2.

4  The Mathematics of Property Distributions for Particle Populations 19

2.4 The Mathematics of Property Distributions for Particle Populations

2.4.1 Basic Definitions

So far, we have defined some key particle properties related to their size, shape and
porosity. However, we never deal with only one particle, but with a heterogeneous
population of particles. Therefore, particle properties do not have single values.
Instead, there is a distribution of values of the property. We will use the particle size
distribu
as the example property to develop the mathematics of particle property distribu-
tions, but the approach is general to any property.
There are two basic ways to represent the particle size distribution.
] The cumulative distribution, N(x), is the number of particles per unit control
volume less than size x (dimensions of L–3).
] The frequency distribution, n(x), is defined such that n(x)dx is the number of
particles per unit control volume between sizes x and x  +  dx. Thus, n(x) has
dimensions of L–4.
Clearly, N(x) and n(x) are related. From their definitions:
x
N ( x) = ∫0
n( x ′ )dx ′ 2.12

d
n( x ) = N ( x) 2.13
dx
From Equation 2.12, it follows that the total area under the n(x) curve must be NT,
the total number of particles per unit control volume:
∞
∫ 0
n( x)dx = NT 2.14

We often express the cumulative and frequency distributions as normalized

distributions:
n( x ) N ( x)
f ( x) ; F ( x) 2.15
NT NT

Figure 2.4 and Table 2.3 show the definitions of the normalized size distributions.
Note that the frequency distribution f(x) is not the same as the number fraction
is the size interval. The number of particles of exactly size x is impossible to define.
Instead, we define the number in a size interval x to x + dx so that the fraction of
particles in that interval is the area under the curve. Thus, f(x) has the dimensions L–1.
Always plot the true frequency distribution, not the fraction in a size interval, against size.
Equations 2.12 to 2.15 are written for a continuous distribution. Most real data
are divided into sections (intervals). By convention, the top size of the interval is
xi and 'xi = xi – xi –1 is the size interval breadth. Particle properties such as f(x) are
considered constant across the interval. Table  2.3 and Figure  2.4 summarize the
different definitions associated with the cumulative and frequency size distributions

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 20 Particle Characterization and Particle Property Distributions

(a)
Un-normalized

Frequency Cumulative
distribution distribution
x′ NT
n(x) N(x ′) = ∫ n(x)dx
0
[no./µm] N(x)
d
n(x ) = N(x)
dx
Area = NT

Particle size, x [µm] Particle size, x [µm]

(or other property) (or other property)

Normalized

Frequency Cumulative
distribution distribution
x′ 1.0
F(x ′) = ∫ f(x)dx
f(x) 0
[µm–1] F(x)
d
f (x ) = F(x)
dx
Area = 1.0

Particle size, x [µm] Particle size, x [µm]

(or other property) (or other property)

(b)
size interval i
fi area = number fraction
in size interval

Frequency
size dist.

Xi-1 Xi
Particle Size

Figure 2.4 Representing the frequency and cumulative particle size distributions (a) for continuous
distributions and (b) for discrete distributions (Litster and Ennis, 2004).

represented as both continuous functions and discrete (sectional) distributions.

A  quick look at Table  2.3 shows an impressive list of different symbols. In fact,
much of the difficulty in handling size distributions comes from confusion in
nomenclature, rather than in concepts! Use Table 2.3 as a reference guide as you
work through this book.

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 2.4  The Mathematics of Property Distributions for Particle Populations 21

Table 2.3 Summary of particle size distribution definitions

Type of distribution Definition Relationships

Un-normalized/continuous No. of particles per unit volume less than x

N(x) size x N ( x) = ∫ 0
n( x ′ )dx ′
n(x)dx No. of particles per unit volume between d
size x and x + dx n( x ) = N ( x)
dx
∞
∫ 0
n( x)dx = NT

Normalized/continuous No. fraction of particles less than size x x

F(x) No. fraction of particles between size x F ( x) = ∫ 0
f ( x ′ )dx ′
f(x)dx and x + dx d
f ( x) = F ( x)
dx
∞
∫ 0
f ( x)dx = 1
n( x )
f ( x)
NT
N ( x)
F ( x)
NT
Un-normalized/sectional Maximum size of particles in size i i
xi
∆xi = xi − xi −1
interval i
Width of size interval i
Ni = ∑
j =1
ni* = ∑ n ∆x
j =1
i i

Ni No. of particles in all intervals up to and

including i ni ∆xi = ni* = Ni − Ni −1
ni* = ni ∆xi No. of particles in size interval i ∞

∑ n ∆x
i =1
i i = NT

xi

ni =
∫ xi −1
n( x)dx
; N i = N ( xi )
∆x i
Normalized/sectional No. fraction of particles in all intervals i i
Fi
yi = fi ∆xi
up to and including i
No. fraction of particles in size interval i
Fi = ∑ j =1
yi = ∑ f ∆x
j =1
i i

fi ∆xi = yi = Fi − Fi −1
∞

∑ f ∆x
i =1
i i =1

xi

fi =
∫ xi −1
f ( x)dx
; Fi = F ( xi )
∆x i

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 22 Particle Characterization and Particle Property Distributions

Example 2.2 Calculating Size Distributions from Size Distribution Data A feed powder

to a granulator has the following size distribution, as measured by a Coulter coun-
ter. Plot the data as a normalized frequency histogram and normalized cumulative
distribution.

Size interval Range (µm) Number of particles (ni* )

6 –64 + 32 2
5 –32 + 16 66
4 –16 + 8 117
3 –8 + 4 57
2 –4 + 2 26
1 –2 12
NT 280

Solution
Take the example of the third (–8 + 4 µm) size interval. Using relationships from
Table 2.3 we can calculate the frequency and cumulative normalized distributions:

n3* 57
y3 = = = 0.204
NT 280
y3 0.204
f3 = = = 0.0509µm −1
∆x3 4µ m
3

∑n
1
*
i
12 + 26 + 57
F3 = = = 0.339
NT 280

These calculations are done for all size intervals and summarized below.

Size interval Range (µm) Number of particles ( ni* ) fi (Pm–1) Fi

6 –64 + 32 2 0.0002 1.000
5 –32 + 16 66 0.0147 0.993
4 –16 + 8 117 0.0522 0.757
3 –8 + 4 57 0.0509 0.339
2 –4 + 2 26 0.0464 0.136
1 –2 12 0.0214 0.043
NT = 280

The frequency histogram and cumulative distribution are plotted below:

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 2.4  The Mathematics of Property Distributions for Particle Populations 23

(a) Frequency distribution diagram

0.06

0.05

0.04
f(x) (µm–1)

0.03

0.02

0.01

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

(b) Cumulative frequency distribution

1

0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5
F

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Particle size, x (µm)

Note that the cumulative distribution is always plotted against the maximum size
of the size interval Fi vs. xi, whereas the frequency distribution is plotted against the
midpoint of the size interval,  fi
vs

xi .

2.4.2 Changing the Way that We Represent the Distributions

f(x) uses number as the measure of quantity of particles and size as the property
of interest. More generally, we should be able to express the distribution of any
measure of quantity (y axis of a frequency plot) and property (x axis of a frequency
plot). We write a generalized distribution as fα(ξ), where ξ is the particle property
of interest and the subscript α denotes the measure of quantity of particles. Thus,

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 24 Particle Characterization and Particle Property Distributions

Density
distributions
f(x) f(x)
[%/µm]

fs(x)

fv(x)

Particle size, x [µm]

(or other property)

Figure 2.5 Examples of different frequency size distributions.

the general definition of the frequency distribution fα(ξ) is that the fraction of α
between ξ and ξ + dξ is fα(ξ)dξ. Figure  2.5 illustrates three different frequency
distributions where the quantity is expressed in terms of number, surface area, and
volume. The subscript is omitted when α is the number of particles.
We regularly convert from a number to a volume (mass) basis as most particle
sizers either count or weigh particles. Typical particle properties ξ are size x, volume
v and ln(x).
One distribution can be converted to another if the relationship between the two
measures of quantity or property is known. Below, we derive the volume size distribu-
tion fv(x) from the number distribution f(x) – i.e., changing the measure of quantity:
The number of particles of size x to x + dx = NT.f(x)dx
The volume of an individual particle of size x = αvx3
Therefore, the volume of particles of size x to x + dx = αvx3.NT.f(x)dx.
∞

∫
The total volume of particles is VT = α v x3 .NT . f ( x)dx
o

Assuming the volume shape factor is size-independent, the volume frequency

distribution is given by
α v x3 NT f ( x)dx
f v ( x)dx =
VT
x3 f ( x)
⇒ f v ( x) = ∞

∫x 3 2.16
f ( x)dx
o

Note from Figure 2.5 that the volume (mass) size distribution is very different to
the number size distribution, with much greater weighting to the larger particles.

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 2.4  The Mathematics of Property Distributions for Particle Populations 25

Table 2.4 Converting between different frequency distributions

Property (ξ) Quantity (D) Continuous Discrete

Size Number f(x) fi

Size Surface area x2 f (x) xi 2 fi
f s (x) = ∞ f si =

∫ 2
x f ( x )dx ∑x j
j
−2
f j ∆x j

0 2
−2 xi f si
x f s (x) fi =
f (x) = ∞ ∑x j
−2
f sj ∆x j
∫x
0
−2
f ( x )dx j

Size Volume or mass x3 f (x) xi3 fi

fv (x ) = ∞ f vi =
∫x 3
f ( x )dx ∑x j
j
3
f j ∆x j
0
xi−3 f vi
x −3 f v ( x ) fi =
f (x) = ∞ ∑x j
−3
f vj j ∆x j
∫x
0
−3
f v ( x ) dx j

Volume Number f ( x) fi
f (v ) = fi v =
3α v x 2 3α v xi 2
ln(size) Number f (ln x ) xf ( x ) fi ln x xi fi

Let us now convert from a linear to a logarithmic frequency distribution

(changing the property from x to ln(x)). By definition, the number of particles
between size x and x to dx must be the same as between ln(x) and ln(x) + dln(x).
That is:
f ( x ).dx = f (ln x ).d ln x
dx
⇒ f (ln x ) = . f (x)
d ln( x )
d ln( x ) 1
but = 2.17
dx x
∴ f (ln x ) = xf ( x )

It is very common for particle size to be measured with geometric size intervals
where xi = k xi–1. Typical values for the geometric constant k are 21/q, where q = 1, 2,
3, or 4. In this case, the width of the histogram on the x axis is constant on a plot of
f(ln(x)) vs. ln(x), making this a very useful way to plot data, especially for skewed
distributions. Table 2.4 gives the relationships between a number of common size
distribution representations.

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 26 Particle Characterization and Particle Property Distributions

Example 2.3 Converting Size Distribution Data Calculate the volume (mass) size dis-
tribution for the size distribution data in Example 2.2.
Solution
fi .xi 3
From Table 2.4:  f vi =
∑fx i i
3
∆xi

Results are tabulated below:

Size xi (µm) ∆xi (Pm) fi (Pm–1) fi xi 3 fi xi 3 ∆xi fvi (Pm–1)

2
interval (Pm ) (Pm)

6 48 32 0.0002 22.1 708 0.0047

5 24 16 0.0147 203.2 3251 0.0430
4 12 8 0.0522 90.2 721 0.0191
3 6 4 0.0509 11.0 44 0.0023
2 3 2 0.0464 1.2 2.5 0.0003
1 1 2 0.0214 0.02 0.04 0

∑ = 4726

2.4.3 Properties of the Frequency and Cumulative Distributions

Ideally, we prefer not to have to work with all the information contained in the full
distribution if we can avoid it. Are there a limited set of parameters that capture
most of the information in the distribution more efficiently than the amount of
particles in each of 50 size intervals?
The first property that springs to mind is the mean of the distribution:
∞ ∞

∫
x = x f ( x ) dx = ∑ x f ∆x
i =1
i i i 2.18
0

In fact, x as defined in Equation 2.18 is the first moment of the frequency size dis-
dis
tribution. A more general definition of the kth moment is:
∞ ∞

∫
µ k = x f ( x)dx =k
∑xi =1
k
i f i ∆xi ; k ≥1 2.19
0

Equation 2.19 gives the definition of the normalized moments of the frequency
distribution. Sometimes un-normalized moments are defined:
∞ ∞

∫
µ k′ = x n( x)dx =k
∑x
i =1
k
i ni ∆xi 2.20
0

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 2.4  The Mathematics of Property Distributions for Particle Populations 27

Note that:
µ′
µk =  k ′  2.21
 µ0 

A limited number of moments tell us a lot about the frequency distribution:

] µ'0 is the total number of particles (NT).
] µ1 is the mean of the distribution.
] µ2 is a measure of the spread of the distribution. It is related to the variance of
(
the distribution  σ 2 = µ2 − µ12 . )
] The volume fraction of particles in the control volume (VT) is  α v µ3′.
Given we have many moments to choose from, the mean size definition can be
tailored to our application. A more general definition than Equation 2.18 is:
1 1
 µ ′  m−n  µm  m−n
xm, n = m = 2.22
 µ n′   µ n 

Important examples of mean sizes based on this definition are:

] x1,0 = µ1
] x3, 2 = µ3 / µ2 (the specific surface mean)
] x4,3 = µ4 / µ3 (the mass-moment mean)
Use the mean size relevant to your application. As an example, to calculate the
minimum fluidization velocity using the Ergun equation, we need the surface area
per unit volume of the powder. Therefore, we should use x32 as the mean size in
this calculation. Other mean size definitions give the wrong answer.
Moments and mean sizes are properties of the frequency distribution. We can
define parameters based on the cumulative distribution as well. We define xa as
follows:
a
F ( xa ) 2.23
100

i.e., xa is the a% passing size at which a% of the particles are smaller than this size.
Thus, the median size x50 is the 50% passing size – i.e., F(x50) = 0.5. Similarly, we can
define the range of the distribution as the difference between the 95% passing size
and the 5% passing size (x95 – x05). Often, the “maximum” size of the distribution
is taken as x95.
Properties of the cumulative distribution are often faster to calculate than
the moment-based properties of the frequency base distribution. However, the
properties of the cumulative distribution do not have the same direct relation-
ship to important properties of the particulate system (surface area, volume,
and so on).

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 28 Particle Characterization and Particle Property Distributions

(a)
0.016 Mode
0.014 x1,0

0.012
0.01 x3,2
f (x)

0.008
x4,3
0.006
0.004
0.002
0
0 50 100 150 200
x
(b) 1
0.9 x95
Range = x95 – x05
0.8
0.7
0.6
x50
f(x)

0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 x05
0
0 50 100 150 200
x

Figure 2.6 Some properties of the frequency and cumulative distributions.

Example  2.4 Take the size distribution data in Example  2.2 and calculate the following
parameters: x1,0 , x3, 2 , x50
Solution
From the definitions we have:

x10 = ∑x f ∆xi
i i
= 12.7µm

x32 =
∑x i
3
fi ∆xi
=
4726µm3
= 21.6µm
∑x i
2
fi ∆xi 218.6µm 2

The median size can be interpolated from the data table or cumulative plot from
Example 2.2 to give x50 = 11 µm.

2.4.4 Some Special Distributions

The analysis of the frequency and cumulative size distributions given above makes no
a priori assumptions about the shape of the distribution and so is applicable to any

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