IGCSE Biology Notes

—

Contents
 The Variety of Life 
. Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. The Binomial Naming System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Animal Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Protoista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Charaeristics of Lⅳing Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Branching Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Couplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 Cells, Diffusion & Osmosis 

. Specialised Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Cell Aⅳities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 Enzymes 
. Properties of Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. How Enzymes Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Uses for Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Immobilisng Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 Nutrition & Balanced Diets 

. Food Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Starch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Fat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 


 Protein (Biuret test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 Digestion & Absorption 

. Teeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Tooth Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Duodenum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Small Intestine (Ileum) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Lⅳer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Large Intestine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 Nutrition in Plants 
. Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. The Leaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Chloroplasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Stomata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 Transport in Animals 
. The Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Arteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Composition of the Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Blood Cloing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Tissue Fluid Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. The Lymphatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
The Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Transplants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 Transport in Plants 
. Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Faors Affeing Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Xerophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Movement of Photosynthetic Produs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Systemic Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 


 Respiration & Gaseous Exchange 
. Aerobic Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Anaerobic Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Yeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Calorimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. The Lungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Increase in Breathing Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Cigaree Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 Excretion & Homeostasis 

. Excretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. Homeostasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. The Pancreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 Reproduction 
. Asexual Reproduion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Baeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
Funghi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 

List of Figures
 A baerium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A pical plant cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A pical animal cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 The process of osmosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A plant cell reaing to different pes of turgor pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 The aion of an enzyme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 The alimentary canal (digestⅳe system). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A cross-seion of a human tooth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A single human ⅵllus om the small intestine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A pical leaf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A chloroplast. On each membrane are many molecules of chlorophyll. . . . . . . 
 A single stoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 Diagram of a human heart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 Human blood vessels. The lumen in the artery is much smaller than the lumen in
the vein, as the blood is at a much higher pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 Red blood cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 


 Antigens on a cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A lymphocyte. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A lymphocyte indentiing a baerium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A root hair cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 Water vapour build-up around a stoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A simple calorimeter – used to measure the energy value of a respiratory substrate. 
 The lungs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 Some alveoli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 The aion of breathing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 Part of the lining of the respiratory passages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 The excretory system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 Urea produion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 The Suure of an amino acid. R can stand for anything. The NH part of
the molecule (ammonia) is toⅺc, and is converted into urea. Deamination is the
removal of the niogen-containing part of the amino acid. . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 How urine is produced – there are two processes: ula-filation, and seleⅳe
reabsorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 An indⅳidual glomerulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 Kidney failure – if one or both kidneys fail then dialysis is used or a ansplant
performed to keep urea and solute concenation in the blood constant. . . . . . . 
 Kidney ansplant may be necessary as Rhenal dialysis is inconvenient for the patient
and costly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
 A summary of how body and blood temperature are maintained. . . . . . . . . . 


 The Variety of Life
. Taxonomy
This is the scientific name for puing things into groups – classification and naming.
This largest group is called a ‘kingdom’.
The system was deⅵsed in the th Century by Carl Linnaeus.
— Kingdom
.increa
— Phylum . sing sim
ilari
— Class
— Order
— Family
— Genus
— Species

. The Binomial Naming System

All organisms have two Latin (a unⅳersal language) names – Genus and Species. The Genus is
wrien with a capital leer. When handwriting, both words are underlined. When ping, they are
put in italics. For example:
Homo Sapiens (Handwrien)

Felix cattus (Typed)

. Kingdoms
• Animalia

• Plantae

• Baeria (monera, prokaryote)

• Fungi

• Protoista

Animal Kingdom

There are  Phyla. Among them are:

• Chordates (vertebrates) (in order of evolution:)

– Fish


 – Amphibians
– Reptiles
– Birds
– Mammals

• Arthropods

– Inses
* Grasshoppers, buerflies, beetles, ants etc.
* , described world species
* Three body regions: head, thorax, abdomen
* Sⅸ legs aached to the thorax (which has  segments)
* Adults with one or two pairs of wings aached to the thorax (some have none)
* Tow antennae
* Lateral compound eyes
– Arachnids
* Spiders, scorpions, ticks, moites, etc.
* , described world species
* Two body regions: cephalothorax, abdomen
* Eight legs
* No antennae
* Mouth parts are chelicerae (modified appendages) which in spiders are fangs
– Crustaceans
* Technically a subphylum
* Classes include crabs, shrimps, lobsters, barnacles, isopods etc.
* , described world speies
* Two body regions
* Two pairs of antennae
*  or more pairs of legs
* Primarily aquatic, few terrestrial
– Myriapods
* Chilopods
· Centipedes
· , described world species
· well-defined head
· first pair of legs modified for envenomation
· flaened top to boom
· one pair of legs persegment


 · one pair of antennae
* Diplopods
· Millipedes
· , described world species
· Two pairs of legs per segments, first four segments have  pair of legs
· one pair of antennae
· well-defined head
· usually cylindrical

• Nematodes

– Roundworms
– Can be microscopic, or up to m in length
– Can be ee lⅳing or parasitic
– No circulatory or respiratory system
– Suure is a “tube within a tube”
– No chaetae
– Use sexual reporoduion

• Molluscs

– So bodied
– No segmentation
– Single muscular foot
– Hard external shell (calcium carbonate) or internal shell
– Most have rasping tongue (radula)
– Filter feeders – mussels
– Carnⅳorous – oopi
– Marine organisms with shells (except barnacles and crustaceans)
– Terrestrial – snails & slugs

• Annelids

– Segmented worms (e.g. earthworm)

– Leeches
– Sexual and asexual reporoduion (depending on species)
– Vascular and nervous system
– No legs but may have chaetae (stiff hairs) to aid movement
– may have obⅵous head


Protoctista

• Single-celled – Eukaryotes – Protista¹

– Protozoa & Protophyta

• Multicelled

– Seaweed
* Kelp
* Algae
– Slime molds
– Amoeba
– Ciliates
– Diatoms
– Paramecia
– Forams
– etc.

. Characteristics of Living Things

M ovement

R espiration

S ensitⅳi

G rowth

R eproduion

E xcretion

N uition

. Branching Keys

A key is a means of identiing an unfamiliar organism om a seleion. Indⅳidual organisms are
found by following a series of paired, numbered options, or a chart which offers no more than two
choices at each stage. A key either wrien in couplets, or as a chart:
¹They have a proper nucleus as opposed to Baeria. Eukaryots are aquatic/plant-like organisms that don’t fit in the
Animal/Plant/Baeria kingdoms.


Couplets

. Hairy skin — .

Non-hairy skin — go to .

. External pips — .

No external pips — go to .

. Near spherical shape — go to .

Other shape — .

. Smooth surface — .

Indented surface — go to .

. Suure made up of sub-units — .

Suure made up of single unit — .

Key

Foop: Woop: Moop:

.
.Does it have three antennae?

. .

.Does it have three eyes? .It does not eⅺst.

. .

.Is it round? .It’s a Woop.

. .

.It’s a Moop. .It’s a Foop.

 Cells, Diffusion & Osmosis

. Specialised Cells
All cells are designed to do a particular job in an organism. This is called  .
Examples of specialised cells are shown below.


 Capsule
Cell wall
Plasma membrane

Cytoplasm

Ribosomes
Plasmid
Pili

Bacterial Flagellum
Nucleoid (circular DNA)

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg

Figure : A baerium.

Plant cells Animal Cells

Always have cell wall made of cellulose and hence a definite shape No cell wall, hence no difinite shape
Usually have large, permanent vacuole Any vacuoles are small and temporary
Some have chloroplasts Never have chloroplasts
Up to mm long Usually less than .mm long.
Examples:
palisade cells cheek lining cells
phloem sieve tube elements muscle fibres
root hair cell red blood cells
Table : Differences between plant and animal cells.


 Filamentous
Plasmodesmata cytoskeleton
Small membranous
Plasma membrane vesicles
Cell wall

Chloroplast
thylakoid membrane
Starch grain
Smooth
endoplasmic
Vacuole
reticulum
Vacuole
Tonoplast Ribosomes

Mitochondrion
(mitochondria)

Peroxisome

Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Nuclear pore
Golgi vesicles Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Golgi body Rough
(Golgi apparatus) endoplasmic
reticulum

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Plant_cell_structure_svg.svg (Public Domain)

Organelle Function
Nucleus Conols the cell’s aⅳities, contains DNA
Cytoplasm Where metabolic reaions take place
Cell membrane Partially permeable, conols the eny/eⅺt of substances
Mitochondria Where aerobic respiration takes place
Cell wall (plants only) Fully permeable, prevents cell om bursting
Permanent vacuole Storage area, contains cell sap
Chloroplast (plants only) Where photosynthesis takes place
Figure : A pical plant cell.

Sperm cell designed to fertilise eggs

A sperm cell is very small and has a lile tail which proⅵdes movement so it can swim and find
an egg to fertilise.
Its head contains enzymes (in the vacuole) which allow it do digest its way through an egg
membrane so the two nuclei can join.
It contain half the number of chromosomes in the nucleus – these caryy genetic information
om the father, which will be passed on to the offspring.


 Nucleus
Nucleal pore
Nucleal envelope Golgi vesicles
C hromatin (golgi apparatus) Lysosome
Nucleolus
C entrioles
Ribosomes

Plasma membrane C ytoplasm

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
C ytoskeleton
Free Ribosomes

Secretory vesicle

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Animal_cell_structure_en.svg (Public Domain)

Organelle Function
Nucleus Conols cell aⅳities, contains DNA
Cytoplasm Where metabolic reaions take place
Cell membrane Partially permeable, conols eny/eⅺt of substances
Mitochondia Site of aerobic respiration
Figure : A pical animal cell.

Ovum (egg) cell designed to be fertilised

An ovum is large and bulky because no aⅳe ovement is needed – it just sits and waits for the
sperm to find it.
It contains yolk (in the cytoplasm) which proⅵdes a large food store needed for the developing
young organism once it’s fertilised.
It contains half the number of chromosomes, which carry genetic information om the mother
– this will be passed on to the offspring.

Palisade cell for photosynthesis


 A palisade cell is tall with a large surface area. It’s found on the top side of a leaf – ideal for good
absorpion of carbon dioⅺde and light – both are needed for photosyntheses.
They’re packed with chloroplasts, which contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which is needed
for photosynthesis.

Ciliated cell to stop lung damage

Ciliated cells line all the air passages in the lungs. Mucus is sticky and so aps dust and baeria.
The cilia wa and sweep up the mucus to the back of the throat where it is swallowed. The
baeria are then killed by the acid in the stomach.

Root hair cell for absorbtion

The long hair cell increases the surface area of the root, which helps absorption of water and
minerals.
It has a very thin cell wall, which makes it easier for minerals to pass across into the root itself.

Red blood cells (erythrocytes) for ansport

They do not contain a nucleus, so there is more room for the protein molecule to carry oxygen.
Their biconcave shape gⅳes them a large surface area for gas exchange.

Muscle cells for movement

Muscle cells have protein strands that can slide across each other for conaion. Each cell has
several nuclei. There are  pes – smooth, skeletal and cardiac.

Tissues A tissue is a group of similar cells, working to perform the same funion, e.g. muscle
tissue is made om muscle cells.

Organs Different tissues are arranged to form an organ. They work together to perform a particular
funion, e.g. the heart.

Organ Systems A group of organs working together form an organ system, e.g. the circulatory
system.

. Cell Activities

All cells exchange gases, nuients and other materials between themselves and their surroundings.

Diffusion is the ee movement of particles of a substance (atoms, ions or molecules) om regions
of high concenation to regions of lower concenaion. The process continues until the particles
are evenly distributed. This is movement down a concenation gradient.
Diffusion is the usual way in which molecules move into or out of cells.

Concentration gradient refers to the difference in concenation between one region and another.
The greater the difference in concenaion, the steeper the concenation gradient, and the faster
the rate of diffusion. Surfaces qhere gas exchange occurs oen maintain a steep diffusion gradient
so that idffusion occuras rapidly. For example:


 • across the linging of the air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs of humans
• across the surface of cells bordering air spaces in the leaves of plants

Osmosis is a specific pe of diffusion. It is the diffusion of water om a dilute solution to a
more concenated soution throuh a partially permeable membrane. Cell membranes are partially
permeable membranes, and it is by osmosis that water moves into and out of cells.
In osmosis, water diffuses om a high water concenation to a low water concenation (see
Figure ).

• Cells placed in distilled water will gain water by osmosis. This is because there is a lower
concenation of water inside than outside. The cells are said to be turgid.
• Cells placed in a concenated solution will lose water by osmosis. This is because there is
a greater concenation of water inside the cell. The cells are said to be flaccid. In severe
cases the cell membrane is pulled away om the cell wall. The cells are then said to be
plasmolysed. Eventually the process may stop because the concenations on both sides of
the cell membrane have equalised (see Figure ).

Active transport is a chemical process that results in a movement of particles in an opposite dir-
eion to that expeed by diffusion. Substances are taken scross a membrane om a region of
low concenation to a region of higher concenation, i.e. against a concenation gradient. As
its name implies, it is an aⅳe process and requires energy supplied by respiration.

Par t ially per meable membr ane

Wat er
S olut e,
e.g. s ugar

Dilut e s olut ion Concent r at ed s olut ion

( High wat er concent r at ion) ( Low wat er concent r at ion)

Dir ect ion of wat er

movement

Figure : The process of osmosis.

 Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts. They speed up the chemical reaions which go on inside lⅳing
things, and are exemely efficient.


 Va cuole

Plasmolysed Flaccid Turgid

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Turgor_pressure_on_plant_cells_diagram.svg (Public Domain)

Figure : A plant cell reaing to different pes of turgor pressure.

Enzymes are made inside cells. Once formed, the enzymes may leave the cell and do its job outside.
Such enzymes are called extracellular enzymes. They include the digestⅳe enzymes which break
down food substances in the gut.
Other enzymes work inside the cell. They are called intracellular enzymes. Their job is to speed
up he chemical reaions occurring in cells, and also conol them.
An example of a reaion conolled by an enzyme:

maltase(enzyme)
maltose(substrate) −−−−−−−−−−→ glucose(product)

The substance which the enzyme as on it called the substrate – in this case maltose. The new
substance or substances formed as a result of the reaion are the products. In this case there is just
one produ, glucose. The enzyme catalysing this particular reaion is maltase. This reaion can
go in either direion – it is reversible. If there is a lot of maltose present compared with glucose,
the reaion will go om le to right. If there is a lot of glucose compared to maltose, it will go
om right to le. Most metabolic reaions are reversible.

. Properties of Enzymes

. They are always proteins
We need to take proteins in, ⅵa our food to produce enzymes.

. They are specific in their action

Each enzyme conols one particular reaion, or pe of reaion – maltase will only a on
maltose, and sucrase on sucrose.

. They can be used multiple times

They are not altered by the reaion that they catalyse. However, they “run down” eventually and
have to be replaced.


. They are destroyed by heating
In common with all proteins, they are denatured by proteins. Normally this happens at ◦C.

. They are sensitive to pH

Their effeⅳeness depends on the degree of acidi or alkalini of the solution which they are
in. Most inacellular enzymes work best in neual conditions.

. How Enzymes Work

Enzyme changes shape Products

Substrate
slightly as substrate binds
Active site

Substrate entering Enzyme/substrate Enzyme/products Products leaving

active site of enzyme complex complex active site of enzyme

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Induced_fit_diagram.svg (Public Domain)

Figure : The aion of an enzyme.

Figure  shows in a simplified way how enzymes are believed to work. When a substrate molecule
happenes to impa on the aⅳe site of an enzyme, the reaion takes place and the produs leave,
eeing up the enzyme for another reaion.
Each enzyme’s aⅳe site has a specific shape, into which only one pe of substrate will fit. This is
why the enzyme is specific in its aion.
When an enzyme is denatured by heat, the shape of its aⅳe site changes, so substrates no longer
fit in it, and it is not effeⅳe.
Anything which helps substrates to come into conta with the enzyme at a faster rate will increase
the rate at which the enzyme can catalyse reaions. Higher temperatures mean that molecules
move around mroe quickly – a rise in temperature of ◦Ccan double the rate of reaion.
Some minerals and ⅵtamins also increase the rate of reaion.
Some poisons, such as cyanide and arsenic, inhibit enzymes by blocking the aⅳe site. Some
poisons block aⅳe sites permanently, others temporarily. This is also how some pesticides work.

. Uses for Enzymes

Enzymes can be exaed om organisms in a purified form, and then used in many scientific,
domestic and industrial processes. A common useage is in biological washign powders. Various
protein-digesting (proteases) are added to the washing powder, and they dissolve protein stains.


Biological washing powders are advantageous because they work at relatⅳely low temperatures. This
means they are usefulfor washing delicate fabrics, and can save elerici. However, some people
are allergic to them.
Enzymes are normally exaed om microbes, which are grown on a large scale in fermenters.
Some examples of enzyme use:

Proteases are used for tenderising meat, skinning fish, remoⅵng hair om hides, and breaking
down proteins in baby foods.
Amylases convert starch to sugar in making syrups, uit juices, chocolates and other food produs.
Cellulase breaks down cellulose and is used for soening vegetables, remoⅵng the seed coat om
cereal grain, and exaing agar jelly om seaweed.
Isomerase converts glucose into uose. Fruose is muchsweeter than glucose; this makes it
useful in sweets, syrups and slimming foods, as only small amounts are needed to sweeten the
produ.
Catalase releases oxygen om hydrogen peroⅺde, and is used in making foam rubber om latex.

. Immobilisng Enzymes

Biotechnologists have developed a beer method of using enzymes than simply mⅸing the enzyme
with the substrate. The enzymes are aachedf to an inert surface, usually glass or plastic beads. The
beads are then brought into conta with the substrate so that the reaions can take place.
One way of bringing the beads into conta with the substrate is to immerse them in a solution
of the substrate, and then wait for the reaion to be completed before colleing the produ and
starting again. This is called batch processing.
The other way is to slowly pour a solution of the subate through a column of the beads, and
the colle the produ om the boom. The substrate is aed upon progressⅳely as the solution
ickles down the column. This is called continous flow processing, because the produ is colleed
all the time. it is more efficient than batch processing.

 Nutrition & Balanced Diets

Nuition is the study of food and feeding processes. Food is the material om which organisms
obtain the energy and the raw materials to constru, maintain and repair the body.
Plants are autotrophic – they produce their own food, and come at the boom of the food chain.
Humans and other animals are heterotrophic (also known as holozoic) – they eat other plants and
animals, and cannot produce their own food.
Humans require a balanced diet. This is one which supplies the different pes of food in adequate
amounts and the corre proportions, and proⅵdes the body with sufficient energy for its needs. A
balanced diet maintains a healthy and aⅳe life and, where necessary, growth.
Humans use food for:


• Energy for body processes (usually obtained om carbohydrates and fats – sometimes om protein
when in a state of starvation).

• Building materials, to build the cells of the body (proteins, fats, ⅵtamins, minerals).

• Chemical reaions in the body (proteins, ⅵtamins, minerals, water).

There are seven chemical components of a balanced diet:

Carbohydrates To proⅵde energy.

Sugar Different kinds of food contain different pes of sugar: glucose or uose in uit, laose
in milk, or sucrose in ordinary table sugar. The formula for glucose, the simplest possible
sugar, is C H O . It is a monosaccharide – it is made into chains of polysaccharides. Two
glucose molecules bonded together form one maltose molecule.
Starch is found in bread, potatoes and cereals. Starch is a polysaccharide made of a spiral chain
of glucose molecules, and is used as the food reserves of plants.
Cellulose is a polysaccharide made of a straight chain of glucose molecules, and is used to build
plant cell walls.
Glycogen is a polysaccharide, and is used as the food reserves of animals, stored in the lⅳer and
muscles.

Fats To proⅵde energy, insulation, and to constru parts of cells.

Animal fats are obtained om lⅳestock, such as cale or pigs. They are eaten in the form of
buer, dripping or lard. They contain saturated fatty acids, which are unhealthy in large
amounts. Fat contains twice as much energy per gram as carbohydrates and proteins do,
and they are solid at room temperature.
Plant fats, or oils, for example olⅳe oil or corn oil, are liquid at room temperature. They contain
polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are more healthy than satureated fatty acids.

Proteins To build muscle, make enzymes and hormones, and constru parts of cells. It is nor-
mally obtained om the muscles of animals. The disease caused by protein deficiency is called
kwashiorkor. Some plants, such as soya beans and maize, contain relatⅳely large amounts of
protein compared to other plants, so it is possible to obtain most of the necessary amino acids
om plant-based foods. Proteins are made om amino acids. of which there are  different
pes. An organism’s DNA proⅵdes the template for linking amino acids in different orders to
produce proteins (there are a large number of possible combinations). Protein contains Niogen
and Sulphur.

Minerals are ions of certain elements (i.e. inorganic), which are needed for particular purposes
within the body. For example:

Calcium is needed for bone formation. Without calcium, bones are so. Calcium deficiency is
called rickets.


 Iron is required for haemoglobin, in blood. Oxygen is ansported around the body by binding
to haemoglobin. Iron is plentiful in lⅳer and kidneys. Iron deficiency results in anaemia.

Vitamins Various biological compounds required by the body. Some examples:

Vitamin A is neede by the eyes. Vitamin A deficiency is called xerophthalmia and leads to
blindness.
Vitamin C keeps the lining of the mouth and gums healthy. It is found in green vegetables, but
is destroyed by heating. Lack of it causes scurvy.
Vitamin D is needed to enable calcium to harden bones. Lack of it causes rickets.

Water Makes of -% of the body. The body’s chemical reaions take place in it. Humans
need about  lie of water every day.

Fibre Stimulates the smooth passage of food through the gut. Mainly made of cellulose, it aids
faeces formation.

Too much energy-rich food will cause the indⅳidual to become overweight, while too lile will
cause them to become underweight.
Malnuition is the result of not haⅵng a properly balanced diet. If the body does not receⅳe the
corre chemical components in the right proportions, it cannot funion efficiently.
In humans, as in other animals, complex organic food can enter body cells only if it is first broken
down into smalll soluble molecules. In humans, the stages int his process are:

Ingestion Food is taken into the mouth.

Digestion The breakdown of complex organic foods into small, soluble molecules.

Absorption The uptake of soluble food substances into the body across cell membranes.

Assimilation The use of soluble food substances by cells in the body.

Egestion The removal of undigested food om the body (not to be confused with excretion or
secretion).

In humans, the alimentary canal (gut) is responsible for the ingestion, digestion, absorption and
egestion of food.

. Food Tests

Sugar

. Mash the food and add water.

. Add cm3 of the food to a test tube.


. Add cm3 of Benedi’s solution to the test tube.

. Shake the test tube.

. Place the test tube in a waterbath for approⅺmately  minutes. If a precipitate develops, sugar is
present. The colour of the mⅸture gⅳes a rough indication of how much sugar is present: green
is the lowest concenation, yellow higher, brown still higher, and red the highest concenation.

Starch

. Add  drops of dilute iodine solution to the food sample.

. If the colout changes to blue-black, starch is present.

Fat

. Pour approⅺmately cm3 of absolute ethanol into a test tube.

. Add a small amount of the food sample to the ethanol.

. Shake the test tube.

. Add approⅺmately cm3 of water to the test tube.

. If the mⅸture turns cloudy white, fat is present.

Protein (Biuret test)

. Mash the food and add water.

. Add cm3 of the food to a test tube.

. Add a small amount of dilute sodium hydroⅺde solution until the mⅸure clears.

. Add a few drops of dilute copper sulphate solution.

. Shake the test tube.

. If the solution turns purple, protein is present.

. Drugs
A drug is something which changes the way the body works. Useful drugs include painkillers and
antibiotics. Harmful drugs can be addiⅳe, and harm the body in some way.
Addiion can be chemical – when the body becomes adjusted in such a way that it needs the drug,
or psychological – when the addied person feels a constant need for the drug.
Withdrawal symptoms om a drug include fever, and nausea.


Alcohol

• Reduces aⅳi of nervous system.

• Removes inhibitions, causes relaxation.
• Impairs judgement
• Is poisonous to the lⅳer. Alcohol poisoning causes a coma and death.

 Digestion & Absorption

Food must get into the blood in order to be carried to the bodiy’s cells. Only soluble food can
do this. Most food is insoluble, and is broken down into soluble particles through the process of
digestion, which occurs in the digestⅳe system (see Figure ).
Digestⅳe juices break down the food, starting in the mouth with salⅳa (om the salⅳary glands).
The food is then swallowed, and other juices om the lⅳer and pancreas are added. Bile is producewd
in the lⅳer, and then stored in the gall bladder, before being added to food in the stomach.
Muscles keep the walls of the stomach and small intestine moⅵng, mⅸing up the food and digestⅳe
juices, and keeping blood mⅵng through the digestⅳe system.
When the food has been completely broken down, it is absorbed into the blood in the small intestine,
which has a good blood supply and thin walls, which allows food to pass easily into the blood through
the process of diffusion.
Some food cannot be digested, and is egested through the anus.

. Food in chewed and mⅸed with salⅳa in the . ( minute)

salivary
Starch −−−−−→ Sugars
amylase

. The  carries the chewed-up food to the stomach, using muscular walls which push
food with a wave of conaion (peristalsis). (– seconds)
. Acid digestⅳe juices, ideal for pepsin (an enzyme that breaks down proteins), are added in the
. The food and the digestⅳe juices are mⅸed. (– hours)
pepsin
Proteins −−−−→ Amino acids

. More alkaline juices om the pancreas (to neualise the stomach acid) are added in the 
. There is more mⅸing, then the fully digested food is absorbed into the blood. (–
hours)
pancreatic
Starch −−−−−−→ Sugars
amylase
bile
Fats −−→ Fat droplets
lipase
Fat droplets −−−→ Fatty acids and Glycerol


 Salivary Glands
Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual

Pharynx
Tongue
Oral cavity R sophagus

Liver Pancreas
Stomach
Gallbladder
Pancreatic duct
Duodenum

Common
bile duct

Colon
Transverse colon
Ascending colon
Descending colon
Ileum
(small intestine)
Cecum
Appendix

Rectum
Anus

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Digestive_system_diagram_en.svg (Public Domain)

Figure : The alimentary canal (digestⅳe system).

. Only undigested waste material reaches the  . The water is taken back into the
body, leaⅵng solid waste. (– hours)

. Undigested food is stored in the reum, and then the solid waste is egested through the anus as
faeces.


. Teeth

C
Enamel
r
o Dentine
w
n Pulp
Gum

Cementum

R
o
o Bone
t
Blood vessel

Nerve

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tooth_Section.svg (Public Domain)

Figure : A cross-seion of a human tooth.

An adult teeth has, at most,  teeth. Thre are four main pes: , , -
and . Incisors are for cuing pieces off food, while canines are for griping it. Pre-molars and
molars are for grinding the food down until it can be swallowed easily.
The outside of a tooth is formed by hard enamel. Beneath this is a layer of hard dentine. In the
cene is a so area called the pulp caⅵ, which contains small blood vessels and a nerve (see Figure
). Tiny channels containing extensions of lⅳing cells tun outom the pulp caⅵ into the dentine.
These make the dentine sensitⅳe. The enamel and dentine are made hard by the presence of calcium
phosphate, the same substance that makes bones hard.
The outside of the root is covered by a material called cement. Aached to the cement are tough
fibres which run into the jaw bone. These fibres hold the tooth in its socket; they allow the tooth
to move slightly, and cushion it om being jarred when it hits something hard.

Tooth Decay

Tooth decay is caused by baeria in the mouth. These baeria form an inⅵsible layer called plaque
on the surface of the teeth.
Aer a meal, the baeria feed on any sugar present and turn it into acid. The acid eats into the


teeth. Within approⅺmately one hour the acid is neualised by the salⅳa. However, the decay has
oen already started by this time.
Decay usually starts between the teeth and in the creⅵces on the crowns. The acid eats through the
enamel into the dentine, allowing baeria to get into the pulp caⅵ. In severe cases the baeria
may spread to the base of the tooth, causing an abscess.
Baeria may also get between the tooth and the gum, causing the gum to bleed. Sometimes the
fibres aaching the tooth to the jaw are aacked, in which case the tooth gets loose and eventually
falls out.
There is strong eⅵdence that fluoride helps to prevent tooth decay. It strengthens teeth when they
are forming, and makes the enamel more resistant to acid.
Where there is not enough fluoride naturally occuring in public drinking water supplies, it is added
artificially. This has led to a large improvement in the general dental health of the population.

. Duodenum
Food leaⅵng the stomach enters the . Secretions om the lⅳer and pancreas are added
(pancreatic juice contains all three pes of digestⅳe enzymes). Bile is stored in the gall bladder,
and emulsifies fats. Sodium hydrogen carbonate neualises the stomach acid.

. Small Intestine (Ileum)

Digestion is completed in the   (or ), which secretes digestove enzymes, and
absorbs food.
The small intestine is covered in millions of tiny protusions called  (see Figure ). They increase
the surface area, and so increasing the rate at which the small intestine can absorb food. Each ⅵllus
has a thin surface layer, so there is only a short distance for absorption. Inside is a network of
capillaries to caryy away the absorbed sugars and amino acids. There is also a laeal, to carry away
the absorbed fatty acids to the lymhpatic system. Conneed to the capillaries is a blood vessel,
which carries the absorbed foods to the hepatic portal vein, and then on to the lⅳer.

. Liver
Many cells perform a wide range of funions in the lⅳer, in processing the absorbed foods.

on
g
=. =n⇒
gluca= Glycogen stores
.⇐=insuli

Glucose −→ Energy ⅵa Respiration

.−→
.
to other tissue ⅵa the circulation


 Thin surface layer

C apillaries

Lacteal

Blood vessel

Figure : A single human ⅵllus om the small intestine.

Synthesis of plasma proteins e.g. fibrinogen

.→
− .
Amino acids −→ Excess are deaminated −→ Urea for excretion
.−→.
to other tissue ⅵa the circulation

Fat stores
.→
− .
Fatty acids −→ Fats for cell membranes
.−→.
Energy ⅵa respiration

. Large Intestine

Water and salt are absorbed in the C. Undigested food is stored in the , along with
baeria and some dead cells. This forms faeces and is passed through sphiners out of the anus.


 Nutrition in Plants
. Photosynthesis
P is the process by which green plants make glucose and other organic molecles om
inorganice molecules, using light energy. The light energy is apped by chlorophyll. The overall
process for photosynthesis can be summarised as:

chlorophyll
Carbon Dioxode + Water −−−−−−−→ Glucose + Oxygen
light energy

Glucose is not the only organic substance made by photosynthesis. Other carbohydrates are also
formed, which can then be converted to fats, or, by combining with minerals, form amino acids and
ⅵtamins. Photosynthesis is the source of all organic substances in the plant.
chlorophyll
.Carbon dioxide + Water −−−−−−−→. Glucose and other sugars + Oxygen
light energy

respired or used to
make:

• starch

• sucrose excreted
or
.
• cellulose respired
.
• proteins

• fats

• ⅵtamins

• chlorophyll

Products of Photosynthesis Glucose and other sugars:

• Much of the glucose is converted to  for temporary storage in the leaf. At night, the starch
may be broken down to the sugar  and ansported through th phloem to other parts of
the plant.

• In the leaf, and throughout the plant, glucose is broken down in  to release energy.

• In growing regions, glucose is converted to  to make cell walls.


• In the leaf, some glucose is combined with niate to form  . These are later incorpor-
ated in to  to make enzymes and to make struural parts of cells, such as membranes.
If there is a shortage of niate, the plant is unable to grown properly, and is weak and unhealthy.
• In the leaf and elsewhere, glucose and other sugars are used to make  for struures such as
cell membranes and to make  which have essential uses for the plant.
• Some glucose is combined with minerals, especially magnesium, to form , the green
pigment used to ap light in photosynthesis.

Oxygen:

• Used in   throughout the plant.

• Excreted through stomata as a  .

. The Leaf

Cuticle
Upper
epidermis
Palisade
mesophyll Xylem Vascular
bundle
Phloem

Spongy
mesophyll

Lower
epidermis

Stoma Guard cells

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Leaf_anatomy.svg (CC-BY-SA-2.5)

Figure : A pical leaf.

Each leaf is aached to the stem or branch by a  , This leads to the  in the leaf. Leaves
are covered by a layer of waxy meial called the , which is normally thick and waterproof.
It prevents the leaf om losing too much water in hot weather.
Immediately under the cuticle is a layer of cells called the . which forms the ‘skin’ of
the leaf. The epidermis may be pierced by lots of tiny holes called  (singular ). The
stomata are mainly on the lower side of the leaf. They allow gases to diffuse in and out of the leaf,
and water vapour to escape. Each stoma is flanekd bvy a pair of   which can open and
close. They close in hot, dry weather to prevent too much water evaporating om the leaves.


Leaves are generally flat, sometimes large, and oen numerous. The result is that they have a large
surface area for aborbing Carbon dioⅺde and ligt. The veins help to support the leaf, and hold it
out flat, so that it can catch the maⅺmum amount of light. In many plants the leaves are positioned
in such a way that they don’t shade each other.
Between the upper and lower epidermis are ltos of cells which together makes up the .
These cells contain , and this is where photosynthesis takes place. The mesophyll
towads the upper side of the leaf consists of cells shaped like bricks, and arranged neatly side by
side. They are called  . The other mesophyll cells are rounded and more irregular in
their arrangement. They are called  .
Between the mesophyll cells are   into which he stomata open. When photosynthesis is
taking place, carbon dioⅺde diffuses through the open stomata into the air spaces. It then diffuses
into the cells.
Phototsynthessis takes place mainly in the palisade cells. They contain most of the chloroplasts,
and they are near the surface of he leaf that gets most light. the chloroplasts are oen clustered
towards the tops of the cells, in the best position for catching light.
The vein is made up of two parts: the  towards the top, and the  below. The xylem
brings water and mineral salts to the elaf. The phloem takes soluble sugar and other produs of
photosynthesis away om the leaf. Together thexylem and phloem are calld  .

Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are filled with rows of thin interconneed . Millions of 
molecules are laid out on these membranes.
Chlorophyll is a complex organic green  which contains , and it plays a ⅵtal role
in photosynthesis, by absorbing blue and red light, but refleing green light.

Stomata

Stomata allow carbon dioⅺde and oxygen to diffuse in and out of leaves. They are also the main
route by which water vapour excapes om the plant. In hot, dry weather there is a risk that the
plant may run short of water. For this reason it is important that the stomata should be able to
open or close according to the weather conditions.
When th estoma opens, the guard cells take up water om the neighbouring epidermal cells; as a
result the guard cells swell up and become more turgid. As they swell up they bend, so the gap
between them widens (see Figure ). They swell up because the inner wall of the guard cells is
thicker, and less elastic, than the outer wall.
The stoma closes by the reverse rocess. Water passes out of the guard cells, so they become less
turgid. As a result the guard cells straighten, and the gap between them narrows.
Around the stoma are sausage-shaped  .


 granum
outer membrane (stack of thylakoids)

intermembrane space
thylakoid
(lamella)
inner membrane

starch

stroma ribosome
(aqueous fluid)
plastidial DNA
thylakoid lumen
(inside of thylakoid)
plastoglobule
thylakoid membrane (drop of lipids)

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chloroplast.svg (CC-BY-SA-(any version) or GNU FDL)

Figure : A chloroplast. On each membrane are many molecules of chlorophyll.

 Transport in Animals
All organisms which are large require a ansport system, to move substances around the body.
Single-celled organisms with low levels of aⅳi do not require ansport systems.
Humans have two main ansport systems:

• Circulatory system

• Lymphatic system

. The Circulatory System

Single Circulatory Systems e.g. fish:
.
.Heart

.Tissues .Gills
Blood passes once through the heart on its way around the body.

Double Circulatory Systems e.g. humans:


 s t oma almos t clos ed

guar d cell

vacuole

chlor oplas t

epider mal cell

s t oma wide open

The guar d cells have t aken

in wat er by os mos is , as
indicat ed by t he ar r ows .

Figure : A single stoma.

.oxygenated blood .deoxygenated blood

. .
.Tissues .
.Heart .Lungs
. .
.deoxygenated blood .oxygenated blood

Arteries

Aorta takes oxygenated blood om the heart to the body


Pulmonary artery takes deoxygenated blood om the heart to the lungs. The only artery which
carries deoxygenated blood.

Veins

Superior Vena Cava brings deoxygenated blood om the head and arms back to the heart
Inferior Vena Cava brings deoxygenated blood om the body back to the heart
Pulmonary Vein brings oxygenated blood om the lungs back to the heart. The only vein which
carries oxygenated blood.

Aorta
Semilunar
valve Pulmonary artery

Anterior
vena cava
Right and left
Atrium

Pulmonary veins

Antrioventricular
valve

Posterior
vena cava

Right and left

Diastole ventricles Systole
(¯lling) (pumping)

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Human_healthy_pumping_heart_en.svg (Public Domain)

Figure : Diagram of a human heart.

• When the heart is relaxed (), both sides fill up with blood om the veins.
• The aia then cona ( ). So blood is forced into the venicles through the
valves.
• A aion of a second later, the venicles cona ( ). The valves between
the aia and venicles close, so blood is squeezed in to the arteries.


• The heart relaxes again and fills up with blood.

Cardiac arrest/Myocardial infarction Heart aack

Atheroschlerosis/atheroma/angina Lack of oxygen to ehart due to fat build-up in coronary arter-
ies, leading to chest pain.
Sinoatrial node Group of cells taht regulate heart beat (pacemaker).
Hypertensive High blood pressure
Stroke Atheroschlerosis deprⅳes an arteryin the brain of oxygen.

Artery Vein

Lumen

Collagen ¯br es

Thin layer of mus cle

and elas t ic ¯br e

S moot h endot helium

Capillary

Nucleus of
endot helial cell

S ingle layer of
endot helial cells

Figure : Human blood vessels. The lumen in the artery is much smaller than the lumen in the
vein, as the blood is at a much higher pressure.

Composition of the Blood

Plasma is % water. Plasma ansports carbon dioⅺde om the organs to the lungs, soluble
produs om the small intestine to the organs, and urea om the lⅳer to the kidneys. The
following cells are suspended in it:


Red Blood Cells – Erythrocytes Red blood celsl are disc-shaped and biconcave. These cells have
no nucleus, so they can carry more oxygen. Red blood cells contain a chemical called .
This combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
A red blood cell’s lifespan is about four months. Aer this time it goes to the spleen, which removes
worn out red blood cells om circulation.

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Erythrozyten_und_Osmotischer_Druck.svg (Public Domain)

Figure : Red blood cells.

White Blood Cells – Phagocytes & Lymphocytes There are several different pes of white blood
cells. They are all larger than red blood cells, and have a nucleus. Lymphocytes have a nucleus which
occupies most of the cell.
White blood cells prote the body om baeria.
Phagocytes can squeeze through capillary walls, move towards baeria, and ingest them.
Lymphocytes produce chemicals which destroy baeria, by makign them stick together.

Platelets These are agments of blood cells budded off in the red blood marrow. These cells have
a sticky surface, and help to clot the blood at wounds, to stop bleeding.

Blood Clotting

. Blood vessel wall is damaged or broken.

. The protein within the blood vessel wall is exposed. This causes platelets to release an enzyme
(thrombin).

. Blood plasma carries a soluble protein called .

. Enzymes secreted by platelets cause soluble fibrinogen to turn into insoluble .


. Fibrin forms long threads which precipitate out of the blood.

. The fibrin threads tangle together and ap red and white blood vessels in the clot.

. The clot dries and hardens, forming a scab.

Tissue Fluid Formation

. Arteriole brings blood into the capillary bed

. The arteriole dⅳides into a network of small capillaries

. Fluid leaks out of the capillaries, especially at the beginning of the capillary bed, and bathes the
body cells.

. The fluid is called  . It carries glucose and oxygen om the blood to the cells.

. Tissue fluid containing CO and urea leaks back into the cappillaries at the venous end of the
capillary bed.

. Venule carries blood back to a vein.

. The Lymphatic System

Lymph nodes contain white blood cells, and a as aps for baeria and foreign particles. Tissue
fluid containing foreign and waste materials drain into the lymphatic system, pass through a lymph
node, and re-enter the blood circulation.

The Immune System

All cells have protein molecules on their surface membranes called  (See Figure ).
Lymphocytes (see Figure ) produce . These
are chemicals which rea to foreign antigens and destroy
the foreign cells. Lymphocytes ‘recognise’ antigens on the
surface of body cells and do not produce antibodies against
them. Figure : Antigens on a cell.
If foreign cells, e.g. baeria, enter the body, lymphocytes recog-
nise these as foreign due to their different antigens. The lymph-
ocytes will then release antibodies to destroy the baeria.
There are thousands of lymphocytes which each produce a dif-
ferent antibody. Thus, thousands of different pathogens can be Figure : A lymphocyte.
destroyed. Lymphocytes also produce ‘memory cells’, which re-
main in the lymph nodes. These memory cells can produce antobodie very quickly if the same
foreign antigen enters the body again. These antibodies destroy the baeria before they cause a
large infeion – the body is immune to that species of baerium.


Transplants

If a patient needs to have an organ ansplanted into their body, dors must ensure that the antigens
on the donor organ are very similar to the patient’s antigens. Otherwise, there is a chance that the
patients lymph nodes will produce antibodies against the organ, rejeing it.
Brothers and sisters have similar DNA and are oen used as donors. Patients are kept in sterile
conditions aer the operation, and are on drugs to suppress their immune system for the rest of
their life immunosuppressⅳe drugs).

 Transport in Plants
Plants need ansport systems to:

• Move water om the soil to the leaves for use in photosynthesis.

• Move photosynthetic produs om the leaves to other parts of the plant e.g. uit amd growing
parts of the plant.

Xylem vessels ansport water om the roots to the leaves. Xylem vessels are long, continuous tubes
– it is dead tissue containing . Lignin makes the xylem vessels strong, and is deposited
unevenly, which leads to pits in the walls through which water can enter and leave the tubes.

Phloem tubes (sieve tubes) are lⅳing tissue. At the end of each cell making up the tube, the cell
wall is perforated to allow easy movement of sucrose. The movement of sucrose om the leaves
to where it is needed is called anslocation. Phloem cells contain few organelles. The majori
of aⅳities are performed by a companion cell which proⅵdes energy to the phloem cell.

Root hair cells are found on young roots. They increase the surface area of the root for absorption
of water an mineral ions. They last for approⅺmately one day.

. Osmosis
Water moves by osmosis across the root.
Osmosis is the net diffusion of water molecules om a region of high water potential to a region of
low water potential through a partially permeable membrane (down a water potential gradient).
Water potential of a substance is a measure of how much water there is int it, and how easily the water
molecules can move around. Substances with a lot of water have a high water potential. Substances
with a lile water have a low water potential. Water moves om areas of high water potential to
areas of low water potential.


. Transpiration
Water does not move by osmosis in the xylem. The xylem is dead tissue, and there are no cell
membranes. Water moves up the xylem because of anspiration.
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour om a leaf through the stomata.

• % of water that is absorbed is lost in anspiration.

• The remaining % is used in photosynthesis.

As water leaves the xylem vessels it reduces the water pressure at the top of the xylemm, so water
moves upwards towards a lower pressure. Transpiration produces a tension (pull).
Water molecules are sticky; they stick to each other (), and this helps water to be pulled
up the xylem. Transpiration is aided by this cohesion.

Factors Affecting Transpiration

Wind speed Wind removes water vapour om around the stoma, so it increases the water potential
gradient (the water potential of the atmosphere around the toma becomes more negatⅳe) (see
Figure ).
higher wind speed, higher transpiration

Humidity The higher the humidi, the lower the water potential gradient, so less water evaporates
om the leaves.
higher humidity, lower transpiration

Light intensity During sunlight, stomata open to allow CO in for use in photosynthesis.
higher light intensity, higher transpiration

Temperature One a hot day, water evaporates more quickly om the leaf
higher temperature, higher transpiration
If the plant loses too much water, it loses turgor pressure in the cells and may wilt – the stomata
will close at this point.
Water supply If there is not enough water, the plant will clsoe its stomata to conserve water.
lower water supply, lower transiration

Leaf surface area A greater leaf surface area means more stomata for water to siffuse out of.
higher surface area, higher transpiration

Stomata Water is mainly lost through stomata – the more stomata there are, the more anspiration
there is. Most stomata are located on the underside of the leaf.
more stomata, higher transpiration

Air spaces More air spaces in the spongy mesophyll of a leaf mean there is mroe space for water to
colle.
mroe air spaces, higher transpiration


. Xerophytes
Xerophytes are plants taht are specially adapted to lⅳe in exeme conditions. Some examples of
adaptations:

Thick cuticle stops unconolled evaporation through leaf cells.

Small leaf surface area less surface area for evaporation, e.g. conifer needles, caus spines

Low stomata density smaller surface area for diffusion

Sunken stomata maintains humid air around stomata, e.g. marram grass, cai

Stomatal hairs (trichores) maintains humid air around stomata, e.g. marram grass, couch grass

Rolled leaves maintains humid air around stomata, e.g. marram grass

Extensive roots maⅺmise water uptake, e.g. cai

. Movement of Photosynthetic Products

Photosynthesis occurs in the leaves. It produces glucose – leaves are a . Glucose is converted
into sucrose for ansport around the plant. Sucrose is a disaccharide. it is less reaⅳe than glucose,
and does not get used up as easily as glucose.
Sucrose enters the phloem tubes, and is taken to wherever it is needed, e.g. growign shoots, devel-
oping uits, roots (anywhere where respiration is happening).
The places where sucrose is taken to are called . movement of organic substances is called
 (also applies to amino acids, lipids etc.).
Once at the sink sucrose may be converted to starch for storage (e.g. potatoes), or it may be converted
to other sugars (e.g. uose in uits). In this way very high concenterations of sugars can be built
up without affeing the water potential of cells. Sucrose can also be converted back to glucose for
respiration.

. Systemic Pesticides

Systemic pesticides are absorbed into the plant and ansported throughout the plant in the phloem.
The targeted organism (e.g. an inse) feeds on the plant and eats the pesticide and dies.
Systemic pesticides are much more effeⅳe than conta pesticides, but long term effes on humans
are unknown, and consumers may not want to eat produs eated with them.

 Respiration & Gaseous Exchange

Every cell in every lⅳing organism needs energy. Energy is obtained om food by the process of
respiration. There are two pes of respiration:


. Aerobic Respiration
The break-down of glucose using oxygen to release energy used by cells ( mol Adenosine Tri-
phosphate (ATP)).
Energy (in the form of ATP) is used in muscle conaion, aⅳe ansport,  reaions
(building up substances),  reaions (destroying substances). Anabolic and catabolic re-
aions are together known as  reaions. Some energy is released as heat.

Glucose + Oxygen −→ Carbon dioxide + Water + energy

C6 H12 O6 + 6 O2 −→ 6 CO2 + 6 H2 O + 38 mol ATP

CO and H O are byprodus of respiration.

. Anaerobic Respiration

The break-down of glucose without oxygen to release energy used by cells. Less energy is produced
( mol ATP).

Yeast

Yeast is a single-celled fungus which can respire anaerobically.

Glucose −→ Ethanol + Carbon dioxode + energy

C6 H12 O6 −→ 2 C2 H5 OH + 2 CO2 + 2 mol ATP

. Calorimeters
Different foods contain different amoutns of energy. Fats contain about twice as much energy as
carbohydrates and proteins. The amount of energy in food can be measured using a calorimeter.

. The Lungs

The alveoli are adapted for efficient gas exchange:

Large surface area Increased by the alveoli. ,, alveoli ≈ m2 .

Thin epithelium A Two cell layer separates the air in the alveoli om the blood in the capillaries
– only a short distance forgases to diffuse.

Moist Gases dissolve in solution before diffusion – more efficent effusion. Prevents dehydration of
cells.


Blood supply A good blood supply to and om the lungs by a capillary network keeps concenation
gradients different by remoⅵng oxygenated blood om the lungs and bringing deoxygenated
blood to the lungs.

Increase in Breathing Rate

ncreased respiration causes an increase in the produion of CO . CO dissolves in water to form
carbonic acid.

CO2 + H2 O
H2 CO3
H+ + HCO−
3

H+ ions lower the pH of the blood, and are taken up by oxyhaemoglobin, which then releases
oxygen.
Increased CO is deteed by chemoreceptors located in the carotid arteries, aorta, and medulla in
the brain.
Chemoreceptors send impulses to the medulla. The medulla then sends impulses to the intercostal
muscles and the diaphragm, causing them to cona more equently (increased ventilation).

Cigarette Smoke

There are three major chemicals in cigaree smoke:

Nicotine • An addiⅳe drug

• Higher heart rate
• Higher blood rate

Tar • Paralyses the cilia on ciliated cells

• Makes goblet cells over-produce mucus
• Too much mucus
– Smoker’s cough to remove the mucus
– This can damage the alveoli walls, which can lead to emphysema (surface area of alveoli
reduced, so less oxygen can be absorbed)
• Is a carcinogen (benzene)

Carbon monoxide binds irreversably with haemoglobin, therefore the oxygen carrying capaci of
the blood is greatly reduced. Smokers have ≈ 10% of their haemoglobin bound to CO – this
forms Carbaminohaemoglobin.

Other smoking-related diseases:

Chronic bronchitis Smoke irritates the bronchi and bronchioles, damages the mucus membranes,
and narrows the tubes. It reduces the cilia aion, so mucus cannot be removed, which leads to
baerial infeions. It is more difficult for O to diffuse into the blood.


 Excretion & Homeostasis
. Excretion
Excretion is the removal om the body of waste produs of metabolism (which may be toⅺc) and
substances which are in excess of requirements, e.g. CO and urea. CO is removed ⅵa the lungs.
Urea is removed ⅵa the kidneys.

Rhenal artery Brings oxygenated blood full of urea to the kidneys.

Rhenal vein Takes deoxygenated blood which is ee om urea back towards the heart ⅵa the Vena
Cava.

Kidney Removes unwanted (and excess) substances om the blood, turns them into urine, and
passes the urine on to the bladder. It does this by filtering the blood. cm3 of blood is
filtered by the kidneys every minute.

Ureter Tubes which conne the kidneys to the bladder.

Bladder A muscular bag which can store urine. Can store up to about cm3 before the need to
urinate (miuration) becomes compelling.

Sphincter Muscle which, when it conas, urine is prevented om leaⅵng the body, and when it
relaxes, urine can leave the body.

Urethra Tube which carries urien om body.

. Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal enⅵronment. Examples:

• Body temperature

• Blood pH

• Blood pressure

• Blood glucose concenation

• Blood water concenation

The mechanism by which homeostasis is maintained is by using negatⅳe feedback systems, which
maintain stabili in the body.


 .Rise above Body detes change and a correⅳe .Return to
Norm . Norm
mechanism is put in place.

NORM
.
.
NORM
.

Body detes change and a correⅳe

.
Decrease mechanism is put in place. .Return to
.
below Norm
Norm

. a change)
. (i.e.

.deteed by a 

.co-ordinated by a -

.a change occurs in an 

.which causes a 

Sweating • water evaporates, takes heat om the surface of the skin

Vasodilation • causes more blood to avel to capillaries near skin surface

• heat is radiated away om the body
• skin appears flushed, because there is more blood flowing through the surface capillaries

Raised hairs • aps air (which insulates) next to skin surface

Vasoconstriction • reduces blood flow to surface capillaries

• skin is pale, because there is hardly any blood flowing through surface capillaries


. The Pancreas
The pancreas is both an  gland and an  gland.

Exocrine gland a gland that secretes externally through a du — the pancreas secretes pancreatic
juice, produced in Acinar cells, into the pancreatic du.

Endocrine gland a gland that secretes hormones direly into the bloodstream — the pancreas
secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon, om the Islets of Langerhans, into the bloodstream.

 Reproduction
. Asexual Reproduction
• One parent

• Offspring is genetically indentical

• Does not involve gametes

• New diploid cells are produced direly by mitosis (by other diploid cells)

Bacteria

Baeria reproduce by binary fission.

.

Funghi


ant ibodies can
lymphocyt e
bind t o t he
bact er ial DNA ant ibodies do
ant igens , and not bind t o body
des t r oy t he cell ant igens ,
bact er ium and body cell is
ant ibodies nucleus not des t r oyed

body cell

bact er ium

Figure : A lymphocyte indentiing a baerium.

.nucleus
.c ytoplasm

.
.cell membrane .cell wall
Figure : A root hair cell

.stoma

boundary layer
.leaf underside .
(water vapour)

Figure : Water vapour build-up around a stoma.


 t her momet er

wat er
cr ucible
oxygen
s ubs t r at e

Figure : A simple calorimeter – used to measure the energy value of a respiratory substrate.

Larynx
Trachea

Primary bronchi

Secondary bronchi

Tertiary bronchi

Bronchioles

Cardiac notch
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diagrama_de_los_pulmones.svg (GNU FDL)

Figure : The lungs.


 Capillary beds

Connective tissue

Alveolar sacs

Alveolar duct

Mucous gland
Mucosal lining
Pulmonary vein Alveoli
Atrium
Pulmonary artery
Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alveolus_diagram.svg (Public Domain)

Figure : Some alveoli.

Inhalation Exhalation

Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Expiration_diagram.svg (Public Domain)

Figure : The aion of breathing.


 cilia beating
mucus r eleased fr om
g oblet cell

g oblet
ciliated cell cell

columnar basement
epithelial membr ane
cells
Figure : Part of the lining of the respiratory passages.


 r h en al r h en al
vei n ar ter y
adr enal glands
( s ecr et e adr enalin)

k i d n ey

u r eter sph i n cter

bl ad d er u r eth r a

Figure : The excretory system.


1. Pr ot ein is t aken
t o aliment ar y canal.

5 . Amino acids which 6. Ammonia is

ar e not needed ar e conver t ed t o ur ea.
deaminat ed t o ammonia
or a car bohydr at e.

2. Pr ot ein is diges t ed
t o amino acids .
3. Amino acids ar e
abs or bed int o blood,
and t aken t o liver in
hepat ic por t al vein.

7. Ur ea is car r ied t o
kidney, wher e it is
filt er ed fr om t he blood.
4. Amino acids t hat ar e
needed ar e r eleas ed int o
cir culat ion.

Figure : Urea produion.

R
H O
N C C
H OH
H
Figure : The Suure of an amino acid. R can stand for anything. The NH part of the
molecule (ammonia) is toⅺc, and is converted into urea. Deamination is the removal of the niogen-
containing part of the amino acid.


 . Blood vessel bringing blood to the
glomerulus is wider than the one taking it
.away. This causes a pressure to build up in
the glomerulus. More water can be
absorbed under the influence of ADHa.

. Fluid containing small molecules – e.g.

.urea, salts, glucose – is filtered out of the
blood into Bowman’s capsule
. . Clean blood passes out of the kidney ⅵa the (ula-filation).
Rhenal vein.

. Filate moves along the Rhenal Tubule.

Useful substances are reabsorbed back into
the blood, e.g. glucose, some salts, and
.
some water (seleⅳe reabsorption) for this
purpose. This requires aⅳe ansport,
which in turn requires ATP. The cells
lining the Rhenal tube contain many
mitochondria for this purpose.

. . Fluid containing water, salts and

urea continues along the Rhenal tube.
. Rhenal


. . Urine eⅺts the kidney ⅵa the ureter. tubule

. Loop of
Henle

. Sal tissues surrounding the Loop of

.Henle means that water diffuses out of the
Loop of Henle into the tissue.

.
Figure : How urine is produced – there are two processes: ula-filation, and seleⅳe reabsorption.

aADH is a hormone.
 Source: Gray’s Anatomy  (Public Domain)

Figure : An indⅳidual glomerulus.


 .Venous pressure monitor

Air ap and air

.
deteor

.Clean blood

.Fresh dialysate

.Dialyser
.Patient

.Used dialysate

. Dialyser inflow
pressure monitor

. Heparin pump (to

prevent cloing)

.Blood pump

. Arterial pressure . Removed blood

monitor for cleaning

.
Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hemodialysis-en.svg (GNU FDL and CC-BY-SA-ALL)

Figure : Kidney failure – if one or both kidneys fail then dialysis is used or a ansplant performed
to keep urea and solute concenation in the blood constant.


 Diseased
kidneys

Vein
Artery

Transplanted
kidney

Transplanted
ureter

Bladder

Figure : Kidney ansplant may be necessary as Rhenal dialysis is inconvenient for the patient and
costly.


 enⅵronmental
.
.




temperature

. skin warm receptors . skin temperature . skin cold receptors



. cerebal cortex

.inhibition
anterior hypothalamus posterior hypothalamus
. .


     
.inhibition
. adrenaline . thyroⅺne
sweating metabolic rate hairs on body lie
. .skin arterioles dilate. .
decreases flat skin arterioles metabolic rate
.| . shⅳering . . hair raised .
{z } constri increases
.| {z }

.negative feedback .negative feedback

. blood temperature




Figure : A summary of how body and blood temperature are maintained.