Additional Orchestration

Concepts

This brief, online supplement presents additional information related to instrumentation and orchestration, which
are covered in Chapter 12 of the text. Here, you will explore more details related to instrument-specific techniques
and tone colors, which can broaden your artistic palette when working with live instruments and ensembles. As
noted in Chapter 12, knowing the variety of timbres that each instrument can—and cannot—produce allows you to
craft compositions with nuance and professionalism, as well produce MIDI orchestrations that exude realism.

FLUTTER TONGUING AND TREMOLANDO

One unique timbre that is characteristic of wind instruments such as the flute is created by a technique known as
flutter tonguing. Flutter tonguing is a distinct effect that is performed by vibrating the tongue in a manner similar
to rolling the letter “r.” Figure AOC.1 is taken from the piccolo part within the opening movement of Stravinsky’s
Rite of Spring. Stravinsky desired to create a prehistoric, exotic atmosphere in this passage, and flutter tonging on the
piccolo in such a low register proved quite successful in that task.
Another technique that can be accomplished by the flute and piccolo is known as tremolando (which is also
referred to as unmeasured tremolo); this technique requires the performer to alternate between two pitches that are

Fig. AOC.1  Flutter tonguing in Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring

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Fig. AOC.2 Unmeasured tremolo in Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring

usually separated by more than a whole step. Figure AOC.2 again returns to Stravinsky’s Rite of Spring to illustrate
how tremolando is notated in the flute and alto flute parts to the piece’s “Ritual of Abduction” movement.

HARMONICS

Harmonics are most commonly used in string writing, but are also possible for woodwind instruments. Although they are
difficult to produce on clarinets and bassoons, and are therefore rarely written for these instruments, they are relatively
common in flute and oboe parts. When a performer fingers a fundamental and “overblows,” certain harmonic partials
become audible, depending on how much pressure is exerted. Care must be taken when writing harmonics for wood-
winds, however, as dynamic control is typically lost due to the amount of energy it takes to overblow on these instruments.
There are two common ways to notate harmonics for woodwind instruments. The first method involves placing
a small circle above the sounding pitch, leaving it up to the performer to determine how to finger the instrument in
order to produce that pitch. The second method also involves the circle above each pitch, and additionally provides
the appropriate fingered note below it. Figure AOC.3 demonstrates the latter notational scheme in one of the earliest
known examples of flute harmonics: Franz Doppler’s Fantaisie Pastorale Hongroise.

Fig. AOC.3  Flute harmonics in Franz Doppler’s Fantaisie Pastorale Hongroise

NATURAL HARMONICS

Stringed instruments are capable of producing two types of harmonics: natural harmonics and artificial harmon-
ics. Natural harmonics, which are notated with a small circle directly above the sounding pitch, are produced by
dividing an open string’s length at various points and lightly touching the string while articulating it, which creates

© 2018 Greg McCandless and Daniel McIntyre

specific members of the overtone series above the open string’s fundamental. There are technically more than six
partials available as natural harmonics above each open string’s fundamental on a violin, but they are not as reli-
able or easy to perform as the first six. Violas can dependably sound the first seven partials above each open string,
while cellos and double basses can reach up to the first eight. Figures AOC.4 through AOC.7 illustrate all the open
strings of each member of the string family along with the reliable natural harmonics that are available above each

Fig. AOC.4  Natural harmonics produced by the violin

Fig. AOC.5  Natural harmonics produced by the viola

© 2018 Greg McCandless and Daniel McIntyre

Fig. AOC.6  Natural harmonics produced by the cello

Fig. AOC.7  Natural harmonics produced by the double bass

© 2018 Greg McCandless and Daniel McIntyre

fundamental. Note that the double bass example includes five open strings, as it has become more common—espe-
cially in Europe—for professional orchestral players to use double basses that feature a low C string in addition to
the typical E, A, D, and G strings. In the U.S., double bassists often opt for a four-string instrument with a “C exten-
sion” or “C attachment” that extends the low E string’s range down to C1 using a pivoting nut.

ARTIFICIAL HARMONICS

Artificial harmonics sound similar to natural harmonics but are “artificially” created by stopping a string at some
point within its length with one finger and lightly pressing a P4 interval above it in pitch with another finger. In
doing so, a harmonic will sound two octaves above the stopped note. The reason that these harmonics are considered
“artificial” is that the performer is effectively creating a false open string with the first finger and dividing the length
of that string’s span by gently pressing a location that is one quarter of that length with the second finger, which in
turn produces the fourth partial above the fundamental of the stopped note. Violinists and violists tend to use their
first (pointer) fingers to stop the fundamental when creating artificial harmonics, while cellists and double bassists
tend use their thumbs, as the P4 distance requires a longer extension of the hand on these instruments. To notate
an artificial harmonic, the stopped note is written, along with both a diamond notehead a P4 above it and a note in
parentheses that represents the sounding harmonic that is produced two octaves above the stopped note). Some com-
posers simply indicate the sounding artificial harmonic with a small circle above it, forcing the performer to figure
out exactly how to produce it; however, when notating these complex and at times confusing harmonics, it is best
to be as clear as possible for the performer(s). Figure AOC.8 illustrates how artificial harmonics should be notated.

Fig. AOC.8  The notation of artificial harmonics

MULTIPLE STOPS

Stringed instruments are capable of polyphony via the use of multiple stops; this enables them to perform almost
every interval above almost every pitch. Figures AOC.9 through AOC.11 illustrate the lower regions of violin, viola,
and cello fingerboards, along with the pitches that are associated with the specific positions within them. Each
figure includes three examples of achievable double stops (which involve two simultaneously sounding strings),
with their fingered positions on the instruments colored in blue. Examples colored in red are not possible in stan-
dard tuning, due to the two desired pitches requiring the simultaneous use of one string. Mistakes are often made
when composers attempt to create double stops that include pitches that both belong to the same string. Since
double stops require the use of two strings, it is important to understand the point on the fingerboard at which
the instrument becomes capable of producing the same note on alternate strings, as this allows for double stops to
be performed that may initially seem impossible. Violins, violas, and cellos are tuned in fifths; as such, seven half
steps above an open string on either instrument will provide the same pitch as the next open string. Eight half steps
above an open string will provide you with the same pitch a single half step above the adjacent open string, and so
on. Composers need to be aware of where the “break” is on each instrument’s fingerboard between exclusive and
shared pitches in order to realize potential double and even triple stop combinations. A triple stop involves three
simultaneously sounding strings.
Pitches that are located beyond first position on a stringed instrument are typically possible to perform on
neighboring strings, and some pitches can actually be played on three or even four strings at different locations. The

© 2018 Greg McCandless and Daniel McIntyre

Fig. AOC.9  Possible and impossible double stops on the violin

Fig. AOC.10  Possible and impossible double stops on the viola

© 2018 Greg McCandless and Daniel McIntyre

Fig. AOC.11  Possible and impossible multiple stops on the cello

pitch E5, for example, which correlates to the fourth open string of a violin, can be additionally performed on all of
the remaining strings of the instrument at ever-higher positions. Since the tension of the string is different for each
unique location associated with the same pitch, the timbre of each “version” of the pitch is similarly unique; this
offers composers a variety of color options when employing pitches. For example, it is common to ask performers to
play notes in high positions on the fingerboard when a poignant or tragic effect is desired, as notes played in these
positions generate a strained, longing timbre; this is a very frequently used effect found in cello writing. To ask a
performer to play a certain pitch on a specific string, the term sul plus the string name (e.g., sul G) or number (e.g.,
sul III) is written above the first pitch of the passage.
While multiple stops are common in violin, viola, and cello writing (see Figure AOC.11), they are far less com-
mon for double bass. This is particularly the case in sectional writing, as the extremely low register of the instrument
tends to result in sonorities that violate the low interval limit that was discussed in Chapter 7 and therefore sound
“muddy” and/or overpowering. The cello, too, has the potential to generate these undesirable intervals in its lowest
registers. Notice, for instance, that the top example on the left in Figure AOC.11 displays a double stop for cello that
is both impossible and in violation of the lower interval limit.
Double stops are somewhat more common in higher-register solo passages for bass, but are still rare relative
to those written for the other members of the string family. The double bass is also limited in this regard due to its
tuning, which is in fourths as opposed to fifths; this results in the requirement of larger hand extensions and skipped
strings to generate many intervals. For example, P5 intervals require a strained extension between the first and

© 2018 Greg McCandless and Daniel McIntyre

fourth fingers on the double bass in most registers, while they are performed easily on violin, viola, and cello (the
instruments tuned in fifths), as one finger may simply depress two adjacent strings at the same location. Another
important consideration when composing multiple stops is that live performers often need time to adjust their posi-
tioning before performing them, especially to play them in tune; writing multiple stops in the middle of fast passages
is therefore not advised.

STRING TECHNIQUES USED IN ALEATORIC SCORING

Aleatoricism is a compositional technique that is often associated with composers such as Krzysztof Penderecki,
whose music has been used in films such as Stanley Kubrick’s The Shining, William Friedkin’s The Exorcist, Mar-
tin Scorsese’s Shutter Island, and The Mask by the Quay brothers. Since the early 1960’s, this style of scoring has
expanded contemporary string techniques, in particular, to include many new coloristic options. Aleatoricism, or
indeterminacy, is an approach to music composition that involves the incorporation of chance. There are technically
two main categories of aleatoricism, based on the degree of indeterminacy that is allowed by the composer. The first
category is relatively conservative, as it exclusively involves the use of chance procedures in the creation of a fixed,
(traditionally) notated composition. An example of this traditional type of aleatoricism might involve rolling dice
to determine rhythmic outcomes, which are then notated specifically into a score. The second category involves the
incorporation of chance into the actual performance, which requires that the composer leave certain decisions up to
the performer(s). The level of decision-making power given to the performer(s) in this type of indeterminate music
may range from simple dynamic choices all the way through free improvisation, and indeed, the entire formal path
through the composition may be left to chance.
Most aleatoric passages found in commercial settings are associated with tense scenes within film scores. In
actuality, the level of improvisation found in most of these aleatoric compositions is relatively low, but the absence
of traditional notation in favor of alternative, graphic notation is noteworthy (see Figure AOC.12), even if it gives
the false impression that compositions in this style are extraordinarily spontaneous. While it is true that no two
performances of a piece of this nature will be the same, the effect, impression, and general artistic outcome of a
commercial aleatoric work is more or less fixed. This is because composers of this style painstakingly map out nar-
row performative paths within which players are to navigate, cleverly creating the musical landscapes they hear in
their minds while allowing for a degree of performative freedom. In media scoring, aleatoricism generally consists
of creating large “sound masses” and/or overlapping rhythmic ideas to generate a sense of tension and anxiety that
is devoid of tonal clarity.
If one were to write out a typical aleatoric passage using traditional notation (which isn’t always possible), it
would likely be very difficult for performers to read and perform, particularly on a first attempt. Thus, to avoid
poor performances, unnecessary expenditures of effort, and wasted studio time (and money), composers typi-
cally employ graphic notation or create a piece-specific type of notation that is far more efficient in producing
the desired effect. Although the graphic notation associated with aleatoricism is not standardized or used univer-
sally, certain symbols have gained musical meaning through repeated use over several decades. Figure AOC.12
lists the symbols first introduced by Penderecki in his famous 1960 piece Threnody for the Victims of Hiroshima.
You are encouraged to explore the aleatoric compositions of Penderecki, Karlheinz Stockhausen, John Cage,
Witold Lutosławski, and others to understand how these symbols are utilized by different composers in a vari-
ety of musical ways. You should also feel free to develop your own ways of expressing certain ideas, which may
include written instructions, graphic notation, or a combination of both (as in Lutosławski’s famous Venetian
Games). Always remember, though, that the purpose of any music notation is to clearly and efficiently direct
performers toward the intended musical result; the easier it is to comprehend a part, the less time it will take to
capture a successful performance.

© 2018 Greg McCandless and Daniel McIntyre

Fig. AOC.12  Common aleatoric symbols

SUMMARY OF TERMS

flutter tonguing natural harmonics triple stop

tremolando artificial harmonics aleatoricism
unmeasured tremolo double stop indeterminacy

© 2018 Greg McCandless and Daniel McIntyre

TERM DEFINITIONS

aleatoricism an approach to music composition that incorporates chance. Traditionally, aleatoric

music involved using chance procedures, such as the rolling of dice, to generate a fixed
composition.
artificial harmonics harmonics that are performed on stringed instruments by using a stop to create a false
open string while lightly pressing specific locations throughout that string’s length that
generate upper partials when the string is articulated.
double stop a multiple stop that involves two strings being articulated simultaneously to create a
harmonic interval.
flutter tonguing a distinct rhythmic effect that is performed on wind instruments by vibrating the tongue
repeatedly as if rolling a letter “r.”
indeterminacy a term, like aleatoricism, that is used to refer to the use of chance in music composition
and performance.
natural harmonics harmonics that are produced by dividing an open string’s length at various points and
lightly touching the string while articulating it, which creates specific members of the
overtone series above the open string’s fundamental.
tremolando a technique that is similar to tremolo but requires that the performer alternate between
two pitches that are usually separated by more than a whole step.
triple stop a multiple stop that involves three strings being articulated simultaneously to create a
chord.
unmeasured tremolo see tremolando.

© 2018 Greg McCandless and Daniel McIntyre