Computer Graphics

Bresenham's line drawing algorithm & Mid

Point Circle algorithm
 Team Members
Group-I Assignment Topic : BRESENHARAM'S ALGORITHM (ELIPSE Drawing)
Group's representative: TANGUTURU SAI KRISHNA

S.No. BITS ID NAME Official Email ID Personal Email ID

TANGUTURU SAI KRISHNA saikrishna.tanguturu@wipro.com sai.tsk2008@gmail.com

1 2011HW69898

RAYAPU MOSES rayapu.moses@wipro.com stalinkvd001@gmail.com

2 2011HW69900

shenbagamoorthy.a83@wipro.com moorthy2626@gmail.com
3 2011HW69932 SHENBAGAMOORTHY A

ANURUPA K C anurupa.c85@wipro.com anu.rupa30@gmail.com

4 2011HW69913

ARUNJUNAISELVAM P arunjunaiselvam.p95@wipro.com arunjunai.carrer@gmail.com

5 2011HW69909

PRANOB JYOTI KALITA pranob.kalita@wipro.com pranob.kalita90@gmail.com

6 2011HW69569

TINNALURI V N PRASANTH prasanth.tinnaluri@wipro.com naga.prasanth985@gmail.com

7 2011HW69893

KONDALA SUMATHI sumathi.kondala@wipro.com sumathi.kondala@gmail.com

8 2011HW69904

DASIKA KRISHNA dasika.krishna@wipro.com dasikakrishnas@gmail.com

9 2011HW69896
 Lines
Analog devises, such as a random-scan display or a
vector plotter, display a straight line smoothly from
one endpoint to another. Linearly varying horizontal
and vertical deflection voltages are generated that are
proportional to the required changes in the x and y
directions to produce the smooth line.

3
 Digital devices display a straight line by plotting
discrete coordinate points along the line path which are
calculated from the equation of the line.
Screen locations are referenced with integer values, so plotted
positions may only approximate actual line positions between
two specific endpoints.
A computed line position of (10.48, 20.51) will be converted to
pixel position (10, 21). This rounding of coordinate values to
integers causes lines to be displayed with a stairstep appearance
(the “jaggies”).
Particularly noticeable on systems with low resolution.
To smooth raster lines, pixel intensities along the line paths must
be adjusted.

4
 Line Drawing Algorithms

Cartesian equation:
y = mx + c y2
where y1

m – slope x1 x2
c – y-intercept

y2  y1 y
m 
x2  x1 x

5
 Slope
+ve -ve

if |m| = 1 45°
45°
 = 45°

if |m|  1
-45° <  < 45° °
°

if |m|  1
45° <  < 90° or °

-90° <  < -45° °

6
 |m| = 1
y=x
m=1
c=0
y

x y 8 
0 0 7 
1 1 6 
2 2 5 
3 3 4 
4 4
3 
5 5
2 
6 6 1 
7 7 0 
8 8 x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

7
 |m|  1
y=½x+1
m=½
y
c=1

8
x y round(y)
7
0 1 1 6
1 1.5 2 5  
4  
2 2 2
3  
3 2.5 3
2  
4 3 3 1 
5 3.5 4 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
6 4 4
8 7 4.5 5
 |m|  1
y = 3x - 2
m=3
c = -2 y

8
x y round(y)
7 
0 -2 -2 6
1 1 1 5
2 4 4 4 
3 7 7 3
4 10 10 2

5 13 13 1 
0
6 16 16 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
outside
9 7 19 19
 Bresenham Line Algorithm
A more efficient approach

Basis of the algorithm:

A
B

Start position

From start position decide A or B next

10
 Bresenham Line Algorithm

True line

ti
si

For a given value of x

one pixel lies at distance ti above the line, and
one pixel lies at distance si below the line
11
 Bresenham Line Algorithm
Decision parameter

di = (si - ti)
If di  0, then closest pixel is below true line (si smaller)
If di  0, then closest pixel is above true line (ti smaller)

We must calculate the new values for di as we move

along the line.

12
 Example:
dy
Let gradient(slope)  0.5 (i.e.  0.5 or 2dy  dx)
dx
Start pixel at (x0,y1)
y5 At x1 :
s1 = dy t1 = dx - dy
y3 d1 = (si - ti) = dy - (dx - dy) = 2dy - dx
but 2dy  dx  di  0  y stays the same
hence next pixel is at (x1,y1)
y2
3dy 4dy At x2 :
2dy s2 = 2dy t2 = dx - 2dy
y1 dy
d2 = (s2 – t2) = 2dy - (dx - 2dy) = 4dy - dx
Suppose d2  0  y is incremented
y0 hence next pixel is at (x2,y2)
x0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
At x3 :
s3 = 3dy - dx t2 = 2dx - 3dy
d3 = (s2 – t3) = 6dy - 3dx  0
so y stays the same
hence next pixel is at (x3,y2)
13
 In General For a line with gradient ≤ 1
d0 = 2dy – dx
if di  0 then yi+1 = yi
di+1 = di + 2dy
if di ≥ 0 then yi+1 = yi + 1
di+1 = di + 2(dy – dx)
xi+1 = xi + 1
For a line with gradient  1
d0 = 2dx – dy
if di  0 then xi+1 = xi
di+1 = di + 2dx
if di ≥ 0 then xi+1 = xi + 1
di+1 = di + 2(dx – dy)
yi+1 = yi + 1

Note: For |m| ≤ 1 the constants 2dy and 2(dy-dx) can be calculated
14 once,
so the arithmetic will involve only integer addition and subtraction.
 Example – Draw a line from (20,10) to (30,18)
(30,18)
dx = 10
dy = 8
initial decision d0 = 2dy – dx = 6
Also 2dy = 16, 2(dy – dx) = -4
(20,10)
i di (xi+1,yi+1)
19
0 6 (21,11)
1 2 (22,12) 18
2 -2 (23,12)
3 14 (24,13) 17
4 10 (25,14)
16
5 6 (26,15)
6 2 (27,16) 15
7 -2 (28,16)
8 14 (29,17) 14
9 10 (30,18)
13

15
12
 void LineBres(int x0, int y0, int x1, int y1) // line for |m| < 1
{
int dx = abs(x1 – x0), dy = abs(y1 – y0);
int d = 2 * dy – dx, twoDy = 2 * dy, twoDyMinusDx = 2 * (dy – dx);
int x, y;
if (x0 > x1) { // determines which point to use as start, which as
end
x = x1;
y = y1;
x1 = x0;
}
else {
x = x0;
y = y0;
}
setPixel(x,y);
while (x < x1) {
x++;
if (d < 0) d += twoDy;
else {
y++;
d += twoDyMinusDx;
}
setPixel(x, y);
}
}
16
 Special cases
 Special cases can be handled separately
 Horizontal lines (y = 0)
 Vertical lines (x = 0)
 Diagonal lines (|x| = |y|)
 directly into the frame-buffer without processing
them through the line-plotting algorithms.

17
 Circle Equations
 Polar form
x = rCos
y = rSin (r = radius of circle)

P=(rCos, rSin)

r
rSin)

x
rCos)

18
 Drawing a circle
 = 0°
while ( < 360°)
x = rCos
y = rSin
setPixel(x,y)
 =  + 1°
end while

Disadvantages
 To find a complete circle  varies from 0° to 360°
 The calculation of trigonometric functions is very
slow.

19
 Cartesian form
 Use Pythagoras theorem
x2 + y2 = r2 r
y

r

P  x, r 2  x 2 
y

x x

20
 Circle algorithms
 Step through x-axis to determine y-values

 Disadvantages:
– Not all pixel filled in
21
– Square root function is very slow
 Circle Algorithms
 Use 8-fold symmetry and only compute pixel
positions for the 45° sector.

(-x, y) (x, y)

(-y, x) (y, x)
45°

(-y, -x) (y, -x)

(-x, -y) (x, -y)

22
 Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm
Consider only
45° ≤  ≤ 90°

General Principle
 The circle function:

f circle ( x, y )  x 2  y 2  r 2

 and

 0 if (x,y) is inside the circle boundary


f circle ( x, y )   0 if (x,y) is on the circle boundary
 0 if (x,y) is outside the circle boundary

23
 Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm
p1 p3
yi
D(si)
yi - 1 D(ti)
p2

xi xi + 1

After point p1, do we choose p2 or p3?

24
 Bresenham’s Circle Algorithm
Define: D(si) = distance of p3 from circle
D(ti) = distance of p2 from circle

i.e. D(si) = (xi + 1)2 + yi2 – r2 [always +ve]

D(ti) = (xi + 1)2 + (yi – 1)2 – r2 [always -ve]

 Decision Parameter pi = D(si) + D(ti)

so if pi < 0 then the circle is closer to p3 (point
above)
if pi ≥ 0 then the circle is closer to p2 (point below)
25
 The Algorithm
x0 = 0
y0 = r
p0 = [12 + r2 – r2] + [12 + (r-1)2 – r2] = 3 – 2r

if pi < 0 then
yi+1 = yi
pi+1 = pi + 4xi + 6
xi+1 = xi + 1
else if pi ≥ 0 then
yi+1 = yi – 1
pi+1 = pi + 4(xi – yi) + 10

 Stop when xi ≥ yi and determine symmetry

26
points in the other octants
 Example
r = 10
p0 = 3 – 2r = -17
Initial point (x0, y0) = (0, 10)
10    

i pi xi, yi
9  
8 
0 -17 (0, 10)
7 
6 
1 -11 (1, 10) 5 
4 
3 
2 -1 (2, 10) 2 
1 
3 13 (3, 10) 0 
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
27
4 -5 (4, 9)
 Midpoint Circle Algorithm

Midpoint
yi 
yi-1 x2 + y2 – r2 = 0

xi xi+1 xi+2
Assuming that we have just plotted the pixels at (xi , yi).
Which is next? (xi+1, yi) OR (xi+1, yi – 1).
- The one that is closer to the circle.

28
 Midpoint Circle Algorithm
 The decision parameter is the circle at the midpoint
between the pixels yi and yi – 1.

pi  f circle ( xi  1, yi  12 )
 ( xi  1)2  ( yi  12 )2  r 2

 If pi < 0, the midpoint is inside the circle and the pixel

yi is closer to the circle boundary.
 If pi ≥ 0, the midpoint is outside the circle and the
pixel yi - 1 is closer to the circle boundary.

29
 Decision Parameters
 Decision Parameters are obtained using
incremental calculations
Note:
pi 1  f circle ( xi 1  1, yi 1  12 ) xi+1 = xi +1

 ( xi  2)2  ( yi 1  12 )2  r 2
OR

pi 1  pi  2( xi  1) 2  ( yi21  yi2 )  ( yi 1  yi )  1

where yi+1 is either yi or yi-1 depending on the sign of pi

30
 1. Initial values:- point(0,r) The Algorithm
x0 = 0
y0 = r move circle origin at (0,0) by
x = x – xc and y = y – yc
2. Initial decision parameter
p0  f circle (1, r  12 )  1  (r  12 ) 2  r 2  54  r
3. At each xi position, starting at i = 0, perform the
following test: if pi < 0, the next point is (xi + 1, yi) and
pi+1 = pi + 2xi+1 + 1
If pi ≥ 0, the next point is (xi+1, yi-1) and
pi+1 = pi + 2xi+1 + 1 – 2yi+1
where 2xi+1 = 2xi + 2 and 2yi+1 = 2yi – 2
4. Determine symmetry points in the other octants
5. Move pixel positions (x,y) onto the circular path
centered on (xc, yc) and plot the coordinates: x = x + xc,
y = y + yc
31 6. Repeat 3 – 5 until x ≥ y
 Example
r = 10
p0 = 1 – r = -9 (if r is integer round p0 = 5/4 – r to integer)
Initial point (x0, y0) = (0, 10)
i pi xi+1, 2xi+ 2yi+ 10    
yi+1 1 1
9  
0 -9 (1, 10) 2 20
8 
1 -6 (2, 10) 4 20 7 
6 
2 -1 (3, 10) 6 20 5 
4 
3 6 (4, 9) 8 18
3 
4 -3 (5, 9) 10 18 2 
1 
5 8 (6, 8) 12 16 0 
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
32
6 5 (7, 7)
 Midpoint function
void plotpoints(int x, int y)
{
setpixel(xcenter+x, ycenter+y);
setpixel(xcenter-x, ycenter+y);
setpixel(xcenter+x, ycenter-y);
setpixel(xcenter-x, ycenter-y);
setpixel(xcenter+y, ycenter+x);
setpixel(xcenter-y, ycenter+x);
setpixel(xcenter+y, ycenter-x);
setpixel(xcenter-y, ycenter-x);
}
void circle(int r)
{
int x = 0, y = r;
plotpoints(x,y);
int p = 1 – r;
while (x<y) {
x++;
if (p<0) p += 2*x + 1;
else {
y--;
p += 2*(x-y) + 1;
}
plotpoints(x,y);
33 }
}
 Ellipse-Generating Algorithms
 Ellipse – A modified circle whose radius varies from a
maximum value in one direction (major axis) to a minimum
value in the perpendicular direction (minor axis).

d1
F1 P=(x,y)
d2
F2

 The sum of the two distances d1 and d2, between the fixed positions F1 and
F2 (called the foci of the ellipse) to any point P on the ellipse, is the same
value, i.e.
d1 + d2 = constant

34
 Ellipse Properties
 Expressing distances d1 and d2 in terms of the focal
coordinates F1 = (x1, x2) and F2 = (x2, y2), we have:

( x  x1 )2  ( y  y1 )2  ( x  x2 )2  ( y  y2 )2  constant

ry
rx

 Cartesian coordinates:  x  x  2
2
 y  yc 
      1
c

 rx   ry 
 Polar coordinates:
x  xc  rx cos 
35 y  yc  ry sin 
 Ellipse Algorithms
 Symmetry between quadrants
 Not symmetric between the two octants of a quadrant
 Thus, we must calculate pixel positions along the
elliptical arc through one quadrant and then we obtain
positions in the remaining 3 quadrants by symmetry

(-x, y) (x, y)
ry

rx

(-x, -y) (x, -y)

36
 Ellipse Algorithms

fellipse ( x, y)  r x  r y  r r
2 2
y x
2 2 2 2
x y

 Decision parameter:
 0 if ( x, y ) is inside the ellipse

f ellipse ( x, y )   0 if ( x, y ) is on the ellipse
 0 if ( x, y ) is outside the ellipse

Slope = -1
1
ry 2 2ry2 x
dy
Slope   2
rx dx 2rx y

37
 Slope = -1
Ellipse Algorithms 1
ry 2
rx

 Starting at (0, ry) we take unit steps in the x direction

until we reach the boundary between region 1 and
region 2. Then we take unit steps in the y direction
over the remainder of the curve in the first quadrant.
 At the boundary
dy
 1  2ry2 x  2rx2 y
dx
 therefore, we move out of region 1 whenever

2ry2 x  2rx2 y
38
 Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
Midpoint
yi 
yi-1

xi xi+1 xi+2

Assuming that we have just plotted the pixels at (xi , yi).

The next position is determined by:
p1i  f ellipse ( xi  1, yi  12 )
 ry2 ( xi  1) 2  rx2 ( yi  12 ) 2  rx2 ry2
If p1i < 0 the midpoint is inside the ellipse  yi is closer
39 If p1i ≥ 0 the midpoint is outside the ellipse  yi – 1 is closer
 Decision Parameter (Region 1)

At the next position [xi+1 + 1 = xi + 2]

p1i 1  f ellipse ( xi 1  1, yi 1  12 )
 ry2 ( xi  2) 2  rx2 ( yi 1  12 ) 2  rx2 ry2

OR
p1i 1  p1i  2ry2 ( xi  1) 2  ry2  rx2 ( yi 1  12 ) 2  ( yi  12 ) 2 

where yi+1 = yi
or yi+1 = yi – 1
40
 Decision Parameter (Region 1)
Decision parameters are incremented by:
2ry2 xi 1  ry2 if p1i  0
increment   2
 y i 1 y
2 r x  r 2
 2 r 2
x yi 1 if p1i  0

Use only addition and subtraction by obtaining

2ry2 x and 2rx2 y

At initial position (0, ry)

2ry2 x  0
2rx2 y  2rx2 ry

p10  f ellipse (1, ry  12 )  ry2  rx2 (ry  12 ) 2  rx2 ry2

41  ry2  rx2 ry  14 rx2
 Region 2
Over region 2, step in the negative y direction and midpoint is
taken between horizontal pixels at each step.

Midpoint
yi 
yi-1

xi xi+1 xi+2
Decision parameter:
p 2i  f ellipse ( xi  12 , yi  1)
 ry2 ( xi  12 ) 2  rx2 ( yi  1) 2  rx2 ry2
If p2i > 0 the midpoint is outside the ellipse  xi is closer
42
If p2i ≤ 0 the midpoint is inside the ellipse  xi + 1 is closer
 Decision Parameter (Region 2)

At the next position [yi+1 – 1 = yi – 2]

p 2i 1  f ellipse ( xi 1  12 , yi 1  1)
 ry2 ( xi 1  12 ) 2  rx2 ( yi  2) 2  rx2 ry2

OR
p 2i 1  p 2i  2rx2 ( yi  1)  rx2  ry2 ( xi 1  12 ) 2  ( xi  12 ) 2 

where xi+1 = xi
or xi+1 = xi + 1
43
 Decision Parameter (Region 2)
Decision parameters are incremented by:

2rx2 yi 1  rx2 if p 2i  0
increment   2
 y i 1
2 r x  2 r 2
y
x i 1  rx
2
if p 2i  0

At initial position (x0, y0) is taken at the last

position selected in region 1

p 20  f ellipse ( x0  12 , y0  1)
 ry2 ( x0  12 ) 2  rx2 ( y0  1) 2  rx2 ry2
44
 Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
1. Input rx, ry, and ellipse center (xc, yc), and obtain the
first point on an ellipse centered on the origin as
(x0, y0) = (0, ry)
2. Calculate the initial parameter in region 1 as

p10  ry2  rx2 ry  14 rx2

3. At each xi position, starting at i = 0, if p1i < 0, the next
point along the ellipse centered on (0, 0) is (xi + 1, yi)
and
p1i 1  p1i  2ry2 xi 1  ry2

otherwise, the next point is (xi + 1, yi – 1) and

p1i 1  p1i  2ry2 xi 1  2rx2 yi 1  ry2
45 and continue until2r 2 x  2r 2 y
y x
 Midpoint Ellipse Algorithm
4. (x0, y0) is the last position calculated in region 1. Calculate
the initial parameter in region 2 as
p20  ry2 ( x0  12 )2  rx2 ( y0 1)2  rx2ry2
5. At each yi position, starting at i = 0, if p2i > 0, the next point
along the ellipse centered on (0, 0) is (xi, yi – 1) and
p 2i 1  p 2i  2rx2 yi 1  rx2
otherwise, the next point is (xi + 1, yi – 1) and
p2i 1  p2i  2ry2 xi 1  2rx2 yi 1  rx2
Use the same incremental calculations as in region 1.
Continue until y = 0.
6. For both regions determine symmetry points in the other
three quadrants.
7. Move each calculated pixel position (x, y) onto the elliptical
path centered on (xc, yc) and plot the coordinate values
46
x = x + xc , y = y + yc
 Example
rx = 8 , ry = 6
2ry2x = 0 (with increment 2ry2 = 72)
2rx2y = 2rx2ry (with increment -2rx2 = -128)
Region 1
(x0, y0) = (0, 6)
p10  ry2  rx2 ry  14 rx2  332

i pi xi+1, yi+1 2ry2xi+1 2rx2yi+1

0 -332 (1, 6) 72 768
1 -224 (2, 6) 144 768
2 -44 (3, 6) 216 768
3 208 (4, 5) 288 640
4 -108 (5, 5) 360 640
5 288 (6, 4) 432 512
6 244 (7, 3) 504 384 Move out of region 1 since
47 2ry2x > 2rx2y
 Example
Region 2
(x0, y0) = (7, 3) (Last position in region 1)
p 20  f ellipse (7  12 , 2)  151

i pi xi+1, yi+1 2ry2xi+1 2rx2yi+1

0 -151 (8, 2) 576 256
1 233 (8, 1) 576 128
2 745 (8, 0) - - Stop at y = 0

6    
5  
4 
3 
2 
1 
0 
48
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
 Midpoint Ellipse Function
void ellipse(int Rx, int Ry)
{
int Rx2 = Rx * Rx, Ry2 = Ry * Ry;
int twoRx2 = 2 * Rx2, twoRy2 = Ry2 * Ry2;
int p, x = 0, y = Ry;
int px = 0, py = twoRx2 * y;
ellisePlotPoints(xcenter, ycenter, x, y);
// Region 1
p = round(Ry2 – (Rx2 * Ry) + (0.25 * Rx2));
while (px < py) {
x++;
px += twoRy2;
if (p < 0) p += Ry2 + px;
else {
y--;
py -= twoRx2;
p += Ry2 + px – py;
}
ellisePlotPoints(xcenter, ycenter, x, y);
}
// Region 2
p = round(Ry2 * (x+0.5) * (x+0.5) + Rx2 * (y-1)*(y-1) – Rx2 * Ry2;
while (y > 0) {
y--;
py -= twoRx2;
if (p > 0) p += Rx2 – py;
else {
x++;
px += twoRy2;
p += Rx2 – py + px;
}
ellisePlotPoints(xcenter, ycenter, x, y);
49 }
}
Thank You