CONTENTS

Preface xiii

1. Introduction 1
1.1. Artificial Lifting 1
1.1.1. Gas Lifting 2
1.1.2. Pumping 2
1.1.3. Comparison of Lift Methods 4
1.2. Short History of ESP Applications 5
1.3. Basic Features of ESP Installations 6
1.3.1. Applications 6
1.3.2. Advantages, Limitations 7
References 8

2. Review of Fundamentals 9
2.1. Well Inflow Performance 9
2.1.1. Introduction 9
2.1.2. The Productivity Index Concept 10
2.1.3. Inflow Performance Relationships 12
2.1.3.1. Introduction 12
2.1.3.2. Vogel's IPR Correlation 13
2.1.3.3. The Composite IPR Curve 15
2.2. Hydraulic Fundamentals 21
2.2.1. Tubing Flow Calculations 21
2.2.2. ESP Pumps 23
2.2.2.1. Operational Basics of Centrifugal Pumps 23
2.2.2.2. Specific Speed 26
2.2.2.3. Pump Performance 27
2.2.2.4. Cavitation 30
2.2.2.5. Axial Thrust Forces 31
2.2.2.6. Affinity Laws 34
2.3. Electrical Fundamentals 36
2.3.1. Alternating Current 36
2.3.2. AC Circuits, AC Power 37
2.3.3. Transformers 40

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2.3.4. Induction Motors 41

2.3.5. Electric Cable 43
2.4. Basics of Systems Analysis 44
2.4.1. Introduction 44
2.4.2. The Production System 45
2.4.3. Basic Principles 47
References 48

3. ESP Components and their Operational Features 51

3.1. Introduction 52
3.2. The Submersible Pump 53
3.2.1. Basic Features 53
3.2.2. Pump Performance Curves 57
3.2.3. Floating versus Fixed Impeller Pumps 61
3.2.4. Pump Temperature 62
3.3. The ESP Motor 64
3.3.1. Motor Construction 64
3.3.2. Operational Features 68
3.3.3. Motor Performance 70
3.3.3.1. Motor Testing 71
3.3.3.2. Performance Curves 72
3.3.3.3. Startup Conditions 74
3.3.4. Motor Temperature 76
3.3.4.1. Heat Transfer Calculations 77
3.3.4.2. Allowed Motor Temperature 83
3.4. The Protector or Seal Section 84
3.4.1. Main Functions 84
3.4.2. Basic Operation 86
3.4.3. Main Parts 88
3.4.3.1. The Thrust Bearing 88
3.4.3.2. Isolation Chambers 91
3.4.3.2.1. Labyrinth-type Chambers 91
3.4.3.2.2. Blocking Fluids 93
3.4.3.2.3. Bag-type Chambers 95
3.4.3.3. Shaft Seals 96
3.4.4. Other Features 97
3.5. The Gas Separator 99
3.6. The ESP Cable 101
3.6.1. Cable Materials 102
3.6.1.1. Conductors 102
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3.6.1.2. Insulator Materials 102

3.6.1.3. Jackets 103
3.6.1.4. Coverings 104
3.6.1.5. Metal Armor 104
3.6.2. Cable Construction 104
3.6.3. Operational Features 106
3.7. Miscellaneous Downhole Equipment 110
3.8. Surface Equipment 113
3.8.1. Wellhead 113
3.8.2. Junction Box 114
3.8.3. Switchboard 116
3.8.4. Transformers 117
3.8.5. Miscellaneous Equipment 117
References 117

4. Use of ESP Equipment in Special Conditions 119

4.1. Introduction 119
4.2. Pumping Viscous Liquids 120
4.2.1. Introduction 120
4.2.2. The Hydraulic Institute Model 121
4.2.3. Other Models 125
4.3. Production of Gassy Wells 128
4.3.1. Introduction 128
4.3.2. Free Gas Volume Calculations 130
4.3.3. Pump Performance Degradation 136
4.3.3.1. Gas Interference in Centrifugal Pumps 136
4.3.3.2. Performance Criteria 138
4.3.4. Possible Solutions 140
4.3.4.1. Utilization of Natural Gas Separation 140
4.3.4.1.1. Pump Set below the Perforations 140
4.3.4.1.2. Use of Motor Shrouds 141
4.3.4.2. Rotary Gas Separators 145
4.3.4.2.1. Available Types 145
4.3.4.2.2. Separation Efficiencies 148
4.3.4.3. Gas Handling 151
4.3.4.3.1. Overstaged Pumps 151
4.3.4.3.2. Tapered Pumps 151
4.3.4.3.3. Stage Recirculation 152
4.3.4.3.4. Gas Handlers 153
4.3.4.3.5. Special Pumps 154
4.3.5. Conclusions 154
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4.4. Production of Abrasive Solids 155

4.4.1. Introduction 155
4.4.2. Characteristics of Abrasive Materials 156
4.4.3. Sand Problem Areas 158
4.4.3.1. Pump Erosion 158
4.4.3.2. Abrasion in Radial Bearings 159
4.4.3.3. Abrasion in Thrust Washers 159
4.4.4. Solutions 160
4.4.4.1. Reduction of Radial Wear 161
4.4.5. Conclusions 164
4.5. High Well Temperatures 166
4.6. Variable Frequency Operation 167
4.6.1. Introduction 167
4.6.2. Variable Speed Drives 170
4.6.2.1. Constructional Details 171
4.6.2.1.1. The Rectifier 171
4.6.2.1.2. The DC Control Section 172
4.6.2.1.3. The Inverter 172
4.6.2.2. Available VSD Types 173
4.6.2.2.1. “Six-step” VSD 173
4.6.2.2.2. Pulsed Width Modulation 173
4.6.2.2.3. Sine Wave Generators 175
4.6.2.3. Operational Characteristics 176
4.6.3. Variable Frequency Generators 177
4.6.4. Interaction of VSD/VFG and ESP Units 178
4.6.5. Benefits of Using VSD/VFG Units 183
References 184

5. Design of ESP Installations 187

5.1. Introduction 187
5.2. Data Requirements 188
5.3. Conventional Design 189
5.3.1. Well Inflow Calculations 189
5.3.2. TDH Calculations 191
5.3.3. Selection of the Pump 193
5.3.3.1. Pump Series 193
5.3.3.2. Pump Type 194
5.3.3.3. Number of Stages 194
5.3.3.4. Checking the Pump's Mechanical Strength 195
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5.3.4. Selection of the Protector 196

5.3.5. Motor Selection 198
5.3.6. Selection of the Power Cable 200
5.3.6.1. Cable Length 200
5.3.6.2. Cable Type 200
5.3.6.3. Cable Size 200
5.3.6.4. Checking Motor Startup 203
5.3.7. Switchboard and Transformer Selection 203
5.3.8. Miscellaneous Equipment 204
5.3.8.1. Downhole Equipment 204
5.3.8.2. Surface Equipment 205
5.4. Conventional Design Considering Motor Slip 211
5.4.1. Interaction of the ESP Motor and the Pump 211
5.4.2. Changes in the Conventional Design 214
5.4.2.1. Finding Actual Motor Speed 214
5.4.2.2. Finding Pump Head including Motor Slip 215
5.5. Gassy Well Design 218
5.5.1. Inflow and Free Gas Calculations 219
5.5.2. Calculation of Total Dynamic Head 221
5.5.3. The Rest of the Design Procedure 222
5.6. Design of a VSD Installation 230
5.6.1. Pump Selection for VSD Service 231
5.6.1.1. Driving Frequency and the Number of Stages 232
5.6.1.2. Checking Pump Operation at the Minimum
Liquid Rate 233
5.6.2. Motor Selection 233
5.6.3. Switchboard and Transformers 234
References 247

6. Analysis and Optimization 249

6.1. Introduction 249
6.2. Nodal Analysis 250
6.2.1. Using the Q–H Coordinate System 252
6.2.1.1. Single-phase Cases 252
6.2.1.1.1. Constant Pumping Speed 254
6.2.1.1.2. Variable Pumping Speeds 257
6.2.1.1.3. Variable Wellhead Pressures 259
6.2.1.2. Multiphase Cases 261
6.2.1.2.1. Calculation Model 261
6.2.1.2.2. Applications 264
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6.2.2. Using the Rate/FBHP Coordinate System 271

6.2.2.1. Single-phase Cases 271
6.2.2.2. Multiphase Cases 276
6.3. Determination of Well Inflow Performance 278
6.3.1. The Conventional Method 278
6.3.2. Use of VSD Drives 281
6.3.3. Calculation of Bottomhole Pressures 284
6.3.3.1. Introduction 284
6.3.3.2. Annular Liquid Gradients 285
6.3.3.2.1. Static Conditions 285
6.3.3.2.2. Flowing Conditions 286
6.4. Power Efficiency of ESP Installations 291
6.4.1. Power Flow in the ESP System 291
6.4.2. Energy Losses and Efficiencies 295
6.4.2.1. Hydraulic Losses 295
6.4.2.1.1. Tubing Losses 295
6.4.2.1.2. Backpressure Losses 296
6.4.2.1.3. Pump Losses 296
6.4.2.1.4. Power Loss in Gas Separator 297
6.4.2.2. Electrical Losses 297
6.4.2.2.1. Motor Losses 297
6.4.2.2.2. Cable Losses 298
6.4.2.2.3. Surface Electrical Losses 298
6.4.3. System Efficiency 299
6.5. Optimization of ESP Operations 301
6.5.1. Introduction 301
6.5.2. Basics of Economic Optimization 302
References 306

7. Monitoring and Troubleshooting 309

7.1. Introduction 309
7.2. Monitoring of ESP Operations 310
7.2.1. Acoustic Surveys 312
7.2.2. Downhole Measurements 314
7.2.2.1. Instruments and Communications 314
7.2.2.2. Measured Parameters and their Use 315
7.3. System Failures 316
7.3.1. General Causes of Failures 317
7.3.1.1. Improper Installation Design 317
7.3.1.2. Faulty Equipment and/or Installation 317
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7.3.1.3. Well Conditions 317

7.3.1.4. Electrical Problems 318
7.3.1.5. Vibrations in the ESP System 319
7.3.2. Typical Failures of System Components 320
7.3.2.1. Shafts 320
7.3.2.2. ESP Pump 321
7.3.2.3. ESP Motor 321
7.3.2.4. Protector (Seal) Section 322
7.3.2.5. Rotary Gas Separator 322
7.3.2.6. Electric Cable 322
7.4. Troubleshooting ESP Installations 323
7.4.1. Interpretation of Ammeter Charts 323
7.4.2. Novel Techniques 338
References 341

8. Special Installations 343

8.1. Introduction 343
8.2. Tubing Deployed Installations 343
8.2.1. Producing a Single Zone 344
8.2.1.1. Shrouded and Horizontal Well Installations 344
8.2.1.2. Parallel-connected Installations 344
8.2.1.3. Series-connected Installations 345
8.2.2. Dual Zone Installations 347
8.2.2.1. Production Commingling 347
8.2.2.2. Selective Production 349
8.3. Alternative Deployed Installations 350
8.3.1. Cable Suspended Units 350
8.3.2. Coiled Tubing Installations 351
8.3.2.1. Conventional ESP Unit with Cable Led
Outside the CT String 353
8.3.2.2. Conventional ESP Unit with Cable Led
Inside the CT String 353
8.3.2.3. Inverted ESP Units 353
8.3.3. Conclusions 354
References 355

Appendices 357
Class Problems 379
Index 417