Running head: GENDER AND MOTIVATION 1

Student Motivation: The Role of Gender

Grace Kendall

Loyola Marymount University

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Abstract

This paper seeks to uncover whether there are differences in the motivation of male and

female students. Furthermore, the article investigates whether these differences, if present, has an

effect on academic achievement or learning effectiveness in educational settings. This paper

reviews and analyzes five different research papers and studies relating to gender, motivation,

and academic performance to investigate my declared purpose. The reviewed research concludes

that there is, in fact, a correlation between gender and motivation, as well as between motivation

and academic achievement.

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(Introduction) Your Full Title of Your Paper

Co-ed classrooms are the normal in public schools across the United States. As such, it is

imperative that all sex and genders are addressed in the classroom, and given equal opportunities

to succeed. However, national, as well as international, data shows a noticeable trend between

male and female academic achievement, both generally, as well as in specific subjects. This

tendency is seen in students of all ages’ test scores, as well as in the gender population of work

fields. By investigating the role motivation plays in learning and academic achievement, this

paper will address these differences through the standpoint of gender differences in motivation.

Literature Review

Gender and Education

Gender and Learning Effectiveness. Zaccone and Pedrini (2019) investigate the role

that gender plays in presiding over the relationship between learning effectiveness and

motivation. They detail an experimental study on individual motivation and learning

effectiveness among 1,491 students in Burundi, Morocco, and India. The study (Zaccone and

Pedrini, 2019) used self-determination theory (Vansteenkiste et al., 2008) with the goal of

offering “a more in-depth understanding of an individual’s motivations, which might also be

instructive for those who implement specific educational programs for different individuals''

(Zaccone and Pedrini, 2019, intro. para. 3). Furthermore, the study focused on gender differences

between learning effectiveness, and identified discrimination as one of the main reasons behind

these difference. In line with these discrimation reasons, Zaccone and Pedrini (2019) investigate

whether males and females with equal levels of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation vary in

the subject of learning effectiveness, with the intention of proving that at equal motivation levels,
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learning effectiveness will be stronger for males (para. 4). In order to produce the most accurate

results, the study examined a course in informatics and computer basics, which are technical

courses, and are, therefore, “evident and measurable” (Zaccone and Pedrini, 2019). Using pre

and post testing, a quasi-experimental study was conducted by distributing a semi-structured

questionnaire to participants. The participants took courses identical in content and lessons,

despite being in three different countries: 498 in Burundi, 497 in Morocco and 496 in India. The

questionnaire was consistently translated using various techniques, and back-translated to

English to avoid any bias resulting (Zaccone and Pedrini, 2019). In further regards to the study’s

methodology, intrinsic motivation “was measured as the degree to perform an activity to

experience the pleasure and satisfaction inherent in that activity” using a four item scale, while

extrinsic motivation was measured as “the degree to which student’s decision to enroll to an

educational program is contingent on the existence of tangible incentives and external rewards,

such as better future job conditions” using a three item scale (Zaccone and Pedrini, 2019,

Measures paras. 1-2). Learning effectiveness was measured using two different scales: a

four-item scale to measure the informatics skills of participants and a measure of growth in

informatic skills and usage of the computer by considering it as the difference between students'

learning score at T1 and students learning score at T0 (Zaccone and Pedrini, 2019). The result of

the study showed a negative relationship between gender and intrinsic motivation, and less

significant negative relationship between extrinsic motivation and gender. These findings

illustrate that males, when compared to females, will learn more when intrinsic motivation is

high and intrinsic motivation is low. Furthermore, the results imply that men, in comparison to
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females, will learn more when extrinsic motivation is high and will learn less when extrinsic

motivation is low (Zaccone and Pedrini, 2019).

Sex Differences in Motivation. A study conducted by Warhurst and McGeown (2020)

examining sex differences between primary students’ motivation across the subjects of math,

reading, writing and science illustrates a significance between a child’s associations with

feminine and masculine characters and their motivation in respective subjects. Warhurst and

McGeown studied five hundred and thirty-two Year 5 and 6 participants, 271 of which were

male, from five schools in the South of England. Participants completed a two part questionnaire;

the first part assessed childrens’ value of and confidence in math, science, reading and writing

using a 7 point scale, and the second assessed their gender identity using The Children’s Sex

Role Inventory Short Form (Boldizar, 1991), which measures traditional masculine and feminine

traits using a 4 point scale. The results showed “girls [reported] greater confidence and value in

reading and writing, and boys [reported] greater maths confidence and science value” (Warhurst

and McGeown, 2020). However, there were no notable sex differences were found in children’s

confidence in science, or their value of math. Furthermore, “identification with feminine traits

and their reading and writing value and confidence was statistically more closely correlated that

the relationship between their identification with masculine traits and their reading and writing

value and confidence,” and identification with feminine traits were the strongest predictor of

reading and writing value and confidence and writing value and confidence (Warhurst and

McGeown, 2020, Results, para. 5).

Subject Specific Differences Between Genders

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Gender Motivations in Science. Liou, Wang, Lin and Areepattamannil (2020)

conducted a study with the purpose of assessing whether motivational beliefs significantly

differed across gender and grade levels. To do this, they studied nationally representative data of

Taiwanese student samples from the 2011 and 2015 Trends in International Mathematics and

Science Study (TIMSS) between the grades 4-8 (Liou, Wang, Lin and Areepattamannil, 2020).

These samples were made up of 4,284 grade 4 students, 53% of which were male, and 5,711

grade 8 students, 51.3% of which were male. The study measured self concept in science and

intrinsic value of science on a 4 point scale of agreement with self concept and intrinsic value

prompts (Liou, Wang, Lin and Areepattamannil, 2020, Measures para. 1). The analytical strategy

consisted of “independent samples t-tests [being] conducted to examine whether there were

statistically significant differences between genders and grade levels in terms of students’

science motivational beliefs” (Liou, Wang, Lin and Areepattamannil, 2020, Measures para. 3).

The results of Liou, Wang, Lin and Areepattamannil’s study (2020) showed that boys had

significantly higher levels of self-concept in science and intrinsic value of science than that of

their female counterparts in both grades 4 and 8. Furthermore, the results indicated significant

gender differences between grade levels, with the gap between male and female motivation in

science increasing from grade 4 to grade 8 (Liou, Wang, Lin and Areepattamannil, 2020).

Gender Motivations in Math. Rodríguez, Regueiro, Piñeiro, Estévez and Valle

conducted a study with the purpose of verifying gender differences in mathematics motivation

and investigating “the explanatory potential of boys’ and girls’ attitudes toward mathematics on

their performance” (2020, para. 1). To do this, the study sampled 450 male and 447 female grade

5 and 6 students from public primary schools in the Spanish province of A Coruña (Rodríguez,
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Regueiro, Piñeiro, Estévez and Valle, 2020). Researchers measured the participants’ attitudes

towards mathematics by the Inventory of Attitudes Toward Mathematics (IAM), which expanded

on Fennema–Sherman Mathematics Attitude Scale (Fennema and Sherman, 1976). The measured

dimensions of IAM in this student included: intrinsic motivation towards mathematics, perceived

competence in mathematics, negative feelings in mathematics and math anxiety (Rodríguez,

Regueiro, Piñeiro, Estévez and Valle, 2020). Results of the student illustrated that female

participants had a trend of less positive attitudes towards mathematics, significantly lower

motivation and concepts of self competency, as well as higher rates of math anxiety. There was

no significant difference between genders in measured academic performance, however, “the

explanatory power of attitudes toward mathematics was clearly more significant in boys”

(Rodríguez, Regueiro, Piñeiro, Estévez and Valle, 2020, para. 1).

Gender Motivations in Reading. A study by Shwabe, McElvany and Trendtel (2015)

uses differential item functioning to investigate the relationship between gender and item format

in German 10 and 15 year old students. The study used a total of 4,979 students that took part in

the German PISA 2009 study. Furthermore, the participants’ samples of large‐scale assessments

of reading comprehension were further analyzed to explore the role of intrinsic reading

motivation on the relationship between gender and item format. The study’s data included test

results from the German PIRLS assessment in 2011 (Institute for School Development

Research), as well as those from the German PISA in 2009 (German Institute for International

Educational Research). The intrinsic reading motivation of students was measured using

comparable item sets, and the students’ genders were assessed using self reporting student

questionnaires. Results of the study confirmed the already established gender gap, with “Girls in
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Germany outperform[ing] boys in reading achievement at the ages of 10 and 15 years,” as well

as girls in both age groups demonstrating higher levels of intrinsic motivation in reading than

that of their male counterparts.

Discussion

Review of literature offers the conclusion that there are significant sex and gender

differences in student motivation. Furthermore, the reviewed studies indicate a notable

correlation between academic achievement and high levels of intrinsic motivation. Therefore, it

is imperative that the discrepancy in motivation levels between genders be addressed in the

classroom in order to create the best environment for learning effectiveness and academic

achievement.

Despite the universal conclusion stated above that is apparent in the reviewed studies and

writings, there are limitations of the students that must be addressed in order to best interpret

their data. In regards to Zaccone and Pedrini’s (2019) investigation of the role that gender plays

in presiding over the relationship between learning effectiveness and motivation, they measured

only the motivation for and learning effectiveness of a single course. Therefore, the results may

not be applicable to education in general or other course subjects and/or content. Furthermore,

the results of the study very well might have been influenced by the cultural influences of the

locations of the study. They did attempt to control the socio-demographic influences of the study,

however, doing such is inherently unreflective of the general student population at large.

Warhurst and McGeown’s study was also limited in that the study did not include measures of
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attainment. Liou, Wang, Lin and Areepattamanni’s (2020) study of whether motivational beliefs

about science significantly differed across gender and grade levels was also subject to its own

limitations. Because the sampled students in each TIMMS assessment cycle are not identical, the

estimated statistics of the sampled students were generalized to the population parameters.

Regardless of limitations, the discrepancy between gender and motivation in students is

evident throughout all studies. Multiple strategies can be implemented in the classroom to

address this, including subject specific strategies, as well as general school environment tactics.

The correlation between high levels of intrinsic motivation and learning effectiveness can be

optimized by providing students with pleasurable learning experiences without any external

influence or motivation. One way to do this is by offering students autonomy in their own

education. Giving students a choice in the way in which they demonstrate their knowledge,

receive information, and engage in material. If students have a voice in their educational

experience, they are far more likely to take pleasure in learning, and therefore possess a higher

level of intrinsic motivation, which of course is correlated to learning effectiveness and higher

academic achievement. Furthermore, providing engaging material in the classroom is another

strategy that can be used to recruit interest in learning, and therefore increase intrinsic motivation

and academic achievement.

In a co-ed classroom, it is imperative that sex differences in motivation be addressed in

order to maximize intrinsic motivation and academic achievement. The research suggests that

educators should focus on developing and addressing students’ intrinsic motivation, and

therefore they should implement strategies in which extrinsic motivation is excluded from the

learning process. For example, if a teacher were to solely base certain grades on effort rather than
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performance, an extrinsically motivated student would have to intrinsically motivate themself.

Another key strategy that more specifically addresses sex and gender differences in motivation is

by representation in the classroom. Introducing the class to female STEM workers, or other

females in predominantly male fields can world to disassemble the social roles that cause sex and

gender differences in education. Furthermore, it is absolutely critical to be aware of implicit

associations and biases in gender, and actively combat them when working with students.

Because of the correlation between a students’ identification with feminine and masculine

characteristics and motivation, presenting information in both masculine and feminine contexts

and topics is another beneficial strategy to implement in the classroom.

Conclusion

Gender inherently plays a large role in a student’s intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

because of the social and cultural constructs that define gender expectations. The reviewed

literature and studies in this paper all illustrate a significance between gender and motivation, as

well as a notable correlation between high levels of motivation and higher academic achievement

and learning effectiveness. In order to address the indisputable gender differences in motivation

and prevent a gender gap in academic achievement, strategies must be implemented at the

classroom level to intervene.

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References

Pey-Yan Liou, Cheng-Lung Wang, John J. H. Lin & Shaljan Areepattamannil (2020) Assessing

students’ motivational beliefs about learning science across grade level and gender, The

Journal of Experimental Education, DOI: 10.1080/00220973.2020.1721413Lastname, C.

(2008).

Rodríguez S, Regueiro B, Piñeiro I, Estévez I and Valle A (2020) Gender Differences in

Mathematics Motivation: Differential Effects on Performance in Primary Education.

Front. Psychol. 10:3050. DOI:

http://dx.doi.org.electra.lmu.edu/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.030502019.03050

Sarah P. McGeown & Amy Warhurst (2020) Sex differences in education: exploring children’s

gender identity, Educational Psychology, 40:1, 103-119, DOI:

10.1080/01443410.2019.1640349

Schwabe, Franziska, McElvany, Nele & Trendtel, Matthias (2015). The School Age Gender

Gap in Reading Achievement: Examining the Influences of Item Format and Intrinsic

Reading Motivation. Reading Research Quarterly, 50( 2), 219– 232. doi:10.1002/rrq.92

Zaccone, M.C. and Pedrini, M. (2019), "The effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on

students learning effectiveness. Exploring the moderating role of gender", International

Journal of Educational Management, Vol. 33 No. 6, pp. 1381-1394.

https://doi-org.electra.lmu.edu/10.1108/IJEM-03-2019-0099