concepts. It
also refers to one’s ability to cope or
adapt other strategies to different
situations.
Metacognitive regulation on the other
hand is a person’s ability to monitor and
assess their knowledge. Monitoring
involves observing one’s knowledge and
assess whether one did well or not. A
person may also evaluate the outcome
or output of one’s knowledge and
distinguish whether such outcome is
what the person expected and whether
it can be improved.
Metacognition has an important role in
acquiring knowledge or skill therefore it
is important to teach learners
metacognitive control. Metacognitive
strategies can be taught and learned
gradually. Teaching students self-
evaluation skills help facilitate learning.
METACOGNITIVE STUDY SKILLS AND
STRATEGIES:
 Listening to your own thoughts
by speaking clearly.
 Self-monitoring
 Reflection
 Awareness of rubrics
 Self-tests
 Observing overt teacher
demonstration and modelling.
 Comprehension
 Rehearsing
 Knowing one’s limits
MANAGING YOUR OWN LEARNING:
SELF-REGULATED LEARNING
SELF-REGULATED LEARNING MODEL
self-regulation is composed of three
phases:
Forethought
Performance control
Self-reflection
Barry Zimmerman
Questions that a self-regulated student
asks themselves
Forethought
  When is the best time for me to
get the task done?
 Where is the best place to
complete the task?
 How will I start?
Performance Control
 Am I following the plan
correctly?
 Am I focused or not?
 What strategies can I use to
help me keep working?
Self-Reflection
 Did I meet the goal?
 Which condition
distracted me or helped
me succeed?
 Which strategies are
most effective?
B. SETTING GOALS FOR SUCCESS
the desired outcome anticipated by a
person or organization
help us to concentrate our energy,
arrange strategies, consciously having a
purpose-centered life, and provide us a
sense of accomplishment
establishes a standard or objective to
serve as target of one’s actions.
it is involved in all the self-regulation
/metacognitive process.
Locke (1969) said that working toward a
goal is also a major source of
motivation and improves performance
and that clear goals and appropriate
feedback motivates a person.
Burton (1983) claimed that people who
use goal setting effectively suffer less
from stress and anxiety, concentrate
better, perform better, confident and
are satisfied.
Locke (2002) claimed that a person’s
uppermost moral goal is the attainment
of one's own happiness and even
coined the phrase 'pursuit of
happiness,' in his book An Essay
Concerning Human Understanding.
GOAL- SETTING THEORY
refers to the effects of setting goals on
subsequent performance
proposed five basic principles of goal-
setting: clarity, challenge, commitment,
feedback, and task complexity.
EFFECTIVE GOAL-SETTING PRINCIPLES:
HOW DO I USE THIS IN MY LIFE?
WHAT ARE GOAL SETTING TOOLS?
a great way to help you set goals, keep
track of, and stay focused on what
you’re trying to achieve.
INFORMAL
 ∙ A handwritten diary or journal
tracking your goals and smaller
daily achievements
 ∙ Using your mobile phone to
set daily reminders or
countdown apps for when you
 want to achieve certain things
by  Make an Action Plan
 ∙ Motivational notes and
posters set around your home  Stick With It!
or work desk as friendly
reminders TAKING CHARGE OF ONE’S
 ∙ Telling friends and family what
HEALTH
you’re working towards so they
can offer support A. LIVING A HEALTHY LIFESTYLE
 ∙ Visualization activities
including meditation, positive B. MANAGING STRESS
affirmations, and mindfulness
C. SELF-CARE AND WELLNESS

FORMAL
 ∙ Regular meetings/reviews with
your line manager at work to A. LIVING A HEALTHY LIFESTYLE
keep you accountable (if your
 Healthy lifestyle makes a big difference
goals are work related)
 A healthy lifestyle is a way of living that
 ∙ Joining groups or meet-ups
lowers the risk of being seriously ill or
with individuals trying to
dying early
achieve the same goals (such as
 Health is not only just about avoiding
weight loss, or athletic
disease
groups/fitness classes)
 A general rule of thumb is to moderate
 ∙ Working with a peer coach or
your workload and avoid taking on too
mentor to help motivate you to
much
stay on track
 ∙ Utilizing goal setting software
tools and apps to help keep you
on track. Healthy Lifestyles for College Students

1. STICK TO SOLID SLEEP SCHEDULE

FIVE GOLDEN RULES OF GOAL SETTING:
Set Goals That Motivate You 2. LEARN TO SAY NO

Set SMART Goals 3. EAT REGULAR MEALS

 Specific 4. FIND AN EXERCISE ACTIVITY YOU LOVE
 Measurable
 Attainable 5. UP ON HEALTHY FOODS
 Relevant
6. STOP PROCRASTINATING
 Time Bound
7 TRY NOT TO BURN OUT
 Set Goals in Writing
B. MANAGING STRESS ∙ Not going to class

THE PROS AND CONS OF STRESS ∙ Short temper or increased agitation

 Stress is anything that alters your ∙ Tension

natural balance.
∙ Headaches

∙ Tight muscles
Two different sources of stress:
∙ Changes in eating habits (e.g., “stress eating”)
 external triggers, like transitioning to
college or your parents getting a ∙ Changes in sleeping habits
divorce,
 internal triggers, like placing high
expectations on yourself.
WAYS OF REDUCING AND MANAGING STRESS:
 Stress is a part of everyday life.
∙ Practice time management skills to manage
your academic schedule, social activities, and
∙Difficulty concentrating making time for yourself.

∙ Increased worrying ∙ Set and implement specific goals for yourself

that will improve your mood and help you
∙Trouble completing assignments on time reduce stress.

∙ Not going to class ∙ Avoid procrastination. Procrastination can

create more mental and physical stress.
∙ Short temper or increased agitation
∙ Exercise regularly. Physical activity can help
∙ Tension
you burn off the energy generated by stress.
∙ Headaches
∙ Practice good sleep habits to ensure that you
∙ Tight muscles are well-rested.

∙ Changes in eating habits (e.g., “stress eating”)

∙ Changes in sleeping habits WAYS OF REDUCING AND MANAGING STRESS:

 Try mindfulness meditation.

 Limit (or eliminate) the use of
COMMON INDICATORS OF STRESS: stimulants like caffeine, which can
∙Difficulty concentrating elevate the stress response in your
body.
∙ Increased worrying  Pace yourself throughout the day,
taking regular breaks from work or
∙Trouble completing assignments on time
other structured activities.\
  Start a journal.
 Realize that you have limits.
WAYS OF REDUCING AND MANAGING STRESS:
∙ Plan leisure activities to break up your
schedule.
∙ Recognize the role your own thoughts can play
in causing you distress.
∙ Find humor in your life. Laughter can be a
great tension-reducer.
 Seek the support of friends and family
when you need to “vent” about
situations that bring on stressful
feelings.
 Try setting a specific goal for yourself
that will improve your mood and help
you reduce stress.
Relaxation Techniques
 Breathing Exercise
 Progressive Muscle Relaxation
 Visual (Guided) Imagery
Mindfulness
 is about noticing our thoughts, feelings
or bodily sensations without judgment.
 it is a helpful tool in managing stress for
those with a mental illness.
➢ Being Mindful of Everyday Activities
➢ Practice Mindfulness through Meditation
C. SELF-CARE AND WELLNESS
Self-care
 is any activity that we do deliberately in
order to take care of our
- mental
- emotional
- physical health
 is key to improved mood and reduced
anxiety
 also key to a good relationship with
oneself and others.
Three Golden Rules:
 Stick to the basics.
 Self-care needs to be something you
actively plan, rather than something
that just happens.
 What I often emphasize to my clients is
that keeping a conscious mind is what
counts.
Basic checklist that can be followed by all of
us:
 Create a “no” list, with things you know
you don’t like or you no longer want to
do
 Promote a nutritious, healthy diet
 Get enough sleep
 Exercise
 Follow-up with medical care
 Use relaxation exercises and/or practice
meditation
 Spend enough time with your loved
ones
 Do at least one relaxing activity every
day, whether it’s taking a walk or
spending 30 minutes unwinding
  Do at least one pleasurable activity
every day; from going to the cinema, to
cooking or meeting with friends
 Look for opportunities to laugh!
SELF-CARE
 is a vital part of maintaining good
health and a vibrant life.
 is a way of living that incorporates
behaviors that help you to be refreshed,
replenish your personal motivation, and
grow as a person.
WELLNESS
 is an interactive process of becoming
aware of and practicing healthy choices
to create a more successful and
balanced lifestyle
 is the framework that you can use to
organize, understand, and balance your
own growth and development
 a direction in which by its nature,
moves us toward a more proactive,
responsible and healthier existence.
 the integration of the body, mind, and
spirit.
 the loving acceptance of ourselves
today and the exciting free search for
who we choose to become tomorrow.
 choice living; a compilation of the daily
decisions we make that lead us to that
person we choose to become.
Six Basic Concepts of Wellness:
Social Wellness involves developing friendships,
healthy sexual behaviors, and the ability to
interact comfortably with others
Intellectual Wellness involves the strong desire
to learn from challenges and experiences.
Spiritual Wellness involves the willingness to
seek meaning and purpose in human existence;
regardless of your religious beliefs.
Emotional Wellness involves having the ability
to acknowledge and accept a wide range of
feelings in oneself as well as in others.
Physical Wellness involves regular physical
activities, proper nutrition and health care, such
as exercise or sports, and personal hygiene.
Occupational Wellness involves the integration
of various components of the wellness
framework into planning for a healthy future,
such as career, family and future wellness.
Maria Baratta, Ph.D., L.C.S.W.
have been in practice as a Clinical Social
Worker/ psychotherapist for over three
decades and have my years of experience to
share. 
write regularly for  Psychology Today.com and
am one of their "experts," have written a book
on the treatment of anorexia,  have appeared
on ABC TV/ Good Morning America, and am
chair of the National Association of Social
Workers Private Practice Section Committee. 
available for tele-health sessions as well as
telephone consultations to help determine if
working together might be a good fit. 
offices are in Manhattan- Central Park your day or, at the very least, your
West, and Nassau County- Lynbrook, Long week.
Island, New York.  Self- care means knowing how to
decompress after a day's work.
 Self-care means feeding your spiritual
10 ways to exercise self-care and take better self.
care of you:  Self- care means taking time to love
yourself and appreciating that there's
 Self- care means knowing who you are only one you and you're the expert on
and your limits. that.
 Self -care means getting the sleep you
need and knowing how to rest.
 Self- care means making sure that
you're well fed.
 Self -care means finding a way to
decompress throughout your day, not
just when you leave work.
 Self- care means giving some thought to
changing a difficult work situation.

 10 ways to exercise self-care and take

better care of you:
 Self -care means taking time to get to
know you better.
 Self- care means identifying what you
enjoy doing and what's fun for you and
make a serious effort to integrate it into