UNIT - II Permeability and Effective Stress and Seepage through Soils 2.1 Permeability Q.1 Define permeability. Ans. Permeability + Permeability is defined as the property of material which permits the passage or seepage of water porous through it’s interconnecting voids. * A material having continuous voids is called permeable, Q.2 What is soil water ? Explain how it is classified, ‘Ans. : Soll water : © Water present in the voids of soil mass is called soil water, + Itcan be classified in several ways given below A) Broad cla i) ii) Held water ification : ‘ree water o gravitation water a) Structural water b) Absorbed water ©) Capillary water B) Classification on phenomenological basis : a) Ground water b) Capillary water ©) Adsorbed water d) In tered water €) Classification on structural aspect a) Pore water b) Solvate water ¢) Adsorbed water ) Structural water Ground water : + It is subsurface water that fills the voids continuously and is subjected to no forces other than gravity. Hence this water is called gravitational water or free water Capillary water: + It is that water which is lifted up by surface tension above the free ground water surface, Infitered water + It is that portion of surface precipitation which soaks moving downwards into ground, through air- containing zones Q.3 What is adsorbed water ? aP [ONTU : March-17, Marks 2) Ans.: Adsorbed water : + It comprises of hygroscopic water and film water, + Hygroscopie water is that water which the soil particles freely adsorb physical forces of attraction and is held by the forces of adhesion. from atmosphere by the 2.2 Capillary Rise Q.4 Write short note on capillary rise. BB [NTU : Nov.n35, Marks 3] Ans. Capillary rise: + The space or the pores of soil mass may be looked upon as a series of capillary tube, extending vertically above water table.Soil Mechanics ermetilty and Ectioe Stress and Seepage through Soils + The rise of water in the capillary tube or the fine pores of the soil, is due to the existence of surface tension which pulls the water up against the gravitational force. + The height of capillary rise, above the ground water surface depends upon the diameter of the capillary tube and the value of the surface tension. + The water in the capillary tube hangs tension, and is supported from the side of the tube around the edge of the meniscus. + The vertical component T, eos 0 of the surface tension force depends upon the angle of incidence « between the meniscus and the tube. Let d= Inner diameter of the tube h, = Height of capillary rise Free water CO] Hydrostatic compression Fig. 4.1 Capillary rise 2.3 Darcy's Law Q.5 State Darcy's law. Explain the validity of Darcy's law. [INTU: Dec.-16, Marks 2, March-17, Marks 3] Ans.: Darcy's law + The law of flow of water through soil was first studied by Darey in 1856. + The law is for laminar flow condition in a saturated soil. + The law states that, the rate of flow or the discharge per unit time is proportional (o the hydraulic gradient, = kid or where, q = Discharge per unit time = Total cross-sectional area of soil mass i = Hydraulic gradient k = Darey’s coefficient of permeability v = Velocity of flow or average discharge velocity + Ifa soil sample of length L and cross-sectional area A, is subjected to differential head of water, hy ~ hy the hy hydraulic gradient i will be equal to ~~ and, we have +——. ——-| A Sot sample vs Datum Fig. Q.5.1 Flow of water through soit Q6 Define coefficient of permeability and list four factors on which the permeability depends. GF [DNTU : May-18, Marks 4] Ans. : Coefficient of permeability ‘k’. + The discharge velocity under unit hydraulic gradient is called coefficient of permeability Vek + It is an engineering property of soil which measures the capacity of soil with which the water can easily flow through it + The factor effecting permeability are listed as follows; 3 > (ty) eTSut Mechanics 2-3 Permeability and Efrctive Stress and Seepage trough Sets 1. Size of particle (D,,) + For the same void ratio the soil with angular particles 2. Shape of particle. are less permeable than those with rounded particles. 3. Void ratio 4) Degree of saturation : 4, Properties of percolating fluid + Permeability is directly proportional to degree of 5, Degree of saturation, saturation ie 6, Absorbed water. k e Degree of saturation (S) Q.7 What are the factors affecting permeability ? + In partially saturated soils, entrapped air causes ES? (INTU: Dec.-16, Marks 5, Dec.-17, Marks 4] | blockage in the flow of water Sins:s:Faclorsafecding permed: + Hence, the permeability of partially saturated soil is + The permeability depends on the soil properties and | lesser than that of a fully saturated soil the fuid properties both, 5) Entrapped air and goses + The Kozeny-Carman equation is quite useful it reflects |. Entrapped air and gases in the voids obstruct flow and the effect of factors that affect permeability canes tiarelutlonet permesbiiiy, + As far as possible, sample should be fully saturated before the permeability test, 6) Structure of sol particles: + The coefficient of permeability (k) includes D,y. |. For stratified soils, permeability is more in horizontal where, Dyy = Measure of grain size divection’as compared to the-vertcal diresdion; ie k= Dy 7) Properties of pore fluid : + If the void ratio is same, then permeability is more i % 6 NORE ABO BS Sass Hen: Permmeabuny 'S MOS), The coetficiemt of permeability also includes * coarse soil than in fine soil. u x, 2) Void ratio: ie kew + As per Kozeny-Carman equation, coefficient of | | Fo, water, relatively the unit weight remain constant permeability is ditectly proportional to75-¢ but viscosity (4) decreases with increasing s temperature i kepoqork=e 1 is Tre" ie. wet + If particle size is same then loose soil are more | once bet permeable than dense soils. ‘ 8) Adsorbed water: + The plot of void ratio (e) agninst permeability (K) is | | acoreed water or water film which is strongly approximately a straight line forall soils: attached to the soil solids, reduces flow area available 2) wanmaarempe for passages of water, which reduces permeability to : some extent + It is expressed in terms of specific surface area and permeability relates to specific surface area as 9) Impurities = 1 + Due to presence of impurities, voids are blocked and keg the permeability is reduced. + The angular particles have greater specific surface than the rounded partiles.Soil Mechanics Permooblty an Eft Stress and Sexpagetrongh Sols Q.8 Explain constant head method. ‘Ans, : Constant head method + Itis used for relatively more permeable soils + The apparatus used for this test is known as constant head permeameter. Water super Constant vet ‘over tank = Svetnow Drainage cap Porous de Mould Porous die inage ‘ae Gracies wet oto ‘wn 9 ” Fig. @.8.1 Constant head permeameter Procedure + Soil sample must be fully saturated. + This is done by pouring the dry soil sample in the permeameter depositing the soil under water. mould filled with water and thus + After the soil sample has been saturated, the constant level overhead tank is connected to the inlet of drainage cap. + Water is allowed to flow through the soil sample to the drainage base, From which it flows out to the constant level bottom tank in which the outlet is held submerged. + Atthe start of the experiment, the bottom tank is filled upto the level of the overflow the rank and is kept constant at this level. + The water after flowing through the soil sample and the drainage base enters the constant level bottom tank from which it flows out through the overflow, + The head causing the flow h, is equal to the difference in water level between the constant level overhead tank. and the constant level bottom tank. If the cross- sectional area of the soil sample is A, the discharge is ven by equation, Q=kiA h Q=KEA aL Kota L = Length of the soil sample, Q.9 Explain pumping out and pumping in test. G8F [INTU : May-18, Marks 5] Ans. : To determine coefficient of permeability mainly two methods are used, 1. Pumping out test, 2. Pumping in test. 41. Pumping out test ‘A) Pumping out test in unconfined aquifer : + Let p(x, y) be any point on the drawdown curve. + ‘The point O at the bottom of central axis of well is choosen as the origin of reference, + Applying Darey law, dy = KAM, =kOmy) ds ak = 2mkydy «+ By integrating Ry H Ic a= = 2nk J ydy r h atog.® an —A yg Kar) 8 where, r= Radius of main wall R = Radius of zero drawdown h = Depth of water in main well 4 = Rate at which water is pumped out of wellSoil Mechantes Observation wel Impervious layer Fig. 0.9.1 Pumping out test in unconfined aquifer + To avoid the use of R, an alternative method ‘wells located at radial distance r, and r, from the axis of main well used to measure drawdown S, and S, in two observa ‘+ The depth of water in the two observation well is, h, = H-S, h, = H-S, Now y= hh, at x=r, B) Pumping out test in confined aquifer + Let P(x, y) be any point on the drawdown curve, + The origin of reference O is chosen at the bottom of axis of main well. * Byusing Darcy law = kA, = k2nxb) a ay 2nb kdy.by integrating Sil Mechs 2-6 Permesbity aad Eetoe Stes and Sepae trough Soils T vt en oO R————+| Initia plezomettc surface { Impervious stratum | Confined aquiter Impervious stratum Fig. Q.9.2 Pumping out test in confined aquifer Ra H af = 27k Say : h =~ —41— joe k= Sab(H hy 8°" Altematively if h, and h, are the depths of water measured above bottom impervious stratum in two observation well located at radial distance r, and r, from the axis of main well. r, h a af & = 2k J ay r, h, . 4 log, 2 = 2zkb (hb) —4a k= dab th, hy Br, 2. Pumping in test A) Open end test + In this method, an open end pipe is shrunk in the medium and soil is taken out from it, Clean water having the temperature slightly. greater than ground water is pumped into the medium through the pipe under constant head with the half of discharge measuring device. 4 k 55th Differential head h = Gravity head + Pressure head (o) 6) Fig. @.9.3 Open end testSoil Mechies B) Packer test + Ibis commonly used for pressure testing of bedrock by using packer’s but these tests can also be used for determining in coefficient of permeability of soils. + Expressions for coefficient of permeability are b If Le lor j 4 Kon th to, If r ty) respectively. Let *h’ be the head at any intermediate time interval t, and ~ dh be the change in the head interval dt (minus sign has been used as ‘t” increases). Hence, from Darey’s law, the rate of flow q is given by na smaller time -¢ h decreases cen iiaSoll Mechartics 28 Permenilty and Este Stress and Sespage through Sls where i = Hydraulic gradient at time, dh or op ata h, dh h hy or Denoting tht; = twe get tL og Bo 3.3 MH tog, eo tog ft «23 ME tog ft + The laboratory observations consist of measurement of the head h, and h, at two chosen time intervals ty and ty 2.4 Effective Stress and Seepage through Soils Q.11 Define total stress. 5 [NTU ; Nov.-15, Marks 3] OR Write a short note on total stress. Ans. : Total stress : + Normal stress is defined as the sum of the normal ‘component of the forces (DN) over a plane (X - X) divided by the area of plane (A). Generally, itis denoted by ha} Pi ne eatratea) Plane on which ba eee ee eae total stress fe |. calculated x x ee Fig. 0.11.1 + Lot us consider a stratified soil sample or unit width and unit length for the plane over which normal siresses to be computed. GA ty, xh, XAXY, XH KA ¢ a = G4 ally + Your By + If external pressure °q” is zero, then total stress caused, due to the overburden alone are known as ‘Geostatic siress? Then 6 = Yuh, + Yai hy Q.12 Define pore pressure. ‘Ans, : Pore pressure : + ILis the pressure exerted by the pore water filled in the void of the soil skeleton, + Itis denoted by wand equal to the depth (h,) below the ‘ground water table upto the point (A). Where it is measured and multiplied by the unit weight of water Fig. 0.12.4 u= hy, + Pore pressure is also called the neutral stress because it acts on all side of the particle, hence does not cause the soil particles to press against adjacent particles, Q.13 Explain in brief principle of effective stress. Ans. : Principle of effective stress : + Total stress (a) is made up of two parts, One part is due to pore water pressure (1) the other part is due toSoil Mechanics 2-9 Permeability and Effective Stress and Seapage through Soils pressure exterted by the soil skeleton which is called eftective stress (6 ) ive. o=ute 6 =o-w Substituting value of ¢ and u © = Yay + You Me Yah We wet, 6 = (hy + Yrs) ~ Yy By = Yals + ar Yo Is = Yah, +h, submerged unit weight You Yo The effective stress not a physical parameter and cannot be measured. When there is an equal inerease in the total stress and the pore pressure, then effective stress remain unchanged. 2.5 Quick Sand Condition Q.14 Describe the quick sand condition. GF [INTU : Dec.-16, Marks 5, Dec.-17, Marks 2] Ans. : #When flow takes place in upward direction, seepage pressure also acts vertically upward which results in decrease of effective pressure in the soil Ifseepage pressure is such that it equals the submerged weight of soil effective stress reduces to zero, In such condition shear strength of cohessionless soil ‘mass is zero and soil particles have tendency to flow with water. In this process, soil particles leaves the soil mass. Itis called quick sand condition o =Z/-P,=0 P. + ‘The hydraulic gradient at which quick sand condition occurs is termed as critical gradient, piping and floating gradient. + For fine sand Spe ‘fic gravity Void ratio = 0.65 Critical gradient is approximately unity 265-1 165 +065” 1.65 2.65 approximately Hence, FC t=c Fo tan cifo'=0 2.6 Seepage Q.15 Define seepage and explain various heads. Ans. + et is the flow of water under gravitational forces in a permeabile medium + The flow take place from a point of high head to a point of low head, When seepage occurs in soil, then total head at any point consist of following three heads 1) Velocity head 2) Pressure heads. 3) Datum head or elevation head Velocity head : Since laminar flow occurs during the seepage and velocity is very small during laminar flow. Hence in seepage analysis, velocity head may be neglected.Soil Mechanics 2-10 Permenbilty and Este Stress and Seqpage through Soils 2) + Ifa piezometer or an open stand pipe is inserted at a point of flow, water would stand at a particular height inside the piezometer. + The actual height of rise of water column in the piezometer, represents the pressure head. + The elevation or datum head at a point is the vertical distance of that point measured from an assumed datum, * Generally, datum is assumed at tail water level. denoted by *2”. Total head : + Total head = Velocity head + Pressure head + Datum head Total head = 0 ie +Z + In seepage analysis, velocity head is neglected. Hence total head and piezometric head both are equal. Q.16 Define the terms discharge velocity and velocity. epage OP [NTU : May-18, Marks 2) Ans.: Discharge velocity : + Itis defined as the fictitious velocity which is obtained by dividing the total discharge (q) by the total cross- sectional area (A). + Itis denoted by °V" Seepage velocity : + It is defined as the actual velocity on the microscopic scale. # Ibis denoted by 2.7 Flow Net Q.17 Give the characteristics of flow nets. EB [INTU : Nove-15, 16, Marks 5, May-18, Marks 3] Ans, +A combination of a number of flow lines and ‘equipotential lines is called a flownet. + Itis used to calculate ground water flow and determine the head in media. Equipotental ine Flow line Flow field Fig. 0.17.4 Characteristics + Equipotential lines and stream lines intersect each other orthogonally in a flownet. + There can be no flow across the flow lines and velocity of flow is always perpendicular to equipotential lines. + Loss of head between two equipotential lines is always same and is termed as equipotential drop. + The area between two flow lines is known as flow channel and discharge through each flow channel is same. Q.18 Explain the uses of flow nets. HG [NTU Nov.-15, Marks 2, May-18, Marks 3] Ans.: Uses of flow net : + The graphical properties of a flow net can be used in obtaining solution for many seepage problems such as, 1) Estimation of seepage losses from reservoir : It is possible to use the flow net in the transformed space to calculate the flow underneath the dam, 2) Determination of uplift pressure below dams : + From the flow net, the pressure head at any point at the base of the dam can be determined, + The uplift pressure distribution along the base can be drawn and then summed up.