Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), clean air is a basic need in our
living environment that will affect our health and well-being, and we usually breathe around
12,000 liters of air per day to keep us alive (Singh et al, 2020). In 2014, WHO identified
exposure to air pollution in the environment as the greatest risk to human health resulting in
one-eighth of global deaths in 2012 (Gupta et al, 2020). It is also estimated that air pollution
was the main cause of 7 million premature deaths worldwide every year (Fermo et al., 2020).
Throughout the years, outdoor air quality has gained more concern than indoor air quality, as
people typically believe that only ambient air is polluted (Oghenovo et al., 2019). Moreover,
a number of ambient air pollution studies have been conducted, but fewer indoor air pollution
studies have been carried out (Jain et al, 2020). However, studies have shown that people this
day spend 80 % time indoors, either at home or at work, thus indoor air quality plays a vital
role in their overall health, well-being, comfort and performance (Fermo et al., 2020).
Another study also stated that people in Europe and the United States spend their time
outdoor as little as 15% (Fischer et al., 2015).

Indoor air quality is defined as the air quality inside the enclosed building or structure and
its surrounding area (Jain et al, 2020) in relation to the health and comfort of the occupants
(Oghenovo et al., 2019). According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA), indoor air pollution was 5–10 times more hazardous than outdoor air pollution (Fermo
et al., 2020) due to the higher concentration of indoor air pollutants from indoor sources and
the penetration of outdoor air pollutants (Gupta et al., 2020). Mishra et al., (2020) reported
that indoor air pollution was one of the world's leading causes of disease burden and it ranked
among the top five risks to global public health. The increasing number of respiratory and
cardiovascular diseases among human populations are related to poor indoor air quality
(Trompetter et al., 2018). Additionally, poor indoor air quality may lead to headaches,
fatigue, nasal irritation and respiratory infection among building occupants and then, will
affect their performances and comfort. Unhealthy indoor air quality also may cause “Sick
Building Syndrome” (SBS) (Mishra et al., 2020). Women, young children and elderly people
are usually exposed to high levels of indoor air pollutants as they spend most of their time
indoors (Nasir et al., 2013). These vulnerable groups include people with cardiovascular
diseases and respiratory problems such as asthma, may have the worst health effects that
result from the exposure of poor indoor air quality, compared to other groups (Gupta et al,
2020).

Indoor air quality is widely influenced by indoor pollution sources such as construction
materials, glues, fibreglass, particle boards, paints, ink printers and chemicals that emit
organic substances such as dust particles, moulds, fungi, bacteria, gases, vapours and odours
into the indoor atmosphere (Jain et al, 2020). Asbestos, formaldehyde, lead, insecticide,
Carbon Monoxide (CO), Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2), radon, Indoor Particulate Matter (IPM),
second-hand smoke, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) and biological pollutants are the
common indoor air pollutants (Sekar et al, 2020). Meanwhile, Carbon Dioxide (CO2),
temperature and Relative Humidity (RH) are the additional factors affecting the comfort of
the building occupants (Ugranli et al., 2015).

Suspended Particulate Matter (PM) is one of the main contaminants both indoor and
outdoor (Fermo et al., 2020). Various sources of particulate matter are present in urban
environments (Azarmi et al., 2014). Natural and anthropogenic activities may contribute
directly or indirectly to the formation of outdoor and indoor particulate matter in the air
through the emission of pollutants in the environment (Oghenovo et al., 2019). Smoking,
cleaning, cooking, building materials, furnishing and heating are the most common source of
indoor particulate matter (Gaidajis & Angelakoglou, 2009).

Indoor particulate matter is described as a complex mixture of small liquid and solid
particles suspended in the air of the enclosed room or building (Oghenovo et al., 2019) due to
their small aerodynamic diameter (De Moraes et al., 2016). According to WHO, particulate
matter has been classified into 3 types based on their aerodynamic diameter. Coarse particles
or also known as inhalable particles have an aerodynamic diameter range between 10 µm and
2.5 µm (PM10) and fine particles which called as thoracic particles have a diameter of 2.5
µm or less (PM 2.5). Meanwhile, ultrafine particles or also known as respirable particles
which are smaller than fine particles have an aerodynamic diameter of 0.1 µm or less
(PM0.1). This particle size is crucial factor in determining target tissue deposition and its
health effects (Oghenovo et al., 2019) because the smaller the size of the particulate matter,
the deeper it can penetrate the respiratory system and cause adverse health effects (Azarmi et
al., 2014). Moreover, particulate matter may cause toxicity in human depend on the pollutants
that present in its structure (Ugranli et al., 2015).
 Azarmi et al. (2014) reported particulate pollution is of major concern to the air quality
control community as it may have potential adverse effects on human health and
environment. Recent findings have shown adverse health effects on particulate matter
exposure, including at small concentrations of particulate matter (De Moraes et al., 2016). In
order to protect the health of the building occupants, it is crucial to conduct more studies on
the mass concentration of indoor particulate matter in buildings such as home, office, factory,
educational institutions, worship house and medical center. Many indoor particulate matter
studies have been performed in educational institutions such as kindergartens, primary and
secondary schools, because these places have high density of growing children who are
vulnerable to this indoor air pollution. However, less attention has been paid to universities
and also few studies have been carried out in university institutions such as in the library and
office buildings (Ugranli et al., 2015). Gaidajis & Angelakoglou, (2009) also stated that not
many indoor particulate matter studies have been carried out in the university building
particularly in the classroom and laboratory. A healthy and safe environment in classrooms
and laboratories can improve the learning, health, comfort and performance of students
(Sekar et al, 2020). Laboratory is a vital place in the university for research, training and
educational purposes and contain a high concentration of indoor PM 2.5 and PM10 pollutants
and may pose a high risk to its users, such as students, lab assistants and lecturers. Even, the
laboratory users are likely to have acute and chronic health effects from these pollutants
exposure but there is limited research on these university laboratories regarding on these
pollutants. It is therefore necessary to carry out further studies on pollutants inside the
laboratories (Ugranli et al., 2015).

Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) campus of Puncak Alam is one of Malaysia's

educational institutions that is dedicated to providing their students and staff with the best
indoor air quality for their health, well-being, comfort and performance. There are many
faculties on this campus, and each faculty consists of several classrooms, studios, laboratories
and workshops. For the Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying (FSPU), there are
many workshops for their students to carry out practical sessions, assignments and projects.
Brick and concrete workshop is one of the FSPU workshops with many building materials
and construction hardware tools. Due to the involvement of building materials such as
cement, coarse and fine aggregates, and the presence of student activities such as masonry
work in the workshop, the indoor air quality in that workshop is declining and contributes
directly or indirectly to the formation of indoor particulate matter. The health and comfort of
students and staffs using this workshop may be affected. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct
study of particulate matter concentration in this workshop in order to protect the health and
well-being of students and staffs.
1.2 Problem statement

Indoor air quality in buildings, such as home, school, office and hospital, has recently
gained attention as people nowadays tend to spend more time indoors and there are higher
concentrations of various indoor air pollutants, especially particulate matter (Ugranli et al.,
2015). Particulate matter is composed of microscopic particles (Mishra et al, 2020) that
consist of dirt, smoke and other types of solid and liquid content which suspend in the air (De
Moraes et al., 2016). This particulate matter is also one of the components of indoor air
quality and may pose a high risk of adverse health effects among the building’s occupants. In
2012, the WHO announced more than 3.3 million deaths in the world were associated with
pollution from particulate matter (Oghenovo et al., 2019).

The health effect of indoor particulate matter exposure is a major global issue, but few
studies of particulate matter have been conducted in the educational institution especially
university building (Ugranli et al., 2015). It includes in Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM)
campus of Puncak Alam. However, a recent study on particulate matter was conducted by
Hurairah et al (2018) at the Faculty of Art and Design (FSR) on that campus. Researchers
identify the concentration of particulate matter (PM 2.5) in the art studio of FSR. The study
on particulate matter in other faculties at that campus have not been carried out, include
Faculty of Architecture, Planning and Surveying (FSPU).

Brick and concrete workshop at FSPU is a place for the students to carry out their project
and learning sessions with their lectures. In that workshop, there are many building materials
like cement, coarse and fine aggregates. Student activities involving these building materials,
such as the production of fresh concrete and masonry, may directly or indirectly contribute to
the formation of indoor particulate matter, particularly fine particulate matter (PM 2.5). This
fine particulate matter may lower the air quality within that workshop and can cause adverse
health effects to students and lecturers in that workshop. Fine particulate matter may pose a
major risk to the health of exposed people in three ways: ingestion, inhalation and dermal
contact (Zhou et al., 2014), and can also stay suspended in the air in the room for a long time
due to its small aerodynamic diameter (Aisyah et al., 2019).

In addition, few students and staffs complained that the workshop was very dusty, even it
was cleaned. The workshop was also still in dusty condition, although there is no student
activity (non-occupancy) due to the accumulation of particulate matter trapped in the
confined areas of buildings without a functioning ventilation system or indoor-outdoor air
exchange (Nezis et al., 2019). On the other hand, this dusty condition consisting of indoor
particulate matter, especially PM 2.5 known as silent hazardous, can affect their respiratory
and cardiovascular health, such as coughing, sneezing, asthma, upper respiratory tract,
irregular heartbeat and non-fatal heart attack (Gupta et al, 2020).

Therefore, in order to protect the health of students and staffs that use the brick and
concrete workshop, the study of indoor particulate matter should be conducted and it should
be more focus on measurement of fine particulate matter (PM 2.5) concentration since this
particulate matter able to reach deep into the lung alveoli and will accumulate in there. This
measurement should be done when there is student activities (occupancy) and when there is
no student activities (non-occupancy) to compare the concentration of PM2.5 between those
period. Then, the health risk assessment also should be carried out to determine the potential
exposure of indoor fine particulate matter among students in that brick and concrete
workshop.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Exposure to particulate matter
Particulate pollution has been recognized as a major issue of indoor air quality in many
developing and developed countries (Chithra & Madanayak, 2018). Developing countries
have higher concentration of indoor particulate matter than developed countries, which
exceed the WHO standard limit (Chi et al., 2019). Common sources of indoor particulate
matter in these developing countries are woods, charcoal and domestic wastes burning
(Junaid et al., 2018), candle lighting (Park & Song, 2019), tobacco product, mosquito coils
and incense (Norbäck et al., 2019), space heating (Kapwata et al., 2018), poor housekeeping
(Chi et al., 2019) and building materials (Azarmi et al., 2014). Fine particulate matter
(PM2.5) is commonly considered to be a key indicator of the health risk associated with
indoor particulate matter exposure (Oghenovo et al., 2019).

PM2.5 is known to be more hazardous than PM10 due to its small aerodynamic diameter
and high adsorption capability, which can penetrate deep into the alveolar region (Junaid et
al., 2018), irritate and corrode the alveolar wall (Xing et al., 2016) and retain at that lung’s
gas exchange area. However, it can also enter into the blood circulation system and distribute
to other organ systems which then cause a health problem (Feng e al., 2016). Besides, PM2.5
also has a large surface area that is easy for other toxic pollutants to bind with (Xing et al.,
2016) such as Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (PAH), heavy metals (Feng et al., 2016) and
inorganic compounds (nitrates and sulfate) (Tan et al., 2018).

In 2015, National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for fine particulate matter
(PM 2.5) was 25 μg/m3 annually and 65 μg/m3 averagely for 24 hours. However, from 2016
until 2029, the new NAAQS for annual and 24-h average is 20 and 40 μg/m 3, respectively.
Meanwhile, WHO guidelines for PM 2.5 are 25 and 10 μg/m 3 for annual and 24-h average,
respectively. As we can see, the previous and current NAAQS of PM 2.5 exposure for 24
hours are higher than the WHO guidelines. (Gumede & Savage, 2017). The WHO stated
this WHO permissible limit for ambient PM2.5 can be applied to the indoor environment as
the WHO suggested in 2006 that it is reasonable to believe that the risks of indoor and
outdoor PM2.5 to human health are fairly similar.
2.2 Health effect of particulate matter exposure
Numerous epidemiological and toxicological studies have reported that exposure to
particulate matter associated with various adverse health effects (Alshitawi & Awbi, 2011).
The magnitude of toxicity effect from this exposure, depends on the concentration, size and
shape of particle and also the presence of pollutants in the particulate matter (Mukherjee
& Agrawal, 2017). Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) is commonly considered to be a key
indicator of the health risk associated with particulate matter exposure (Oghenovo et al.,
2019). Many researches have confirmed that exposure to PM2.5 can reduce human life
expectancy (Wu et al., 2017) and still able to pose a high risk to public health, even at a low
concentration which is below the WHO standard limit (Feng et al., 2016).

Exposure to particulate matter from various sources through inhalation may cause serious
problems to the eyes, skin, heart, arteries, lungs, and brain (Zaheer et al., 2018). Short-term
health effects such as headaches, fatigue, and irritation of eyes, nose and throat, will occur
immediately after single exposure of particulate matter (Oghenovo et al., 2019). Women,
young children and elderly people are vulnerable to high levels of indoor particulate matter
(Oghenovo et al., 2019) as they spend most of their time indoors (Nasir et al., 2013). These
vulnerable groups include those with cardiovascular diseases and respiratory problems such
as asthma, may develop faster symptoms and their symptoms may become more severe than
other normal patients (Gupta et al, 2020).

As stated by WHO in 2006, exposure to 200 µg/m 3 of PM2.5 for 2 hours may affect their
respiratory system (Alshitawi & Awbi, 2011). Aisyah et al. (2019) found that there was a
significant negative correlation between the mean concentration of PM2.5 and Peak
Expiratory Flow Rate (PEFR). The higher concentration of PM2.5, the lower PEFR and the
lower lung function performance. Therefore, increase risk of getting respiratory problem.
Besides, indoor particulate matter may also contribute to the increased hospital admission due
to respiratory problem (Junaid et al., 2018). Common respiratory problems related to PM2.5
exposure are Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) (Chi et al., 2019), allergic and
asthma (Norbäck et al., 2019), pneumonia (Guan et al.,2018), chronic bronchitis and
premature death (Aisyah et al., 2019) and even lung cancer (Xing et al., 2016) since the
WHO’s International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified particulate
matter pollutant as a carcinogen (Burdova et al., 2016).
 Zhan et al. (2018) reported that long-term exposure to airborne particulate matter was
associated with global Cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality. This particulate matter
exposure was also correlated with heart disease such as myocardial ischemia and also
thrombosis (Tan et al., 2018). A study in Beijing, China, demonstrated short-term exposure to
high levels of PM2.5 not only led to a significant increase in peripheral blood pressure, but
also to a significant increase in central aortic systolic blood pressure that relate to a high risk
of cardiovascular problems (Fan et al., 2019).

Inhalation of particulate matter not only can affect our respiratory and cardiovascular
systems, but may also attack our brain and eyes. It has been confirmed that particulate matter
can cross the brain’s blood barrier and attack the brain’s parenchyma. This will cause
neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s Disease and Parkinson’s Disease (Zaheer et
al., 2018). A PM2.5 study on mice's eyes has been conducted by Tan et al. (2018), found that
high concentration of PM 2.5 not only can cause acute conjunctivitis, but it also may induce
to dry eyes syndrome to the mice as well as human. PM 2.5 exposure is also associated with
the development of Diabetes Mellitus (Feng et al., 2016) and increased risk of depression
(Huang et al., 2019).

When there is no effective ventilation system, the concentration of indoor particulate matter
will maintain and remain suspended in the room (Park & Song, 2019).
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