Article

Modelling of a Power Converter with Multiple

Operating Modes
Wang Feng ID
and Luo Yutao *
School of Mechanical and Automotive Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510641,
China; xiaojinwf@163.com
* Correspondence: ctytluo@scut.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-020-87110191




Received: 7 May 2018; Accepted: 28 May 2018; Published: 5 June 2018


Abstract: In order to achieve DC voltage matching, on-board charging, and DC/AC power inversion,
three independent power converters are often needed in traditional Distributed Power Converter
(DPC) systems of electric vehicles (EVs): bidirectional DC/DC (Bi-DC/DC), AC/DC, and DC/AC.
The requirement of electronic devices such as power switches, inductors, and capacitors make the
converter costly and complicated in structure. In this paper, a power converter with multi-operating
mode (PCMM) is presented. The proposed PCMM can work in Bi-DC/DC, AC/DC, and DC/AC
modes. The state-space averaging model of PCMM considering resistance of Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor (IGBT) and the inductor is presented. Based on this model, the transfer function of the
system is derived and the controller is designed. The simulation and experimental results show
that PCMM can meet the design target and verify the feasibility of the model. The measurement
results show that the weight of PCMM proposed in this paper is reduced by 51.2% compared with
the traditional structure.

Keywords: power converter; bidirectional DC/DC; AC/DC; DC/AC

1. Introduction
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) from vehicle exhaust is one of the main causes of the greenhouse effect.
Electric vehicles (EVs) are considered to be an important development direction of the future
automobile industry because of their advantages in reducing CO2 emissions. In order to improve
the performance of the energy storage system, a hybrid energy source can be used. [1]. In electric
vehicles (EVs), lithium-ion batteries or fuel cells are often used as the primary power source, which is
supplemented by a super-capacitor pack or battery pack as the auxiliary power source to constitute a
hybrid energy storage system (HESS) [2]. As the primary and auxiliary power sources usually have
different voltage levels, a DC/DC converter is needed to achieve voltage matching [3]. Meanwhile, in
order to charge the battery pack, a charger with AC/DC function is needed [4], which converts the
grid AC into DC. In addition, when AC power supply is required for cases like outdoor activities,
a DC/AC inverter is needed to convert the battery DC into AC [5]. Simultaneously, a DC/AC inverter
also needs to have the grid connection function, so that the battery power level of EVs can be fed back
to the grid after inversion when the EVs sits idle in the garage, thereby playing a role in grid peak
shifting and regulation.
The DC/DC converter plays an important role in DC power level conversion of energy storage
systems, including hybrid energy storage systems [6], PV systems [7,8], fuel cell systems [9], etc.
Interleaved is one of the DC/DC topologies [9]. The advantages of this topology include low
output current ripple and high power density [10]. The interleaved DC/DC can be composed of
two phases [11], three phases [12], or multi-phase [13]. It has greatly reduced volume and weight
compared to the traditional Bi-DC/DC.

World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7; doi:10.3390/wevj9010007 www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 2 of 17

To improve the power factor in the process of AC/DC conversion, power factor correction (PFC)
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 17
is needed with a special circuit. The traditional PFC method adds a boost converter behind the rectifier
bridge [14]. ToSuch
improve a method
the power requires
factor ina rectifier
the processbridge
of AC/DCand conversion,
a boost circuit,
power which
factorhas the disadvantage
correction (PFC)
of lowis conversion
needed withefficiency. To improve
a special circuit. the conversion
The traditional PFC method efficiency, researchers
adds a boost converterhave proposed
behind the a
rectifier
bridgeless PFC bridge
circuit [14]. Such a method
topology that does requires a rectifier
not require bridge
rectifier and a [15].
bridges boost One
circuit, which is
solution hastothe
add two
disadvantage
additional diodes of to low conversion
improve the EMIefficiency.
problem To improve the conversion
[16]. Another solutionefficiency, researchers
is bridgeless PFC withhave totem
proposed a bridgeless PFC circuit topology that does not require rectifier bridges [15]. One solution
pole topology [17]. This topology does not require additional power elements. It only needs to drive
is to add two additional diodes to improve the EMI problem [16]. Another solution is bridgeless PFC
two switches of the bridge independently.
with totem pole topology [17]. This topology does not require additional power elements. It only
There
needs are three
to drive twomain topologies
switches for DC/AC
of the bridge inverters [18]. One is the push-pull configuration
independently.
inverter, which consists of few power devices
There are three main topologies for DC/AC inverters and is easy [18].
to drive [19].
One is the However, due to structural
push-pull configuration
characteristics of theconsists
inverter, which circuitofitself, the push-pull
few power devices and circuit
is easytopology cannot
to drive [19]. output
However, duesinusoidal
to structural voltage
characteristics
waveforms, which isofsuitable
the circuit
foritself, the push-pull
low-power circuit topology
applications. Anothercannot
is the output sinusoidal
half-bridge voltage
topology inverter,
whichwaveforms,
has few switchingwhich is components
suitable for low-power
and a simple applications.
structure. Another is the half-bridge
Nevertheless, the ratedtopology
current of its
inverter, which has few switching components and a simple structure. Nevertheless,
power switch is twice that of the power components in a full-bridge inverter circuit, with large the rated current current
of its power switch is twice that of the power components in a full-bridge inverter circuit, with large
stress. The third one is the full-bridge inverter, whose output current and current through switching
current stress. The third one is the full-bridge inverter, whose output current and current through
components
switchingarecomponents
both half ofare theboth
half-bridge
half of theinverter circuit.
half-bridge The circuit.
inverter drive circuit of the
The drive full-bridge
circuit of the full-inverter
is more complex than the two previous topologies due to the presence
bridge inverter is more complex than the two previous topologies due to the presence of fourof four switching devices.
Inswitching
EVs with hybrid energy storage systems, the traditional Distributed Power Converter (DPC)
devices.
scheme needs In EVsat with
leasthybrid
three independent
energy storageBi-DC/DC,
systems, the AC/DC,
traditionaland DC/ACPower
Distributed converters. When
Converter (DPC) an EV is
being scheme
driven,needs
the buckat least three independent
converter and boost Bi-DC/DC,
converter AC/DC, and DC/AC
are needed converters.
to convert When an
the power EV is the
between
batterybeing
pack driven,
and the the buck converter
auxiliary and boost
energy. converterconverter
An AC/DC are neededistoneeded
convert to
thecharge
power between
the batterythe pack.
battery pack and the auxiliary energy. An AC/DC converter is needed to charge the battery pack. A
A DC/AC converter is needed to supply the AC power to the electric appliances. The topology of this
DC/AC converter is needed to supply the AC power to the electric appliances. The topology of this
systemsystem
is shown in Figure 1. Each converter needs to be equipped with separate radiators, which are
is shown in Figure 1. Each converter needs to be equipped with separate radiators, which are
thus structurally
thus structurallycomplexcomplexandand costly.
costly.

Figure 1. Conventional distributed power converter (DPC) topology.

Figure 1. Conventional distributed power converter (DPC) topology.
Some researchers have studied multifunctional power converters. The power converter system
integrating a motorhave
Some researchers controller
studiedandmultifunctional
battery charger proposed by JY Lee et
power converters. al. power
The enabledconverter
the AC/DCsystem
integrating a motor controller and battery charger proposed by JY Lee et al. enabled the the
conversion to share the power devices of a motor controller [20]. Serkan Dusmez et al. integrated AC/DC
AC/DCtocharger
conversion share ofthea power
battery on the basis
devices of aofmotor
a DC/DC converter[20].
controller by sharing
Serkanthe power devices
Dusmez of a
et al. integrated
boost DC/DC converter [21,22]. Ting-Chia Ou et al. proposed a multi-input power converter to
the AC/DC charger of a battery on the basis of a DC/DC converter by sharing the power devices of
achieve different operation modes [23].
a boost DC/DC
Previous converter
research on [21,22]. Ting-Chiamainly
power converters Ou etfocuses
al. proposed a multi-input
on their performance. Forpower converter to
the integration
achieve differentthe
converters, operation
literaturemodes [23].
only mentioned DC/DC and AC/DC integration. Compared with the
Previous research
traditional converters,on power converters
this paper presents mainly
a novel focuses
integratedonmulti-function
their performance.
converter Forinclude
the integration
Bi-
DC/DC,the
converters, AC/DC, and DC/AC.
literature Based on the
only mentioned topologyand
DC/DC of the Bi-DC/DC,
AC/DC the presented
integration. PCMM adds
Compared with the
only one
traditional switch andthis
converters, an AC capacitor
paper to achieve
presents a novelmultifunction
integratedoperation. It shares converter
multi-function the inductor,
include
capacitor, and IGBT modules and offers three conversions functions
Bi-DC/DC, AC/DC, and DC/AC. Based on the topology of the Bi-DC/DC, the presented and reduced system weight. PCMM
adds only one switch and an AC capacitor to achieve multifunction operation. It shares the inductor,
capacitor, and IGBT modules and offers three conversions functions and reduced system weight.
World
WorldElectric
ElectricVehicle
VehicleJournal 2018,9,9,7 x FOR PEER REVIEW
Journal2018, 33ofof1717
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 17

Thispaper
This paperpresents
presentsaaPCMM
PCMMconverter
converterand andbuilds
buildsthe
themodel
modelofofthe
thesystem
systemusing
usingaastate-space
state-space
This paper presents a PCMM converter and builds the model of the system using a state-space
averaging modelling
averaging modelling method
modelling method [24].
method [24]. Section
[24]. Section 2 introduces
Section 22 introduces the
introduces the model
the model of
model of the
of the converter
the converter
converter inin each
in each operating
each operating
operating
averaging
mode.Part
mode. Part 3performs
performsthe
theexperimental
experimentalresults.
results.Experimental
Experimentalevaluation
evaluation ofthe thePCMM
PCMMisispresented
presented
mode. Part 33performs the experimental results. Experimental evaluation of ofthe PCMM is presented in
in Section
in Section 4.
Section 4. 4.

2.2.Modelling
2.
Modellingand
Modelling andControl
Controlof
and Control
ofthe
theSystem
of the
System
System
ThePCMM
The PCMMproposed
proposedin inthis
thispaper
paperhas
hasthree
threeworking
workingmodes.
modes.TheThetopology
topology isshown
shown inFigure
Figure
The PCMM proposed in this paper has three working modes. The topology is is shown in in Figure 2.
2.2.When
When
Whenworking
working inBi-DC/DC
Bi-DC/DCmode,
working ininBi-DC/DC
mode, the switchKK22isisturned
mode, the switch
turned onand
switch K2 is turnedonon
andthe
theswitch
and the
switchKK11isisturned
turnedoff.
switch K1 is turned
off.The
The
off.
system
system works
works in buck
in buck mode
mode or boost
or boost mode.
mode. In AC/DC
In AC/DC mode, switch
mode,mode, K 1 is turned on and the switch
switchswitch
K1 is turned on andon theand
switch
The system works in buck mode or boost mode. In AC/DC K1 is turned the
K 2 is turned off, the system works with bridgeless PFC topology, and the energy flows from the grid
K2 is turned
switch K2 is off, the off,
turned systemthe works
systemwith bridgeless
works PFC topology,
with bridgeless and the and
PFC topology, energy theflows
energyfrom
flowsthefrom
grid
to the
to the battery
battery side. In
In DC/AC mode,mode, switch
switch KK11 isis turned
turned on and
and switch
switch KK22isis turned
turned off. The
The energy
energy
the grid to theside.
batteryDC/AC
side. In DC/AC mode, switch K1on is turned on and switch Koff. 2 is turned off.
flows
flows from
from the
the battery
battery side
side to
to the
the AC
AC side
side to
to achieve
achieve DC
DC to
to AC
AC conversion.
conversion.
The energy flows from the battery side to the AC side to achieve DC to AC conversion.
K
K1 1
out
ACout

~~
ACinin AC

C K
C33 K22 +
+
~~
AC

K L
L11

DCH
+ K33

DCH
+

VV
L C
L2 2 C22
DCL
DCL

C
VV

C11
- -
- -

Figure2.
Figure
Figure 2.2.Proposed
Proposedtopology.
Proposed topology.
topology.

Asshown
As shown inFigure Figure 3,whenwhen thevehicle vehicle is driving,the thePCMM
PCMMworks worksin inthe
theBi-DC/DC
Bi-DC/DCmode. mode.The The
As shown in in Figure 3, 3, whenthe the vehicleisisdriving,
driving, the PCMM works in the Bi-DC/DC mode.
controller distributes
controller distributes the the power
power for for the
the battery
battery andand the auxiliary
auxiliary energy source source according to to the
the
The controller distributes the power for the battery andthe the auxiliaryenergy energy source according
according to the
power demand
power demand
demand of of the
of the inverter.
the inverter.
inverter. The The auxiliary
The auxiliary energy
auxiliary energy source
energy source
source will will provide
will provide energy
provide energy
energy when when
when thethe PCMM
the PCMM
PCMM
power
operates
operates in in the
in the boost
the boost mode.
boost mode.
mode. PCMM PCMM
PCMM detects detects
detects the the
the DCDC
DC bus bus voltage,
bus voltage, calculates
voltage, calculates
calculates the the reference
the reference current
reference current
current
operates
according
according to to the
to the power
the power
power that that
that thethe auxiliary
the auxiliary energy
auxiliary energy needs
energy needs
needs to to respond
to respond
respond with. with. When
with. When
When the the auxiliary
the auxiliary energy
auxiliary energy
energy
according
source
source is is needed
is needed
needed for for energy
for energy recovery,
energy recovery,
recovery, the the PCMM
thePCMM
PCMMoperatesoperates
operates in in buck
inbuck
buckmode.mode.
mode. The The
The PCMMPCMM detects
PCMM detects
detects thethe
the
source
voltageof
voltage ofthe
theauxiliary
auxiliaryenergy
energyand andcalculates
calculatesthe thetarget
targetcurrent
currentaccording
accordingto tothe
thepower
powerrecovered
recoveredby by
voltage of the auxiliary energy and calculates the target current according to the power recovered by
the auxiliary
the auxiliary energy.
auxiliaryenergy.
energy.When When
Whenthe the battery
thebattery
batterypack pack needs
packneeds charging,
needscharging,
charging,the the PCMM
thePCMM operates
PCMMoperates
operatesin in the
inthe AC/DC
theAC/DC
AC/DC mode.mode.
the mode.
In the
In the constant
the constant current
constant current charging
current charging
chargingstage, stage,
stage,the the control
thecontrol objective
controlobjective
objectiveof of
ofthethe PCMM
thePCMM
PCMMisisthe is the output
theoutput current.In
outputcurrent.
current. Inthe
the
In In the
constant voltage
constant voltage charging
charging stage,
stage, the the control
control objective
objective of of PCMM
PCMM isis the the output
output voltage.
voltage. The
The PCMM
PCMM
constant voltage charging stage, the control objective of PCMM is the output voltage. The PCMM
works
worksin in DC/AC
in DC/AC
DC/AC mode mode when it is necessary to provide single-phase AC for the electrical equipment.
works mode whenwhen it it is
is necessary
necessary to to provide
provide single-phase
single-phase AC AC for
for the
the electrical
electrical equipment.
equipment.
PCMM
PCMMadopts adopts
adoptsdouble double
doubleloop loop
loop control;
control; the current of the inductor is the inner loop, the
the output
output AC AC
PCMM control; thethe current
current of inductor
of the the inductor is the is the loop,
inner innerthe loop,
output AC voltage
voltage
voltage is outer
is outer loop, and the control target is output voltage.
is outer loop, andloop, and thetarget
the control control is target
outputisvoltage.
output voltage.

Start
Start

No
Driving? No
Driving?

Yes
Yes

Auxiliary
Auxiliary Charging? AC supply？
Recycle energy Charging? AC supply？
Recycle energy
energy
energy Supply
Supply Yes Yes
energy Yes Yes
energy
Buck Boost AC/DC DC/AC
Buck Boost AC/DC DC/AC

Figure
Figure3. Flow
Flowchart
chartof
ofthe
thefunction
functionneeded
neededininEVs
EVswith
withhybrid
hybridenergy
energystorage
storagesystems.
Figure 3.3.Flow chart of the function needed in EVs with hybrid energy storage systems.
systems.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 17
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 4 of 17

2.1. Bi-DC/DC Mode

2.1. Bi-DC/DC Mode
In buck mode of the Bi-DC/DC converter, the equivalent circuit of the system is as show in Figure
4. In buck mode of the Bi-DC/DC converter, the equivalent circuit of the system is as show in Figure 4.

rs
+

rL L1
rs Vi
C2
+ RL
rL L2
C1
Vo

rs rs
- -

Figure 4. The
Figure 4. The equivalent
equivalent circuit
circuit of
of the
the Bi-DC/DC mode.
Bi-DC/DC mode.

The
The voltage
voltage of
ofthe capacitorvcv(ct()t,)the
thecapacitor current
, the current of of
thethe inductors i L1 (itL)1 ,(tand
inductors ) , and
i L2 (itL)2 (are
t ) are
selected as the
selected as
state variable of the system. The high side voltage vi (t)vis ( t )
selected as the input variable, and the low
the state variable of the system. The high side voltage i is selected as the input variable, and the
side voltage vo (t) is selected as the output variable. The state equations and output equations of the
low sidecan
voltage vo (t ) is selected(1)
as andthe output variable. The state equations and output equations
system be given as Equations (2).
of the system can be given as Equations (1) and (2).
 ·   
i L1 (t )  i L1 (t)
 · i L1 ( t) 
 
 i L2 (t )  = A iLi1L2 (t)  + B[vi (t)]
 (t ) 
 (1)
· i L 2 (t )  A i v(ct()t) B  v (t ) 
vc (t)   L2  i (1)
   vc (t ) 
 vc (t )  
  i L1 (t)


vo (t) = C  i L2 (t)  + D [vi (t)] (2)

 
 iL1 (t ) 
vc (t)
vo (t )  C iL 2 (t )  D  vi (t ) (2)
For the bi-DC/DC converter operating in an inductor continuous mode (CCM), the coefficient
 vc (t ) 
matrix of the state space averaging equations is given as Equation (3).
For the bi-DC/DC rsconverter operating inan inductor continuous mode (CCM), the coefficient
− L+averaging
rL
− L11 is given asLdEquation (3).
 
matrix of the state space 0 equations
1 1 h i
A= 0 − rs L+2r L − L12 ,B =  Ld , C = 0 0 1 , D = [0] (3)
   
 1 rs  rL 1 − 1 1  02d 
C1 C1 0 R L C1  L 
 L1 L1   1
where, r L is the internal resistance of rs inductor,
 rL r1s is the  d  resistance of the IGBT, and d is the duty
internal
A 0    , B    , C   0 0 1 , D   0  (3)
cycle of the PWM.  L2 L2   L2 
In steady state, the derivative
1 of1 each state 
1 variable  is0 zero,
 and the relation between the steady
    
state output voltage and  the C1 input voltage
C1 can RL C  by Equation (4).
be1 expressed

where, r L is the internal resistance of inductor,

Vo =
rs is
2R L dthe internal resistance of the IGBT, and d is the
V (4)
duty cycle of the PWM. 2R L + r L + rs i

where,In R
steady state, the derivative of each state variable is zero, and the relation between the steady
L is the load resistance.
state The
output voltage and of
average vector thethe
input voltage
system canexpressed
can be be expressed bysum
as the Equation
of the(4).
steady-state value and the
small signal value, shown in Equation (5). 2 RL d
Vo  V (4)
  2 RL  rL rs i  
hi L1 (t)iTs IL1 ˆ
i L1 (t)
where, RL is the load resistance.   ˆ
 hi L2 (t)i Ts  =  IL2  +  i L2 (t)  (5)
   
The average vector of the system can
hvc (t)iTs be expressed
Vc as the sum
vˆc (t) of the steady-state value and the
small signal value, shown in Equation (5).
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 5 of 17

In the vicinity of the steady state, the small signal model of the system can be obtained by the
partial derivative of the variable, and the Laplace transform can be used as Equation (6).
     V 
ˆ (s)
i L1 ˆ (s)
i L1 i
L1
V
dˆ(s)
 ˆ ˆ (s)  + Bv̂i (s) +  i 
s i L2 (s)  = A i L2 (6)
   
L2 
vˆc (s) vˆc (s) 0

Make dˆ(s) = 0, the transfer function of the input voltage to each state variable can be determined
via Equation (7).
Gxvi = (SI − A)−1 B (7)

Make v̂i (s) = 0, the transfer function of the duty cycle to each state variable can be calculated as
Equation (8).
h iT
Gxd = (SI − A)−1 LVi LV2i 0 (8)
1

The boost model and the buck model have dual symmetry, and the coefficient matrix of the
average state space equation in the boost mode is given by Equation (9).

− rs L+1r L − 1L−1d
   1 
0 L
 1 
h i
A= 0 − rs L+2r L − 1L−2d ,B =  L1 , C = 0 0 1 , D = [0] (9)
 
2
1− d 1− d
C2 C2 − R L1C2 0

The relation between the steady state output voltage and the input voltage can be expressed as
Equation (10).
2R L (1 − d)
Vo = Vi (10)
(1 − d)2 2R L + r L + rs
The transfer function of the input voltage to each state variable can be determined by Equation (11).

Gxvi = (SI − A)−1 B (11)

The transfer function of the duty cycle to each state variable can be calculated with Equation (12).
h iT
Gxd = (SI − A)−1 Vc
L1
Vc
L2 − ICL12 − IL2
C2 (12)

The control structure of the Bi-DC/DC mode is shown in Figure 5. The controller consists of two
inner loops and one outer loop. In buck mode, V ref is the reference voltage of the low voltage side,
V out is the output voltage, dx1 is the duty cycle of Q1 , and dx2 is the duty cycle of Q2 . In boost mode,
V ref is the reference voltage of the high voltage side, V out is the output voltage, dx1 is the duty cycle of
Q3 , and dx2 is the duty cycle of Q4 . PIx1 , PIx2 , and PIx3 is the PI regulator of the system. Based on the
model of the system illustrated in Equations (1)–(12), the parameters of the PI regulators in buck mode
and boost mode can be obtained easily by the “sisotool” toolbox of MATLAB.
isisthe
theoutput
outputvoltage,
voltage,ddx1x1isisthe
theduty
dutycycle cycleofofQQ1,1,and andddx2x2isisthe
theduty
dutycycle
cycleofofQQ2.2.In
Inboost
boostmode,
mode,VVrefrefisis
the reference voltage of the high voltage side, V out is the output voltage, dx1 is the duty cycle of Q3,
the reference voltage of the high voltage side, Vout is the output voltage, dx1 is the duty cycle of Q3,
andddx2x2isisthe
and theduty
dutycycle
cycleofofQQ4.4.PI
PIx1x1, ,PI
PIx2x2, ,and
andPI
PIx3x3isisthe
thePIPIregulator
regulatorofofthe
thesystem.
system.BasedBasedon
onthe
themodel
model
ofof the system
theElectric
system illustrated
illustrated in
in 9,Equations
Equations (1)–(12), the parameters of the PI regulators in
(1)–(12), the parameters of the PI regulators in buck mode6 and buck mode and
World Vehicle Journal 2018, 7 of 17
boost mode can be obtained easily by the “sisotool”
boost mode can be obtained easily by the “sisotool” toolbox of MATLAB. toolbox of MATLAB.

+
+
Vac Q1 Q2 ++

ACAC
Vac C3 Q1 Q2
- C3 K1
- K1
L1

dcH
L1

VVdcH
++ K2 C2
L2 Q4 C2
K2 L2

dcL
Q4

VVdcL C1 Q3
C1 Q3
--- --
-
- d
+ - x1
Vout + PI dx1
Vout PIx2x2
- -
Vref++ - + d
+-
x2
Vref PI 0.5 PI dx2
PIx1x1 0.5 PIx3x3
Figure 5. The control structure of the Bi-DC/DC mode.
of the
Figure 5. The control structure of the Bi-DC/DC
Bi-DC/DC mode.
mode.

2.2. AC/DCMode
2.2. Mode
2.2. AC/DC
AC/DC Mode
The equivalentcircuit
The circuitofofthe
theAC/DC
AC/DCmode
mode is showininFigure
Figure 6.
The equivalent
equivalent circuit of the AC/DC mode isis show
show in Figure 6.
6.
r
rs s
+
+

r L
+ rL L L1 1 r Vo
V+ rs s C Vo
Vacac - C2 2
L RL
- r L2 2 RL
rL L

r r
rs s rs s -
-

Figure 6. The equivalent circuit of the AC/DC mode.

Figure 6. The equivalent circuit of the AC/DC mode.
AC/DC mode.

ReferringtotoFigure
Referring Figure6,6,assume assumethat thatthe theparameters
parametersofofthe thefour
fourpower
powerswitches
switchesare arethe
thesame.
same.TheThe
Referring
equivalent to Figure
circuits of the 6, assumehalf
negative that cyclethe and parameters
the positiveof the half four
cyclepower
of the switches
sine wave are
arethe
the same.
same.
equivalent
The equivalent circuits of theofnegative
circuits the negative half cyclehalf cycle and the and positive
the positivehalf cyclehalf of the of
cycle sine
thewave sine are
wavetheare
same.
C 2 vcthe
(t ) ,
Therefore,
Therefore, only
only the the positive
positive half
half cycle cycle needs to be analyzed. The voltage of the capacitor C 2 vc (tC),
same. Therefore, only the positive halfneedscycle to be analyzed.
needs to be analyzed.The voltage of the capacitor
The voltage of the capacitor 2
i ( t ) i (t )
v the
c ( t )current
, the of
currentthe
the current of the inductor inductor
of the i
inductor
L
L(1t ) , and i L(
1 i
, and L1 ( t )L,2
2t )
and are
i L2 (selected
t ) are as
selected the state
as variables
the state of
variables
are selected as the state variables of the system. The AC the system.
of the The AC
system.
The AC vac (t ) isv ac
side voltage (t) is selected as thevariable,input variable, theand theside
high v (t ) voselected
side voltage (t) is selected
side voltage
side voltage ac v (t ) selected as the
is selected as the input variable, and input andthe high
high voltage
side voltage vo o(t ) isisselected as asthe
the
as the output variable. The state space equation of the system andthe theoutput
outputequation
equation are are expressed in
output variable. The state space equation of the system and the output equation are expressed inin
output variable. The state space equation of the system and expressed
Equations
Equations(1) (1) and
(1)and
and(2).(2).
(2).The The coefficient
Thecoefficient
coefficientmatrix matrix
matrixofofthe of the average
theaverage
averagestate state space
statespace average
spaceaverage equation
averageequation of
equationofofthe the system
thesystem
system
Equations
isisexpressed
expressed by
by Equation
Equation (13).
(13).
is expressed by Equation (13).
 2r  
L1 + L12  
L 2r 1 1
  L21 r+s Ls2 2 rL L 0 0 − L1 +L12 1dd  
 2rs +2r 1− d
  
−
  2r0L 1
A =    0LL1 1LL2 2− 2rLs + L2=
−d L1    1L1  L2
h i
 ,B 
 1 + L 2
− L 1 + LL21  L 2 
 L L +
1 
 1 21  
L L 2
 ,C = 0 0 1 , D = [0] (13)
1− d 2 r  2 r 1  d
A  C21  d   B  0 1
1
0 02 rs s 2 rL− L 
A    C2 0  L R L
 L2  L1  L2  B    L1  L2  (13)
(13)
 L1  L2
1 L1  L2  L  L
  voltage
1 state output
1 2
1 relation
d 
00  
In steady state,   the between the steady and the input voltage can be
1 d 0  1  
expressed as Equation   C
(14). 0  RL C 2      C   0 0 1 D   0 
 C2 2 RL C  ,
R2L (1 ,− d)  ,C,   0 0 1 , ,D   0 
Vo = V i (14)
(1 − d)2 R L + 2r L + 2rs
small signal value, as shown in Equation (15).

 ^ 
 iL1 (t )   iL1 (t ) 
 Ts
  I L1   ^ 
 iL 2 (t )    I L 2   iL 2 (t )  (15)
 Ts
    ^ 
 vc (t ) T   Vc   v (t ) 
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 7 of 17
 s  c
 
The average
In the vicinityvector
of theofsteady
the system state,can thebe expressed
small signal as the sum
model of the of system
the steady-state value and
can be obtained by the
the
small signal value, as shown in Equation (15).
partial derivative of the variable, and the Laplace transform is carried out with Equation (16).
 iVL1
ˆc (t)
     
h^ i L1 (t)iTs ^ IL1
   =     ˆ  
 iLh1i(L2
s )(t)i Ts  i  IL2  + L1i
L1 ( s )  L2L(2t )  (15)
 ^hvc (t)i Ts  ^  Vc ^  V vˆcc (t) ^
s iL 2 ( s )   A iL 2 ( s )   B vi ( s )    d (s) (16)
 ^   ^   L1  L2 
In the vicinity of the steady  vcstate,
( s )  the small
vc ( s )  signal model  Iof the  system can be obtained by the
  
partial derivative of the variable, and the Laplace transform is carried    L1
 out with Equation (16).
 C2 
     Vc 
^ ˆ (s)
i L1 ˆ (s)
i L1 L + L2
Make
d (s)  0 , thetransfer
ˆ (s) function  1Vcstate ˆ
 = A of
 ˆthe input
i L2 (s)  + voltageBv̂i (s) +toeach
 variable can be determined
s i L2 L1 + L2  d ( s ) (16)
 
as Equation (17). vˆc (s) vˆc (s) I
− CL12
1
G xvi   S I  A  B (17)
ˆ
Make d(s) = 0, the transfer function of the input voltage to each state variable can be determined
^
as Equation v(17).
(s)  0 , the transfer function of the duty cycle to each state variable can be calculated as
Make i
Gxvi = (SI − A)−1 B (17)
Equation (18).
Make v̂i (s) = 0, the transfer function of the duty cycle to each state T
variable can be calculated as
Equation (18). 1  Vc Vc I L1 
Gxd   SI  A h   iT (18)
−1 L1 VL L Vc L2
 CIL1 
Gxd = (SI − A) c2
L1 + L2
1
L1 + L2 − C22 (18)
The control
The control structure
structure of
of the
the AC/DC
AC/DC mode
mode is
is shown
shown in
in Figure 7.
Figure 7.

+
Vac Q1 Q2 +
es C3
- K1
L1
VdcH

+
L2 C2
K2 Q4
VdcL

C1 Q3
-- -
Vac

- -
d + + Vr ef
PI2 PI1

1/V2rms

RMS

Figure 7. The control structure of the AC/DC mode.

Figure 7. The control structure of the AC/DC mode.

The
The loop
loop is
is composed
composed ofof an
an inner
inner current
current loop
loop and
and an
an outer
outer loop.
loop. The
The output
output of
of the
the regulator
regulator PI
PI11
in the outer loop and the input voltage v v are multiplied, so that the output current is proportional
in the outer loop and the input voltage acac are multiplied, so that the output current is proportional to
the input
to the voltage.
input In order
voltage. to keeptothe
In order output
keep the power
outputconstant
power when the input
constant whenvoltage is disturbance,
the input voltage is
the RMS value of the input voltage is added as the feed forward. The signal calculated by the multiplier
is used as a reference of the current loop, and the current loop is adjusted by regulator PI2 to obtain the
duty cycle of the PWM.

2.3. DC/AC Mode

The wave form of the output in DC/AC mode is a sinusoidal form, and there is no DC steady
state operation point. It is a typical large signal nonlinear system, and the equivalent circuit in the
DC/AC mode is shown in Figure 8.
 2.3. DC/AC Mode
The wave form of the output in DC/AC mode is a sinusoidal form, and there is no DC steady
state operation point. It is a typical large signal nonlinear system, and the equivalent circuit in the
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 8 of 17
DC/AC mode is shown in Figure 8.

rs
+

rL L1
a rs
Vdc
b
Z0 rL L2
Vac C1

-
rs rs

Figure8.8.The
Figure Theequivalent
equivalentcircuit
circuitininDC/AC
DC/ACmode.
mode.

The voltagevcv(ct()t )ofof

Thevoltage thethe capacitorC1 Cand
capacitor 1 and the the current
current
i (t ) i (t ) of the inductors ( L 1 , L 2 )
(i L1((tL)1, i L2, (tL)2) of) the inductors (L1 , L2 ) are
selected
are selectedas the asstate variables
the state of theofsystem.
variables the system.The voltage
The voltage v ab (
v ab (t) betweent ) the two
between thepoints ‘a’ and‘a’
two points ‘b’and
is
taken as the input variable, and the output voltage v ac (t)vis taken as the output variable. Because of
‘b’ is taken as the input variable, and the output voltage ac (t ) is taken as the output variable. Because
i L1 (t) = i L2 (t), the equation of the circuit can be expressed as Equations (19)–(22).
of iL1 ( t )  iL 2 ( t ) , the equation of the circuit can be expressed as Equations (19)–(22).
di (t)
( L1 + L2 ) L1 diL1 (= t ) −2r L i L1 (t) − vc (t) + v ab (t) (19)
 L1  L2dt  2rL iL1 (t )  vc (t )  vab (t ) (19)
dt
di L1 (t)
( L1 + L2 ) = −2r L i L2 (t) − vc (t) + v ab (t) (20)
dtdiL1 (t )
 L1  L2   2rL iL 2 (t )  vc (t )  vab (t ) (20)
dvcdt(t) vc (t)
C2 = i L1 (t) − (21)
dt Z0
dv (t ) v (t )
C 2 v acc (t) =iLv1 c((t )t) c (22)
(21)
dt Z0
The coefficient matrix of the state space equation is shown in Equation (23).
 v ac( t )  v c ( t ) (22)
− L12r+LL2 − L1 +1 L2
 
0 1/( L1 + L2 )
AThe coefficient matrix
− L12r+LLof the− Lstate
1 space equation is shownin Equation (23).
h i
= 0 ,B =  1/( L1 + L2 ) , C = 0 0 1 , D = [0] (23)
  
2 1 + L2
1 1
C2  1 
2rL 0 − 0
 0 Z0 C2  
 1 L  L 2 L 1  L2 
The voltage v ab  (t) is a discontinuous 2rL
signal, which can be averaged over a switching period to
1
obtain its average A state.
 0For unipolar
 
modulation,  when 1/ the modulation wave is vre f (t) = Vre f sin((23) ωt)
 L1  L2 L  L2   ( L1  L2 ) 
and the carrier amplitude is Vt , the average 1value of the voltage v ab(t) in one period can be expressed
 1 1  B  1/ ( L1  L2 ) 
as Equation (24).  0  
 C2 Z 0 C2  V  sin(0ωt)  C   0 0 1 D   0
, re f , ,
hv ab (t)iTs = Vdc (24)
Vt
The voltageEquation
v ab (t ) is(24)
a discontinuous
Substituting into the state signal,equation which
of the can be averaged
system, the relatedovercharacteristics
a switching period can beto
vref (t )  Vref sin ( t )
derived.
obtain its The internal
average resistance
state. of the two
For unipolar inductorswhen
modulation, is defined as r L , then the
the modulation wave transfer
is function of the
system can be expressed by Equation Vt (25). vab (t )
and the carrier amplitude is , the average value of the voltage in one period can be
expressed as Equation (24).
Gxvi = (SI − A)−1 B (25)
Vref sin(t )
The control structure of the DC/ACvmode ab (t ) Tsis Vdc
shown in
Vt Figure 9.
(24)
The control system is composed of an inner loop and an outer loop. The reference voltage (Vre f ) of
the output voltage is a sinusoidal wave with required frequency. Regulating by the regulator (PI1 ), the
reference of the current loop is obtained, and the duty cycle of the PWM is output by the regulator (PI2 ).
 rL
be derived. The internal resistance of the two inductors is defined as , then the transfer function of
the system can be expressed by Equation (25).
1
G xvi   SI  A  B (25)
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 9 of 17
The control structure of the DC/AC mode is shown in Figure 9.

+
Vac Q1 Q2 +

AC
C3
- K1
L1

VdcH
+
L2 C2
K2 Q4

VdcL
C1 Q3
-- -
Vac
-
Vref + +- d
PI1 PI2

Figure9.9.The
Figure Thecontrol
controlstructure
structureofofthe
theDC/AC
DC/ACmode.
mode.

V
2.4. Limitations
The control of Proposed composed of an inner loop and an outer loop. The reference voltage ( ref )
system isModel
of the output voltage is a sinusoidal wave with required frequency. Regulating by the regulator (PI1),
The PCMM model established in this paper has the following limitations.
the reference of the current loop is obtained, and the duty cycle of the PWM is output by the regulator
Firstly, the model is based on the average state variable established by the average state space
(PI2).
model. The state variable of the model reflects the average value of variables in a switching cycle. This
model cannot effectively reflect the description of switch details.
2.4. Limitations of Proposed Model
Secondly, the model is a small signal model, which reflects the small signal disturbance
The PCMM
characteristic of themodel
systemestablished
near steadyin this paper
state. When has the
the following
system limitations.
is disturbed by a large signal, such as
Firstly, the model is based on the average state variable established
start-up, short circuit, or sudden break, the system characteristics cannot be accurately by the average state space
described.
model. The state
To reflect the variable of the model reflects
system characteristics the average
more accurately, value of variables
a nonlinear modelinginmethod
a switching cycle.
is needed.
This model
However, thecannot
system effectively reflect the
model obtained by description
the nonlinear of switch details.
modeling method is rather complex, which
Secondly,
will bring the model
difficulties is a small design.
to the controller’s signal This
model, which
model reflects
can use the control
classical small signal
theory disturbance
to design a
characteristic
controller of the system
for PCMM. near steady
It can quickly state.
design When thethat
a controller system
meetsis the
disturbed by a large
engineering signal, such as
requirements.
start-up, short circuit, or sudden break, the system characteristics cannot be accurately described.
3. Simulation
To reflectofthethesystem
PCMMcharacteristics more accurately, a nonlinear modeling method is needed.
However, the system
According model requirements
to the design obtained by the of anonlinear modeling
certain vehicle method
model, is ratherneeds
the PCMM complex, which
to achieve
will bring difficulties to the controller’s design. This model can use classical
DC conversion between the super capacitor bank and the lithium-ion battery pack, conversion from control theory to design
a controller for
single-phase ACPCMM. It can quickly
to the lithium-ion design
battery a controller
pack, that meets
and conversion fromthetheengineering
lithium-ion requirements.
battery pack to
single-phase AC. The performance requirements of the PCMM are shown in Table 1.
3. Simulation of the PCMM
Table 1.toDesign
According parameters
the design of the power
requirements of converter
a certain with multi-operating
vehicle model, the mode
PCMM (PCMM).
needs to achieve
DC conversion between the super capacitor bank and the lithium-ion battery pack, conversion from
Parameter Value
single-phase AC to the lithium-ion battery pack, and conversion from the lithium-ion battery pack to
High side requirements
single-phase AC. The performance voltage range of the PCMM 350–420 V
are shown in Table 1.
Low side voltage range 110–230 V
Voltage of AC input or output Rms 180–240 V
Table 1. Design parameters of the power converter with multi-operating mode (PCMM).
AC frequency 50 Hz
Output power of AC
Parameter 3 kW Value
Rated inductor current 250 A
High side voltage range 350–420 V
Low side voltage range 110–230 V
In order to meet theVoltage of AC inputof
requirements or current
output ripple and voltage
Rms 180–240
rippleVin different modes,
AC frequency
capacitance and inductance need to be matched with PCMM design parameters 50 Hz [25]. The results
Output power of AC 3 kW
obtained by the parameter matching show that the inductance of L1 and L2 is 690 uH, the AC filter
Rated inductor current 250 A
capacitor C3 is 3 µF, the high side filter capacitor C2 is 9400 F, and the low side capacitor C1 is 2200 F.
Matlab/Simulink was used for simulation and the main circuit of the simulation model is shown in
Figure 10.
capacitance and inductance need to be matched with PCMM design L parameters
L [25]. The results
obtained by the parameter matching show that the inductance of L1 and L2 is 690 uH, the AC filter
obtained by C the parameter matching show that the inductanceC of 1 and 2 is 690 uH, the ACCfilter
capacitor C3 is 3 μF, the high side filter capacitor C2 is 9400 F, and the low side capacitor C1 is
capacitor 3 is 3 μF, the high side filter capacitor 2 is 9400 F, and the low side capacitor 1 is
2200 F. Matlab/Simulink was used for simulation and the main circuit of the simulation model is
2200 Electric
shown
World F.inMatlab/Simulink
Figure Journal 2018,was
Vehicle 10. 9, 7 used for simulation and the main circuit of the simulation model is
10 of 17
shown in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Main circuit of the simulation model.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Main circuit of
Main circuit of the
the simulation
simulation model.
model.
3.1. Bidirectional DC/DC Mode
3.1. Bidirectional
3.1. DC/DC Mode
Bidirectional DC/DC Mode
In buck mode, as shown in Figure 11, the inductor current and drive signals are obtained for an
inputIn In buck mode,
voltage
buck mode,
of 350as as shown
V,shown involtage
outputin Figureof
Figure 11,220
11, theV,
the inductor current
and output
inductor and of
power
current and drive
30 kW.
drive signals are obtained
During
signals are obtained
operation, forthe
for an
an
input
two
input voltage
IGBTs of
turnofon
voltage 350
350 V, output
alternately
V, outputand voltage of 220
each phase
voltage V,
of 220lags and output
by 180
V, and power
degrees
output of 30
to reduce
power of 30 kW.kW. During
the During operation,
output current
operation, the
ripple.
the
two
In
two IGBTs
Figure
IGBTs 11,turn
turn on alternately
IL1 and
on alternately
IL2 are the andand each
eachwaveform
current phase lags
phase lagsofby
the
by 180 degrees
two
180 to
to reduce
inductors.
degrees the
IL is the
reduce output
thesum of Icurrent
output ripple.
L1 and IL2
current . The
ripple.
In Figure
Figure
current
In 11, IIL1
ripple
11, ofand
IL1 isIIL255.0
and areA.
the current
Because waveform
of ofof
the
the interleaved two inductors.
structure, IL is
the outputILthe sum
iscurrentofILIof
L1 and IL2. The
is reduced
IL1 and Ito
L1 L2 are the current waveform the two inductors. the sum L2 .
current
23.8 A.
The currentripple of IL1 is 55.0 A. Because of the interleaved structure, the output current IL is reduced to
ripple of IL1 is 55.0 A. Because of the interleaved structure, the output current IL is reduced
23.8
to A.A.
23.8

150
150 IL 1.0
IL 1.0
current(A)

0.8
PWM1 PWM2
current(A)

100 0.8
IL1 PWM1 PWM2
100
IL1 IL2 0.6
IL2
PWM

0.6
PWM

0.4
Inductor

50
0.4
Inductor

50
0.2
0.2
0 0.0
0.06000
0 0.06005 0.06010 0.0
0.06000 0.06005 0.06010
t(s)
t(s)
Figure
Figure 11.
11. Inductor
Inductor current
current waveform
waveform in
in bi-directional DC/DC mode.
bi-directional DC/DC mode.
Figure 11. Inductor current waveform in bi-directional DC/DC mode.
In boost mode, for the input voltage of 220 V, output voltage of 350 V, and load power of 30 kW,
In boost mode, for the input voltage of 220 V, output voltage of 350 V, and load power of 30 kW,
In Electric
boost mode,response
for the input voltage of 220 V, 12a.
output voltage of 350 V, and load power of 30 kW,
theWorld
output voltage
Vehicle Journal is9,as
2018, shown
x FOR in
PEER Figure
REVIEW 11 of 17
the output voltage response is
is as shown in Figure 12a.
In buck mode, response
for the input asvoltage
shown of in 350
Figure 12a. voltage of 220 V, and load power of 30 kW,
V, output
the output voltage response process is as shown in Figurevoltage
In buck mode, for the input voltage of 350 V, output 12b. of 220 V, and load power of 30 kW,
the output360voltage response process is as shown
The output voltage reached a steady state inin100
Figure 12b.80 ms in boost mode and buck mode,
ms and
The output voltage reached a steady state in 100 ms 220 80 ms in boost mode and buck mode,
and
340
respectively. The error of output voltage is less than 1%. The controller designed based on the
respectively.
presented Theiserror
model of output voltage is less than 1%. The controller designed based on the
accurate.
320
presented model is accurate. 218
VdcH(V)

VdcL(V)

300

280 216

260
214
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
t(s) t(s)
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 12.12. Output
Output voltage
voltage waveform:
waveform: (a)(a) boost
boost mode;
mode; (b)(b) buck
buck mode.
mode.

3.2. AC/DC Mode

In AC/DC mode, simulation studies were carried out for the input voltages of 180 V and 240 V,
respectively. For the output voltage of DC 400 V, load resistance of 60 ohms, and output power of
2.667 kW at steady state, the input voltage and current are as shown in Figure 13. In this mode, the
 220
340

320
218

VdcH(V)

VdcL(V)
300
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 216 11 of 17
280

260
In buck mode, for the input voltage of 350 V, output214 voltage of 220 V, and load power of 30 kW,
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10
the output voltage responset(s)
process is as shown in Figure 12b. t(s)
The output voltage(a) reached a steady state in 100 ms and 80 ms in boost (b) mode and buck mode,
respectively. The error of output voltage is less than 1%. The controller designed based on the presented
model is accurate. Figure 12. Output voltage waveform: (a) boost mode; (b) buck mode.

3.2. AC/DC Mode

AC/DC mode,
In AC/DC mode,simulation
simulationstudies
studieswere
werecarried
carriedout
outfor
forthe
theinput
inputvoltages
voltagesofof180
180VVand
and240
240V,
V,
respectively. For the output voltage of DC 400 V, loadload resistance of 60 ohms, and output power of
2.667 kW at
at steady
steadystate,
state,the
theinput
inputvoltage
voltageand
andcurrent are
current areasas
shown
shownin in
Figure 13.13.
Figure In this mode,
In this the
mode,
PCMM
the PCMMrectified the the
rectified AC ACpower supply
power andand
supply realized power
realized factor
power correction.
factor correction.

60
Vac1
300 Vac2
Vac1 Vac2
Iac1
40
200 Iac_rec Iac2
Iac_rec
Iac1
20
100 Iac2
Vac(V)

Iac(A)
0 0

-100
-20

-200
-40

-300
-60
0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76

t(s)

Figure 13. Output voltage and current waveform.

V 1 I ac1
As shown in Figure 13, Vac
Figure 13, ac1 isis the
the waveform for the input input voltage
voltage RMS RMSvalue valueofof180
180V,
V,and
and Iac1
is waveform. V Vacac2
is the
the input
input current
current waveform. 2 is
is the
the waveform
waveform for for the
the input
input voltage
voltage RMS RMS value
value of
of 240
240 V,
V, and
and
the Iac2
I 2is the corresponding input current waveform. In contrast, I ac_rec is the
I ac _ rec input current without
the acfactor
power is the corresponding
correction. With the input
power current
factorwaveform.
correction, the In contrast,
input current changes is the proportionally
input current
with the input voltage, and the circuit shows a resistive load characteristic. The power factor ischanges
without power factor correction. With the power factor correction, the input current greater
proportionally
than 0.996. with the input voltage, and the circuit shows a resistive load characteristic. The power
factorThe
is greater than 0.996.
spectrum of input current is analyzed, and different order harmonics are shown in Table 2.
The spectrum
The total harmonicofdistortion
input current(THD) is analyzed,
of the input and different
current (I order harmonics are shown in Table 2.
h1 ) is 6.62% for AC 180 V. For AC
The total harmonic distortion (THD) of the input current (I h1) is 6.62% for AC 180 V. For AC 240 V,
240 V, the THD of the input current (Ih2 ) is 8.22%, which meets the requirements of the Class A
the THD ofinthe
equipment theinput current (I
IEC6000-3-2 h2) is 8.22%, which meets the requirements of the Class A equipment
standard (Ihs ). Ih_rec is the harmonic of the input current without power
in the IEC6000-3-2
factor correction. standard (I hs). Ih_rec is the harmonic of the input current without power factor

correction.
Table 2. Harmonics of input current.

Harmonic Order Ih_rec (A) Ih2 (A) Ih1 (A) Ihs (A) Harmonic Order Ih_rec (A) Ih2 (A) Ih1 (A) His (A)
0 0.0000 0.0193 0.0544 11 0.8765 0.1371 0.0942 0.3300
1 10.2426 15.6923 20.0396 12 0.0000 0.0079 0.0060 0.1533
2 0.0000 0.0130 0.0367 1.0800 13 0.6629 0.1198 0.0861 0.2900
3 8.4349 0.4684 0.2735 2.3000 14 0.0000 0.0157 0.0030 0.1314
4 0.0000 0.0052 0.0034 0.4300 15 0.3919 0.1187 0.0911 0.2570
5 5.4647 0.2243 0.1358 1.1400 16 0.0000 0.0086 0.0148 0.1150
6 0.0000 0.0025 0.0054 0.3000 17 0.3624 0.0706 0.1022 0.2265
7 2.6145 0.1856 0.1163 0.7700 18 0.0000 0.0055 0.0142 0.1022
8 0.0000 0.0030 0.0031 0.2300 19 0.2929 0.0623 0.0682 0.2026
9 1.0190 0.1600 0.1143 0.4000 20 0.0000 0.0110 0.0145 0.0836
10 0.0000 0.0106 0.0119 0.1840
 In an independent inverter mode, the output AC voltage and current phase do not need to track
the phase of the grid voltage. A voltage controller is used to regulate the output voltage. For the DC
voltage of 400 V and output voltage RMS value of 220 V, the output voltage and current are shown
in Figure 14.
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 12 of 17
V
For the output voltage of RMS 220 V with loads of 500 W, 3 kW, and 1.5 kW, the voltage ac1 ,
Vac 2 , and Vac 3 are shown in Figure 14. Iac1, Iac2, and Iac3 are the current waveforms for 500 W, 3 kW,
3.3. DC/AC Mode
and 1.5 kW operation.
In an
The independent
output current isinverter
analyzed mode, the outputspectrum,
by frequency AC voltage and and current
each orderphase do not
harmonic need tointrack
is shown the
the phase
Table 3. Ih1,of
Ih2the
, andgrid voltage.
Ih3 are A voltageofcontroller
the harmonics is used
Iac1, Iac2, and to regulate the
Iac3, respectively. Theoutput
THD ofvoltage. Forcurrent
the input the DC
isvoltage
9.12% of in 400
500 VW,and output
1.53% in 3 voltage
kW (220RMS value
V), and of 220
2.28% V, the
in 1.5 kWoutput
(110 V)voltage
mode, and current are
respectively. shown
It can meet in
Figure
the 14.
requirements of Class A equipment according to the IEC6000-3-2 standard.

400 60
Vac1
300 Vac2
40
Vac3
200
Iac2
20
100 Iac3
Iac1
Vac(V)

Iac(a)
0 0

-100
-20
-200
-40
-300

-400 -60
0.00 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
t(s)

Figure 14. Output voltage and current waveform.

Figure 14. Output voltage and current waveform.

Table 3. Harmonics of output current.

For the output voltage of RMS 220 V with loads of 500 W, 3 kW, and 1.5 kW, the voltage Vac1 , Vac2 ,
Harmonic order Ih1 (A) Ih2 (A) Ih3 (A) His (A) Harmonic order Ih1 (A) Ih2 (A) Ih3 (A) His (A)
and Vac3 are shown in Figure 14. Iac1 , Iac2 , and Iac3 are the current waveforms for 500 W, 3 kW, and
0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0003 11 0.0006 0.0355 0.0186 0.3300
1.5 kW operation.
1 3.2150 19.0148 9.6702 12 0.0036 0.0018 0.0031 0.1533
2
The output 0.0004
current 0.0004
is analyzed 0.0001
by 1.0800 spectrum,
frequency 13 and each
0.0025 0.0268
order 0.0185 is shown
harmonic 0.2900 in the
3 0.0066 0.1150 0.0627 2.3000 14 0.0028 0.0047 0.0004 0.1314
Table 3. Ih1 , Ih2 , and Ih3 are the harmonics of Iac1 , Iac2 , and Iac3 , respectively. The THD of the input
4 0.0007 0.0019 0.0024 0.4300 15 0.0023 0.0326 0.0168 0.2570
current is 9.12%
5 in 5000.0194
W, 1.53% in 3 kW
0.0660 0.0244(2201.1400
V), and 2.28%16in 1.5 kW (110 V)
0.0014 mode,
0.0094 respectively.
0.0044 0.1150 It can
6
meet the requirements 0.0019 0.0007
of Class 0.0010
A equipment 0.3000
according to17the IEC6000-3-2
0.0024 0.0233 0.0151
standard. 0.2265
7 0.0114 0.0398 0.0168 0.7700 18 0.0011 0.0007 0.0048 0.1022
8 0.0020 0.0008 0.0034 0.2300 19 0.0011 0.0247 0.0141 0.2026
9 0.0024 0.0317
Table 3. Harmonics
0.0132 0.4000
of output
20
current.
0.0010 0.0059 0.0019 0.0836
10 0.0015 0.0030 0.0051 0.1840
Harmonic Order Ih1 (A) Ih2 (A) Ih3 (A) His (A) Harmonic Order Ih1 (A) Ih2 (A) Ih3 (A) His (A)
0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0003 11 0.0006 0.0355 0.0186 0.3300
1 3.2150 19.0148 9.6702 12 0.0036 0.0018 0.0031 0.1533
2 0.0004 0.0004 0.0001 1.0800 13 0.0025 0.0268 0.0185 0.2900
3 0.0066 0.1150 0.0627 2.3000 14 0.0028 0.0047 0.0004 0.1314
4 0.0007 0.0019 0.0024 0.4300 15 0.0023 0.0326 0.0168 0.2570
5 0.0194 0.0660 0.0244 1.1400 16 0.0014 0.0094 0.0044 0.1150
6 0.0019 0.0007 0.0010 0.3000 17 0.0024 0.0233 0.0151 0.2265
7 0.0114 0.0398 0.0168 0.7700 18 0.0011 0.0007 0.0048 0.1022
8 0.0020 0.0008 0.0034 0.2300 19 0.0011 0.0247 0.0141 0.2026
9 0.0024 0.0317 0.0132 0.4000 20 0.0010 0.0059 0.0019 0.0836
10 0.0015 0.0030 0.0051 0.1840

4. Experimental
In order to reduce the inductor volume, the L1 , L2 is 69 uH/150 A. In AC/DC and DC/AC modes,
L1 and L2 are connected in series with an inductor for the values of 1.2 mH/20 A. Filter capacitor C3
employs a 3 uF/600 V capacitor, filter capacitor C2 employs two 4700 F/500 V aluminum electrolytic
capacitors, and filter capacitor C1 employs a 2200 F/400 V aluminum electrolytic capacitor. The four
switch tubes are made up of two MITSUBISHI PM200DV1A120 IPM modules. The current is sampled
by a HAS-200-s LEM current sensor. The voltage sensor uses LEM’s LV25-P voltage sensor to isolate
the samples. The experimental test bench is shown in Figure 15.
Lswitch
1 and L 2 are are
tubes connected
made up inofseries with an inductor
two MITSUBISHI for the values
PM200DV1A120 IPMof modules.
1.2 mH/20TheA. current
Filter capacitor
is sampled C3
employs a 3 uF/600
by a HAS-200-s LEMVcurrent
capacitor, filterThe
sensor. capacitor
voltageCsensor
2 employs
usestwo 4700LV25-P
LEM’s F/500 Vvoltage
aluminum
sensorelectrolytic
to isolate
capacitors,
the samples. and
The filter capacitor C
experimental 1 employs
test bench isashown
2200 F/400 V aluminum
in Figure 15. electrolytic capacitor. The four
switch tubes are made up of two MITSUBISHI PM200DV1A120 IPM modules. The current is sampled
by a HAS-200-s LEM current sensor. The voltage sensor uses LEM’s LV25-P voltage sensor to isolate
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 13 of 17
the samples. The experimental test bench is shown in Figure 15.

Figure 15. Experimental test bench.

According to actual measurements of the experimental prototype, the electronic components

weigh 8.7 kg, while accessories, such Figure as15.
Figure Experimental
the
15. test
enclosure and
Experimental testbench.
wires, weigh 7.4 kg, resulting in a total
bench.
prototype weight of 16.1 kg. If the Bi-DC/DC, DC/AC, and AC/DC converters are installed
According to
independently,
According toactual
the actual measurements
total weight will be 33of
measurements of
kg.the experimentalPCMM
Comparatively,
the experimental prototype, theelectronic
can the
prototype, reduceelectronic components
the weight by 51.2%.
components
weigh 8.7 kg, while accessories, such as the enclosure and wires, weigh
weigh 8.7 kg, while accessories, such as the enclosure and wires, weigh 7.4 kg, resulting 7.4 kg, resulting in a in
total
a
4.1. Bi-DC/DC
prototype Mode
weight of 16.1 kg. If the Bi-DC/DC, DC/AC, and AC/DC converters
total prototype weight of 16.1 kg. If the Bi-DC/DC, DC/AC, and AC/DC converters are installed are installed
independently,the
independently, thetotal
totalweight
weight willbe be 33kg.
kg. Comparatively,
Comparatively,PCMM PCMMcan canreduce
reduce theweight
weightbyby 51.2%.
51.2%.
The input voltage and thewilloutput33 voltage in Bi-DC/DC model are shown inthe Figure 16a,b. In the
figures, the pink curves are the high side voltage. The blue curves are the low side voltage.
4.1.Bi-DC/DC
4.1. Bi-DC/DCModeMode
In boost mode, for an input voltage of 220 V, output voltage of 350 V, and load resistance of 30
Ω, theTheinput
The inputvoltage
input voltageand
voltage andthethe output
theoutput
output voltage
voltage ininBi-DC/DC
voltage Bi-DC/DC
are as shownmodel
model are
in are shown
shown
Figure 16a induring
in Figure16a,b.
Figure 16a,b. Inthe
In
initiation the
of
figures,
figures, the
the pink
pink curves
curves are
are the
the high
high side
side voltage.
voltage.
conversion. The conversion efficiency reaches 96.4%. The
The blue
blue curves
curves are
are the
the low
low side
side voltage.
voltage.
In boost mode, for an input voltage of 220 V, output voltage of 350 V, and load resistance of 30
Ω, the input voltage and the output voltage are as shown in Figure 16a during initiation of
conversion. The conversion efficiency reaches 96.4%.

(a) (b)
Figure16.
Figure 16.Input
Inputvoltage
voltageand
andoutput
outputvoltage
voltageinin(a)
(a)boost
boostmode,
mode,(b)
(b)buck
buckmode.
mode.

(a) (b)
In buck mode, for an input voltage of 350 V, output voltage of 220 V, and load resistance of 30
In boost mode, for an input voltage of 220 V, output voltage of 350 V, and load resistance of 30 Ω,
Ω, the input voltage
Figure and output
16. Input voltage
voltage and are as shown
output in (a)
voltage in Figure
boost16b during
mode, initiation
(b) buck mode. of conversion.
the input voltage and the output voltage are as shown in Figure 16a during initiation of conversion.
The conversion efficiency is 96.1%.
The conversion efficiency
In buck mode, for anreaches 96.4%. of 350 V, output voltage of 220 V, and load resistance of 30
input voltage
In input
Ω, the buck mode,
voltagefor
andanoutput
input voltage
voltage are
of 350 V, output
as shown voltage
in Figure 16bofduring
220 V, initiation
and loadof resistance of
conversion.
30 Ω, the input voltage and output
The conversion efficiency is 96.1%. voltage are as shown in Figure 16b during initiation of conversion.
The conversion efficiency is 96.1%.

4.2. AC/DC Mode

The AC voltage connects a 3 kVA transformer to adjust the grid voltage for input of PCMM.
The DC output is connected to a resistance load. In the absence of power factor correction, the four
reverse diodes form a rectifier bridge, and the circuit operates in the uncontrolled rectifier state.
The input voltage and current of the AC side are shown in Figure 17a. The power factor is 0.57, and
the output voltage is uncontrollable.
4.2. AC/DC
voltage Mode
is uncontrollable.
WithACpower
The voltage factor correction,
connects a 3 kVA for an output
transformer voltage
to adjust theof DC
grid 350 V,
voltage forthe
inputinput current
of PCMM. The is
proportional to the input voltage. The input voltage, input current, and output DC voltage
DC output is connected to a resistance load. In the absence of power factor correction, the four reverse are shown
in Figure
diodes form 17b. By power
a rectifier factorand
bridge, correction, the
the circuit power in
operates factor is increased to
the uncontrolled 0.988. state.
rectifier The conversion
The input
voltage andis current of I
thethd
AC
efficiency
World Electric 96.4%,
Vehicle the2018,
Journal 9, 7isside are shown
5.68%, and theinoutput
Figurevoltage
17a. Theispower
stablefactor
underisthe
0.57, and the output
regulation ofofthe
14 17
voltage
regulator.is uncontrollable.
With power factor correction, for an output voltage of DC 350 V, the input current is
proportional to the input voltage. The input voltage, input current, and output DC voltage are shown
in Figure 17b. By power factor correction, the power factor is increased to 0.988. The conversion
I
efficiency is 96.4%, the thd is 5.68%, and the output voltage is stable under the regulation of the
regulator.

(a) (b)
Figure 17.
Figure 17. Voltage
Voltageand
andcurrent
currentin
inAC/DC
AC/DC mode:
mode: (a)
(a) without
without power
power factor
factor correction;
correction; (b)
(b) with
with power
power
factor correction.
factor correction.

4.3. DC/AC Mode

With power factor correction, for an output voltage of DC 350 V, the input current is proportional
(a) (b)
to theIninput
DC/AC mode,
voltage. forinput
The an input voltage
voltage, inputof current,
DC 350 V, andoutput
outputvoltage of RMS
DC voltage are220 V, load
shown resistance
in Figure 17b.
of 54Figure
Ω, and17. Voltage
frequencyandofcurrent
50 Hz, in AC/DC
the wave mode:
form (a)
ofwithout
the power
output factor
voltage,correction;
input (b) with
current,
By power factor correction, the power factor is increased to 0.988. The conversion efficiency is 96.4%, power
and DC side
the factor
voltage
Ithd isarecorrection.
as shown
5.68%, in Figure
and the output18a. The is
voltage pink curve
stable is the
under theDC high side
regulation ofvoltage, the blue curve is the
the regulator.
output voltage, and the yellow curve is the output current. The THD of the output current is 5.893%
4.3.
andDC/AC Mode is 96.7%.
the efficiency
In DC/AC
DC/ACmode,
mode,forforan
aninput
inputvoltage
voltageof
ofDC
DC350
350V,
V, output
output voltage
voltage of
of RMS
RMS 220
220 V,
V, load resistance
Ω, and frequency of 50 Hz, the wave form of the output voltage, input current, and DC side
of 54 Ω,
voltage are as shown in Figure 18a. The pink curve is the DC high side voltage, the blue curve is the
output voltage, and the yellow curve is the output current. The
The THD
THD of
of the
the output
output current
current is 5.893%
5.893%
and the efficiency is 96.7%.

(a) (b)
Figure 18. (a) Output voltage, output current, and output voltage of the DC/AC converter. (b)
Waveform with motor load.

In order to verify the performance of the inverter with a motor load, a 900 W AC motor load was
(a) load. The resulting waveform is(b)
suddenly applied to the resistance shown in Figure 18b. During the
Figure 18. (a)
Figure 18. (a) Output
Output voltage,
voltage, output current, and
output current, and output
output voltage
voltage of
of the
the DC/AC
DC/AC converter.
converter. (b)
(b)
Waveform with motor load.
Waveform with motor load.

In order to verify the performance of the inverter with a motor load, a 900 W AC motor load was
In order to verify the performance of the inverter with a motor load, a 900 W AC motor load
suddenly applied to the resistance load. The resulting waveform is shown in Figure 18b. During the
was suddenly applied to the resistance load. The resulting waveform is shown in Figure 18b. During
the load change, the output power is 1800 W with a conversion efficiency of 96.7%, and the output is
asymptotically stable.

5. Conclusions
This paper presents a PCMM power converter with three different working modes for EV application.
The proposed PCMM can work in Bi-DC/DC, AC/DC, and DC/AC modes. In super-capacitor & battery
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 15 of 17

hybrid energy storage systems for EV applications, the Bi-DC/DC mode converts the power between
the battery and the super-capacitor; the AC/DC mode charges the battery, and the DC/AC mode
provides an AC source to electrical equipment.
Mathematical representation of the state-space averaging model of the PCMM considering the
resistance of IGBT and inductor is presented. Based on this model, the relationship between the steady
state of the output voltage and the input voltage is given. In order to describe the system characteristics
under small signal perturbations, the small signal model of the PCMM and the transfer function of the
system are derived. Using the established PCMM model, the controller was designed. The simulation
and experimental results show that the PCMM can meet the design target and the feasibility of the
model is verified.
The PCMM converter reduces costs and lightens the system weight by sharing inductors, IGBT,
capacitors, and other components. The measured results show that, compared with a traditional
vehicle power conversion system, the PCMM structure proposed in this paper reduces the weight by
51.2%. The model presented in this paper reflects the characteristics of the system under small signal
disturbances. In future research, the response characteristics of the system under state switching will
be studied based on nonlinear modeling.

Author Contributions: Luo Yutao conceived the study. Wang Feng planned the experiments. Luo Yutao and
Wang Feng wrote the manuscript. All authors submitted comments, read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Major Research and Development Project of Guangdong Science and
Technology Department, grant number 2016B010132001.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Nomenclature
EV Electric vehicle
PFC Power factor correction
VDCL Low side voltage (V)
VDCH High side voltage (V)
K1 Switch of DC/AC
K2 Switch of AC/DC
K3 Switch of DC/DC
Q1 ,Q2 IGBT of the first phase
Q3 ,Q4 IGBT of the second phase
L1 ,L2 Inductor (H)
C1 Capacitor of the low side (F)
C2 Capacitor of the high side (F)
C3 Capacitor of the AC side (F)
vc (t) Voltage of the capacitor (V)
vo (t) Output voltage (V)
ˆ (t)
i L1 Current small signal of L1 (A)
ˆ (t)
i L2 Current small signal of L2 (A)
ˆ
vc (t) Small signal of capacitor (V)
PCMM Power converter with multi-operating mode
THD Total harmonic distortion
v ac (t) Voltage of AC side (V)
i L1 (t) Current of inductor L1 (A)
i L2 (t) Current of inductor L2 (A)
RL The load resistance (Ω)
Vo Average output voltage in steady state (V)
World Electric Vehicle Journal 2018, 9, 7 16 of 17

Vi Average input voltage in steady state (V)

Vc Average capacitor voltage in steady state (V)
IL1 ,IL2 Average current of inductor in steady state (A)
rL Inductor resistance (Ω)
rs IGBT resistance (Ω)
vi ( t ) Input voltage (V)
d Duty cycle
vre f (t) The reference voltage (V)
hvc (t)iTs Average voltage of capacitor in one cycle (V)
hi L1 (t)iTs Average current of L1 in one cycle (A)
hi L2 (t)iTs Average current of L2 in one cycle (A)

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