Waste management

( Civil Engineering ) B.Tech. IV-Year II-Sem

( Professional Elective-V ) ( JNTU - Hyderabad )

Contents
Introduction to the Subject
Syllabus as per R16 Curriculum
Unit-wise Important Questions IQ.1 - IQ.5
MID - I & II (Objective Type and Essay Questions with Key) M.1 - M.23
Model Question Papers with Solutions (As per Latest External Exam Pattern)
Model Paper-I MP.1 - MP.2
Model Paper-II MP.3 - MP.4
Model Paper-III MP.5 - MP.6

Unit-wise Short AND Essay Questions with Solutions

Unit No. Unit Name
Question Nos. Page Nos.
Topic No. Topic Name

Unit - I quality requirements of boiler and

cooling waters Q1 - Q22 1.1 - 1.18
Part-A Short Questions with solutions Q1 - Q10 1.1 - 1.3
Part-B Essay Questions with solutions Q11 - Q22 1.4 - 1.18
1.1 Quality Requirements of Process Water for Textiles Industry Q11 - Q12 1.4
1.2 Quality Requirements of Process Water for
Food Processing and Brewery Industries Q13 1.5
1.3 Boiler and Cooling Water Treatment Methods Q14 - Q22 1.5

Unit - II basic theories of industrial

waste water management Q1 - Q27 2.1 - 2.16
Part-A Short Questions with solutions Q1 - Q6 2.1 - 2.2
Part-B Essay Questions with solutions Q7 - Q27 2.2 - 2.16
 2.1 Volume Reduction Q7 2.2
2.2 Strength Reduction Q8 2.4
2.3 Neutralisation Q9 - Q10 2.4
2.4 Equalization and Proportioning Q11 - Q12 2.6
2.5 Joint Treatment of Industrial Wastes and Domestic
Sewage-Consequent Problems Q13 2.8
2.6 Industrial Waste Water Discharges into Streams,
Lakes and Oceans and Problems Q14 - Q27 2.8

Unit - III recirculation of industrial wastes Q1 - Q51 3.1 - 3.30

Part-A Short Questions with solutions Q1 - Q14 3.1 - 3.3
Part-B Essay Questions with solutions Q15 - Q51 3.3 - 3.30
3.1 Use of Municipal Waste Water in Industries Q15 - Q23 3.3
3.2 Manufacturing Process and Design Origin, Special
Characteristics, Effects and Treatment Methods of
Liquid Waste from Textiles Industry Q24 - Q28 3.8
3.3 Manufacturing Process and Design Origin, Special
Characteristics, Effects and Treatment Methods of
Liquid Waste from Paper and Pulp Industries Q29 - Q32 3.11
3.4 Manufacturing Process and Design Origin, Special
Characteristics, Effects and Treatment Methods of
Liquid Waste from Thermal Power Plants Q33 - Q36 3.14
3.5 Manufacturing Process and Design Origin, Special
Characteristics, Effects and Treatment Methods of
Liquid Waste from Tanneries Q37 - Q40 3.15
3.6 Manufacturing Process and Design Origin, Special
Characteristics, Effects and Treatment Methods of
Liquid Waste from Fertilizers Industry Q41 - Q42 3.19
3.7 Manufacturing Process and Design Origin, Special
Characteristics, Effects and Treatment Methods of
Liquid Waste from Distillers Q43 - Q47 3.22
3.8 Manufacturing Process and Design Origin, Special
Characteristics, Effects and Treatment Methods of
Liquid Waste from Dairy Industries Q48 - Q51 3.26

Unit - IV manufacturing PROCESS AND TREATMENT in

SPECIFIC INDUSTRIES Q1 - Q18 4.1 - 4.16
Part-A Short Questions with solutions Q1 - Q5 4.1 - 4.2
Part-B Essay Questions with solutions Q6 - Q18 4.2 - 4.16
4.1 Manufacturing Process And design Origin,
Special Characteristics, Effects and Treatment
Methods of Liquid Waste from Sugar Mills Q6 - Q9 4.2
 4.2 Manufacturing Process and Design Origin,
Special Characteristics, Effects and Treatment
Methods of Liquid Waste from Steel Plants Q10 - Q11 4.4
4.3 Manufacturing Process and Design Origin,
Special Characteristics, Effects and Treatment
Methods of Liquid Waste from Oil Refineries Q12 - Q15 4.6
4.4 Manufacturing Process and Design Origin,
Special Characteristics, Effects and Treatment
Methods of Liquid Waste from Pharmaceutical Plants Q16 - Q18 4.11

Unit - V common effluent treatment plants Q1 - Q23 5.1 - 5.20

Part-A Short Questions with solutions Q1 - Q10 5.1 - 5.2

Part-B Essay Questions with solutions Q11 - Q23 5.3 - 5.20
5.1 Common Effluent Treatment Plants : Advantages and
Suitability, Limitations and Challenges Q11 - Q20 5.3
5.2 Effluent Disposal Methods Q21 - Q23 5.17
 Syllabus
UNIT-I

Quality requirements of boiler and cooling waters – Quality requirements of process water for Textiles

– Food processing and Brewery Industries – Boiler and Cooling water treatment methods.

UNIT-II

Basic Theories of Industrial Waste water Management – Volume reduction – Strength reduction –

Neutralization – Equalization and proportioning. Joint treatment of industrial wastes and domestic

sewage – consequent problems, Industrial waste water discharges into streams, Lakes and oceans

and problems.

UNIT-III

Recirculation of Industrial Wastes – Use of Municipal Waste Water in Industries, Manufacturing

Process and design origin of liquid waste from Textiles, Paper and Pulp industries, Thermal Power

Plants and Tanneries, Special Characteristics, Effects and treatment methods. Manufacturing Process

and design origin of liquid waste from Fertilizers, Distillers, and Dairy, Special Characteristics, Effects

and treatment methods.

UNIT-IV

Manufacturing Process and design origin of liquid waste from Sugar Mills, Steel Plants, Oil Refineries,

and Pharmaceutical Plants, Special Characteristics, Effects, and treatment methods.

UNIT-V

Common Effluent Treatment Plants – Advantages and Suitability, Limitations, Effluent Disposal

Methods.
 Introduction to the subject
Water as such, is one of the most abundant and inexhaustible resource, but fresh water is a finite and precious
resource that is essential to carry on life, the environment and development. All of us consume vast quantity of
water and generate large amount of waste water, which needs to be reclaimed by using wastewater treatment
facilities, and in an environmentally responsible manner. Natural self-purification of water resources is an
important phenomenon, wherein the process of elimination of polluting substances from the water bodies is
brought about by physical, chemical and biological processes, in order to regain the original water quality. However,
the various anthropogenic activities have far exceeded the ability of the aqueous environment to undergo self
purification. As of today, the scarcity of water is a pressing issue, which needs to be dealt seriously, by reclaiming
and reusing it. Hence, there is a need for artificial intensification of water purification treatment by man.

The book on WASTE MANAGEMENT attempts to provide a broad coverage of the specific aspects of the
technologies applicable to the industrial wastewater effluents, through a combination of physical, chemical,
thermal and biological techniques. This handbook has been designed as an information source and a convenient
and a quick reference to a varied audience - students, laypersons, experts, environmental scientists, biologists,
design engineers, practicing professionals and concerned individuals. The students will find the book an
indispensable reference work.

The book has been organized into the following five units.

Unit
Unit Name
No.
Short Essay
1. Quality Requirements of
Boiler and Cooling Waters
2. Basic Theories of
Industrial Waste
Water Management
3. Recirculation of
Industrial Wastes
Number of
Questions Weightage
Description
of Marks
2 1 15 This unit strives to explain the quality requirements of
process water for textile industry, food processing and
brewery industries, the treatment methods of boiler and
cooling water, boiler troubles due to impurities in water,
the fundamental unit operations in desalination of water.
2 1 15 This unit discusses the basic theories of industrial
waste water management such as volume reduction,
strength reduction, neutralization, equalization and
proportioning, joint treatment of industrial and
domestic effluents with consequent problems, the
impact of industrial waste water discharges into various
water bodies.
2 1 15 This unit elaborates on the uses of municipal waste water
in industries. Further, it describes the manufacturing
process and design origin, special characteristics,
effects and treatment methods of liquid waste from
textile industry, paper and pulp industries, leather
tanneries, fertilizer industry, distilleries and dairy
industry.
 4. Manufacturing Process 2 1 15 This unit describes the manufacturing process and
and Treatment in Specific
design origin, special characteristics, effects and
Industries
treatment methods of liquid waste from sugar mills,
steel plants, oil refineries as well as pharmaceutical
plants.
5. Common Effluent 2 1 15 This unit strives to explain various aspects of the
Treatment Plants Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETPs), their
advantages and suitability, limitations and challenges,
as well as various methods of effluent disposal.

It is fervently hoped that the book provides a useful roadmap to the readers, with up-to-date and balanced
information, to be able to make some changes in the current culture that is responsible for bringing about major
changes in the environment.
The author appreciates constructive suggestions, criticisms, comments and contributions, to enable the forthcoming
editions to be more complete, collated and comprehensive.
 Unit-wise Important Questions

U N I T- I
Q1. Discuss the significance of process water for various industries.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q11.

Q2. List the various disadvantages of hard water used for
(a) Domestic purpose
(b) Industrial uses.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q14.

Q3. What is desalination? Discuss the ways of desalination of brackish water.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q20.

Q4. What is the need for treatment of boiler water?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q17.

Q5. Discuss the quality requirements of process water for textile mills.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q12.

Q6. Discuss in detail the internal treatment methods of boiler water.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q19.

Q7. Discuss the quality requirements of process water for food processing and brewery industries.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q13.

Q8. Mention the boiler troubles caused by the impurities in feed water.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q16.

Q9. Discuss in detail the external treatment methods of boiler water.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q18.

Q10. Write a short note on the quality requirements for boiler feed water and cooling towers.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q15.

Q11. Describe
(a) Once through systems and
(b) Open recirculating systems as a part of cooling water systems.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-I, Q22.

SIA Group
IQ.2 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

U N I T- I I
Q1. Discuss the ways of waste volume reduction as part of industrial waste water management.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q7.

Q2. Explain the process of equalization in the industrial waste water treatment.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q11.

Q3. Explain the different processes used in the joint treatment of industrial wastes and domestic sewage.
What are the consequent problems of waste disposal?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q13.

Q4. Discuss some of the measures needed to control water pollution.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q22.

Q5. Discuss the different ways of strength reduction of waste water during its treatment.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q8.

Q6. Explain the process of proportioning in the industrial waste water treatment.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q12.

Q7. Write about the causes, effects and control measures of industrial wastes.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q14.

Q8. What are the various control measures of marine pollution?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q23.

Q9. Explain the process of neutralization in industrial waste water treatment.

Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q9.

Q10. What are the toxic metals and different sources of toxic metals in the waste water?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q15.

Q11. What are the sources and effects of thermal pollution?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q24.

Q12. List out different polluting materials that industrial wastes contain. What are the problems that arise
when the wastes containing these materials are discharged into a stream?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-II, Q27.

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Unit-wise Important Questions IQ.3

U N I T- I I I
Q1. Write a note on the adsorption process for separation of pollutants in waste water treatment facilities.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q15.

Q2. Explain the microfiltration process in the treatment of waste water.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q18.

Q3. What are the different types of wastes released from textile mills?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q26.

Q4. Write briefly on the processes involved in pulp and paper making industry.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q29.

Q5. What is defluoridation of water? Explain the process involved.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q16.

Q6. Explain the concept of reverse osmosis process in the treatment of waste water.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q19.

Q7. Discuss the characteristics of raw waste water from pulp and paper mill.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q31.

Q8. What are the various treatment methods for effluents from paper and pulp industries?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q32.

Q9. Explain the ultrafiltration process in the treatment of waste water.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q17.

Q10. Write briefly on the processes involved in producing yarn from raw cotton.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q24.

Q11. Discuss the various operations in a dairy industry.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q48.

Q12. Discuss the various treatment options of dairy waste water.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-III, Q50.

SIA Group
IQ.4 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

U N I T- I V
Q1. Write a note on the manufacturing processes in sugar mills.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q6.

Q2. Discuss the characteristics of sugar mills effluent.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q7.

Q3. Discuss the manufacturing processes and origin of liquid waste from iron and steel industry.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q10.

Q4. Write a brief note on the sugar industry effluent treatment.

Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q9.

Q5. Discuss the effluent treatment methods in iron and steel industry.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q11.

Q6. What are the chief characteristics of effluents generated from petrochemical facilities?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q13.

Q7. Discuss the manufacturing processes and origin of liquid waste from oil refineries.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q12.

Q8. Discuss the various treatment options for petroleum refinery effluents.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q15.

Q9. Write a note on the manufacturing processes in sugar mills.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q6.

Q10. What is the impact of sugar factory effluent on the environment?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q8.

Q11. Discuss the different processes involved in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products in the
pharmaceutical industries.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q16.

Q12. Discuss the effluent treatment methods in pharmaceutical industry.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-IV, Q18.

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Unit-wise Important Questions IQ.5

U N I T- V
Q1. Suggest various ways of sludge treatment process.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q21.

Q2. Describe the preliminary operation/treatment methodology of CETP.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q12.

Q3. Describe the primary treatment methodology of CETP.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q13.

Q4. Describe the tertiary treatment methodology of CETP?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q15.

Q5. What is the concept of common effluent treatment plants (CETP)? What is the need for CETP? What
are the advantages of CETP?
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q11.

Q6. Briefly explain the methods of heating and disposal of solid waste`.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q22.

Q7. Describe the secondary treatment methodology of CETP.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q14.

Q8. Write about the causes, effects and control measures of industrial wastes.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q16.

Q9. Describe the preliminary operation/treatment methodology of CETP.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q12.

Q10. Explain the different methods used for landfilling of solid waste.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q23.

Q11. Describe the primary treatment methodology of CETP.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q13.

Q12. Describe the secondary treatment methodology of CETP.
Answer : Important Question

For answer refer Unit-V, Q14.

SIA Group
Model Question Papers with Solutions Mp.1

R16 Model
Pa p e r 1
B.Tech. IV Year II Semester Examination
Waste Management
( Civil Engineering )

Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 75

Note: This question paper contains two Parts A and B

Part A is compulsory which carries 25 marks. Answer all questions in Part A.

Part B consists of 5 Units. Answer any one full question from each unit.

Each question carries 10 marks and may have a, b, c as sub questions.

Part-A ( 25 Marks )
Solutions
1. (a) Write short notes on impurities in water. (Unit-I / Q2)
(b) What is meant by caustic embrittlement? (Unit-I / Q5)
(c) What are the total solids in water? (Unit-II / Q1)
(d) Write a short note on the industrial waste. (Unit-II / Q5)
(e) Name the different types of membranes used in the filtration process. (Unit-III / Q8)
(f) What are the sources of waste in dairy plants? (Unit-III / Q12)
(g) What are the chief characteristics of waste water from steel plants? (Unit-IV / Q1)
(h) What are the sources of waste water in sugar mills? (Unit-IV / Q3)

(i) Write a short note on primary treatment of raw sewage. (Unit-V / Q1)
(j) What is TSDF? What is the need of TSDF? (Unit-V / Q10)

PArt-B ( 50 Marks )
2. (a) Discuss the significance of process water for various industries. (Unit-I / Q11)
(b) List the various disadvantages of hard water used for
(a) Domestic purpose
(b) Industrial uses. (Unit-I / Q14)
OR
3. (a) What is desalination? Discuss the ways of desalination of brackish water. (Unit-I / Q20)
(b) What is the need for treatment of boiler water? (Unit-I / Q17)
4. (a) Discuss the ways of waste volume reduction as part of industrial waste water
management. (Unit-II / Q7)
(b) Explain the process of equalization in the industrial waste water treatment. (Unit-II / Q11)
OR
5. (a) Explain the different processes used in the joint treatment of industrial wastes
and domestic sewage. What are the consequent problems of waste disposal? (Unit-II / Q13)
(b) Discuss some of the measures needed to control water pollution. (Unit-II / Q22)

SIA Group
Mp.2 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
6. (a) Write a note on the adsorption process for separation of pollutants in waste
water treatment facilities. (Unit-III / Q15)
(b) Explain the microfiltration process in the treatment of waste water. (Unit-III / Q18)
OR
7. (a) What are the different types of wastes released from textile mills? (Unit-III / Q26)
(b)
Write briefly on the processes involved in pulp and paper making industry. (Unit-III / Q29)
8. (a) Write a note on the manufacturing processes in sugar mills. (Unit-IV / Q6)
(b) Discuss the characteristics of sugar mills effluent. (Unit-IV / Q7)
OR
9. (a) Discuss the manufacturing processes and origin of liquid waste from iron and

steel industry. (Unit-IV / Q10)

(b) Write a brief note on the sugar industry effluent treatment. (Unit-IV / Q9)
10. (a) Suggest various ways of sludge treatment process. (Unit-V / Q21)
(b) Describe the preliminary operation/treatment methodology of CETP. (Unit-V / Q12)
OR
11. (a) Describe the primary treatment methodology of CETP. (Unit-V / Q13)
(b) Describe the tertiary treatment methodology of CETP? (Unit-V / Q15)

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Model Question Papers with Solutions Mp.3

R16
B.Tech. IV Year II Semester Examination
Model
Pa p e r 2
Waste Management
( Civil Engineering )

Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 75

Note: This question paper contains two Parts A and B
Part A is compulsory which carries 25 marks. Answer all questions in Part A.
Part B consists of 5 Units. Answer any one full question from each unit.
Each question carries 10 marks and may have a, b, c as sub questions.

Part-A ( 25 Marks ) Solutions

1. (a) Name the different types of phosphates used in the phosphate conditioning of
boiler feedwater. (Unit-I / Q7)
(b) What are the disadvantages of scale formation in the boilers? (Unit-I / Q10)
(c) Enumerate the chemical characteristics of water. (Unit-II / Q3)
(d) State some methods of neutralizing the waste water. (Unit-II / Q6)
(e) Suggest the best management practices for waste minimization in textile mills. (Unit-III / Q9)
(f) Enumerate the reuse applications of treated waste water. (Unit-III / Q4)
(g) Write a note on cooling towers? (Unit-IV / Q2)
(h) What are biological production plants? (Unit-IV / Q4)
(i) Write briefly on the tertiary treatment of waste water. (Unit-V / Q2)
(j) Write a note on the aerobic composting of solid waste. (Unit-V / Q4)

PArt-B ( 50 Marks )
2. (a) Discuss the quality requirements of process water for textile mills. (Unit-I / Q12)
(b) Discuss in detail the internal treatment methods of boiler water. (Unit-I / Q19)
OR
3. (a) Discuss the quality requirements of process water for food processing and brewery industries. (Unit-I / Q13)
(b) Mention the boiler troubles caused by the impurities in feed water. (Unit-I / Q16)
4. (a) Discuss the different ways of strength reduction of waste water during its treatment. (Unit-II / Q8)
(b)
Explain the process of proportioning in the industrial waste water treatment. (Unit-II / Q12)
OR
5. (a) Write about the causes, effects and control measures of industrial wastes. (Unit-II / Q14)
(b) What are the various control measures of marine pollution? (Unit-II / Q23)
6. (a) What is defluoridation of water? Explain the process involved. (Unit-III / Q16)
(b) Explain the concept of reverse osmosis process in the treatment of waste water. (Unit-III / Q19)
OR
SIA Group
Mp.4 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
7. (a) Discuss the characteristics of raw waste water from pulp and paper mill. (Unit-III / Q31)
(b) What are the various treatment methods for effluents from paper and pulp industries? (Unit-III / Q32)
8. (a) Discuss the effluent treatment methods in iron and steel industry. (Unit-IV / Q11)

(b) What are the chief characteristics of effluents generated from petrochemical facilities? (Unit-IV / Q13)
OR
9. (a) Discuss the manufacturing processes and origin of liquid waste from oil refineries. (Unit-IV / Q12)
(b) Discuss the various treatment options for petroleum refinery effluents. (Unit-IV / Q15)
10. (a) What is the concept of common effluent treatment plants (CETP)? What is the need for
CETP? What are the advantages of CETP ? (Unit-V / Q11)
(b) Briefly explain the methods of heating and disposal of solid waste`. (Unit-V / Q22)
OR
11. (a) Describe the secondary treatment methodology of CETP. (Unit-V / Q14)
(b) Write about the causes, effects and control measures of industrial wastes. (Unit-V / Q16)

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Model Question Papers with Solutions Mp.5

R16
B.Tech. IV Year II Semester Examination
Model
Pa p e r 3
Waste Management
( Civil Engineering )

Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 75

Note: This question paper contains two Parts A and B
Part A is compulsory which carries 25 marks. Answer all questions in Part A.
Part B consists of 5 Units. Answer any one full question from each unit.
Each question carries 10 marks and may have a, b, c as sub questions.

Part-A ( 25 Marks ) Solutions

1. (a) What is meant by hard water? Explain. (Unit-I / Q8)
(b) Discuss the different types of hardness in water. (Unit-I / Q9)
(c) Enumerate the physical characteristics of water. (Unit-II / Q2)
(d) Write a note on the biological characteristics of water. (Unit-II / Q4)
(e) How are the biofilters used in the deodorization of waste water? (Unit-III / Q3)
(f) What are the chief characteristics of effluents generated from pharmaceutical
industries? (Unit-III / Q14)
(g) What are the sources of waste water in sugar mills? (Unit-IV / Q3)
(h) What are the chief characteristics of effluents generated from pharmaceutical industries? (Unit-IV / Q5)
(i) Name the toxic metals found in waste water. (Unit-V / Q7)
(j) Write briefly on water pollution by chemicals. (Unit-V / Q5)

PArt-B ( 50 Marks )
2. (a) Discuss in detail the external treatment methods of boiler water. (Unit-I / Q18)
(b) Write a short note on the quality requirements for boiler feed water and cooling towers. (Unit-I / Q15)
OR
3. Describe
(a) Once through systems and
(b) Open recirculating systems as a part of cooling water systems. (Unit-I / Q22)
4. (a) Explain the process of neutralization in industrial waste water treatment. (Unit-II / Q9)

(b) What are the toxic metals and different sources of toxic metals in the waste water? (Unit-II / Q15)
OR
5. (a) What are the sources and effects of thermal pollution? (Unit-II / Q24)
(b) List out different polluting materials that industrial wastes contain. What are the problems
that arise when the wastes containing these materials are discharged into a stream? (Unit-II / Q27)

SIA Group
Mp.6 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
6. (a) Explain the ultrafiltration process in the treatment of waste water. (Unit-III / Q17)
(b) Write briefly on the processes involved in producing yarn from raw cotton. (Unit-III / Q24)
OR
7. (a) Discuss the various operations in a dairy industry. (Unit-III / Q48)
(b) Discuss the various treatment options of dairy waste water. (Unit-III / Q50)
8. (a) Write a note on the manufacturing processes in sugar mills. (Unit-IV / Q6)
(b) What is the impact of sugar factory effluent on the environment? (Unit-IV / Q8)
OR
9. (a) Discuss the different processes involved in the manufacture of
pharmaceutical products in the pharmaceutical industries. (Unit-IV / Q16)
(b) Discuss the effluent treatment methods in pharmaceutical industry. (Unit-IV / Q18)
10. (a) Describe the preliminary operation/treatment methodology of CETP. (Unit-V / Q12)
(b) Explain the different methods used for landfilling of solid waste. (Unit-V / Q23)
OR
11. (a) Describe the primary treatment methodology of CETP. (Unit-V / Q13)
(b) Describe the secondary treatment methodology of CETP. (Unit-V / Q14)

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MID - I & II M.1

MID - I & II
Objective Type &
Essay Questions with Key

SIA Group
M.2 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

Objective Type

Unit - I
I. Fill in the Blanks
1. Treatment of hardwater with soap results in the precipitation of salts of _______ and _______.
2. Hardness of water is due to the dissolved salts of _______ and _______.
3. Temporary hardness is also called as _______.
4. Temporary hardness in water can be removed by_______ and _______.
5. The loose precipitate of MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2, MgSO4 in the inner wall of the boiler is called _______.
6. The presence of alkali metal carbonates and bicarbonates in the boiler feedwater causes _______ of the
boiler.
7. The chemical formula of zeolite is _______.
8. The process of formation of wet steam in the boiler due to the rapid boiling of feedwater is called as
_______.
9. The process of formation of bubbles in the boiler due to the presence of fatty oils, greases and emulsions
is called _______.
10. The process of picking up and carrying of impurities in water particles along with steam in the boiler is
called as _______.
11. Wet steam is produced in the boilers by the process of _______ and _______.
12. The permanent calcium hardness in water can be removed by using _______.
13. Natrolite is a _______ zeolite.
14. Laumontite is a _______ zeolite.
15. Permutit is a _______ zeolite.
16. The water free from cations and anions is called as _______ water.
17. The saturated cation exchange bed in the ion-exchange process can be regenerated by passing _______
or _______.
18. The saturated anion exchange bed in the ion-exchange process is regenerated by passing _______.
19. A chemical that removes the dissolved oxygen in feedwater is _______.
20. Phosphate conditioning of boiler feedwater by disodium hydrogen phosphate is used for _______.
21. Phosphate conditioning of boiler feedwater by alkaline tri-sodium phosphate is used for _______.
22. The phosphate conditioning of alkaline waters is accomplished by _______, _______ and _______.
II. Multiple Choice
1. Treatment of hardwater with soap results in the formation of ________. [ ]
(a) Calcium salts (b) Magnesium salts
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above
2. Softwater readily forms lather with soap due to, [ ]
(a) Absence of calcium salts (b) Absence of magnesium salts
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above
3. Temporary hardness of water is also referred as, [ ]
(a) Carbonate hardness (b) Non-carbonate hardness
(c) Non-sulphate hardness (d) Phosphate hardness
4. Permanent hardness of water is also referred as, [ ]
(a) Carbonate hardness (b) Non-carbonate hardness
(c) Sulphate hardness (d) Phosphate hardness

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MID - I & II M.3
5. Permutit process involves the use of ________. [ ]
(a) Microorganisms (b) Proteins
(c) Calgon/washing soda (d) Alum (hydrated aluminium sulphate)
6. The scales formed on the inner walls of the boiler are due to, [ ]
(a) Calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate (b) Magnesium salts and silica
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Neither (a) nor (b)
7. The loose precipitate of MgCO3, MgCl2, CaCl2 or MgSO4 is called as ________. [ ]
(a) Calgon (b) Zeolite
(c) Lime-soda (d) Sludge
8. Foaming in the boilers occurs due to the, [ ]
(a) Fatty acids and impurities (b) Greases
(c) Emulsions (d) All the above
9. The zeolite process of water softening is also called as ________. [ ]
(a) Permutit process (b) Base exchange process
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of the above
10. The ion exchange process of water softening is also referred as ________. [ ]
(a) Demineralization (b) Deionization process
(c) Neither (a) nor (b) (d) Both (a) and (b)
11. One of the following reactions do not occur in the lime-soda process, [ ]
(a) Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 → 2CaCO3 + 2H2O (b) MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 → Mg(OH)2↓ + CaCl2
(c) FeSO4 + Ca(OH)2 → Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4 (d) Na2Z + Ca(HCO3)2 → CaZ + 2NaHCO3
12. The complex compounds of microporous, crystalline solids of hydrated sodium alumino silicate minerals,
used in water purification are, [ ]
(a) Sand filter (b) Sludge blanket
(c) Lime-soda (d) Zeolites
13. The examples of natural zeolites are, [ ]
(a) Natrolite and permutit (b) Natrolite and laumontite
(c) Laumontite and permutit (d) None of the above
14. The saturated form of zeolite formed in the permutit process of water purification can be regenerated
by treatment with ________. [ ]
(a) Sulphuric acid (b) Hydrochloric acid
(c) Conc. brine (10% NaCl) solution (d) Sodium hydroxide solution
15. The ion-exchange resins used in the deionization process of waste water purification are, [ ]
(a) Polystyrene – divinylbenzene (b) Polymethacrylic acid – divinyl benzene
(c) Phenol – formaldehyde polymer (d) All of the above
16. The dissolved oxygen in water can be removed by ________. [ ]
(a) Sodium sulphite and hydrazine (b) Sodium sulphate
(c) Sodium carbonate (d) Sodium chloride
SIA Group
M.4 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
17. The function of mechanical deaerator in wastewater treatment is for ________. [ ]
(a) Removal of silica (b) Removal of suspended matter
(c) Removal of dissolved gases (d) Removal of oil
18. The external treatment methods of boiler feedwater involves ________. [ ]
(a) Carbonate conditioning (b) Phosphate conditioning
(c) Calgon conditioning (d) Lime-soda process
19. The internal treatment methods of boiler feedwater involves ________. [ ]
(a) Lime-soda process (b) Clarification
(c) Filtration (d) Calgon conditioning
20. Phosphate conditioning of boiler feedwater is carried out by, [ ]
(a) Phosphoric acid (b) Magnesium phosphate
(c) Calcium phosphate (d) Sodium phosphate
21. Calgon is the commercial name for ________. [ ]
(a) Sodium calcium phosphate (b) Sodium pyrophosphate
(c) Sodium metaphosphate (d) Sodium hexameta phosphate
22. The process of removal of dissolved salts of sodium chloride, potassium chloride from water for domestic/
industrial use is called ________. [ ]
(a) Desalination (b) Distillation
(c) Freezing (d) None of the above
III. True or False
1. The presence of coliform group of micro-organisms in water render it unfit for human consumption.
2. Soft water does not produce lather with soap readily.
3. Boiling of water converts the insoluble carbonates to soluble carbonates in it.
4. Addition of lime to water converts the soluble carbonates to insoluble carbonates.
5. The permanent hardness in water can be removed only by permutit process.
6. The scale formation in boilers may lead to increase in boiler safety.
7. The dissolved salts in the boiler feedwater cause caustic embrittlement of the boiler.
8. Permutit is a natural zeolite.
9. Kerosene is a colloidal conditioning agent used in the treatment of boiler feedwater.
10. The salinity levels in brackish water are greater than 35,000 mg/L.

KEY
I. Fill in the Blanks
1. calcium stearate and magnesium stearate
2. calcium and magnesium
3. carbonate hardness
4. boiling, addition of lime to water
5. sludge
6. caustic embrittlement
7. Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O, where x = 2 to 10, y = 2.6

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MID - I & II M.5
8. priming
9. foaming
10. carryover
11. priming and foaming
12. soda (Na2CO3)
13. natural
14. natural

15. synthetic

16. demineralized/deionized water

17. dilute HCl or dilute H2SO4

18. dilute sodium hydroxide solution

19. sodium sulphite or hydrazine

20. neutral waters

21. acidic waters

22. sodium dihydrogen phosphate, sodium pyrophosphate and sodium metaphosphate

II. Multiple Choice

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c)

6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (d)

11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (c) 15. (d)

16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (d)

21. (d) 22. (a)

III. True or False

1. True
2. False
3. False
4. True
5. True
6. False
7. True
8. False
9. True
10. False

SIA Group
M.6 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

Unit - II
I. Fill in the Blanks
1. The major categories of industrial waste are _______ and _______.
2. Molasses is used in the production of _______.
3. Casein is formed by treatment of skim milk with _______.
4. Sodium is passed through limestone bed for conversion to _______.
5. The passing of acid wastes through the beds of limestone is an example of _______.
6. The neutralization of carbonic acid from boiler units is accomplished by reaction with _________, _________
or _______.
7. A weak acid formed by dissolving waste boiler flue gas in waste water is _______.
8. The reaction of carbonic acid with caustic wastes produce _______.
9. The main objective of equalization of industrial waste water is to _______ of water.
10. The process of mixing of sewage with industrial waste water to reduce the strength of the total waste is called
as _______.
11. Name a toxic metal that is formed during the smelting of copper, zinc and lead __________.
12. A toxic metal discharged from chloralkalic plants and paper industries __________.
13. A toxic metal discharged from steel and pulp mills __________.
14. The major source of potable water for industrial and municipal water supplies is __________.
15. The liquid coolants and insulators used in transformers are __________.
16. The root zone method helps to control pollution of __________.
17. The two techniques to reduce marine pollution due to oil tanker operations is __________ and __________.
18. The discharge of heated water from the industrial processes into the waterbodies to __________.
19. An example of main source of thermal pollution is __________.
20. An increase in the temperature of water bodies leads to __________ in the oxygen carrying of water.
II. Multiple Choice
1. One of the following is considered as inefficient water use, [ ]
(a) Installing water meters (b) High flow plumbing
(c) Spring closing sanitary fixtures (d) Thermostatic control
2. The household waste is categorized as, [ ]
(a) Non-hazardous waste (b) Hazardous waste
(c) e-waste (d) None of the above
3. The complex aromatic compounds and pesticides are categorized as, [ ]
(a) Non-hazardous waste (b) Hazardous waste
(c) Municipal waste (d) None of the above
4. One of the following is not an efficient method of water conservation. [ ]
(a) Good housekeeping practices
(b) Water auditing
(c) Installing pressure-reducing valves in the water distribution system
(d) None of the above

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MID - I & II M.7
5. A closed loop recycling system of industrial wastewater management involves, [ ]
(a) Segregation of wastewater (b) Direct discharge of wastewater
(c) Increased volume of wastewater generation (d) None of the above
6. The gray water from industrial establishments can be reused for, [ ]
(a) Irrigation purpose (b) Aesthetic uses
(c) Fire protection (d) All the above
7. The changes in the industrial production process to reduce waste generation involves all but one, [ ]
(a) A strict inventory tracking system (b) Use of cleaner technologies
(c) Inefficient operation procedures (d) Improved equipment design
8. The metal plating industries recover phosphoric acid, copper, nickel and chromium by using, [ ]
(a) Deionized water (b) Ion exchangers
(c) Sulphite waste liquor (d) None of the above
9. Water salvaging means, [ ]
(a) Regaining the materials used in industrial processes
(b) Processing substitutions
(c) Equipment modifications
(d) Waste strength reduction
10. Celotex is prepared from ____________. [ ]
(a) Molasses (b) Salt brine waste
(c) Crystallization of milk sugar (d) Sugarcane stalks
11. Which of the following does not control industrial waste production? [ ]
(a) Reduction of waste at source (b) Recycling of waste
(c) Introduction of technological innovations (d) None of the above
12. The pollutant P.A.H is the acronym for, [ ]
(a) Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon (b) Phenylalanine Hydroxylase
(c) Para-amino Hippurate (d) Poly allylamine Hydrochloride
13. The industrial chemical PCB is the acronym for, [ ]
(a) Polychlorobiphenyl (b) Phycocyanobilin
(c) Pancuronium Bromide (d) Polychlorinated Biphenyls
14. Minamata disease is caused by,
(a) Oil pollution (b) Air pollution
(c) Methylmercury intoxication (d) None of the above
15. Which of the following is an example of indirect source of contaminants that enter the water supply?
[ ]
(a) Gaseous emissions from automobiles and factories
(b) Thermal power stations
(c) Leather processing plants
(d) Waste treatment plants

SIA Group
M.8 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
16. Which of the following is an example of direct source of contaminants that enter the water supply?
[ ]
(a) Outfalls from factories and refineries
(b) Gaseous emissions from automobiles and factories
(c) Fertilizers and pesticides used in agricultural practices
(d) None of the above
17. The physical processes affecting the self purification of streams are, [ ]
(a) Precipitation reactions (b) Oxidation and reduction
(c) Volatilization (d) None of the above
18. An absorbent material passed through oil slick for extraction of oil, [ ]
(a) Slick tickers (b) Bilge pads
(c) Towable bladders (d) Oil fence
19. Eutrophication means, [ ]
(a) Aesthetic beauty of the water body
(b) Excessive growth of aquatic organisms due to extra nourishment
(c) Solid waste
(d) None of the above
20. An example of non-point sources of nutrient runoff leading to eutrophication of waterbodies is, [ ]
(a) Agricultural runoff (b) Draining from mines
(c) Draining from waste disposal system (d) Industrial waste water effluent
III. True or False
1. The volume of discharged waste water is high in the open system of industrial waste water
management.
2. The volume of discharged waste water is high in the closed system of industrial waste water
management.
3. Segregation of the waste water is an important step in the closed loop recycling system of industrial waste
water management.
4. Installing pressure-reducing valves in the water distribution system increases the wastage of water.
5. The gray water discharged from industries can be reused for irrigation purpose.
6. An economical method of recovery of materials used in industrial processes is waste salvaging.
7. The waste blood from slaughter houses can be used in the manufacture of glue.
8. The alkaline wastes formed in various wastewater treatment processes can be neutralized by reacting
with lime slurries.
9. The alkaline wastes formed in various wastewater treatment processes can be neutralized by using waste
boiler flue gas.
10. The mixing of sewage and industrial waste result in increase in the strength of the total waste.
11. The complex aromatic compounds discharged from industrial processes is considered as a non-hazardous
waste.
12. The toxic contaminants in water have found their way into the extraterrestrial environment.

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MID - I & II M.9

13. Cadmium, arsenic, chromium, nickel, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are cariogenic in nature.
14. Exposure of human subjects to toxic metals in waste water can result in muscular dystrophy and multiple
sclerosis.
15. Haphazard disposal of untreated industrial effluents cause pollution of groundwater sources.
16. Minamata disease is caused by methyl mercury intoxication.
17. The radioactive waste is not considered as hazardous waste.
18. Operation discharges during offshore drilling for oil production is one of the major causes of land pollution.
19. The metabolic processes of microorganisms transform the non-biodegradable organics from the effluents into
biodegradable products.
20. Slick-tickers consist of a continuous belt of absorbent material for extraction of oil.
21. The setting up of sewage treatment plants in port areas can help to reduce the pollution load on marine
waters.
22. Devegetation near the waterbodies is one of the major causes of thermal pollution.
23. Thermal pollution decreases the solubility of oxygen in water.
24. Thermal pollution does not effect the aquatic food chain.
25. The algal blooms in water bodies is caused by the flow of excessive chemical Nutrients of Nitrogenous
and Phosphorus compounds.

KEY
I. Fill in the Blanks

1. Hazardous waste and non-hazardous waste

2. Commercial alcohol

3. Dilute acids

4. Soda ash

5. Neutralization

6. Caustic wastes, lime slurries, or dolomitic lime slurries

7. Carbonic acid

8. Soda ash

9. Stabilize the pH and BOD

10. Proportioning
11. Arsenic
12. Mercury
13. Chromium
14. Groundwater and surface water
15. Polychlorinated biphenyls
16. Water
17. Load-on-top system and crude oil washing

SIA Group
M.10 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
18. Thermal pollution
19. Electric power plants/industrial factories
20. Decrease.

II. Multiple Choice

1. (b) 2. (a) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (a)

6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (d)

11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (d) 14. (c) 15. (a)

16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (a)

III. True or False

1. True 2. False 11.

False 16. True 21. True

3. True 4. False 12.

False 17. False 22. True

5. True 6. True 13.

True 18. False 23. True

7. True 8. False 14.

True 19. False 24. False

9. True 10.
False 15.
True 20. True 25. True

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MID - I & II M.11

Unit - III
I. Fill in the Blanks
1. The acronym PAN stands for __________.
2. The acronym PVDF stands for __________.
3. PES is __________.
4. In cross-flow mode of ultrafiltration, the feedwater is allowed to flow __________ to the membrance
surface.
5. Microfiltration membranes with tortuous type pores are also called as __________.
6. Microfiltration membranes with capillary type pores are also called as __________.
7. In the dead-end microfiltration method, the feedwater flows __________ and __________ to the membrance
surface.
8. Increase in the deposited solids on the filter membrane, decrease the filtration capacity and permeability
due to __________.
9. In the cross-flow microfiltration method, the feedwater flows __________ along the surface filter membrane.
10. The removal of manganese from waste water by chemical precipitation method is called __________.
11. The removal of __________ from waste water by chemical precipitation treatment method is called
demanganization.
12. Addition of __________ to waste water is an effective method of deferrization and demagnetization.
13. A type of separation process wherein the dissolved substances in waste water cling to the filter material
__________.
14. The non-cellulosic components of wood is __________.
15. The two types of alkaline processes in chemical pulping are __________ and __________.
16. The chemicals used in the sulfate (kraft) process of pulping are __________ and __________.
17. The chemicals used in the sulfite process of pulping in paper and pulp industries are __________ and
__________.
18. The semi-chemical pulping method involves the use of chemicals like __________, __________ or
__________.
19. The microorganism used in the biomechanical and biochemical pulping method is __________.
20. A process which removes the residual lignin , resin and hemi-cellulose is called as __________.
21. In a paper and pulp industry, the __________ pulp is used for printing books, magazines and making
tissue papers, whereas the __________ pulp is used to make grocery bags and cardboard boxes.
22. The use of __________ agents help to increase the resistance to penetration of liquids in paper.
23. The solid waste generated in large amounts in the thermal power plants is in the form of __________.
24. Carbamide or carbonyl diamide is commonly referred as __________.
25. Compressed ammonia gas forced into water produces __________.
26. Ammonia and carbondioxide react under suitable conditions of temperature and pressure to produce
__________.
27. The dehydration of ammonium carbamate yields __________.
28. Phosphorite is also known as __________.
29. Muriate of potash is __________.

SIA Group
M.12 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
30. The water tanks used for malting in distillery industry are called as __________.
31. Large stainless steel vessels used for mashing is referred as __________.
32. The sugary liquid formed in the washing process is called as __________.
33. The spent grain formed in the mashing process is called as __________.
II. Multiple Choice
1. In physical adsorption process, the solute molecules are bound to the activated carbon by, [ ]
(a) van der waal’s forces (b) Electrostatic forces
(c) Electrical forces (d) Ionic interactions
2. One of the following is not used in the preparation of activated carbon, [ ]
(a) Coal (b) Wood
(c) Peat (d) Silica.
3. One of the following is not a feature of activated carbon, [ ]
(a) Large surface area (b) High surface reactivity
(c) Many active sites (d) Low adsorptive capacity
4. Activated carbon is prepared by,
(a) Thermal decomposition (b) Controlled pressure
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) Neither (a) nor (b)
5. The size of the granular activated carbon used in waste water treatment facilities is greater than ____.
[ ]
(a) 0.8 mm (b) 0.8 µm
(c) 0.8 nm (d) None of the above
6. The size of the powdered activated carbon used in waste water treatment facilities is, [ ]
(a) Less than 0.8 mm (b) Less than 0.8 nm
(c) Greater than 0.8 mm (d) None of the above
7. The limitations for using activated carbon in treating waste water is __________. [ ]
(a) Low concentration of pollutants (b) High molecular weight pollutants
(c) Very expensive method (d) All the above
8. Optimal concentration of fluorides in water lead to __________. [ ]
(a) Formation of dental caries (b) Prevention of dental caries.
(c) Fluorosis (d) Arthritis
9. High concentration of fluorides in water lead to __________. [ ]
(a) Formation of dental caries (b) Prevention of dental caries
(c) Fluorosis (d) Arthritis
10. Alumina used in defluoridation of water is __________. [ ]
(a) Aluminium hydroxide (b) Aluminium chloride
(c) Aluminium sulphate (d) Aluminium oxide.
11. The exhausted activated alumina bed during defluoridation of water is regenerated by passing _____.
[ ]
(a) Sodium hydroxide solution (b) Sulphuric acid
(c) Potassium permanganate (d) None of the above

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MID - I & II M.13
12. The pore size of ultrafiltration membrane is __________. [ ]
(a) 1 nm to 100 nm (b) 1 mm to 100 mm
(c) 100 µ (d) 200 mm
13. The process of separating cotton seed from the cotton fiber is called as __________. [ ]
(a) Warping (b) Winding
(c) Spinning (d) Ginning
14. The process of pulling the cotton fibers into a rope-like form called as sliver is called as _____. [ ]
(a) Spinning (b) Carding
(c) Picking (d) Clearing
15. The process of making yarn by drawing out the rope and twisting numerous fibres into thin strand is called
as __________. [ ]
(a) Carding (b) Spinning
(c) Winding (d) Warping.
16. One of the following is not a natural sizing agent used in textile mills. [ ]
(a) Carboxymethyl cellulose (b) Gelatin
(c) Polyacrylates (d) Albumin.
17. One of the following is not a synthetic sizing agent __________. [ ]
(a) Modified polyester (b) Glue
(c) Polyacrylates (d) Styrol.
18. The procedure for producing finished cloth from yarn include processes like __________. [ ]
(a) Desizing, singeing, kiering (b) Bleaching, mercerizing, finishing
(c) Neither (a) nor (b) (d) Both (a) and (b).
19. The process of removal of fibres projecting out from the textile structure is __________. [ ]
(a) Desizing (b) Kiering
(c) Singeing (d) Bleaching
20. The process of removal of natural impurities from the fabric is called as __________. [ ]
(a) Desizing (b) Kiering
(c) Singeing (d) Bleaching
21. Name the process in which a fabric is treated with caustic soda to increase the pore size for proper dyeing
process? [ ]
(a) Dyeing (b) Mercerizing
(c) Finishing (d) None of the above.
22. The process in which the fibre or fabric is treated with chemical pigments is called as _______. [ ]
(a) Dyeing (b) Mercerizing
(c) Finishing (d) All of the above.
23. A type of treatment that results in removal of burrs from the wool. [ ]
(a) Fulling (b) Carbonizing
(c) Desizing (d) Mercerizing
24. Napthol is an example of __________. [ ]
(a) Acidic dye (b) Azonic dye
(c) Basic dye (d) None of the above

SIA Group
M.14 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
25. The indigo dye used to colour the denims is an example of __________. [ ]
(a) Mordant dye (b) Reactive dye
(c) Sulfur dye (d) Vat dye
26. Carboxymethyl cellulose is used in textile industry as a __________. [ ]
(a) Sizing agent (b) Bleaching agent
(c) Mordant (d) Fixative agent.
27. ‘Hydrol’ is a byproduct from __________. [ ]
(a) Maize starch industry (b) Cane molasses
(c) Crude oil (d) None of the above.
28. The type of wood used for paper making are __________. [ ]
(a) Low resin content wood (b) Hard wood
(c) Soft wood (d) All of the above.
29. In a fertilizer industry, the desulphurization of natural gas is essential, [ ]
(a) To remove the sulphur compounds
(b) For adsorption of H2S gas present in the natural gas
(c) Because sulphur compounds have the tendency to deactivate the catalysts used in the subsequent
steps
(d) All of the above
30. The desulphurization of natural gas is accomplished by passing it through __________. [ ]
(a) Separator (b) Superheated steam
(c) A bed of activated carbon/zinc oxide (d) Catalytic methanation
31. Normal superphosphate is also called as, [ ]
(a) Triple superphosphate (b) Concentrated superphosphate
(c) Single superphosphate (d) Double superphosphate
32. The oil present in wastewaters can be removed by __________. [ ]
(a) Biological sequencing batch reactors (b) Sludge blanket clarifiers
(c) Clarifiers (d) Gravity separators
33. The process of drying of maltgrains in the distillery industry is referred as __________. [ ]
(a) Kilning (b) Malting
(c) Mashing (d) Screening
34. The groundmalt is called as, [ ]
(a) Grist (b) Wort
(c) Malt (d) None of the above
35. The enzyme involved in the conversion of starch in barley grains to sugars is __________. [ ]
(a) Amylase (b) Peptidase
(c) Cholinesterase (d) Urease
36. The washbacks used during the fermentation process are made up of __________. [ ]
(a) Larch (b) Pinewood
(c) Stainless steel (d) All of the above.

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MID - I & II M.15
37. The alcohol formed in the fermented wort during the fermentation process can be separated from the water
by, [ ]
(a) Adsorption (b) Boiling
(c) Crystallization (d) Distillation
38. The distillery effluents are also known as __________. [ ]
(a) Sillage (b) Slop
(c) Vinasse (d) All of the above
39. The grinding and shredding of floating solids in the industrial effluents is accomplished by ___. [ ]
(a) Comminution (b) Floatation
(c) Sedimentation (d) Flow equalization
40. Name the pigment which is a major pollutant in the distillery waste water? [ ]
(a) Fucoxanthin (b) Phycocyanin
(c) Phycoerythrin (d) Melanoidin
41. The process of use of ultrasound radiation for treatment of distillery wastewater to destroy the contaminants
in the industrial effluents is called as __________. [ ]
(a) Adsorption (b) Ultrafiltration
(c) Cavitation (d) Chemical oxidation.
III. True or False
1. The retentate refers to untreated waste water.
2. Adsorbent is any substance on the surface of which absorbtion takes place.
3. Adsorbent is any substance on the surface of which adsorbtion takes place.
4. Adsorbate is the substance that is capable of being adsorbed.
5. Adsorbent is the substance that is capable of being absorbed.
6. In physical adsorption process, the adsorbate and the adsorbent are held together by weak Van der waal’s
forces.
7. The most widely used adsorbent to remove pollutants from waste water treatment systems is activated
carbon.
8. The powdered activated carbon has large internal surface area and small pores.
9. The granular activated carbon has large internal surface area and small internal pores.
10. Activated alumina has been successfully used in the defluoridation of drinking water.
11. Alumina is a mixture of amorphous and crystalline phases of aluminium sulphate.
12. Polytetrafluoroethylene is used in ultrafiltration membrane technology.
13. The cross-flow mode of filtration technology has one influent feed stream and one effluent stream.
14. Chemical additives are not used in the ultrafiltration method of waste water treatment.
15. The depth membrane used in microfiltration technology has convoluted and interconnected pathways in
the polymer matrix material.
16. The screen membranes used in microfiltration technology has convoluted and interconnected pathways
in the polymer matrix material.
17. The screen membranes used in microfiltration technology has straight channel cylindrical pores of uniform
diameter.
18. The process of separating cotton fibre from the cotton seed is called spinning
19. The sizing agents used in textile mills add strength to the fibre.
20. Kier boiler is used in the scouring process.
SIA Group
M.16 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
21. The process of carbonizing the wool helps to remove impurities in it.
22. The use of phosphate free detergents and CFC-free dry cleaning agents in the textile industry is considered
as the best management practice for waste minimization.
23. Carboxymethyl cellulose is an ideal sizing agent as it does not harm the environment.
24. The use of bentonite clay helps to eliminate the non-biodegradable/microorganism-toxic organic substances
from the industry effluents.
25. Cellulose fibre is the raw material needed for paper making.
26. Hollander beater and Jones Bertran beater are used for the digestion of wood chips in the pulp and paper
industry.
27. The discharge of dioxins and dibenzofurans by the pulp and paper mills are beneficial to the environment.
28. Cinders is a type of particulate emission generated by thermal power plants.
29. Natural gas is converted to syngas through a process known as natural gas desulfurization.
30. Natural gas is converted to synthesis gas through a process known as steam reforming.
31. Dissolved air floatation units remove emulsified oil by using flocculants.
32. The enzymatic hydrolysis method of treatment of wastewater to reduce the turbidy involves the use of
amylases.
33. The primary sedimentation tanks help to remove coarse solids in the effluents.
34. The trickling filter process of effluent treatment involves anaerobic aquatic environment.
35. The disks in the rotating biological contactors are made of polystyrene.
36. The sequencing batch reactor system is also referred as the fill and draw process.
37. The physicochemical treatment methods of dairy effluents include gravity traps and dissolved air floatation
units.
38. The physicochemical treatment methods of dairy effluents include flocculation and membrane processes.

KEY
I. Fill in the Blanks
1. Polyacrylonitrile 18. Sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium
2. Polyvinylindone difluoride sulfate
3. Polyether sulfone 19. White rot fungi
4. Parallel 20. Bleaching
5. Depth membrane 21. Bleached, unbleached
6. Screen membranes 22. Sizing
7. Perpendicular 23. Fly ash
8. Clogging 24. Urea
9. Tangentially 25. Ammonia solution
10. Demanganization 26. Ammonium carbonate
11. Manganese 27. Urea and water
12. Potassium permanganate 28. Mineral phosphate
13. Adsorption 29. Potassium chloride
14. Lignin 30. Steeps
15. Soda process and sulfate (kraft) process 31. Mash tubs
16. Sodium sulfate and sodium hydroxide 32. Mashing, wort
17. Calcium bisulphite and sulphurous acid 33. Draff

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MID - I & II M.17
II. Multiple Choice
1. (a) 12. (a) 23. (b) 34. (a)
2. (d) 13. (d) 24. (b) 35. (a)
3. (d) 14. (b) 25. (d) 36. (d)
4. (c) 15. (b) 26. (a) 37. (d)
5. (a) 16. (c) 27. (a) 38. (d)
6. (a) 17. (b) 28. (d) 39. (a)
7. (d) 18. (d) 29. (d) 40. (d)
8. (b) 19. (c) 30. (d) 41. (c)
9. (c) 20. (b) 31. (c)
10. (d) 21. (b) 32. (d)
11. (a) 22. (a) 33. (a)
III. True or False
1. True 21. False
2. False 22. True
3. True 23. True
4. True 24. True
5. False 25. True
6. True 26. True
7. True 27. False
8. False 28. True
9. True 29. False
10. True 30. True
11. False 31. True
12. True 32. False
13. True 33. True
14. True 34. False
15. True 35. True
16. False 36. True
17. True 37. False
18. False 38. True
19. True
20. True

SIA Group
M.18 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

Unit - IV
I. Fill in the Blanks
1. The complete bleaching of the sugarcane juice can be accomplished by the __________ process.
2. The mixture of cane juice and sugar crystals is known as __________.
3. Name of two green algae used in the treatment of sugar mill effluents are __________ and _________.
4. The two types of modern steel making technology are
(i) __________
(ii) __________.
5. The refined molten steel formed in the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) process is cast into structures called
as __________.
6. Name the method of physicochemical treatment of waste water for removal of organic compounds,
sedimentated particles and heavy metals __________.
7. Name the fungus responsible for phenol degradation in the coke oven water __________.
8. The water washing method as a chemical separation method is meant for __________ of crude oil.
9. The deasphated oil formed during crude oil processing is also known as __________.
10. A modern method of deasphalting crude oil is the __________.
11. The aromatic compounds in the Bright Stock can be separated by adding the solvent _________.
12. The dewaxed oil formed after deoiling of wax in the presence of methyl ethyl ketone is called as __________.
13. Name the catalyst used to convert paraffin into high octane gasoline components __________.
14. The products formed by the process of catalytic hydrocracking of crude oil yields ___________,
___________ , _________ and ___________.
II. Multiple Choice
1. The fibrous residue formed after the grinding operation of the sugarcane stalks is known as
_________. [ ]
(a) Slurry (b) Bagasse
(c) Scum (d) Press mud.
2. The spent molasses in the manufacturing processes in the sugar mills is called as _________. [ ]
(a) Black strap molasses (b) Bagasse
(c) Slurry (d) Fibre.
3. The methanogenic bacteria used in the treatment of sugar industry effluents are meant for _________.
[ ]
(a) Conversion of organic matter into volatile acid
(b) Conversion of volatile acid to carbondioxide and methane
(c) Absorption of organic compounds
(d) All of the above.
4. The green algae and used in the treatment of sugar mill waste water functions to _________.
(a) Absorb the toxic minerals and organic compounds
(b) Convert organic matter into volatile acid
(c) Convert volatile acid to carbondioxide
(d) All of the above.
5. Heating metallurgical coal in the absence of oxygen at high temperature of 1100ºC for 25 hours results in
_________. [ ]
(a) Coke (b) Iron-ore
(c) Limestone (d) All of the above.
6. The function of water hyacinth in the treatment of sugar mill effluents is _________. [ ]
(a) To reduce the volume of effluents
(b) To reduce the physicochemical parameters
(c) To scavenge the organic and inorganic compounds
(d) All of the above.

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MID - I & II M.19
7. The railway cars used for transfer of molten iron from the blast furnace to the basic oxygen furnace is
called as _________. [ ]
(a) Hot iron ladle cars (b) Refractory brick lined torpedoes
(c) Neither a nor b (d) Both a and b.
8. One of the following is not the raw material needed for making steel by the Electric Arc Furnace process
[ ]
(a) Scrap iron and steel (b) Limestone
(c) Alloying ingredients (d) Coke.
9. One of the following processes is not involved in the finishing operations of steel _________. [ ]
(a) Acid pickling (b) Casting
(c) Chrome plating (d) Tempering.
10. The treatment of coal washery waste involves _________. [ ]
(a) Gravity settling of the solids (b) Addition of coagulants
(c) Froth flotation (d) All of the above.
III. True or False
1. The process of delayed coking converts the heavy crude oil fractions of low value waste into solid waste
at elevated temperature.
2. Coke is converted into fuel gas by visbreaking.
3. The process of sweetening involves the removal of mercaptans from the refinery gas streams.
4. The catalyst used in the sweetening process of the refinery gas streams is sodium plumbite.
5. Ceresin is a non-fuel product obtained from the petroleum industry.
6. Asphalt is the major fuel product formed from the petroleum industry refining.
7. The dissolved oil in water can be removed by the use of emulsion breakers only.
8. The dissolved oil in water can be removed by biological treatment only.
9. Ferric hydroxide/aluminium hydroxide can be used to coagulate/flocculate waste water.
10. The dissolved organic compounds in waste water can be removed by biological treatment only.

KEY
II. Fill in the Blanks
1. Sulphitation 8. Desalting
2. Massecuite 9. Bright stock
3. Chlorella and Scendesmus 10. “Resolution oil supercritical extraction” or
4. (i) Basic Oxygen Furnace process ROSE

(ii) Electric Arc Furnace process 11. N-methyl pyrolidine

5. Slabs/beams/billets 12. Lube oil

6. Clariflocculation 13. Platinum metal supported on silica

7. Geotrichium sps 14. Kerosene, jet fuel, diesel and fuel oil

I. Multiple Choice Questions

1. (b) 3. (b) 5. (a) 7. (d) 9. (b)
2. (a) 4. (a) 6. (d) 8. (d) 10. (d)
III. True or False
1. True 3. True 5. True 7. False 9. True
2. False 4. True 6. False 8. True 10. True

SIA Group
M.20 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

Unit - V
I. Fill in the Blanks
1. The hydro cyclones used in waste water treatment are also known as __________.
2. A device used for cutting/shredding large solids in waste water into smaller ones __________.
3. The media bed used in bio filters consist of __________.
4. The floating materials in the flotation tanks are removed with the help of __________.
5. The different types of dissolved air floatation technology used in waste water treatment are
__________ , __________ and ___________.
6. Cactus extract is used in waste water treatment plant as ___________.
II. Multiple Choice
1. Consider the following treatment processes in a waste water treatment plant. [ ]
1. Tertiary treatment
2. Secondary treatment
3. Preliminary treatment
4. Primary treatment
Which is the correct sequence of the process units in the waste water treatment plant?
(a) 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 (b) 3 - 4 - 2 - 1
(c) 4 - 2 - 1 - 3 (d) 2 - 3 - 1 - 4
2. The non-biodegradable, coarse and floating solids in waste water are removed by, [ ]
(a) Preliminary treatment (b) Primary treatment
(c) Secondary treatment (d) Tertiary treatment
3. The first step in an effluent treatment plant is ____________ . [ ]
(a) Communication (b) Pre-aeration of waste water
(c) Separation of oil/grease (d) Screening
4. Consider the following preliminary treatment process units in waste water treatment plant. [ ]
1. Comminution
2. Grit removal
3. Screening
4. Pre-aeration
5. Oil/grease separation
Which is the correct sequence of the process units in the waste water treatment plant.
(a) 4 - 3 - 5 - 2 - 1 (b) 2 - 3 - 5 - 4 - 1
(c) 3 - 2 - 1 - 4 - 5 (d) 1 - 2 - 5 - 4 - 3
5. A grit chamber provided with a parshall flume to maintain the velocity of the water flow is _____ . [ ]
(a) Aerated grit chamber (b) Vortex type grit removal system
(c) Horizontal flow grit system (d) Detritus tank
6. Consider the following features about grit chambers. [ ]
1. Grit chambers help to prevent the abnormal abrasive wear and tear of the mechanical equipment.
2. They help to prevent obstruction of pipes by deposition of grit.
3. To prevent accumulation of grit in the sludge holding tanks and digestion.
4. They help to prevent interference with the subsequent biological treatment.
Which of the above statements with respect to grit chamber is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
7. The vortex type grit removal system is also known as ________ . [ ]
(a) Accelerated gravity separation device (b) Aerated grit chamber
(c) Horizontal flow grit chamber (d) Sedimentation basins

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MID - I & II M.21
8. Consider the following statements. [ ]
1. Chlorination of waste water is done to ward off the offensive odours.
2. Deodorizing waste water is accomplished by carbon adsorption method.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
9. Which one of the following treatment units are capable of removing oil and grease from waste water?
[ ]
(a) Rapid sand filtration (b) Slow sand filtration
(c) Dissolved air flotation technology (d) Use of biofilters
10. One of the following methods does not destroy the pathogens and reduce the moisture content of the
sewage sludge. [ ]
(a) Thermal conditioning of the sludge (b) Incineration
(c) Dewatering (d) Heat drying of sludge
III. True or False
1. Untreated waste water may contain disease-causing microorganisms.
2. The most widely used adsorbent in waste water treatment systems is activated carbon.
3. The paper and pulp industry, as well as textile industry produce dissimilar types of effluents.
4. Detritus tanks are the short term sedimentation basins.
5. Grit chambers enable cutting/shredding of large solids into smaller ones.
6. Ferric chloride is highly efficient in removing impurities from waste water.

KEY

I. Fill in the Blanks

1. Cyclone degritters
2. Comminutor
3. Naturally occurring microorganisms
4. Skimmers
5. (i) Full flow dissolved air floatation
(ii) Partial flow dissolved air floatation
(iii) Recycle dissolved air floatation
6. Deemulsifying agent
II. Multiple Choice
1. (b) 3. (d) 5. (c) 7. (a) 9. (c)
2. (a) 4. (c) 6. (d) 8. (c) 10. (c)
III. True or False
1. True
2. True
3. False
4. True
5. False
6. True

SIA Group
M.22 Waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

Essay questions with key

Unit - I
1. Discuss the significance of process water for various industries. (Refer Unit-I, Q11)
2. List the various disadvantages of hard water used for
(a) Domestic purpose
(b) Industrial uses. (Refer Unit-I, Q14)
3. What is desalination? Discuss the ways of desalination of brackish water. (Refer Unit-I, Q20)
4. What is the need for treatment of boiler water? (Refer Unit-I, Q17)
5. Discuss the quality requirements of process water for textile mills. (Refer Unit-I, Q12)
6. Discuss in detail the internal treatment methods of boiler water. (Refer Unit-I, Q19)
7. Discuss the quality requirements of process water for food processing and brewery industries. (Refer Unit-I, Q13)
8. Mention the boiler troubles caused by the impurities in feed water. (Refer Unit-I, Q16)
9. Discuss in detail the external treatment methods of boiler water. (Refer Unit-I, Q18)
10. Write a short note on the quality requirements for boiler feed water and cooling towers. (Refer Unit-I, Q15)
11. Describe
(a) Once through systems and
(b) Open recirculating systems as a part of cooling water systems. (Refer Unit-I, Q22)

Unit - II
1. Discuss the ways of waste volume reduction as part of industrial waste water management. (Refer Unit-II, Q7)
2. Explain the process of equalization in the industrial waste water treatment. (Refer Unit-II, Q11)
3. Explain the different processes used in the joint treatment of industrial wastes
and domestic sewage. What are the consequent problems of waste disposal? (Refer Unit-II, Q13)
4. Discuss some of the measures needed to control water pollution. (Refer Unit-II, Q22)
5. Discuss the different ways of strength reduction of waste water during its treatment. (Refer Unit-II, Q8)
6. Explain the process of proportioning in the industrial waste water treatment. (Refer Unit-II, Q12)
7. Write about the causes, effects and control measures of industrial wastes. (Refer Unit-II, Q14)
8. What are the various control measures of marine pollution? (Refer Unit-II, Q23)
9. Explain the process of neutralization in industrial waste water treatment. (Refer Unit-II, Q9)
10. What are the toxic metals and different sources of toxic metals in the waste water? (Refer Unit-II, Q15)
11. What are the sources and effects of thermal pollution? (Refer Unit-II, Q24)
12. List out different polluting materials that industrial wastes contain. What are the problems
that arise when the wastes containing these materials are discharged into a stream? (Refer Unit-II, Q27)

Unit - III
1. Write a note on the adsorption process for separation of pollutants in waste water treatment
facilities. (Refer Unit-III, Q15)
2. Explain the microfiltration process in the treatment of waste water. (Refer Unit-III, Q18)
3. What are the different types of wastes released from textile mills? (Refer Unit-III, Q26)
4. Write briefly on the processes involved in pulp and paper making industry. (Refer Unit-III, Q29)
5. What is defluoridation of water? Explain the process involved. (Refer Unit-III, Q16)

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MID - I & II M.23
6. Explain the concept of reverse osmosis process in the treatment of waste water. (Refer Unit-III, Q19)
7. Discuss the characteristics of raw waste water from pulp and paper mill. (Refer Unit-III, Q31)
8. What are the various treatment methods for effluents from paper and pulp industries? (Refer Unit-III, Q32)
9. Explain the ultrafiltration process in the treatment of waste water. (Refer Unit-III, Q17)
10. Write briefly on the processes involved in producing yarn from raw cotton. (Refer Unit-III, Q24)
11. Discuss the various operations in a dairy industry. (Refer Unit-III, Q48)
12. Discuss the various treatment options of dairy waste water. (Refer Unit-III, Q50)

Unit - IV
1. Write a note on the manufacturing processes in sugar mills. (Refer Unit-IV, Q6)
2. Discuss the characteristics of sugar mills effluent. (Refer Unit-IV, Q7)
3. Discuss the manufacturing processes and origin of liquid waste from iron and steel industry. (Refer Unit-IV, Q10)

4. Write a brief note on the sugar industry effluent treatment. (Refer Unit-IV, Q9)
5. Discuss the effluent treatment methods in iron and steel industry. (Refer Unit-IV, Q11)

6. What are the chief characteristics of effluents generated from petrochemical facilities? (Refer Unit-IV, Q13)
7. Discuss the manufacturing processes and origin of liquid waste from oil refineries. (Refer Unit-IV, Q12)
8. Discuss the various treatment options for petroleum refinery effluents. (Refer Unit-IV, Q15)
9. Write a note on the manufacturing processes in sugar mills. (Refer Unit-IV, Q6)
10. What is the impact of sugar factory effluent on the environment? (Refer Unit-IV, Q8)
11. Discuss the different processes involved in the manufacture of pharmaceutical products
in the pharmaceutical industries. (Refer Unit-IV, Q16)
12. Discuss the effluent treatment methods in pharmaceutical industry. (Refer Unit-IV, Q18)

Unit - V
1. Suggest various ways of sludge treatment process. (Refer Unit-V, Q21)
2. Describe the preliminary operation/treatment methodology of CETP. (Refer Unit-V, Q12)
3. Describe the primary treatment methodology of CETP. (Refer Unit-V, Q13)
4. Describe the tertiary treatment methodology of CETP? (Refer Unit-V, Q15)
5. What is the concept of common effluent treatment plants (CETP)? What is the need for
CETP? What are the advantages of CETP ? (Refer Unit-V, Q11)

6. Briefly explain the methods of heating and disposal of solid waste`. (Refer Unit-V, Q22)
7. Describe the secondary treatment methodology of CETP. (Refer Unit-V, Q14)
8. Write about the causes, effects and control measures of industrial wastes. (Refer Unit-V, Q16)
9. Describe the preliminary operation/treatment methodology of CETP. (Refer Unit-V, Q12)
10. Explain the different methods used for landfilling of solid waste. (Refer Unit-V, Q23)
11. Describe the primary treatment methodology of CETP. (Refer Unit-V, Q13)
12. Describe the secondary treatment methodology of CETP. (Refer Unit-V, Q14)

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Unit-1 (Quality Requirements of Boiler and Cooling Waters) 1 .1

Marketed by:

Unit quality requirements of

1
boiler and cooling waters
SIA GROUP

Part-A
Short Questions with Solutions
Q1. What are the causes of hardness in water?
Answer :
Hardness in water is due to,
(a) The presence of dissolved bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals.
(b) The presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals.
Q2. Write short notes on impurities in water.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(a)

The natural water usually contains three types of impurities. They are as follows.
1. Physical Impurities
The physical impurities in water include the suspended and colloidal impurities, such as sand, clay, lime, silt, decayed
living matter of plant or animal origin, waste products, complex proteins, etc.
2. Chemical Impurities
The chemical impurities in water include the dissolved salts and gases. The dissolved salts are the chlorides, sulphates,
carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium, sodium, manganese and iron. The dissolved gases include oxygen,
carbon-dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, all of which make the water hard, acidic or alkaline and corrosive.
3. Bacteriological Impurities
The bacteriological impurities in water include pathogenic or disease producing micro-organisms like the coliaerogenous
or coliform group of bacteria, making the water unfit for human consumption.
Q3. Name the methods of water softening.
Answer :
The methods employed for water softening are,
(a) Lime-soda process
(b) Zeolite process (Permutit process / Base-exchange process)
(c) Ion-exchange process (Demineralization/ Deionization process).
Q4. What is desalination?
Answer :
The term desalination refers to the removal of dissolved salts of sodium chloride, potassium chloride from water for
domestic/ industrial use.
Q5. What is meant by caustic embrittlement?
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(b)

Caustic embrittlement is a type of corrosion of the boiler due to the presence of alkali metal carbonates and bicarbonates
in the boiler feed water.

SIA Group
1.2 waste Management [JNTU-hyderabad]
In the lime-soda process, the residual Na2CO3 present in the softened water decomposes to produce sodium hydroxide
(caustic soda) and carbondioxide.
Na2CO3 + H2O → 2NaOH + CO2
Sodium Sodium
carbonate hydroxide
This decomposition makes the boiler water “caustic”. The caustic water in the boiler enters the minute hair-cracks in the
inner side of the boiler. As the water evaporates, the iron present in the boiler dissolves to form sodium ferrate (Na2FeO2) and
NaOH deposits in the cracks, resulting in the embrittlement of boiler parts (such as bends, rivets, joints, etc).
Q6. Write a short note on zeolites.
Answer :
Zeolites are microporous, crystalline solids of hydrated sodium alumino silicate minerals with molecular formula Na2O
Al2O3, x SiO2 . y H2O, where x = 2 to 10 and y = 2 to 6. Such complex compounds are also referred as ion-exchange resins.
The pores and cavities are arranged in a regular array, with large internal surface area to enable adsorption of large amount of
substances.
Q7. Name the different types of phosphates used in the phosphate conditioning of boiler feedwater.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(a)

The various forms of phosphates used in the phosphate conditioning of feedwater are,
(a) Alkaline trisodium phosphate - Na3PO4 for acidic waters
(b) Disodium hydrogen phosphate - Na2HPO4 for neutral waters
(c) Sodium dihydrogen phosphate - NaH2PO4 for alkaline waters
(d) Sodium pyrophosphate - Na4P2O7 for alkaline waters
(e) Sodium metaphosphate - NaPO3 for alkaline waters.
Q8. What is meant by hard water? Explain.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(a)
Water that does not produce lather with soap readily, but forms white scum or precipitate in the form of insoluble salts of
calcium and magnesium, is referred as hard water.
Soap is the sodium or potassium salt of higher fatty acids (namely, stearic acid, oleic acid and palmitic acid).
When hard water is treated with soap, the calcium or magnesium salts present in hard water precipitate as calcium stearate/
magnesium stearate.
2C17 H35 COONa + CaCl2 (C17 H35 COO)2Ca ↓ + 2NaCl
Sodium Calcium Calcium Sodium
Sodium stearatechloride
sterate Calcium stearate chloride
sterate
(soap) (insoluble)
(insoluble)

Soap Magnesium Magnesium

sulphate sterate
(insoluble)
Calcium stearate and magnesium stearate formed in the above reactions are insoluble in water, hence precipitation occurs.
Lather is not formed unless the calcium and magnesium ions are completely removed, therefore a lot of soap is wasted.
On the other hand, soft water produces lather with soap readily, as it has no dissolved calcium and magnesium salts.
Q9. Discuss the different types of hardness in water.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(b)

Water hardness is of two types. They are,

(a) Temporary Hardness or Carbonate Hardness
Temporary hardness of water is due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium and other heavy
metals. This type of hardness can be removed by,

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Unit-1 (Quality Requirements of Boiler and Cooling Waters) 1 .3
(i) Boiling the Water
Boiling converts the soluble bicarbonates into insoluble carbonates which deposit as crust at the bottom of the vessel.

Magnesium Magnesium Carbondioxide

bicarbonate hydroxide

Calcium Calcium
bicarbonate carbonate

(ii) Addition of Lime to Water

The soluble carbonates in water are converted to insoluble carbonates by the addition of lime.

Calcium Calcium Calcium

carbonate hydroxide carbonate

Magnesium Calcium Magnesium Calcium

bicarbonate hydroxide carbonate carbonate
(b) Permanent Hardness or Non-carbonate Hardness
Permanent hardness is due to the presence of chlorides and sulphates of calcium, magnesium and other heavy metals.
The permanent hardness of water cannot be removed by boiling or adding lime to water. It is removed through special methods,
such as permutit process (also called as zeolite process), using calgon or washing soda.
Q10. What are the disadvantages of scale formation in the boilers?
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(b)

Scales are hard, sticky deposits formed on the inner walls of the boiler.
Causes of Scale Formation
The causes of scale formation are,
(a) Decomposition of calcium bicarbonate
(b) Deposition of calcium sulphate
(c) Hydrolysis of magnesium salts
(d) Presence of silica in the boiler feed water
The disadvantages of scale formation in the boilers are,
Disadvantages of Scale Formation in the Boilers
(a) Fuel Wastage
Scales are poor conductors of heat and behave like an insulating material extending along the surface of metal. As a result,
the rate of heat transfer (from boiler to water) decreases abruptly, as there is no direct contact between water and heating plates.
To avoid such condition, proper supply of heat to water is accomplished by overheating the boiler leading to the wastage of fuel.
(b) Reduction in Boiler Safety
The scales formed on boiler tubes or other heated surface make the metal to get overheated and may cause burning of
metal plates, tubes, etc. Thus, at high pressures, the expanded joints break, resulting in the deterioration of the boiler.
(c) Decrease in Efficiency
Scales deposited in the valves and condensers of the boiler decrease the efficiency of the boiler.
(d) Danger of Explosion
The metal parts of the boiler may get overheated to redness and expand. The scales formed in the boiler form cracks. When
cold water passing through the cracks, comes in contact with the overheated metal parts, it is suddenly converted to steam. The
formation of a large quantity of steam in the boiler results in high pressure inside the boiler, causing the boiler to explode.

SIA Group
1.4 waste Management [JNTU-hyderabad]

Part-b
eSSAY Questions with Solutions
1.1 quality requirements of process water for textiles industry
Q11. Discuss the significance of process water for various industries.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q2(a)
Water is used in intensive processes in industries. The water quality requirements for various industries must be strictly
followed in order to get the desired characteristics of the product.
In the textile industries, water is used in preparation of fabric (involving scouring, bleaching, mercerizing), colouration
with speciality chemicals and finishing chemicals, as well as the finishing processes of the fabric. The water used in various
processes should have the following requirements.
(a) Transparency
(b) Presence of only trace amounts of iron and manganese
(c) Presence of small amount of oxygen
(d) pH near to neutral.
The ideal water quality parameters in textile mills are indicated as follows,
Characteristic Tolerance
Colour 5-20 Hazen units
Turbidity 5 silica scale
pH 6-7.5
Total Hardness 50 ppm
Iron 0.25 ppm
Manganese 0.10 ppm
The hardness in water causes deposition of curds on the textiles. The presence of iron, calcium, magnesium salts, nitrates
and nitrites cause dyeing and finishing problems on the fabric.
In the food industry, water is used to produce/ wash vegetables, fruits, fish, and poultry, clean and refresh raw vegetables,
disinfection and heating processes. The microbial contamination of water is unacceptable in food industry as it may result in
significant financial impact, especially through product recall. The water used in food industries should have low concentration
of magnesium, because a slight increase in the concentration of magnesium in water imparts bitterness to the taste of food. The
concentration of iron especially should be less than 0.1 mg/l, absence of magnesium and low concentration of nitrates in water
is preferred for use in canning industries for preservation of vegetables and meat.
In brewery industry, the impurities in water, the dissolved oxygen and carbondioxide can corrode the internal parts of the
equipment, such as pipes, heat exchangers, pumps, screens, control equipment, jets, sprays, cans and many more. The number of
microorganisms in water is enhanced by the nutrients in water which cause odour formation, plugging of spray nozzles, fouling
of sump screen, and decreased efficiency of operation.
Since water is used as a medium for various industrial processes, it has to be fit for use and should satisfy the quality
requirements.
Q12. Discuss the quality requirements of process water for textile mills.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q2(a)
A number of creditable studies reveal that the textile mills in India use large amount of water, to the tune of 1.6 million
litres to produce 8,000 kg of cloth per day. The different processes in textile mills which consume water include the following,
- Bleaching
- Dyeing
- Mercerising
- Printing
- Spinning
- Weaving
- Finishing
- Air conditioning (humidification and dust removal) and
- In Boilers.

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Unit-1 (Quality Requirements of Boiler and Cooling Waters)
Since the textile mills use large amount of water, the
water should be devoid of impurities like iron, calcium and
magnesium salts, as they may create problems in dyeing and
finishing. Generally, the water is treated by using simple sodium
ion-exchangers to get the desirable water quality.
The recommended water quality for textile mills,
according to the BIS [IS201 - 1964] is tabulated below.
Characteristic Tolerance
Colour 5-20 Hazen units
Turbidity 5 silica scale
pH 6-7.5
Total Hardness 50 ppm
Iron 0.25 ppm
Manganese 0.10 ppm
Quality of Boiler Feed Water
The impurities in boiler feed water can result in scale
formation (precipitation of limestone on the boiler heat area)
and/or corrosion, which inturn, causes overheating of water
tubes. This phenomenon may even result in total breakdown
of the steam generation system.
The poor water quality may result in,
- Shortening of the lifespan of boiler
- Increased use of acid for cleaning the interiors of the
boiler.
Treatment of Boiler Feed Water
The boiler feed water used in textile mills are treated as
follows,
(i) Thermal deaerators, vacuum deaerators, carbondioxide
degassers, and membrane degassers are used to remove
the dissolved gases (CO2 and O2) from feed water. The
dissolved gases in water may cause corrosion of various
components.
(ii) The level of suspended and total dissolved solids must
be brought down to a minimum to reduce energy loss.
(iii) Dealkalizers are used to reduce the hardness and the
content of bicarbonate in water, thus the salt content of
water is reduced significantly.
1.2 quality requirements of process
water for food processing and
brewery industries
Q13. Discuss the quality requirements of process
water for food processing and brewery industries.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q3(a)
The food processing and brewery industries use water
extensively for various operations such as hydraulic conveying,
heating, cooling, rinsing, dissolving, dispersing, blanketing,
diluting, separating, cleaning, sanitation and boiler feed water
steam generation. Hence adequate supply of potable water must
be made available for such activities.
1 .5
Water Quality in Food Processing and Breweries
The purity of potable water is essential in food processing
and breweries for the following reasons,
(i) The hardness in water can result in scale formation
(precipitation of limestone on the boiler heat area) on
the surface of the equipment, which in turn, reduces the
efficiency of heat exchange.
(ii) The minerals in water may reduce the ability of water
to dissolve and disperse the food ingredients.
(iii) Water should be clear, colourless, tasteless and odourless
because the quality of water affects the texture, shelf
stability, appearance, aroma and flavour of food.
(iv) The total dissolved solids (TDS) in water may increase
the electrical conductivity.
(v) The dissolved gases (such as oxygen) in water cause
corrosive reactions due to its high oxidation potential.
(vi) The increased concentration of nutrients and organic
matter in water cause microbial growth on the surface
of the equipment.
The quality of the boiler feed water has to meet the
required standards. Therefore, a number of water treatment
processes are carried out. These include the following,
- Chemical treatment
- Sand bed filtration
- Chlorination
- Carbon treatment (to remove ozone, chlorine, organic
contaminants)
- Ultrafiltration
- Reverse osmosis
- Deionization
- Ozonation
- Ultraviolet light exposure, and
- Sterile filtration.
1.3 BOILER AND COOLING WATER
TREATMENT METHODS
Q14. List the various disadvantages of hard water
used for
(a) Domestic purpose
(b) Industrial uses.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q2(b)
(a) Hard Water for Domestic Purpose
The disadvantages of using hard water for domestic
purpose are,
(i) Washing
When hard water is used for washing clothes, it does
not produce lather with soap, but forms a white scum or
precipitate. Lather is not formed unless the calcium and
magnesium ions are completely removed, therefore, a
lot of soap is used up.
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1.6
The iron salts present in hard water cause staining or yel-
lowing of the fabric. The white scum or sticky precipitate
of calcium stearate/magnesium stearate leaves a messy
scum on the fabric that cannot be washed easily.
(ii) Bathing
Hard water used for bathing, leaves a sticky scum on the
skin, reduces the cleansing property of soap, resulting
in wastage of soap.
(iii) Cooking
Hard water when used for cooking, raises the boiling
point of water, leading to wastage of fuel. Tea and coffee
prepared in hard water give an unpleasant taste. Hard
water forms scales at the bottom of the cooking utensils.
(iv) Drinking
Drinking hard water impairs the digestive system. It can
cause loss of appetite and constipation. Consumption of
hard water can lead to the formation of calcium oxalate
crystals in the urinary system. Therefore, the drinking
water should be soft, odourless, colourless, with neutral
pH, pleasing taste and free of pathogens.
(b) Hard Water for Industrial Use
The disadvantages of using hard water for various
industries are,
(i) Textile Industry
Hard water does not produce lather with soap unless the
calcium and magnesium ions are completely removed.
Therefore, a lot of soap is used up in washing yarn,
fabric, etc. The precipitates of calcium and magnesium
salts adhere to the fabrics. The iron salts in water cause
yellowing/staining of the fabric.
(ii) Sugar Industry
Usage of water containing sulphates, nitrates, alkali
carbonates etc., in sugar refining affects the crystallization
property of sugar and reducing its yield. Moreover, the
sugar thus produced may be deliquescent.
(iii) Dyeing Industry
Calcium, magnesium and iron salts dissolved in hard
water reacts with costly dyes, forming undesirable
precipitates. The precipitates form spots on the fabric
and give poor quality of shades.
(iv) Paper Industry
Salts present in hard water react with chemicals that are
used to smoothen the paper and make it appear glossy.
It also affects the colour quality of the paper.
(v) Laundry
Use of hard water in laundry consumes large amount of
soap. Iron salts present in hard water causes staining/
yellowing of the clothes.
(vi) Concrete Making
The hydration of the cement and the final strength of
the hardened concrete is affected by the presence of
chlorides and sulphates in hard water.
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(vii) Pharmaceutical Industry
Demineralized industrial water and sterilized soft water
of neutral pH is required to prepare aqueous forms of
injections, drugs, ointments etc. Use of hard water to
produce such products may result in the formation of
undesirable products in them.
(viii) Dairy Industry
Water is a major component in dairy processing. Use
of hard water in dairy industry can result in scaling in
boilers and cooling towers. The magnesium content in
the water should be low, as it can affect the taste of butter.
Presence of pathogenic organisms reduces the quality
of the dairy products.
(ix) Brewery Industry
Water used in brewing industry must be of high quality
as improperly treated water can affect the taste, bitterness,
foamability and colour of the beer significantly.
(x) Food Processing Industry
The calcium and magnesium content in water should
be low, as it can affect the taste of a product. The
presence of alkalinity in water neutralizes the fruit acids
and changes the taste.
(xi) Boilers
When hard water is used in boilers for steam generation,
it forms scales on the walls of the boilers. Other effects
of usage of hard water in boilers are sludge formation,
priming, foaming and caustic embrittlement.
Since, water is used as a medium for various domestic
and industrial processes, it has to be fit for use and should
satisfy the quality requirements.
Q15. Write a short note on the quality requirements
for boiler feed water and cooling towers.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q2(b)
The quality of water for steam generation in boilers and
cooling towers should have the following characteristics.
(i) Zero hardness (free from dissolved salts) to prevent the
formation of scales.
(ii) Absence of suspended impurities.
(iii) Absence of dissolved gases (such as O2 and CO2) to
prevent corrosion of the boiler.
(iv) Free from turbidity, lubricants such as oil and greases,
to reduce the tendency for priming and foaming.
(v) Absence of caustic alkali to prevent caustic embrittlement.
Q16. Mention the boiler troubles caused by the
impurities in feed water.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q3(b)
Hard water can harm the boiler and lead to boiler
troubles. They include,
1. Scale and Sludge Formation
Scales are hard, sticky deposits formed on the inner walls
of the boiler. Sludge is the loose precipitate of MgCO3,
MgCl2, CaCl2, or MgSO4, formed in the colder regions
of the boiler. The scale and sludge are good insulators
of heat. They can cause overheating at localized areas
leading to serious damage to the boilers.
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Unit-1 (Quality Requirements of Boiler and Cooling Waters)
2. Caustic Embrittlement
Caustic embrittlement is a type of corrosion of the
boiler due to the presence of alkali metal carbonates and
bicarbonates in the boiler feed water. In the lime-soda
process, the residual Na2CO3 present in the softened
water decomposes to produce sodium hydroxide (caustic
soda) and carbondioxide.
Na2CO3 + H2O 2NaOH + CO2
Sodium Sodium
carbonate hydroxide
This decomposition makes the boiler water “caustic”.
The caustic water in the boiler enters the minute
hair-cracks in the inner side of the boiler. As the water
evaporates, the iron present in the boiler dissolves to
form sodium ferrate (Na2FeO2) and NaOH deposits in
the cracks, resulting in the embrittlement of boiler parts
(such as bends, rivets, joints, etc.).
3. Corrosion
Boiler corrosion refers to the disintegration of boiler
materials due to the following reasons,
(a) Formation of insoluble product due to hydrolysis
of either salts or fatty oils.
(b) Presence of dissolved gases like O2 and CO2.
(c) Galvanic cell formation.
These factors can result in component failure,
produce metal oxide contamination and deposit
in other parts of the boiler, which may lead to
premature damage or failure.
4. Priming and Foaming
Priming refers to the formation of wet steam in a boiler
due to,
(a) Rapid boiling of feed water
(b) Presence of large quantity of alkali sulphates and
chlorides in water.
Foaming refers to the formation of foam or bubbles in
the boilers due to the presence of fatty oils, greases,
emulsions and the other impurities.
5. Carryover
The term carryover in boilers refers to picking up and
carrying of impurities in water particles along with
steam. The carryover results in,
- Decreased purity of steam
- Damage to super heaters, steam turbines, or
downstream process equipment.
Q17 What is the need for treatment of boiler water?
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q3(b)
Proper treatment of boiler water is essential for the
following reasons,
(i) To increase the performance of boiler
(ii) To increase the energy efficiency
(iii) To maintain production capability
(iv) To reduce the operating costs
1 .7
(v) To increase the operational life of the device
(vi) To reduce the deposition of impurities and
corrosion products.
The boiler feed water is treated in two stages.
(a) External Treatment of Boiler Water
It involves treatment of water before it is fed into the
boiler in the following ways,
(i) Water softening to remove scale forming salts
(ii) Removal of silica
(iii) Removal of suspended matter by sedimentation,
coagulation, settling and filtration
(iv) Removal of dissolved gases such as oxygen and
carbondioxide
(v) Removal of oil.
(b) Internal Treatment of Boiler Water
It involves treatment of water inside the boiler by,
(i) Carbonate conditioning
(ii) Phosphate conditioning
(iii) Calgon conditioning
(iv) Colloidal conditioning
(v) Treatment with sodium aluminate
(vi) Radioactive conditioning
(vii) Electrical conditioning
(viii) EDTA conditioning.
Q18. Discuss in detail the external treatment
methods of boiler water.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q2(a)
The external treatment methods of boiler water involves,
1. Water Softening
Water softening is an important process to remove the
dissolved solids, which are responsible for hardness of water.
The methods employed for water softening include,
(a) Lime-soda process
(b) Zeolite process (Permutit process/Base-exchange
process)
(c) Ion-exchange process (Demineralization/
Deionization process).
(a) Lime-soda Process
Principle
The soluble calcium and magnesium salts in hard water
are removed by adding lime [calcium hydroxide (CaOH)2] and
soda [sodium carbonate (Na2CO3)] to the water. The soluble
salts are converted to insoluble compounds of CaCO3, Mg(OH)2
precipitates, that can be separated by filtration.
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1.8 waste Management [JNTU-hyderabad]
Lime is used in the following chemical reactions,
(i) Removal of temporary hardness.

Calcium Lime Calcium

bicarbonate carbonate

Magnesium Lime Calcium Magnesium

bicarbonate carbonate hydroxide
(ii) Reaction to remove permanent magnesium hardness.

Magnesium Calcium Magnesium Calcium

chlroide hydroxide hydroxide chloride

Magnesium Calcium Magnesium Calcium

sulphate hydroxide hydroxide sulphate
(iii) Reaction to remove dissolved iron and aluminium salts.

Ferrous Lime Ferrous Calcium

sulphate hydroxide sulphate

Aluminium Lime Aluminium Calcium

sulphate hydroxide sulphate
(iv) Reaction to remove free mineral acids.

Hydrochloric Lime Calcium

acid chloride

Sulphuric Lime Calcium

acid sulphate
(v) Reaction to remove dissolved CO2 and H2S.

Carbon Lime Calcium

dioxide carbonate

Hydrogen Lime Calcium

sulfide sulfide
Soda (Na2CO3) is used in the water-softening process to remove permanent calcium hardness in water. The reactions
involved are as follows,

Calcium Soda Calcium Sodium

chloride carbonate chloride

Calcium Soda Calcium Sodium

sulphate carbonate sulphate

Magnesium Soda Magnesium Sodium

chloride carbonate chloride

Magnesium Soda Magnesium Sodium

sulphate carbonate sulphate

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Unit-1 (Quality Requirements of Boiler and Cooling Waters) 1 .9
The lime-soda process can be carried out at room temperature (called as cold lime-soda process) or at high temperatures
of 90ºC to 100ºC (called as hot lime-soda process).
Cold Lime-soda Process
The process involves mixing of lime and soda with water as well as a small amount of coagulant (alum, aluminium
sulphate, ferrous sulphate, or sodium aluminate). The fine divided precipitate particles are entrapped because of the coagulant.
Silica and oil are also removed.
Apparatus
The apparatus for cold lime-soda softener consists of the following.
(i) Outer Vertical Circular Chamber
The outer vertical circular chamber contains a filtering media (made up of wood fibers) to remove the sludge completely.
(ii) Inner vertical circular chamber
(iii) Stirrer Paddles
Stirrer paddles are present in the inner vertical chamber for stirring the contents.
(iv) Inlets
The inner chamber is fitted with two inlets; one for feeding the chemicals (soda + lime + coagulant) and the other for
feeding raw water into the inner chamber.
(v) Outlets
Two outlets are present in the apparatus; one at the bottom to remove the sludge in the form of an insoluble precipitate,
the other outlet is at the top to allow the filtered softened water to flow out. The figure given below is a diagrammatic
representation of a cold lime-soda softener.

Figure: Cold Lime-soda Softener

Procedure
The inner vertical chamber is fed with a calculated amount of lime, soda and a coagulant along with raw water through
the inlet pipes. The stirrer paddles enable stirring and continuous mixing of the components of the inner chamber. The insoluble
precipitate (sludge) formed, following the chemical reactions, settles down to the bottom of the apparatus which can be removed
from time to time through the outlet at the bottom of the vessel. The softened water passes through the filtering media of the outer
chamber to remove the sludge completely. The filtered softened water flows out through the outlet pipe of the outer chamber.

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1.10 waste Management [JNTU-hyderabad]
Hot Lime-soda Process
Apparatus
The apparatus for hot lime-soda softener has the following components.
(i) Reaction tank
(ii) A conical sedimentation tank
(iii) Sand filter
(iv) Inlets
The apparatus has three inlets,
v Raw water feed inlet
v Chemicals inlet
v Superheated steam inlet.
(v) Outlets
The apparatus has two outlets,
v One outlet of softened water
v The other outlet for removal of precipitated sludge.
The figure given below is a diagrammatic representation of hot lime-soda softener.

Figure: Hot Lime-soda Softener

Procedure
The reaction tank is fed with raw water and mixed with a calculated amount of lime, soda and coagulants. Super heated
steam is allowed through an inlet in reaction tank to heat the mixture to form softened water. The softened water and sludge
formed in the reaction tank pass into a conical sedimentation vessel. The insoluble precipitate in the form of sludge settles down
at the bottom which can be removed from time to time. The softened water is made to pass through another chamber containing
layers of sand filter (called as sludge blanket) to remove the sludge completely. The filtered softened water flows out through the
outlet pipe.
(b) Zeolite Process (Permutit Process/Base-exchange Process)
Zeolites are microporous, crystalline solids of hydrated sodium alumino silicate minerals with molecular formula Na2O.
Al2O3. x SiO2.y H2O, where x = 2 to 10 and y = 2 to 6. Such complex compounds are also referred as ‘Ion exchange resins’.
The pores and cavities are arranged in a regular array, with large internal surface area to enable adsorption of large amount of
substances.
Types of Zeolites
(i) Natural zeolites Egs: Natrolite, Laumontite
(ii) Synthetic zeolites Eg: Permutit.
The pores of the zeolites have alkali-metal cations that can be replaced by other type of metal. When sodium zeolite-A
is placed in hard water, the calcium ions present in hard water are trapped in the zeolite pores. The sodium ions leave the pores
due to displacement by calcium ions, and make the water soft.

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Unit-1 (Quality Requirements of Boiler and Cooling Waters) 1 .11

Hard water Zeolite with Zeolite with Soft water

containing sodium ions in calcium ions in containing
calcium ions the pores the pores sodium ions

Figure: Zeolite Process

Procedure
The apparatus for zeolite process of water softening consists of a cylindrical tank containing a bed of zeolite. Hard water
containing calcium ions (Ca2+) and magnesium ions (Mg2+) is introduced into the tank through an inlet pipe. The hardness causing
ions of Ca2+ and Mg2+ are trapped/adsorbed by the zeolite as calcium zeolite or magnesium zeolite, while the sodium ions are
displaced into the water making it soft. The reactions involved are,

Sodium Calcium Calcium Sodium

zeolite bicarbonate zeolite bicarbonate

Sodium Magnesium Magnesium Sodium

zeolite bicarbonate zeolite bicarbonate

Sodium Calcium Calcium Sodium

zeolite chloride zeolite chloride

Sodium Magnesium Magnesium Sodium

zeolite chloride zeolite chloride

Sodium Calcium Calcium Sodium

zeolite sulphate zeolite sulpahte

Sodium Magnesium Magnesium Sodium

zeolite sulphate zeolite sulphate

Figure: Zeolite Softener

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1.12 waste Management [JNTU-hyderabad]
The figure given above, is a diagrammatic representation of a zeolite softener. When the zeolite is saturated i.e., when
all the sodium ions have been used up and replaced by calcium and magnesium ions, it is regenerated by treatment with
concentrated brine (10% NaCl) solution. The sodium salt of zeolite is formed, while the calcium and magnesium ions are
forced out of the zeolite. Sodium thus formed, can be reused for softening the hard water.
Regeneration Reaction

Calcium Brine Calcium Sodium

zeolite solution chloride zeolite

Magnesium Sodium Sodium Magnesium

zeolite chloride zeolite chloride
(c) Ion-exchange Process (Demineralization/Deionization Process)
The process involves the use of ion-exchange resins, such as polystyrene-divinylbenzene (PS-DVB) or polymethacrylic
acid-divinylbenzene or phenol-formaldehyde polymer. The ion-exchange resins are of two types, based on the functional group,
(i) Cation-exchange resins
(ii) Anion-exchange resins.
The functional groups of cation-exchange resins are the acidic groups such as sulphonic acid (SO 3− H + ) or carboxyl
(– COO– H+) to replace H+ ions for other cations in the water (such as Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+). The cation-exchange resins are represented
as RH, where R represents the resin network.

Following the treatment of water with cation-exchange resin, the liberated H+ ions in water will associate with anions in
water, resulting in the formation of acidic water.
The acidic water is neutralized or treated with anion-exchange resin to remove the anions (such as Cl–, SO 24 − , HCO 3− )
and release the OH– ions.

The H+ ions and OH– ions formed from cation and anion exchange resins combine to form water.

Water, thus formed is called demineralized/deionized water, which is free from cations and anions.
Apparatus
The apparatus for demineralization of hardwater by ion exchangers consists of two cylindrical tanks, both interconnected
with a pipe. One of the tanks contains cation exchange bed, while the other tank has anion exchange bed. The hard water (raw
water) is allowed to pass through the inlet pipe to cation exchange bed. The figure given below, is a diagrammatic representation
of ion-exchange process.

Figure: Water Softening by Ion-exchange Process

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Unit-1 (Quality Requirements of Boiler and Cooling Waters) 1 .13
The following chemical reactions occur,

The treated water is passed through anion exchange resin tank. The following chemical reactions occur,

The H+ ions formed from cation exchanger treatment and OH– ions from anion exchanger treatment combine to form
water.

When the cation exchange bed and anion exchange bed is saturated, the regeneration becomes necessary. The saturated
cation exchange bed is regenerated by passing dilute hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid solution (2% HCl or H2SO4).

The saturated anion exchange bed is regenerated by passing dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
Regeneration Reaction

2. Removal of Silica
The presence of silica in the boiler water can result in the formation of silicate scales of calcium silicate and sodium
aluminium silicate. Silica in boiler water can be removed by,
(i) Pretreatment with MgO or dolomitic lime
(ii) Addition of Fe2 (SO4)3 and NaOH

(iii) Conversion of SiO2 to Si F63− and its subsequent removal by anion exchangers.
3. Removal of Suspended Matter
The suspended matter in the boiler water can be removed by,
(i) Sedimentation
The large suspended solids in boiler water can be removed by sedimentation in settling tanks.
(ii) Clarification
This method is used to remove coarse, dispersed, suspended solids and colloidal impurities from feed water. The
clarification of feed water is done using clarifiers with the help of coagulants and flocculants.
(iii) Filtration
The remaining suspended solids are removed by passing water through filter bed of porous material.
4. Removal of Dissolved Gases
The presence of dissolved oxygen and carbondioxide cause pitting and corrosion of boiler material. Therefore, they need
to be removed from the boiler feed water.

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1.14 waste Management [JNTU-hyderabad]

The dissolved oxygen in the feed water can be removed by using oxygen scavengers in the form of sodium sulphite and
hydrazine. Sodium sulphite is an unstable chemical, which when combined with oxygen forms a stable chemical, sodium sulphate.

Sodium sulphate is removed from the boiler by blowdown. Blowdown refers to forced ejection of solids of suspensions
from the boiler at regular intervals.
Oxygen can be scavenged from boiler feed water using hydrazine. The chemical reaction involved is,

Some more examples of oxygen scavengers include tannins, hydroquinone/pyrogallol based derivatives, hydroxylamine
derivatives, ascorbic acid derivatives, etc.
Alternately, the dissolved gases (such as CO2, O2 and N2) can be effectively removed from the boiler feed water by the
process of mechanical deaeration.
Deaeration
The dissolved oxygen from the boiler feed water is removed by the process of deaeration using mechanical deaerators. In
this process, the boiler feed water is sprayed on to perforated plate fitted tower, under low pressure. The sides of the tower are
heated by passing steam inside the steam jackets. Under these conditions (i.e., high temperature, low pressure and large surface
area) the dissolved oxygen is released into the steam, which is removed from the equipment by venting. The figure given below,
is a diagrammatic representation of a mechanical deaerator.

Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Mechanical Deaerator

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Unit-1 (Quality Requirements of Boiler and Cooling Waters) 1 .15
5. Removal of Oil
The boiler feed water must be free of oil to prevent the formation of heat insulating oil film in the boiler tubes.
Apparatus
The apparatus for removing oil from the feed water consists of the following,
(i) A circular mixing tank with two inlets and one outlet. One inlet for passing raw water into the tank, and another inlet for
passing a mixture of alum and soda ash. The outlet is meant to collect water removed of oil.
(ii) Agitator
An agitator is suspended from the top portion of the tank for constant stirring of its contents. The figure given below, is
a diagrammatic representation to show the arrangement for removing oil from feed water.

Figure: Diagrammatic Representation for Oil Removal from Feed Water

Procedure
The mixture of alum and soda react with oil in raw water to form a floc. The mixture is made to pass through the graded
anthrafilt bed. The floc adheres to the filter bed and the oil-free water is passed out through the outlet. The anthrafilt bed is cleaned
by treating with hot sodium hydroxide solution which dissolves the floc. The cleaned filter can be reused again.
The other methods used to remove oil in water are filtration, settling, coagulation, cataphoresis, etc.
Q19. Discuss in detail the internal treatment methods of boiler water.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q2(b)

Internal Treatment of Boiler Water

The undesirable components present in water after external treatment are removed by internal treatment of boiler water
in the following ways.
(a) Carbonate Conditioning
In this method, sodium carbonate or sodium phosphate is added to boiler water to facilitate the formation of calcium
carbonate or calcium phosphate.

Calcium Sodium Calcium carbonate Sodium

sulphate carbonate (loose precipitate) sulphate
(insoluble)

The scale-forming impurities precipitate in the form of loose sludge, that can be easily removed by the blow-down
operation. Blow-down operation is a method in which loose sludge is eliminated from the apparatus by compressing air under
high pressure.
(b) Phosphate Conditioning
The formation of scales in high pressure boilers can be prevented by the addition of sodium phosphate to the boiler
feedwater. Phosphate reacts with Ca2+ and Mg2+ salts in alkaline medium (pH 10.0 – 11.5) to form insoluble compound of calcium
and magnesium salts as easily removable soft sludge, which is to be removed periodically from the boiler.
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1.16 waste Management [JNTU-hyderabad]
The various forms of phosphates used in this process are,
(i) Alkaline trisodium phosphate - Na3PO4 - for acidic waters
(ii) Disodium hydrogen phosphate - Na2HPO4 - for neutral waters
(iii) Sodium dihydrogen phosphate - NaH2PO4 - for alkaline waters
(iv) Sodium pyrophosphate - Na4P2O7 - for alkaline waters
(v) Sodium metaphosphate NaPO3 - for alkaline waters.
(c) Calgon Conditioning
In this method, calgon, a commercial name for (NaPO3)6 sodium hexametaphosphate, is added to the boiler feed water to
form a highly soluble, complex salt of sodium calcium phosphate anion, which can be removed during blowdown operations.

Calcium Sodium
sulphate sulphate

Since calcium and magnesium ions are not precipitated, no scale or sludge is formed.
(d) Colloidal Conditioning
Scale formation in the boiler can be prevented by the addition of colloidal conditioning agents such as starch, tannin,
agar, seaweed extracts or kerosene. These substances form a slippery coating over the scale-forming particles to yield a loose
and non-sticky sludge which can be removed during blow-down operations.
(e) Treatment with Sodium Aluminate
In this process, the boiler feed water is treated with sodium aluminate (NaAlO2). It undergoes hydrolysis to produce sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and aluminium hydroxide [Al(OH)3] - a gelatinous precipitate.

Sodium Sodium
aluminate hydroxide

Magneisum Sodium Sodium

chloride hydroxide chloride

The precipitates of aluminium and magnesium hydroxides trap the finely suspended and colloidal impurities such as silica
particles and oil droplets. These are then removed during blow-down operations.
(f) Radioactive Conditioning
Radioactive substances in the form of tablets are added to the boiler feed water. The radiation energy given off by radioactive
substances prevent scale formation.
(g) Electrical Conditioning
In this method, mercury placed in sealed glass tubes and connected to a battery, rotates in the boiler. The electrical
discharges emitted from the mercury bulb prevents scale formation.
(h) EDTA Conditioning
In this method, 1.5% alkaline solution of ethylenediaminetetracetic acid (EDTA) is added to the boiler water to prevent
the scale and sludge formation.
EDTA binds to the scale-forming cations (Ca2 +, Mg2 + ions) to form stable and soluble complex salts. Therefore, calcium
and magnesium ions do not precipitate on boiler tube walls.
Complexing agents e.g 6% solution of versene or polyaminoacid, P-amino sulfonic acid or 1.5% alkaline solution of
Trylon-B, prevent the scale formation inside the boiler.

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Unit-1 (Quality Requirements of Boiler and Cooling Waters) 1 .17
Q20. What is desalination? Discuss the ways of desalination of brackish water.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q3(a)
Desalination
The term desalination refers to the removal of dissolved salts of sodium chloride, potassium chloride from water for
domestic/industrial use.
Types of Water
Based on the salinity, water can be categorized into three types,
Fresh Water
The salinity levels in fresh water is less than 1000 mg/L.
Brackish Water
The salinity levels in brackish water range from 1000 mg/L to 35,000 mg/L.
Sea Water
The salinity levels in sea water are greater than 35,000 mg/L.
Desalination of Brackish Water
Brackish water contains high concentration of dissolved solids, therefore, it is unfit for drinking. Desalination of brackish
water is accomplished in the following ways.
1. Distillation
In this method, the saline (brackish) water is boiled and its vapours are condensed into another flask, which is the pure
water. This method of desalination of seawater into pure water is very expensive and cannot be used for large-scale production
of pure water.
2. Freezing
In this method, the sea water is allowed to freeze below the freezing point of water. The ice-crystals free from the salts
are separated, washed and melted into pure water.
3. Electrodialysis
Desalination of brackish water into potable water is done using electrodialyzer (also known as electrodialysis cell).
The method is based on the principle that ions present in saline water migrate towards oppositely charged electrodes under the
influence of electromotive force. The apparatus consists of electrodes, and ion selective membranes (cation and anion selective
permeable membranes) arranged alternately. The negative electrode (cathode) is placed near cation permeable membrane, while
the positive electrode (anode) is placed near anion permeable membrane. The figure given below is a diagrammatic representation
of an electrodialysis cell.

Figure: Electrodialysis Cell

Saline (brackish) water is fed into the electrodialyzer at pressure of 5-6 kg/m2 and an electric field is applied perpendicular
to the direction of flow of water. The cation selective permeable membrane allows only cations to pass through. Similarly, the
anion selective permeable membrane allows anions to pass through. The concentrated sea water and pure water are passed out
through separate outlets.

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1.18
4. Reverse Osmosis
When two solutions of different concentrations (such as
sea water and pure water) are separated by a semi-permeable
membrane, the solvent molecules move spontaneously from the
region of low concentration to the region of higher concentration
till the concentration is equal on both sides of the membrane.
This process is termed as osmosis. The driving force for the
process to occur is called osmotic pressure.
In the reverse osmosis method, a hydrostatic pressure
is applied in excess of the osmotic pressure, so that water
molecules move out of the solution to the pure water side of
the membrane. The semi-permeable membrane used in the
reverse osmosis method is made up of polystyrene, cellophane,
polyvinyl chloride, ethyl cellulose, polymethacrylate or
polyamide polymers. The figure given below, is a diagrammatic
representation of reverse osmosis.
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Reverse Osmosis
Q21. Explain the various problems associated with
the use of municipal waste water in different
industries. What are the measures to be taken
against it?
Answer : Nov-Dec-13, R09, Q4
For answer refer Unit-1, Q14, Q15, Q16, Q17,Q18,Q19
and Q20.
Q22. Describe
(a) Once through systems and
(b) Open recirculating systems as a part of
cooling water systems.
Answer : [Nov-Dec-13, Q1 m(15) | Model Paper-III, Q3]
The industrial water use includes water for various
purposes in manufacturing facilities such as steel, chemical,
paper, petroleum refining and in the formulation of various
drugs. Water serves the purpose of cleaning, transportation,
dilution, cooling, etc. The cooling water used in industrial
sectors is an important medium for heat transfer from the
equipment. Thus, the excess heat is transferred from one
medium (i.e., equipment) to another medium (i.e., water),
basically to remove heat from the system.
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The cooling water systems are of two types.
(a) Once Through Systems
In this type of cooling water system, the cold water is
pumped from the source water body (namely, rivers, lakes and
wells) which passes through the condenser/heat exchanger
system. The heat from the equipment is absorbed by the water,
which is then released/discarded to the source water body at
increased temperature.
This method needs enormous volume of water at
considerably low temperatures. The disadvantages of this type of
system are,
(i) Large volumes of water are needed for the cooling
process.
(ii) Loss of base metal by corrosion and its release as
suspended solids.
(iii) Deposit of scales on the inner walls of the pipes.
(iv) Proliferation of biological organisms can impede
heat transfer, induce corrosion of equipment and
restrict the flow of water.
(b) Recirculating Cooling System
In this method, water is pumped from a source water
body and used to cool the process equipment. The same water
is circulated repeatedly for additional cooling cycles to enable
the plant to operate at maximum efficiency.
After each cycle of cooling, the heat from the water is
removed by either of the three methods:
(i) Cooling ponds/cooling canals
(ii) Mechanical draft evaporative cooling towers
(iii) Natural draft evaporative cooling towers.
The recirculating system is of two types.
Open Recirculating System
In this type, the same water is circulated repeatedly.
After each cycle of cooling, the heat absorbed by the water is
dissipated through evaporation by the use of cooling towers,
spray ponds, evaporative condensers, so that water may be
reused.
Closed Recirculation System
In this type, the cooling water is circulated repeatedly
in a closed loop without exposure to the atmosphere. Heat
exchangers are used for exchanging heat from water with the
atmosphere and thus help to rid the unwanted heat generated
by the equipment.
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Closed Recirculation
System
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Unit-2 (Basic Theories of Industrial Waste Water Management) 2.1

Marketed by:

Unit basic theories of industrial

2
waste water management
SIA GROUP

Part-A
Short Questions with Solutions
Q1. What are the total solids in water?
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(c)

The total solids in water are in the form of inorganic salts of carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride, sulphate, nitrate, potassium,
sodium, magnesium, calcium, clay and other constituents.
Q2. Enumerate the physical characteristics of water.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(c)

The major physical characteristics of water are,

(i) Total solids (total dissolved solids, settleable solids, suspended solids, volatile solids)
(ii) Turbidity
(iii) Colour
(iv) Taste and odour
(v) Temperature
(vi) pH
(vii) Alkalinity
(viii) Hardness.
Q3. Enumerate the chemical characteristics of water.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(c)

The major chemical characteristics of water are,

(i) Cations - (Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium, Aluminium, Boron, Iron, Manganese, Phosphorus)
(ii) Anions - (Chlorides, Sulphates, Carbonates, Bicarbonates, Fluoride, Nitrate)
(iii) pH
(iv) Radionucleids
(v) Organic compounds (alcohols, acids, starch, fats, proteins, esters and aldehydes)
(vi) Dissolved gases (Oxygen, Carbondioxide, Hydrogen Sulphide, Ammonia and Volatile organic compounds in water).
Q4. Write a note on the biological characteristics of water.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(d)

The main biological characteristics in water are,

(a) Protists such as protozoa, algae, fungi (molds and yeasts), blue-green algae and bacteria.
(b) Plants, such as rooted aquatic plants, seed plants, ferns, mosses, etc.
(c) Animals such as crustaceans, worms and rotifers.

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2.2 waste Management [JNTU-hyderabad]
Q5. Write a short note on the industrial waste.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(d)

Industrial waste refers to the solid, liquid and semi-solid wastes discarded from manufacturing, mining and agricultural
industries.
The industrial waste may be broadly categorized into hazardous and non-hazardous waste. Hazardous waste includes
the waste generated from manufacturing and other industrial processes. It includes heavy metals, cyanides, pesticides, complex
aromatic compounds, toxic chemicals that are harmful to humans, plants and animals.
Non-hazardous waste includes the waste generated by industries or commercial operation but its composition and value is
similar to household waste. This category also includes non-radioactive medical waste, glass, aluminium foil, plastics, styrofoam,
paper packaging material, wood, textiles, etc.
Q6. State some methods of neutralizing the waste water.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(d)

The over acidity or over alkalinity of waste water can be neutralized by,
(i) Passing waste water through beds of limestone.
(ii) Reacting the waste water with caustic wastes/lime slurries.
(iii) Adding caustic soda/soda ash to acid wastes.
(iv) Addition of sulfuric acid to alkaline waste.

Part-b
eSSAY Questions with Solutions

2.1 volume reduction

Q7. Discuss the ways of waste volume reduction as part of industrial waste water management.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q4(a)
Volume Reduction
The impact of the industrial wastes discharged into streams and treatment plants can be minimized by reducing the volume
of the waste waters, instead of generating the waste and treating it.
Volume reduction of waste water can be achieved by the following ways,
(1) Classification of Wastes
The water used in various industrial processes must be segregated after its use as,
v Manufacturing process water
v Cooling water
v Sanitary waste water
v Waste water from canteen/storm water
v Rainfall runoff.
The segregated waste water must be treated separately to reduce the expenses incurred in the treatment of waste water.
For instance, the manufacturing process water may contain pollutants in high concentration, while the cooling water is
likely to have less pollutants. So, the most polluted water can undergo intensive treatment and the relatively unpolluted
water can be either discharged without treatment or reused again by the industry.
(2) Conservation of Waste Water
Conservation of waste water in an industrial set up without affecting the quality of product can be accomplished in the
following ways,
(a) Changing from an open system to a closed system to manage the industrial waste water. In an open system, water is
used for various industrial processes and discharged out directly. So, the volume of waste water being discharged will
be high and the expenses incurred in treating the industrial waste water also will be high. In a closed loop recycling
system, the waste water can be segregated so that a portion of the waste water can be reused as well as, the volume
of waste generated also can be reduced.

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Unit-2 (Basic Theories of Industrial Waste Water Management) 2.3
(b) Good House Keeping and Maintenance
Water consumption can be effectively reduced by good house keeping practices along with support by education
and awareness schemes.
(c) Dry Disposal of Waste
The dry waste generated in industrial processes must be disposed off as it is, instead of flushing them down the
drains.
(d) Regulating Water Pressure
The pressure in the water distribution system should be reduced by installing pressure-reducing valves to prevent
needless waste.
(e) Water and Audits
Auditing and on-site inspection of water management is necessary to identify the possibilities to reduce, reuse and
recycle the waste water.
(f) Performance Review
A progress review is particularly important to evaluate the success or failure of the initiatives undertaken, to identify
the successful initiatives and to repeat them, to identify the initiatives that have failed and to avoid their repetition
in future.
(g) A Sound Design and Maintenance Standards
This ensures optimal use of water resources and swift action may be taken whenever there is excess consumption
due to failed infrastructure, old equipment, improper management or lack of awareness.
(h) Installing water meters, low flow plumbing, automatic valves, spring-closing sanitary fixtures, thermostatic controls,
enable efficient water use.
(i) Reuse and recirculation of cooling water to reduce the demand for available water. The gray water from industries
can be reused for agricultural irrigation, aesthetic uses like fountains and landscaping, fire protection and other
innovative uses.
(3) Changing Production to Decrease Waste
Changes in the production process can reduce waste generation by adopting the following techniques,
(a) Improved Process Control
It refers to the correct operation of processes in order to generate a product of acceptable quality. Improved process
control can be accomplished by reviewing the operational procedures of an equipment, and find out ways to improve
its efficiency. Additionally, employee training programs should be conducted for equipment handling procedures,
proper maintenance and inspection schedules.
(b) Improved Equipment Design
Use of efficient process equipment or replacement of existing equipment with new or updated equipment that can
process materials more efficiently and reduce waste generation significantly.
(c) Optimal use of high quality raw material and reduce the excess raw material in stock.
(d) Change in the composition of product.
(e) Reducing the use of hazardous materials that are involved in the production process.
(f) Evaluation of all the production material prior to purchase.
(g) Ensuring a strict inventory tracking system and placing orders for materials only on an as needed basis.
(h) Use of cleaner technologies ensures reduction in use of virgin natural resources, abatement of pollution, reduced
waste disposal and increase in energy efficiency.
(4) Reuse of Effluents
Reusing both industrial and municipal effluents for raw water supplies is considered a prudent method for volume reduction
of waste water. This is generally practised in regions where water resources are scarce. The industrial effluents are not
reused in most cases, generally due to technical problems like hardness, colour and appearance. However, reuse of effluents
from the waste treatment plants saves the cost incurred in importing water. Furthermore, there will be less waste to treat
and dispose and the quantity of pollutants discharged into the environment will also be less.

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2.4
2.2 strength reduction
Q8. Discuss the different ways of strength reduction
of waste water during its treatment.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q4(a)
Strength Reduction
Waste strength reduction can be accomplished by,
1. Processing Substitutions/Changes
The manufacturing processes in any industry may
undergo changes to generate less waste. Some examples include,
v The copper cyanide plating solution can be changed
with acid copper solution.
v Use of phosphoric acid instead of sulphuric acid
for pickling.
v Use of alkaline derusters instead of acid solutions
to remove rust.
v Washing raw coal with acid mine waste instead of
a public or private water supply.
v Use of carboxymethyl cellulose instead of starch
in textile mills.
2. Equipment Modification
Certain modifications in the equipment can decrease
the amount of contaminants entering the waste stream.
For example, in pickle factories, proper screens and
traps are placed in drainage pipes to trap the seeds and
cucumber pieces, which otherwise increase the strength
and density of waste. Similarly in the poultry industry,
screens placed over drainage lines prevent the escape
of feathers and fat as waste.
3. Segregation of Waste
Segregation of waste from an industrial plant is an
economical technique to ensure proper treatment of waste.
4. Recovery of Byproducts
Waste salvaging is an economical way of regaining
the material used in industrial processes and solve
the problem of waste treatment and disposal. Some
examples include,
v Use of ion exchangers in metal plating industries to
recover phosphoric acid, copper, nickel, chromium.
v Use of deionized water as boiler feed water.
v Use of vacuum evaporation to recover chromium,
copper and nickel.
v Use of sulphite waste liquor from paper mills as
fuel, road binder, cattle fodder, fertilizer, boiler
water, production of alcohol, and vanillin, etc.
v The waste blood from slaughter houses is used as
a binding agent for laminated wood products and
in the manufacture of glue.
v In dairy industry, the skim milk is treated with
dilute acid to form casein. The waste from dairy
industry is used in the crystallization of milk sugar.
The waste formed in the process is used as poultry
feed.
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v The feet and feathers of chicken (poultry) are used
to prepare feed and fertilizers.
v Production of commercial alcohol and sugar
from molasses. The sugarcane stalks are used in
preparing insulating wall board called as celotex.
v Electrolysis of the salt brine waste from pickle
processing plants to produce sodium and chlorine
separately. Sodium is converted to soda ash by
passing through limestone bed, which can be reused
as byproducts.
The different techniques used to recover waste are
reverse osmosis, electrolysis, condensation, electrolytic
recovery, filtration, centrifugation etc.
2.3 neutralisation
Q9. Explain the process of neutralization in
industrial waste water treatment.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q4(a)
Neutralization of industrial waste water refers to the
treatment of waste water to neutral pH for safe discharge.
Some of the acceptable methods for neutralizing the acidity or
alkalinity of waste water are given below,
1. Mixing of the acidic and alkaline wastes to neutralize
the pH of the effluents.
The different types of waste discharged by the industrial
setup are collected and mixed in a tank to neutralize the
pH of the waste water.
2. The acid wastes from industries can be neutralized by
passing through beds of limestone. Eg. sulphuric acid
is passed through calcium carbonate.
The chemical reaction involved is,
CaCO3 + H2SO4 CaSO4 + H2CO3
Calcium Sulphuric Calcium Carbonic acid
carbonate acid sulphate
This reaction depends upon the availability of limestone.
The sulphuric acid passed through the limestone bed
must not be diluted beyond 5% and allowed to flow at
the rate of 5 gallons per minute per square foot.
The influent is allowed to flow into the limestone
retention tank, wherein, the calcium carbonate in
the limestone reacts with the acidic solution. The
highly insoluble calcium salts formed as end product
(precipitate) settle on the limestone chips and form a
layer on it and render it useless. The other components in
the waste water, such as solids and organic material are
added further to the layered limestone chips as a result
of mechanical filtration. all these events may inactivate
the limestone. Therefore, this method needs replacement
of fresh limestone bed at regular intervals.
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Unit-2 (Basic Theories of Industrial Waste Water Management) 2.5
Influent H2CO3 + 2NaOH Na2CO3 + 2H2O
Effluent Carbonic Caustic soda Soda ash
acid in waste
water

The excess carbonic acid reacts with soda ash in waste

water to form sodium bicarbonate in waste water.
H2CO3 + Na2CO3 NaHCO3 + H2O
Figure: Limestone pH Adjustment System
Carbonic Soda ash Sodium
3. The acidic effluents from boiler units can be neutralized acid in waste bicarbonate in
by reacting with caustic wastes/lime slurries/dolomitic water waste water
lime slurries. 6. Addition of compressed CO2 to alkaline wastes.
The method is similar to the one mentioned above except Bottled carbon dioxide gas passed through waste water
for the fact that lime is used up continuously as it is neutralizes the alkaline waste.
converted to calcium sulphate and discharged as waste.
7. Addition of sulphuric acid to alkaline wastes.
4. Addition of caustic soda/soda/ash/sodium bicarbonate
to acid wastes. This method is considered as an expensive means of
The acidic effluents can be neutralized by the addition of neutralization of alkaline waste. The chemical reaction
concentrated solution of caustic soda(NaOH) or sodium involved in the neutralization process is,
carbonate to acidic waste water. The neutralizing agent 2 NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4+ 2H2O
is added in small amounts as these compounds are more
reactive than lime or limestone. The products formed Sodium Sulphuric acid Sodium
at the end of the chemical reaction are soluble. They hydroxide (Neutralizing sulphate
can be easily discharged into the receiving streams or agent) (neutral salt)
waterbody as they are readily soluble in water. The
chemical reactions between the sodium hydroxide used 8. Producing carbondioxide in alkaline wastes by
as neutralizing agent for carbonic acid and sulfuric acid submerged combustion.
in waste water is as mentioned below.
The submerged combustion system consists of an
Na2CO3 + CO2 + H2O 2NaHCO3 evaporation vessel fitted with a burner submerged below
Sodium Sodium the water surface. The evaporation vessel is attached to
carbonate bicarbonate another vessel(mixing bustle) in which air and natural
2NaOH + CO2 Na2CO3 + H2O gas mix together to form a combustible mixture. The
influent flows into the evaporation vessel from the feed
Sodium Sodium
reservoir. As the gas burns underwater, carbondioxide
hydroxide carbonate
is produced.
NaOH + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + H2O
The waste water in the evaporation vessel becomes
Sodium Sulphuric Sodium saturated with carbondioxide, which is used for
hydroxide acid bisulphate neutralization of alkaline waste before biological
NaHSO4 + NaOH Na2SO4 + H2O treatment.
Sodium Sodium Sodium This method of industrial waste water treatment is mostly
bisulphate hydroxide sulphate preferred for economical reasons.
5. Alkaline wastes are neutralized by using waste boiler Air Natural gas
flue gas. Passing the boiler flue gas through alkaline
waste is the latest method for neutralizing the alkaline Feed Reservoir Mixing Bustle
waste. The carbon dioxide gas in the flue gas dissolves
in waste water to form a weak carbonic acid.
CO2 + H 2O H2CO3
Carbon dioxide Waste Carbonic Overflow
Evaporation Burner tank
in flue gas water acid vessel

Carbonic acid reacts with caustic soda in waste water to Figure: Schematic Representation of Submerged
neutralize the alkalinity. Combustion System
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2.6 waste Management [JNTU-hyderabad]
Q10. Describe the following neutralization processes of acid wastes:
(i) Limestone treatment
(ii) Caustic soda treatment Nov-Dec-13, R09,Q2

(iii) Lime slurry treatment.

Answer :
For answer refer Unit-II, Q9, (Refer points 2,4 and 3).

2.4 equalization and proportioning

Q11. Explain the process of equalization in the industrial waste water treatment.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q4(b)
Equalization refers to the collection of different types of wastes discharged by the industrial set up, in an equalization
basin/tank. Generally, the influent to the industrial waste water system shows variations in the flow rate and the concentration of
pollutants. This is because of the changes in the discharge and the pollution load in the waste water from the various production/
manufacturing processes.
Purpose
The main purpose of equalization is,
(i) To reduce the fluctuations in temperature of the waste water.
(ii) To reduce the flow rate fluctuations.
(iii) To minimize the fluctuations in the concentration of organic compounds.
(iv) To stabilize the pH of waste water, so that less chemicals are required for the neutralization of waste water.
(v) Stabilize the B.O.D.
(vi) To facilitate the settling of solids and heavy metals in the equalization basin.
(vii) To prevent the entry of high concentration of toxic materials into the biological treatment process.
All these aspects contribute to uniform effluent quality/nearly constant conditions, so that the effluent can be treated
efficiently by the downstream treatment units of the industrial waste water treatment plants.
Types of Flow Equalization
The process of flow equalization is carried out by two general methods,
(i) In-line Equalization Method
This method is considered as an effective way to level out the changes in the concentration of the influent. The influent
to the waste water treatment undergoes primary treatment, and then all the flow passes through the equalization basin.
The general outline of the in-line flow equalization method is as given below,

Influent Screens Grit Equalization

Pump
Removal Basin

Further
treatment
of wastewater
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of In-line Equalization Method
(ii) Off-line/Side-line Equalization Method
In the method, the influent to the waste water treatment undergoes primary treatment and then all the flow above a particular
predetermined flow level is redirected to the equalization basin. The general outline of the off-line or side-line equalization
method is as given below,
Grit Overflow Further
Influent Screens
Removal tank Treatment

Equalization Pump
Basin
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Off-line Equalization Method

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Unit-2 (Basic Theories of Industrial Waste Water Management) 2.7
Advantages of Flow Equalization Method
The advantages of flow equalization methods are,
(a) As the flow equalization process evens out the fluctuations in temperature, pH, BOD and the concentration of various
compounds, thus helping in improving the downstream performance operation.
(b) The expenses incurred in the operation of downstream processes is reduced.
(c) The shock load caused by fluctuations in the concentration of chemicals is minimized, thus enhancing the efficiency of
biological treatment.
Disadvantages of Flow Equalization
The disadvantages of flow equalization methods are,
(i) Vast areas of land may be needed for the construction of equalization tank.
(ii) High expenses incurred in its operation and maintenance.
(iii) Increase in the odour pollution that may affect the nearby residents.
The equalization basins must be of sufficient size, based on the quantity of waste water discharged and the pattern of
discharge from the manufacturing unit. The tank has sloping sides to maintain the headwaters at a more constant level to changes
in volume of waste water.
Head level

Sloping sides
of the vessel
Waste water
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Equalization Tank
The equalization tanks may be equipped with the following attachments,
(a) Mixers: For adequate equalization, and prevent the deposition of suspended solids.
(b) Aerators or Buffers are used to To prevent the waste water from becoming anaerobic, for better mixing and to enhance the
biodegradation of organic compounds.
(c) Combination of all the above.
Q12. Explain the process of proportioning in the industrial waste water treatment.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q4(b)
Proportioning is a method of mixing of sewage and industrial waste water in appropriate proportion, to reduce the strength
of the total waste so that minimal treatment is required before its disposal. The mixture of sewage and industrial waste is treated
in a combined treatment unit and then disposed.
Purpose of Proportioning
(i) The main purpose of proportioning is to maintain a constant proportion of industrial waste water and municipal sewage
before passing it into the waste water treatment plant. Thus, the strength of pollutants is maintained constant throughout.
(ii) The overdose of chemicals in waste water discharged from industries can cause damage to the waste water treatment
plant. Hence, the process of proportioning offers protection to the treatment plant or stream, or cause less damage to the
equipment.
(iii) The proportioning process helps to protect the microorganisms from the effect of overdose of chemicals.
Methods of Proportioning
The proportioning of industrial waste and domestic sewage is accomplished by two general methods,
(a) Manual Control
The flow records of the sewage plant is analysed by,
(i) Flow pattern of domestic sewage into the treatment plant.
(ii) Pattern of water consumption in the city.
(b) Automatic Control
In this method, a metering device is used to record the flow pattern at a convenient sewer connection.
Some industrial processes generate large amount of toxic chemicals, which on entering the waste water treatment plant,
has high concentration of toxic chemicals. This affects the efficiency of the treatment plant at different stages. Further,
the industrial wastes are discharged at varied rates depending upon the processes and the flow of domestic sewage varies
with time and season. Both the types of wastes are emptied into the common sewage system.
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2.8
The industrial waste water has to be equalized and
proportioned as per the domestic sewage. Therefore, all
the industrial establishments should construct holding
tanks, equipped with a variable speed pump to regulate
the flow of effluents. Generally, the domestic sewage
treatment plants are located far away from the industry.
The industries have separate pipelines through which
the effluents pass. The equalization and proportioning
of effluents are carried out at the site of the municipal
plant.
2.5 joint treatment of industrial
wastes and domestic
sewage - consequent problems
Q13. Explain the different processes used in the joint
treatment of industrial wastes and domestic
sewage. What are the consequent problems of
waste disposal?
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q5(a)
Raw sewage consists of residential, commercial and
industrial liquid water discharges. Such waste waters are
processed in waste water treatment plants to produce an effluent
of higher quality and then discharged back to the environment.
The conventional sequence of waste water treatment
is the preliminary treatment, primary treatment, secondary
treatment and tertiary treatment followed by the disposal of
sludge.
1. Preliminary Treatment
The main objective of the preliminary treatment of waste
water is to remove the non-biodegradable, coarse and floating
solids, to prevent their interference in the subsequent treatment
processes. The preliminary treatment of sewage/effluent
involves the use of screens, grit chambers, communicators,
grinders, pre-aeration for odour control, and grease removal.
2. Primary Treatment
The primary treatment of sewage/effluents involves the
following processes,
(i) Equalization
(ii) Neutralization
(iii) Sedimentation
(iv) Flocculation
(v) Chlorination.
3. Secondary Treatment
The secondary treatment of sewage/effluents is the
biological treatment of waste water mainly by aerobic and/or
anaerobic treatment methods.
4. Tertiary Treatment
The tertiary treatment of sewage (also called as auxiliary
treatment or secondary clarification) is the final stage of the
treatment process with the main objective to improve the
waste water quality before it is reused or discharged into the
environment. It involves the removal of contaminants, toxic
materials and nutrients in waste water by the use of sand
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filters, activated carbon filters, microfiltration, ultrafiltration,
nanofiltration, reverse osmosis, ion exchange, evaporation, UV
filtration, and retention ponds.
Consequent Problems of Waste/Sewage Treatment
The generation of huge amount of wastes daily by each
one of us has led to various problems. The major health hazards
include the skin and blood infections, eye and respiratory
infection, intestinal infection, cancer of incineration operators
due to exposure to hazardous compounds.
The burning of wastes in large furnaces produce ash,
which may float along with hot air and contaminate the air
and water. The remaining ash in the furnace contains high
concentration of toxic materials like dioxins and heavy metals.
When this ash is used as landfill, it causes severe contamination
of the area and also results in soil leaching.
In the past few years, the Indian Air Force has lost a
few MIG aircrafts due to the birdhits. This is possibly due to
the fact that the garbage landfills are usually located on the
outskirts of the cities, where the birds feed on the garbage and
fly around.
2.6 industrial waste water
discharges into streams, lakes and
oceans and problems
Q14. Write about the causes, effects and control
measures of industrial wastes.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q5(a)
Industrial Waste
Industrial waste refers to solid, liquid and semi-solid
waste material produced by manufacturing and industrial
processes. The industrial wastes are broadly categorized
into hazardous and non-hazardous waste. Hazardous waste
includes heavy metals, cyanides, pesticides, complex aromatic
compounds, toxic chemicals that are harmful to humans, plants
and animals. The non-hazardous industrial waste includes
non-radioactive medical waste, glass, aluminium foil, plastic,
styrofoam, paper, cardboard, plastics, packaging, wood, textiles,
rubble, scrap metal, heat-resistant bricks, etc.
Impacts of Industrial Waste on Environment and Human
Health
The impacts of industrial waste on human health and
environment are considered as an important concern. Some of
the effects are,
(a) The waste water discarded from manufacturing or
industrial processes contribute to water pollution.
(b) The toxic contaminants in water have found their way
into the animals, fish, birds and humans via the food
chain.
(c) The toxic contaminants pollute the ground water supplies
as well.
(d) The polluted water is unfit for drinking, recreation,
agriculture and industry. The polluted water affects the
reproductive abilities of aquatic life.
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Unit-2 (Basic Theories of Industrial Waste Water Management) 2.9
(e) Pollution of air is caused due to the greenhouse gases, ozone depleting substances, smog-producing substances and eco-
toxic substances.
(f) Changes in the landscape patterns through illegal disposal and discharge of pollutants leading to visual nuisance.
(g) Changes in the soil fertility due to discharge of ecotoxic substances.
(h) Substances such as cadmium, arsenic, chromium, nickel, dioxins, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) disposed at
the landfill site are carcinogenic in nature. These substances further cause toxic effects on the central nervous system, liver,
kidneys, heart, lungs, skin, reproductive system etc. The other health problems include respiratory symptoms, irritation
of the skin, nose and eyes, gastrointestinal problems, fatigue, headache, psychological problems and allergies.
Measures to Control Industrial Waste Production
Waste generated in an industrial setting can be reduced/controlled by many ways. Some of them are discussed below.
1. Reduction of Waste at Source
Some of the waste reduction techniques include,
(a) The product composition can be changed to reduce the amount of waste production.
(b) Minimize the use of hazardous materials that enter the production process.
(c) Technological innovations may be introduced to make changes to the production process.
(d) Purchase of unnecessary items must be discouraged to avoid waste from unwanted materials.
2. Recycling of Waste
(a) Processing and recycling of metallic elements should be done to avoid continuous mining.
(b) Waste material generated in an industrial setting may be used as a raw material substitute for another process.
(c) The waste material may be returned to the original process.
(d) The packaging material (such as cardboard, bubble wrap or polystyrene) can be reused.
Q15. What are the toxic metals and different sources of toxic metals in the waste water?
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q4(b)

Toxic metals are chemical elements that are hazardous to human health and affect the quality of life. Some of the toxic
metals encountered in everyday life are arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, iron and aluminium.
The various sources of toxic metals in the waste water are depicted in tabular form.
Metal Source
1. Arsenic (a) Smelting process of copper, zinc and lead.
(b) Manufacture of arsenic containing pesticides.
(c) Water supplies, paints, fungicides, wood preservatives.
2. Lead Pipes, drains, soldering materials, batteries, cable coverings, ammunition, fuel additives.
3. Mercury Mixing operations, chloralkali plants, paper industries.
4. Cadmium Run-off from nickel-cadmium batteries, PVC, plastics, paints, insecticides, fungicides, commercial
fertilizers, cigarettes, release from metal refineries.
5. Iron Drinking water, iron pipes, cookware.
6. Aluminium Food additives, antacids, astringents, nasal sprays, antiperspirants, automobile exhaust and tobacco
smoke.
7. Chromium Discharge from steel and pulp mills, erosion of natural deposits.
8. Copper and lead Corrosion of household plumbing system, erosion of natural deposits.
9. Mercury Erosion of natural deposits, discharge from refineries and factories, runoff from landfills and croplands.
The toxic metals mentioned above are non-essential elements and have no role in human physiology. In fact, exposure to
these metals have led to toxic or lethal effects. These include damaged or reduced mental and central nervous function, decreased
levels of energy, effect the blood composition, damage to lungs, kidneys, liver and other vital organs, Alzheimer’s disease,
Parkinson’s disease, muscular dystrophy and multiple sclerosis.
Q16. What are the various causes of inland water pollution?
Answer :
Water that percolates through the surface layers of soil and rock until it reaches the impervious rocky layer where it
accumulates is called as groundwater. Surface water is the water in lakes, rivers, streams or other fresh water bodies.
SIA Group
2.10
The industrial and municipal water supplies rely on
two major sources of drinking water: groundwater and surface
water. Both these sources of water are likely to be polluted by
contaminants. The ground water contains pesticides, chemicals
and nitrates while most bacteria and other microorganisms
contaminate the surface waters.
The groundwater generally stored in underground
aquifers receives water from soil, saturated with precipitation
or through stream and river runoff. When the storing capacity
of aquifers exceed, the excess water is drained into streams
or rivers. The groundwater and surface water are intimately
interconnected such that pollution of surface water can reach
groundwater and vice versa. Over-exploitation of groundwater
for industrial, domestic and irrigation purposes can lead to
drying up of rivers and lakes.
The pollution of groundwater sources is due to the
following reasons,
1. Industrial pollution caused by haphazard disposal of
industrial effluents. Pumping of untreated effluents
contaminated with toxic organic and inorganic substances
flows into rivers and polluting the groundwater for years
rendering it unfit for human consumption.
2. Agrochemical pollution of groundwater due to extensive
farming. The agrochemicals and pesticides like nitrates
and DDT used in farming enters the groundwater
through surface runoff or underground leaching.
3. Unplanned disposal of industrial effluents have polluted
the groundwater with heavy metals like chromium, lead
and nickel in several parts of the country.
4. Domestic waste water too is a major source of pollution
to the groundwaters.
5. Salinity of the groundwater due to ingress of seawater
in coastal regions. Inland salinity of groundwater has
been reported in some areas possibly due to overuse of
surface water and groundwater or inherent characteristic
of aquifers.
6. About 80% to 90% of rural population of our country
depend on groundwater for drinking and domestic
purposes. The fluoride content in groundwater has
been reported to be beyond permissible limits, thus
threatening the rural dwellers with serious health hazards
of fluorosis.
7. The arsenic content in groundwater has been reported
to be beyond permissible limits, thus putting the people
in the risk zone.
8. Several parts of the country have high concentration of
iron contaminating the groundwater.
9. The dissolved nitrogen in the form of nitrates and heavy
metals like chromium, lead and nickel are the common
contaminants identified in groundwater in several parts
of rural and urban India.
10. The surface waters are reported to have elevated level
of bacteria, low dissolved oxygen content, elevated
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concentrations of organics like, malathion, polychlorinated
biphenyls and dioxins, high concentrations of dissolved
solids like chlorides, metals, cadmium, zinc, lead, silver,
aluminium etc.
High levels of pathogens (fecal coliform or other
bacteria) and plant nutrients are a concern in some waters.
It is presumed that the drinking water of groundwater
has low concentration of pathogens because, as the water flows
through the underground layers of sand, clay or rocks, it gets
filtered of microorganisms. However, hazardous chemicals are
likely to be dissolved from soil into groundwater.
Q17. Write about the different causes for coastal
pollution.
Answer :
Marine pollution involves dumping of undesirable
material into the marine environment by human activities,
directly or indirectly, resulting in hazardous effects to human
health, impairing the quality of sea water and hampering the
marine activities.
Some of the causes of marine pollution are as follows,
(a) The coastal towns discharge the municipal waste and
sewage into the sea directly.
(b) The synthetic pesticides and fertilizers in the runoff
water eventually enter the sea water.
DDT is a widely used pesticide found concentrated in
marine fish. Due to the effect of DDT, the brown pelicans
and ospreys produce thin egg shells. Owing to the
harmful effect of the DDT, its use has been banned from
agricultural practices, but still it is found in developing
countries.
PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) are the industrial
chemicals used as liquid coolants and insulators in
power transformers. This chemical enters the marine
environment through leakages and discarded equipment
which then accumulates in animal tissues and alters their
reproductive abilities.
(c) Spillage from oil rigs, pipelines from oil offshore
exploration and tankers pollute sea water to a greater
extent. The tanker accidents, intentional dumping and
drilling/pumping operations too contribute to marine
pollution.
(d) Hazardous contaminants of oceans includes the heavy
metal poisoning discharged as industrial effluents into
the marine environment.
In Minamata, Japan, during the industrial production
of acetaldehyde, inorganic mercury was discharged
into the nearby ocean as part of waste water. The
organisms residing in the bottom sediments ingested
it along with the food material. The fish which prey
upon these organisms were contaminated with mercury,
thereby polluting the natural food chain. People who
consumed these contaminated fish suffered from MeHg
(Methyl Mercury) intoxication, more commonly known
as Minamata disease, a neurological disease and birth
disorders.
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Unit-2 (Basic Theories of Industrial Waste Water Management)
(e) Rivers carry the pollutants such as nutrients and
pesticides from agricultural runoff, faecal pollutants as
a result of poor sanitation and other effluents from the
industrial plants into the sea.
(f) The radioactive waste enters the oceans as a result
of nuclear weapon testing and nuclear accidents. The
radioactive material may get absorbed by the plankton,
but cannot be metabolized, hence gets accumulated in
the food chain.
(g) The electrical power stations located along the coastlines
use the sea water for cooling purposes. The heated water
discharged into the marine environment contributes to
the degradation of the marine environment.
Q18. Write about the misuse of international water
for dumping hazardous waste.
Answer : oxygen deficiencies, resulting in the death of marine
Hazardous waste includes the waste generated
by chemical industries and nuclear energy plants. The
industrialized nations generate huge quantities of hazardous
wastes. It includes dredged material, industrial waste, sewage
sludge and radioactive waste. The increase in industrialization
in developed countries has further accelerated the production
of toxic hazardous wastes. And on the contrary, the technology
to handle these wastes could not be developed with the same
intensity. Therefore, the problem of hazardous waste disposal
still remains unsolved.
Some of the possible reasons for dumping hazardous
waste in international waters are - lack of suitable dumping sites
within the countries generating these wastes, high costs incurred
in transportation, recycling and incineration of waste, lack of
public awareness about the waste dumping, lack of awareness
about the effects of hazardous wastes on human health and
environment. The tourism and recreation sector too has
contributed significantly to this problem. The tourists visiting
the beaches and seashores dispose off their mineral water
bottles, juice bottles and other waste material without giving a
serious thought to the consequences of their carelessness.
Radioactive waste is generated from the nuclear power
process, medical use of radioisotopes, use of radioisotopes in
research laboratories and industrial applications. The disposal of
nuclear waste involves special care by putting them in concrete
drums and placing them in the ocean floor. This practice often
poses a great danger to marine life and humans due to the
radiation. Poor insulation of the containers, leakages from the
drums, volcanic activity, tectonic plate movement are some of
the factors that may lead to dire consequences. Radioactive
materials would accumulate in almost every marine organism,
from the tiniest plankton to whales and polar bears. The
phytoplankton and the zooplankton absorb the chemicals as
they feed. The chemicals accumulate and concentrate in their
bodies. When these organisms are eaten by small animals, the
chemicals are transferred into their bodies. The smaller animals
are in turn eaten by larger animals such as seals and polar bears.
2.11
People become contaminated by eating contaminated seafood
and animal fats, resulting in serious health problems including
cancer, damage to the immune system, behavioural problems
and reduced fertility.
Q19. What are the effects of marine pollution on the
environment?
Answer :
In the past few years, we have come to realize the
effects that pollution has on the marine environment. Some of
the effects of marine pollution are as follows,
1. The discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage
and industrial effluents may cause algal blooms or
phytoplankton blooms such as red tides. These blooms
often choke the fish gills resulting in their death. The
breakdown of the dead algae by microbes often causes
plants and animals.
2. The pathogenic microorganisms present in untreated
sewage may get concentrated in the alimentary canal of
mussels, clams and oysters. The consumption of such
animals may pose a serious health risk.
3. Pesticides and other chemicals such as DDT, PCBs and
PAH may accumulate in the tissues of marine animals
and cause physiological damage.
4. Plastic bags dumped into the sea water often cause
serious damage to its environment. The floating plastic
bags are mistaken for jellyfish and swallowed by turtles
leading to their death.
5. The oil discharged from oil tankers and ships form
a layer on the fur of sea otters. These sea otters lose
the insulating properties of their fur and often die of
hypothermia. In the case of sea birds, the oil layer formed
on their feathers reduces the insulation properties and
prevents them from flying.
6. The larger animals like whales and other fish often
ingest oil while feeding, which leads to toxic effects
and ultimately death ensues.
7. The pollutants of the marine environment contaminate
the coastal swimming area, thereby hampering the
recreational activities.
Q20. Explain the effects of oil pollution on the ocean.
Answer :
Oil pollution causes enormous harm to the deep oceans,
coastal fishing and fisheries. Some of the effects of oil pollution
are,
1. Oil spills in the marine water can cause contamination
of fish and other food species leading to their mass
mortality.
2. Oil pollution can poison the mammals, reptiles,
amphibians and birds inhabiting near the oceans.
3. Recreational activities in the coastal areas like fishing,
boating, snorkeling, scuba-diving, swimming etc., may
be hampered, thus affecting the local economy and
society.
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2.12
4. The oil discharged from oil tankers and ships forms
a layer on the fur of sea otters. These sea otters lose
the insulating properties of their fur and often die of
hypothermia. In the case of sea birds, the oil layer formed
on their feathers reduces the insulation properties and
prevents them from flying.
5. The large animals like whales and other fish often
ingest oil while feeding, which leads to toxic effects
and ultimately death ensues.
6. Ingestion of oil by marine animals can be particularly
hazardous as it causes damage to red blood corpuscles,
kidneys, liver and immune system, disruption of
reproductive hormones and behavioral changes.
Q21. Enumerate and describe the various natural
forces affecting self purification of streams.
Answer : (a) Acid-base Reactions
Self purification of streams refers to the process
of elimination of polluting substances from the stream
(by physical, chemical and biological processes) in order to
regain the original water quality. This is a very important
phenomenon because the water source from stream is used for
many activities such as consumption, agriculture, aquaculture,
fishing, industry and transportation.
The natural forces affecting the self-purification of
streams are,
1. Physical Processes
(a) Dilution
In this method, small quantities of effluents are
discharged into streams, resulting in the dilution of
organic matter. Increase in population and expansion
of industrial activity have caused increased generation
of waste and greater demand for water.
(b) Adsorption
The process of adsorption refers to the binding of
molecules and ions to solid particles. The oxides and
hydroxides of iron and manganese can absorb organic
and/or inorganic solutes.
(c) Sedimentation
This method is an important self purification mechanism
in waterbodies. The suspended particles from domestic
and industrial waste water and runoff from agricultural
and urban activities discharged into streams settle down
to the bottom. The pollutants settled at the bed of the
waterbody can be remobilized or resuspended during
periods of increased water flow at the time of floods or
turbulence. The pollutants are thus carried to consider-
able distance downstream.
(d) Filtration
This process occurs when the waste water containing
organic matter, inorganic clays and sediments are filtered
by pebbles or rocks.
Water that percolates through the surface layers of
soil and rock until it reaches the impervious rocky
layer where it accumulates is called ground water. The
groundwater generally stored in underground aquifers
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receives water from soil saturated with precipitation
or through stream and river runoff. When the storing
capacity of aquifers exceeds, the excess water is drained
into streams or rivers. Thus, a sophisticated type of
filtration occurs, wherein the suspended particles are
removed by the fine layers of soil.
(e) Volatilization
Volatilization refers to conversion of pollutants from
liquid phase to gaseous phase. Depending upon the
vapour pressure of the compounds, the gases formed in
water by chemical and biological processes are removed
from the liquid phase into the atmosphere.
2. Chemical Processes
The chemical processes involved in self purification
mechanism are,
The pH of water is maintained by neutralizing the acid
and base pollutants.
(b) Oxidation
The aerobic bacteria in effluents oxidize the organic
matter by using the dissolved oxygen in the effluents.
(c) Reduction
The anaerobic bacteria in the streams reduce the organic
matter into liquids and gases.
(d) Precipitation Reactions
Several precipitation reactions, for instance, formation
of salts of phosphates or carbonates cause removal of
cations from solution. The processes of coagulation and
flocculation too contribute to water clarification.
3. Biological Processes
The metabolic processes of microorganisms (such as
bacteria, algae and protozoa) transform the biodegradable
organics from the effluents into biological end products. The
factors involved in the biological processes of water clarification
are,
(a) Temperature
When the temperature of the waterbody is low, the
bacterial activity is also less, therefore, the rate of
decomposition is also less, although the dissolved
oxygen in water is high. With increase in temperature,
the water clarification process takes less time in spite
of less dissolved oxygen.
(b) Sunlight
The disinfection of water is brought about by sunlight,
thus helping in self purification process.
The algae in water metabolize the inorganic compounds
and produce oxygen as a waste product. Therefore, the
water may be super saturated with dissolved oxygen
during daytime. The other animals like rotifers and
crustacea feed on protozoa, bacteria and algae and thus
maintain the population of primary producers.
(c) Green Plant
The green plants in a water body help to remove nitrogen
and phosphorus compounds as well as heavy metals and
toxic substances from the water medium.
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Unit-2 (Basic Theories of Industrial Waste Water Management)
Q22. Discuss some of the measures needed to
control water pollution.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q5(b)
Measures Needed to Control Water Pollution
Water covers three-fourth of the earth’s surface. Water
is used by man for recreation and aesthetics, aquatic life, public
water supply, agriculture and industry.
Polluting the water leads to its contamination and gives
rise to various water-borne diseases. Hence, the consequences
of water pollution leads to the following,
(i) We tend to lose the number of working days as we
fall ill.
(ii) Missed educational opportunities due to ill health.
(iii) The expenses on the healthcare increases.
(iv) Draining of family resources.
Preventive Measures
In order to lead a healthy life, we must take proper
precautions in disinfecting the city water.
The various ways by which we can control water
pollution are,
1. Safe disposal of human excreta.
2. Paints, hazardous wastes and motor oils should not be
discarded down the drain, as they migrate to the water
source, thereby contaminating it.
3. A non phosphate or low phosphate detergent may be
used to wash clothes, as the high phosphate content in
lakes and streams endanger the lives of fish and wildlife.
4. Plastic bags should not be dumped into water bodies,
as the aquatic animals consume it, which leads to their
death.
5. Water supplied to cities for drinking should be
disinfected properly.
6. The effluent waste should be released into the water
after pretreating it. The treated effluent can be used for
gardening purpose.
7. Usage of root zone method helps to control water
pollution. In this process, the contaminated water is run
through the root zones of specially designed reed beds.
The reeds function by absorbing oxygen and create a
condition for thriving of various microorganisms. These
microorganisms purify the contaminated water.
8. Treatment of sewage prevents water pollution.
9. Avoid excess use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides
as it leads to water pollution. Thus, biogas fertilizers and
biopesticides should be used in agriculture.
10. Recycling of waste materials help to minimize water
pollution.
11. Installation of sewage treatment plants help to minimize
water pollution.
12. The pollution control system designed and developed
at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC)
combines both water and air pollution control into one
system. This can be implemented in all the developing
countries to control water pollution.
2.13
Q23. What are the various control measures of
marine pollution?
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q5(b)
Marine pollution involves dumping of undesirable
material into the marine environment by human activities
directly resulting in hazardous effects to human health,
impairing the quality of sea water and hampering the marine
activities.
Some of the many ways of reducing the pollution load
on marine waters are discussed below.
1. Introduction of sewage treatment plants in port areas,
depending upon the quality of effluents (ballast water
from cargo tanks and oil tankers, sanitary wastes,
garbage etc.), various stages of sewage treatment such as
primary, secondary or advanced treatment can be used.
2. Marine pollution due to oil tanker operations can be
reduced by two techniques namely, load-on-top system
and crude oil washing.
In the load-on-top system, the crude oil carrying
compartments are cleaned by high pressure jets of water.
The oily water remains in the compartment until the oil
floats to the top. The water present below the floating
oil contains very little oil which is then discharged into
the sea. Fresh crude oil is loaded on top of the oil in the
tank.
In the second method, i.e., crude oil washing, jets of
crude oil is used to clean the ballast tank wherein the
crude oil does not come in contact with ballast water.
3. Oil pollution in marine waters can be controlled by
spraying chemical dispersants on the oil. Slick-tickers
consist of a continuous belt of absorbent material which
is passed through oil slick for the extraction of oil. Such
equipment must be available with all ports with skilled
personnel to handle the equipment. Such equipments
should be routinely checked and maintained properly.
4. Dredging operations of ports and harbours that contribute
to marine pollution can be minimized or avoided during
fish migration, breeding and spawning seasons. Selection
of appropriate dredging equipment must be considered to
avoid contamination of the marine environment. These
include, oozer pump suction dredger and closed clam
shell bucket dredger.
5. Ship building facilities should be located where marine
life is minimal.
6. Hazardous cargoes containing Liquefied Natural Gas
(LNG), acids, explosive chemicals, radioactive materials
must be packed properly and maintain the integrity of
packing during transportation.
7. Hazardous cargo ships must be constructed and operated
at higher levels of safety, with careful monitoring of their
entry and departure to avoid risks due to collisions.
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2.14
Q24. What are the sources and effects of thermal
pollution?
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q5(a)
Thermal Pollution
All over the world, thermal pollution is widespread,
affecting many water bodies. Thermal pollution is the discharge
or runoff of heated water from the industrial processes into
the water bodies like streams, rivers, lakes or occasionally
coastal ocean waters, resulting in killing or injuring the aquatic
organisms. As a result of this, the solubility of oxygen in water
decreases and the metabolism of fish increases. Due to the
discharge of warm water into the rivers, the ecological balance
changes. Certain species of fish have shown higher growth
rate. Increase in temperature in the marine environment causes
change in ecosystem as some animals cannot withstand warmer
temperatures. Hence, they are either eliminated or migrated to
colder regions.
Causes of Thermal Pollution
(a) Dumping heated water from factories and power
plants.
(b) Removal of trees and vegetation that shade the
aquatic medium, thereby allowing the sunlight to
raise the temperature of the water body.
Sources of Thermal Pollution
The main source of thermal pollution are,
(a) Electric power plants
(b) Industrial factories
(c) Devegetation near water bodies.
(a) Electric Power Plants
Huge amount of energy is released in the form of heat
when coal, oil or natural gas is burnt or nuclear fuels
undergo fission. The heat is used to form steam from
water. The steam thus formed spins turbines to generate
electricity.
The spent steam is then cooled and condensed to form
water. Cold water is sent to the plant for the condensation
process. This cold water warms to 5-10ºC above normal
and sent back to the source (lake, river or ocean).
(b) Industrial Factories
Water from lake, river or ocean is used to cool their
machinery.
(c) Devegetation Near Water Bodies
Devegetation near the water bodies is done by the
following ways,
(i) Felling of trees (cutting down of trees) to harvest
the wood, to make room for cultivation of crops or
to construct buildings and roads.
(ii) Grazing of vegetation near water bodies by cattle
and sheep. Both the above mentioned factors are a
cause for concern in erosion of soil into the water
bodies and making it muddy.
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Effects of Thermal Pollution
(a) Reduction in the quality of water. The hot water formed
as byproducts from the industrial processes released into
the body of water has harmful effects on the aquatic
life. The stress on certain aquatic life forms can cause
death, resulting in a negative effect on the food chain
and causing an entire ecosystem to fail.
(b) With increase in temperature of waters, the solubility of
oxygen in water decreases. This might cause stress for
many cold water fish.
(c) Devegetation causes the soil to be eroded into streams,
rivers and lakes. The muddy water thus formed absorbs
more sunlight, which raises the temperature of water.
The eroded soil settles in stream beds, thus causing the
channel to widen, become shallower and impede the
water current. The soil particles suspended in water
bodies act like a sand paper. This can cause damage to
the gills of fish and cause difficulty in breathing. Muddy
water restricts the vision of fish to feed.
(d) Aquatic plants (e.g., algae) thrive well in warmer water
temperatures resulting in growth of large amounts of algae
and plants. The process of decomposition of these plant
material by bacteria uses a lot of oxygen. This can add
to the stress on fish and other aquatic organisms, which
might get killed.
Measures to Control Thermal Pollution
The warm water released during industrial processes may
be passed through an artificial cooling pond or a cooling tower.
The heat gets dissipated into the atmosphere and the resulting
cooled water may be reused or sent back to the source.
Q25. Explain the impact of thermal pollution on
stream water quality.
Answer :
Impact of Thermal Pollution in Stream Water Quality
The primary impact to stream water due to thermal
pollution are,
(i) Direct Thermal Shock
The heat generated from heat engines and internal
combustion engines is transferred to local water bodies
such as stream, river, or lake which leads to rise in water
temperature. Such temperature changes in water bodies affects
the reproductive systems of water borne species, increased
vulnerability to disease affecting their survival, which may
often lead to mortality and thus decline in their population.
(ii) Changes in Dissolved Oxygen
Increase in temperature of waterbodies leads to decrease
in the oxygen carrying capacity of water, increase in rate of
decomposition of organic matter, increase in metabolic rate
of life forms (e.g., fish, amphibians, copepods) in aquatic
ecosystem. The other effects are, increase in the respiration
rates and change in behaviour patterns of aquatic organisms.
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Unit-2 (Basic Theories of Industrial Waste Water Management) 2.15
(iii) Migration of Organisms
Changes in temperature of water bodies can cause out migration of aquatic forms to suitable environment and in migration
of aquatic forms that normally live in warmer waters elsewhere, thereby affecting the local biodiversity, damage to critical aquatic
food chain, increased vulnerability to predation, altered population composition through thermal stress and competition.
Q26. What do you mean by eutrophication?
Answer :
Eutrophication
The process of eutrophication usually occurs in land or water bodies (such as, lakes, estuaries and slow moving streams)
which receive excess chemical nutrients, typically compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus. These nutrients promote
excessive plant growth (algae, periphyton attached algae and plant weeds) often referred to as algal bloom.
Eutrophication leads to disruption of the normal functioning of the ecosystem and thereby leading to a variety of problems,
such as,
(a) Decrease in the resource value of water bodies (rivers, lakes and estuaries) as recreation, fishing, hunting and aesthetic
enjoyment are hampered.
(b) The general health and well-being is affected when the drinking water treatment is affected by eutrophic conditions.
The terrestrial ecosystem is affected as the increased nitrate content in the soil causes undesirable changes in vegetation
composition. Eutrophication of terrestrial ecosystem has endangered several plant species, e.g., many species of orchids in Europe.
Many terrestrial ecosystems such as meadows, forests and marshy areas with low nutrient content and rich species may grow
faster due to unnaturally elevated nitrogen levels. However, some vulnerable species of vegetation may be lost.
Human activities can enhance the rate of eutrophication in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. Some of them are, runoff from
agriculture and developmental activities, pollution from septic systems and drainage can change the levels of both inorganic
nutrients and organic substances into terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems.
Sources of Nutrient Runoff
The various sources of nutrient runoff may be categorized into two types. They are,
(a) Point sources
(b) Non-point sources.
(a) Point Sources
The point sources of nutrient runoff are as follows,
(i) Municipal and industrial waste water effluent.
(ii) Draining from waste disposal system.
(iii) Runoff from animal feedlets.
(iv) Draining from mines, oil fields, unsewered industrial sites and construction sites.
In point sources, the chemical nutrients are discharged directly from the source to the water body. For instance, the waste
discharge pipes in factories directly discharging into a water body.
(b) Non-point Sources
It is also referred as diffuse or runoff pollution. In non-point sources, the chemical nutrients are discharged from vague
and diffuse sources.
The non-point sources of nutrient runoff are as given below,
(i) Agricultural runoff.
(ii) Draining from the pastures.
(iii) Draining from unsewered urban areas.
(iv) Leaching of the septic tanks.
(v) Several land activities that generate contaminants like construction, mining activities etc.
Effects of Eutrophication
The process of eutrophication can lead to several adverse effects on the terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem. Some of these
effects are as follows,
(a) Increase in the biomass of phytoplankton due to increased nutrient discharge in the aquatic ecosystem.
(b) Growth of toxic or inedible phytoplankton species due to favored growth of weedy species.

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2.16 waste Management [JNTU-hyderabad]
(c) Increase in the population of gelatinous zooplanktons, benthic and epiphytic algae.
(d) Reduction in water quality due to changes in taste, odour and decrease in water transparency due to muddled and
discoloured water.
(e) Decrease in the dissolved oxygen content in water.
(f) Decrease in the resource value of fishing industry due to increased incidence of fish mortality, loss of desirable fish
species and decrease in the harvestable fish.
(g) Decrease in the aesthetic beauty of the water body.
(h) The biodiversity of an ecosystem decreases due to eutrophication.
The discharge of chemical nutrients into an ecosystem causes the primary producers to increase in numbers. The increase
in the population of algae (called as algal bloom) restricts the availability of sunlight to bottom-dwelling organisms. There is
a large variation in the amount of dissolved oxygen in water. The oxygen requirement by respiring plants and animals is met
by photosynthesizing plants and algae. During the daytime, the concentration of dissolved oxygen increases, but during night
time, the oxygen levels decrease, as the algae and microorganisms respire the dissolved oxygen and feed on the increasing mass
of dead algae. When the level of dissolved oxygen further declines, the marine organisms and other immobile bottom dwellers
suffocate and die. This condition leads to enhanced growth of bacteria such as ‘Clostridium botulinum’ which produce toxins
deadly to birds and mammals.
Prevention of Eutrophication
It is a known fact that eutrophication has adverse effects not only to ecosystems, but to humans as well. Therefore, the
primary concern for a sustainable living to one and all is to reduce eutrophication.
Q27. List out different polluting materials that industrial wastes contain. What are the problems that arise
when the wastes containing these materials are discharged into a stream?
Answer : [Nov-Dec-13, R09,Q3 | Model Paper-III, Q5(b)]

For answer refer Unit-2, Q14, Topics: Industrial waste, Impact of Industrial waste on environment and human health,
Q15, Q16, Q17, Q24, Q25 and Q26.

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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes) 3 .1

Marketed by:

Unit recirculation of

3
industrial wastes
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Part-A
Short Questions with Solutions
Q1. What are the advantages of waste water freezing process?
Answer :
The advantages of waste water freezing process are mentioned as follows,
1. Less expenses incurred in this type of treatment
2. Minimal energy consumption
3. Pre-treatment of waste water is not required
4. The method can be used for all types of industrial effluents.
Q2. What are the advantages of elutriation of sludge?
Answer :
The advantages of elutriation of sludge are,
1. The process ensures removal of carbonates and phosphates from sludge and thus reduce its alkalinity.
2. Removal of fine particles.
3. Removal of gas bubbles from the sludge.
Q3. How are the biofilters used in the deodorization of waste water?
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(e)

Biofilters consists of a media bed of naturally occurring microorganisms. The different types of microorganisms in the
matrix include Bacillus sps, Streptomyces sps, Pseudomonas, Nitrosomonas, Thiobacillus, Hypomicrobium, Doratomyces,
Fusarium sps, etc. The odourous air is collected by using ventilation fans and channelized to booster fans. The booster fans pass
the foul air to the matrix of biofilters. The foul air is passed in to the matrix via a system of distribution pipes. As the odourous
air move upwards, the microorganisms in the media trap the odourous compounds before being discharged to air.
Q4. Enumerate the reuse applications of treated waste water.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(f)

The treated waste water has the following reuse applications.

1. Irrigation
2. Industrial reuse
3. Groundwater recharge
4. Urban reuse
5. Domestic use
6. Recreational activities.

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3.2 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
Q5. Enumerate the processes involved in the Q9. Suggest the best management practices for
primary treatment of sewage. waste minimization in textile mills.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(e)
Answer :
The effective best management practices for waste
The processes involved in the primary treatment of minimization in textile mills are,
sewage are, (i) Biological pest control in cotton growing fields
1. Equalization (ii) Bleaching of cotton with hydrogen peroxide instead
of chlorine
2. Neutralization
(iii) Use of phosphate-free detergents and CFC-free dry
3. Sedimentation cleaning agents for washing and cleaning
4. Flocculation (iv) Desizing of textiles by using bioreactive dyes and
enzymes. Use of cellulosic compound, such as
5. Chlorination. carboxymethyl cellulose as a sizing agent is ideal,
Q6. Define reverse osmosis. as it has no toxic effects on streams
(v) Using alternatives to sodium sulphide in the dyeing
Answer :
process, eg: use of non-toxic vegetable product
Reverse osmosis can be defined as the flow of solvent ‘hydrol’ which is a waste byproduct from maize
molecules through the semipermeable membrane from the starch industry.
concentrated solution to the dilute solution under the influence Q10. What are the different types of thermal power
of pressure on the concentrated solution that is equal to the plants used for generating electricity?
osmotic pressure of the solution. Answer :
Q7. Name the different types of membranes used The different types of thermal power plants used for
for RO technology. electricity generation are,
(i) Coal-fired power plants
Answer :
(ii) Nuclear power plants
The different types of membranes used for RO (iii) Hydroelectric power plants
technology are, (iv) Geothermal power plants
1. Polyamide thin film composites (TFC) (v) Renewable energy plants
2. Cellulose acetate (vi) Solar thermal electric plants.
Q11. Name the suspended particulate matter
3. Cellulose triacetate generated from thermal power plants.
4. Polystyrene Answer :
5. Cellophane The term particulate matter refers to particles (solid or
liquid) that are suspended in the air. The power plants release ash
6. Polyvinylchloride. and unburnt carbon as emissions. Particulate emissions include
Q8. Name the different types of membranes used smoke particles, fumes, fly ash, cinders, gaseous pollutants such
in the filtration process. as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, oxides of nitrogen and
carbon monoxide.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(e)
Q12. What are the sources of waste in dairy plants?
The different types of membranes used in the filtration
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(f)
process are,
The different sources of waste in dairy plants include,
1. Natural products like cellulose acetate, cellulose (a) Washwater produced from cleaning of silos, storage
regenerate, cellulose nitrate.
tanks, trucks, heat exchangers, homogenizers,
2. Polyamides pipelines, other equipments.
3. Polyacrylonitrile (b) Spillage of milk during churning, homogenizing,
culturing, condensing, drying etc.
4. PVC/PAN copolymers
(c) Waste from spoiled/returned products.
5. Polysulphone (d) Detergents used for cleaning and sanitizing
6. Sulphonated polysulphates operations are discharged as waste.
7. Polyvinylindone difluoride (PVDF). (e) Lubricants used in the milk processing equipment
also contribute to waste.
8. Polyether sulfone (PES) (f) Sanitary sewage from the employees of the dairy
9. Polytetrafluroethylene, polyethylene, polypropylene. plants.

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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes)
Q13. What are biological production plants?
Answer :
Biological production plants are a category of
pharmaceutical plants involved in the production of antitoxins,
antisera, vaccines, serums, toxoids, antigens.
Q14. What are the chief characteristics of effluents
generated from pharmaceutical industries?
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(f)
The pharmaceutical industries generally produce
complex waste water that has the following constituents.
p – aminophenol, p – nitrophenolate, p –
nitrochlorobenzene, aminonitrozo - amino - benzene,
Aminonitrozo – amino – benzene, chlorinated solvents,
benzene, toluene, sulphanilic acid, sulfa drugs, analogous
substances, calcium chloride, sodium chloride, ammonium
sulphate, calcium sulphate, soidum sulphate, analgesics,
antibiotics, antiepileptics, beta blockers, blood lipid regulators,
contraceptives, biocides, fragrances, surfactants, morphine,
cocaine, methamphetamine, psychiatric pharmaceuticals such
as anxiolytics, sedatives, hypnotics, antidepressants and many
more.
Part-b
eSSAY Questions with
Solutions
3.1 Use of municipal waste water in
industries
Q15. Write a note on the adsorption process
for separation of pollutants in waste water
treatment facilities.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q6(a)
Adsorption
Adsorption can be defined as a type of separation
process, wherein the dissolved substances cling to the filter
material (for instance, activated carbon), due to the force of
attraction at the interface of two phases.
At the molecular level, adsorption occurs due to the
surface affinity between the adsorbate (the substance being
adsorbed) and the adsorbent (the adsorbing material). Some
examples of adsorbents, most commonly used are the activated
carbon, silica gel, activated alumina, activated charcoal,
zeolites, clay, peatmoss, chitosan etc.
Adsorption process occurs in two ways,
(a) Physical Adsorption
In this process, the solute molecules are bound to the
carbon surface by weak van der waal’s forces.
3 .3
(b) Chemisorption/Chemical Adsorption/Activated
Adsorption
In this process, the functional group of the solute
interacts with the carbon to form a stable chemical bond.
Activated carbon is a widely used adsorbent to remove
pollutants in water and waste water treatment systems. It is
made from carbon-rich raw material (eg. wood, coal, peat,
coconut shells, nutshells, bones and fruit stones) by controlled
combustion under controlled atmosphere and heat to developed
adsorptive characteristics. The main features of activated carbon
are,
(i) Large Surface Area
The activated carbon has large surface area as it
has numerous pores within the carbon particles.
(ii) High Surface Reactivity
The activated carbon has high surface reactivity
as it has numerous active sites on the surface of
the pores.
(c) High Adsorption Capacity
High adsorption capacity of activated carbon is due to
its large surface area.
Forms of Activated Carbon
Two forms of activated carbon are generally used in
wastewater treatment plants.
(i) Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
In GAC, the size of the activated carbon particle
is more than 0.8 mm, with large internal surface
area, and smaller internal pores.
(ii) Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC)
The size of the particle is less than 0.8 mm, with
small internal surface area and larger pores.
Limitations of Activated Carbons
The use of activated carbon in treating waste water has
some limitations,
1. This process of waste water treatment is limited to very
low concentration of organic and inorganic pollutants
and high molecular weight pollutants.
2. High cost incurred in operating the process.
Q16. What is defluoridation of water? Explain the
process involved.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q6(a)
Defluoridation of Water
The term defluoridation of water refers to the removal
of fluorides or reduce the concentration of fluorides in water
to make it safe for human consumption.
The presence of fluorides in water in optimal
concentration helps to prevent the formation of dental cavities.
High concentration of fluorides in water is harmful as it leads
to fluorosis of the bones and teeth.
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3.4 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
Process The components of ultrafiltration system are,
The process of defluoridation involves passing of feed Membranes
water or influent through granular – activated alumina (a semi- It has hollow-fibre polymer membranes bundled together
crystalline inorganic adsorbent. The fluoride gets adsorbed to and placed in a pressure vessel containing epoxy resin at one
the activated alumina. This technique is generally preferred for end. The waste water is pumped at a high flow rate under
defluoridation of community water. pressure.
Regeneration of Activated Alumina Bed The membrane allows water, low molecular weight
substances, such as soaps, salts, surfactants to pass through
The continuous use of activated alumina bed for
the pores. High molecular weight organic molecules (such
defluoridation of water affects the fluoride removal capacity. as proteins, DNA, starch), emulsified oils and colloids, (such
Therefore, the exhausted activated alumina has to be as clays, paints, pigments and latex particles), pathogens and
regenerated. their spores, bacteria and viruses are unable to pass through the
A concentrated solution of sodium hydroxide is passed membrane pores and thus remain in the waste water feed. The
through the bed, so that the bed has alkaline pH in the range of pore size of the ultrafiltration membrane generally range from
12.5 to 13.0, followe by back washing with raw water, upflow 0.002 µm to 0.05 µm.
with 1% NaOH solution. The ultrafiltration membrane technology is used for
efficient treatment of waste water and provide high quality
Maximum removal of fluorides occur when the pH of
water for reuse.
the bed is 5.0. The regenerated bed is treated with feed water
The membranes used in the filtration process are
acidified with sulphuric acid to lower the pH of the bed.
generally made up of the following materials,
Properties of Alumina v Natural products like cellulose acetate, cellulose
Some of the important properties of alumina are, regenerate, cellulose nitrate.
(a) Chemical composition : Al2O3 – Aluminium oxide. v Polyamides
(b) Highly porous material, with large surface area per unit v Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)
weight. v PVC/PAN copolymers
(c) Alumina is a mixture of amorphous and crystalline v Polysulphone
phases of aluminium oxide. v Sulphonated polysulphates
v Polyvinylindene difluoride (PVDF)
(d) Activated alumina is prepared by heating aluminium
hydroxide to remove waters of hydration, followed by v Polyether sulfone (PES)
activation with steam or acid to increase the surface area v Polytetrafluoroethylene, polyethylene,
and adsorptive properties. polypropylene.
The other defluoridation methods are the use of bone
Small Large
char or magnesium compound.
molecules molecules
Water
Advantages of Defluoridation by Activated Alumina Method Concentrated
The advantages of defluoridation by activated alumina liquid
method are,
Ultrafiltration
(a) Less amount of waste water, goes as waste. membrane
(b) Less expenditure incurred in equipment installation.
Filtered
(c) The operation cost of the equipment is less. water
(d) The consumption of energy for the entire process is
low.
Figure
Q17. Explain the ultrafiltration process in the
Advantages of Ultrafiltration
treatment of waste water.
The main advantages of ultrafiltration are,
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q6(a)
High quality water stream is produced which can be
Ultrafiltration
reused as potable water for human consumption and in the
Ultrafiltration is a type of physical separation technology manufacturing industries, in pharmaceutical and biotechnology
using membranes of pore size, 1 to 100 nm, to separate certain industries for preparation of tissue culture, fermentation media,
suspended solids, colloids bacteria and virus that lie suspended buffer solutions, analytical solvents, drugs and intravenous
in waste water. solutions.

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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes)
The accumulation or retention of contaminants at the
membrane surface can be prevented by operating the system
in a cross-flow mode. In this method, the feed water is allowed
to flow parallel to the membrane surface.
Thus, one influent feed stream becomes two effluent
streams (filtrate/permeate and retentate/concentrate). The
cross-flow mode of operation greatly improves the membrane
efficiency.
v The reclaimed water can be a source of raw water.
v Low investments incurred in operating the method.
v More than 70% of the waste water is reused and recycled
in many countries.
v Chemical additives are not used in this method.
Q18. Explain the microfiltration process in the
treatment of waste water.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q6(b)
Microfiltration
The waste water treatment plants employ microfiltration
as a type of membrane separation technology. The membranes
used in microfiltration can be broadly categorized into two
types,
(a) Membranes with tortuous type pores (depth
membrane): This type of membrane has convoluted
and interconnected pathways in the polymer
matrix material. The non-uniform width of the
channel restricts the size of the particles that can
pass through the membrane.
(b) Membranes with capillary type pores (screen
membranes): This type of membrane has straight
channel cylindrical pores of uniform diameter.
The microfiltration membranes are made up of cellulose,
polysulphone/polycarbonate, alumina/zicronica.
Types of Microfiltration
Microfiltration can be carried out in either of the two
modes.
(a) Dead-end Microfiltration (DEMF)
In this method, the raw solution/suspension flows
perpendicular to the membrane surface. The solids in the
suspension that are larger than the pore size of the membrane do
not pass through the membrane but accumulate at the membrane
surface to form a cake of solids.
The figure given below is a diagrammatic representation
of the dead-end filtration.
Figure : Diagrammatic Representation of Dead-end Filtration
3 .5
The deposited solids on the filter membrane increase
the height of the filter cake, decrease the filtration capacity
and permeability due to clogging. Therefore, the deposited
matter needs to be removed, either by back washing or by using
chemical/mechanical cleaning methods.
(b) Cross-flow Microfiltration (CFMF)
In this method, the raw solution or suspension flows
tangentially along the surface of filter membrance. The solids
are deposited on the surface of the membrane, while the liquid
that passes through membrane flows as permeate. Thus, a part
of the suspension is treated while the remaining suspension
passes off untreated as retentate.
The constant turbulent flow of suspension prevents the
deposition of solids on the filter membrane.
The figure given below is a diagrammatic representation
of cross-flow microfiltration method,
Figure : Diagrammatic Representation of Cross-flow
Microfiltration
Uses of Microfiltration
Some of the many uses of microfiltration are,
(a) Treatment of drinking and beverage water.
(b) Filtration of beer and wine.
(c) Processing of milk and whey.
(d) To retain biomass from fermentation broths.
(e) Separation of oil/water.
(f) Preparation of sterile fruit juices.
(g) Clarification of dextrose.
(h) Separation of antibiotics and viral containing
solutions.
(i) Filtration of colloidal or latex-based points.
(j) Separation of plasma from blood.
Q19. Explain the concept of reverse osmosis process
in the treatment of waste water.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q6(b)
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse osmosis can be defined as the flow of solvent
molecules through the semi-permeable membrane from the
concentrated solution of the dilute solution under the influence
of pressure on the concentrated solution that is equal to the
osmotic pressure of the solution.
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3.6
The figure given below is a diagrammatic representation
of osmosis and reverse osmosis.
Semi-permeable membrane
Salt water Normal
osmosis
Fresh water
Direction of waterflow
Figure : Diagrammatic Representation of Osmosis and Reverse
Osmosis
In the reverse osmosis method, the pressure applied on
the concentrated side of the membrane forces the pure water
to flow through the semi-permeable membrane into the dilute
side.
The impure water is allowed to flow into the system,
where the impurities (such as silt, colloidal particles,
microorganisms) are not allowed to pass through the membrane.
The pressure applied forces the water molecules to pass through
the semi-permeable membrane.
The different types of membranes used for RO
technology include the following,
(i) Polyamide Thin Film Composites (TFC)
(ii) Cellulose acetate
(iii) Cellulose triacetate
(iv) Polystyrene, cellophane, polyvinylchloride, ethyl
cellulose etc.
Uses of Reverse Osmosis
Some of the major uses of RO method are,
(a) RO method removes 99% of all contaminants and
impurities such as total dissolved solids, chemicals,
bacteria, viruses, chlorides/sulfates, arsenic, asbestos,
atrazine, fluoride, lead, mercury, nitrate, radium,
benzene, trichloroethylene, trihalomethanes, radon,
sodium, copper, calcium and magnesium ions, pesticides,
solvents and other volatile organic compounds.
(b) RO method removes aesthetic contaminants such as
unwanted odours, colours and tastes from water.
(c) The method is used in the desalination of seawater.
Q20. Write a brief note on deferrization and
demanganization by chemical precipitation in
waste water treatment.
Answer : (v) Domestic Use
Deferrization and Demanganization by Chemical
Precipitation Treatments
The removal of iron and maganese from waste water
by chemical precipitation treatment is called deferrization and
demanganization respectively. The process is accomplished in
the following ways,
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waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
1. Addition of lime or other chemicals to waste water to
adjust the pH value in the range of 10 to 11. Some of the
precipitate formed in the process settles to the bottom
while the remaining precipitate can be removed by using
sand filters. The pH of the filtrate is then lowered to 8.0
to 8.5 human consumption.
2. Oxidation of Waste Water
Waste water is oxidized in the following ways,
(a) By Using Air
Water containing iron and manganese are aerated,
resulting in oxidation of the minerals. The oxidized
minerals are removed through filtration.
(b) By Passing Chlorine
Prechlorination of waste water leads to the formation of
total trihalomethanes (TTHM’s). The pH of the waste
water must be in the range of 6.5 to 7.0.
(c) Use of Potassium Permanganate
Use of controlled amount of potassium permanganate in
waste water treatment is an effective method for removal
of iron and manganese.
Q21. Suggest different ways of reuse of municipal
wastewater.
Answer :
The treated wastewater can have the following types of
potential reuse applications.
(i) Irrigation
The treated municipal wastewater can be reused for
irrigating the pastures, orchards, vineyards, food crops, and to
spray irrigate the agricultural fields.
(ii) Industrial Reuse
The treated waste water can be used in the industries for
cooling water in petroleum refineries, chemical industries, metal
industries, paper and pulp mills, non-metal industries as once-
through cooling system, as well as for facility and equipment
washdown.
(iii) Groundwater Recharge
The treated wastewater used for groundwater recharge
aids in the abatement of salt water intrusion in coastal aquifers.
(iv) Urban Reuse
The wastewater can be reused for irrigation of golf
course, parks, athletic fields and landscaped areas, to increase
forest plantation, green belts or amenity trees in urban
landscape.
The direct reuse of treated wastewater for potable supply
is not a viable option, as there is a great risk to human health
and environment.
(vi) Recreational Use
The treated wastewater can be released into small
waterbodies used for boating, fishing and as ornamental ponds.
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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes)
Although water covers 70% of earth’s surface in the form
of oceans, rivers, lakes etc., only 3% contributes to freshwater
which is used for several purposes. Hence, it is prudent to
use water sustainably through thoughtful management and
co-operation by one and all.
Q22. Write a brief note on the methods of removal
of colour and odour from the industrial
wastewater.
Answer :
The decolorization of industrial wastewater can be
accomplished in the following ways.
Chemical and Physical Methods: The chemical and
physical methods involved in colour removal are,
(i) Coagulation: The spent wash is decolorized by using
chemicals like iron sulphate, iron chloride, aluminium
sulphate and polyhalides
(ii) Reverse osmosis
(iii) Ultrafiltration
(iv) Adsorption: Adsorption with different adsorbents
such as activated carbon, clay, kaolin, bentinite, flyash,
agricultural waste such as coir pith, pine tree bark,
meranti wood, Moringa olifera bark, M.olifera leaves
powder, Candida albicans biomass, tea factory waste,
dehydrated wheat bran carbon, dehydrated peanut hull.
(v) Use of Microorganisms: The microorganisms that can
remove the colour include Phanerochaete chrysospo-
rium, Trametes versicolor, Coriolus hirsultus, Bacillus
cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Acetobacter acetii, Bacillus
smithii, Bacillus thuringiensis, Lactobacillus hilgardi,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P.fluorescens, P.putida, Xan-
thomonas fragariae.
(vi) Advanced Oxidation Process: This is an emerging
technology which involves the use of O3, O3/ H2O2,
O3/UV, UV/H2O2, O3/UV/H2O2
Methods for Odour Control
The odourous emissions from waste water consist of
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S), mercaptans, disulfides, skatoles,
indoles, inorganic acids, aldehydes, ketones, organic compounds
containing nitrogen and sulphur atoms.
Pre-aeration of waste water involves the following
processes,
(a) Injection of large air bubbles for 20 to 30 minutes
following the screening of waste water.
(b) Mechanical agitation of waste water to enable more
absorption of air.
Such aeration methods help in flocculation of lighter
suspended solids to form heavier masses.
(c) Chlorination of Waste Waster
Chlorination of waste water is yet another method
to ward off the offensive odours. Chlorine dioxide,
Potassium permanganate and ozone have the oxidative
power on odorous substances.
3 .7
(d) Carbon Adsorption
Carbon adsorption method of deodorizing waste
water is accomplished by the use of activated carbon.
Activated carbon is a widely used adsorbent in waste
water treatment systems. It is prepared by thermal
decomposition under controlled atmosphere and heat.
(e) Biofilters
Biofilters consist of a media bed of naturally occurring
micro organisms. The different types of micro organisms
in the matrix include Bacillus sps, Streptomyces
sps, Pseudomonas, Nitrosomonas, Thiobacillus,
Hyphomicrobium, Doratomyces, Fusarium sps etc. The
odourous air is collected by using ventilation fans and
channelized to booster fans. The booster fans pass the
foul air to the matrix of biofilters. The foul air is passed
into the matrix via a system of distribution pipes. As
the odourous air move upwards, the micro organisms
in the media trap the odourous compounds before being
discharged to air.
Q23. Justify the need for recirculation of industrial
waste water.
Answer : Nov./Dec.-14, Q3(b)
The re-circulation of industrial waste water is an
important aspect of industrial waste water management. The
advantages of re-circulation of waste water are,
1. The escalating costs and constraints on the supply of
fresh water to the facility can be reduced.
2. Disposal of waste water is minimized.
3. Re-circulation of water reduces the need for the facility
to take in new water.
4. Reduced expenses incurred in the clean-up process.
5. Depletion of water levels in aquifers caused by overdraft
of ground water and reduced recharging capacity. Thus,
re-circulation of waste water leads to replenishment of
the dwindling water resources.
6. The discharge of untreated waste water into water bodies
causes,
(i) Degradation in the water quality characteristics
such as temperature, acidity, salinity and mineral
content and turbidity of the receiving water
bodies.
(ii) Infiltration of industrial wastes into ground water
and aquifers.
(iii) Altered eco-system services and the delicate
balance of the eco-system.
(iv) Increase in incidence of water-borne diseases.
(v) Eutrophication of water bodies.
(vi) Increase in expenditure for treatment of water
especially for the industries located downstream.
(vii) Inefficient self-purification of water bodies.
SIA Group
3.8
3.2manufacturing process
and design origin, special
characteristics, effects and
treatment methods of liquid waste
from textiles industry
Q24. Write briefly on the processes involved in
producing yarn from raw cotton.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q6(b)
The sequence of processes involved in producing yarn
from raw cotton include the following.
(a) Ginning
It is the process of separating cotton seed from the cotton
fibre.
(b) Opening
In this process, the cotton bales are moved to the bale
opening room and placed in feeder machine that cleans and
compresses the baled cotton.
(c) Clearing
This step involves the cleaning of the cotton layers of
foreign material (such as leaves, twigs, etc).
(d) Picking
This step involves a combination of rolling and beating
cotton.
(e) Carding
It is the process of pulling the cotton fibres into a rope-
like form called as sliver (pronounced as slyver). The trash,
foreign matter, as well as smaller impurities are removed in
the process.
(f) Drawing
The fibres in each sliver are combed and combined to
form a rope that is still very fragile.
(g) Spinning
It is the process of making yarn by drawing out the rope
and twisting numerous fibres into thin strand.
(h) Winding
It is the process of winding the yarn into bobbins.
(i) Warping
The yarn strands are made to run lengthwise and
coated with a sizing compound to add strength to the yarn for
weaving. Additionally, the sizing agent provides protection to
the yarn from the abrasive action of the loom (a device used
for weaving).
The natural sizing agents are starch and starch
derivatives, cellulosic derivatives (such as carboxymethyl-
cellulose, methylcellulose and oxyethyl-cellulose), protein
based starch (such as glue, gelatin and albumin). The
synthetic sizing agents are polyacrylates, modified polyesters,
polyvinylalchohols, styrol.
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waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
All the above mentioned processes are mechanical
operations, hence do not produce any liquid waste.
The procedure for producing finished cloth from yarn
includes the following processes.
(j) Singeing
It is the process of removal of fibres projecting out from
the textile structure.
(k) Desizing
It refers to the removal of the sizing agents from the
warp yarns. This is because the presence of sizing agents on
the yarn cause hindrance to the subsequent dyeing and printing
processes due to the hydrophobicity of the wax. The desizing
processes involved are of the following types.
(i) Enzymatic desizing of starches using amylase and
maltase
(ii) Oxidative desizing
(iii) Acid desizing
(iv) Removal of water soluble sizes.
(l) Kiering
In this process, the natural impurities are removed from
the fabric completely. The sourcing process is generally carried
out in a special steel/cast iron cylindrical vessel called as kier
boiler.
(m) Bleaching
Treating the fabric with bleach to purify the base colour.
(n) Mercerizing
Mercerizing is a process in which the fabric is passed
through a machine called mercerizer. The machine has caustic
soda and other chemicals at low temperature, meant to increase
the pore size of the fabric threads, to enable the colour to
penetrate during the dyeing process.
(o) Dyeing
Dyeing is the process wherein, the fibre or fabric is
treated with chemical pigments to impart colour.
(p) Finishing
The method includes brushing, napping, softening,
shearing and compacting of the textile structure to improve the
appearance of the fabric and enhance its looks.
All these procedures utilize large volumes of water and
thus generate substantial quantities of waste water.
Q25. Discuss the wet manufacturing processes
in textile mills that result in discharge of
pollutants in waste waters.
Answer :
The wet manufacturing processes resulting in discharge
of pollutants in wastewaters are,
o n t h e title cover before you buy
Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes) 3 .9
(a) Raw Wool Scouring
The process involves washing the wool to remove impurities in it like grease, sweat, dirt, faeces, vegetable matter,
disinfectants and insecticides.
(b) Scouring
The process involves treatment of cotton fabric with solution of sodium hydroxide, soap, sodium silicate, followed by
proper rinsing of the fabric to remove the chemicals.
(c) Carbonizing
The process involves treatment of wool with sulfuric acid, followed by neutralization with sodium carbonate solution.
Such a treatment results in the removal of burrs and other vegetable matter from wool.
(d) Fulling
The process involves mechanical treatment of the fabric in fulling machines in the presence of heat, moisture and pressure,
along with treatment with acid/alkali. In the end, the fabric is washed extensively to remove the chemicals.
(e) Desizing
The process involves treatment of the fabric in a solution of mineral acid or enzymes to remove the sizing compounds
applied to the fabric. The fabric is then thoroughly washed to remove the chemicals.
(f) Mercerizing
The process involves treatment of the fabric with a strong alkaline solution (eg: caustic soda solution) at low temperatures
followed by neutralization in acids. This treatment results in the permanent swelling of the fibre resulting in stronger, smoother
and shinier fabric.
(g) Bleaching
The process involves treatment of the fabric by using an oxidizing agent such as hydrogen peroxide, hypochlorite, peracetic
acid, chlorine dioxide, sodium perforate, or reducing agents to increase the whiteness of the fabric. Additionally, this process
removes or dissolves the pectins, waxes and impurities of foreign matter.
(h) Dyeing and Printing
The different types of dyes used in textile mills are of the following types.
(i) Acid Dyes: They contain Sodium salts of sulfonic acids or carboxylic acids and used for dyeing silk, wool, nylon
and modified acrylics.
(ii) Azoic Dyes: The azoic dyes contain Napthol and generally used to impart bright shade to the textile.
(iii) Basic Dyes: The basic dyes contain Hydrochlorides of salts or organic bases
(iv) Disperse Dyes: They contain organic pigments in acetic acid to colour the man made fibres such as polyester, nylon
and cellulose acetates.
(v) Mordant Dyes: Mordant dyes contain chromium oxide used to colour cellulosic fibres, wool or silk.
(vi) Reactive Dyes: Contain sodium chloride, urea, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, tri-sodium phosphate used for
dyeing cotton, rayon, flax, wool and silk.
(vii) Sulfur Dyes: Sulfur dyes contain is complex organic compounds and used to dye cotton, linen and rayon.
(viii) Vat Dyes: E.g., Indigo is used to colour the denim. It is primarily insoluble in water. It is first reduced in alkaline
liquor to produce the alkali metal salt of the dye which is applied to the denim. This is followed by oxidation with
peroxide or chromate to form the original insoluble dye.
Membrane technologies are used to treat the waste water to recover the valuable components and reuse the water.
Pollution of the environment by the use of different dyes can be prevented by,
(i) Use of trisodium citrate
(ii) Use of reducing sugar instead of sodium hydrosulphite (reducing agent) in the dyeing process.
(iii) Use of suitable dye-fixing agents, such as eco-friendly non-formaldehyde dye fixative agents.
(iv) Use of ecologically friendly mordants or natural mordants during dyeing with natural dyes.

SIA Group
3.10 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
Q26. What are the different types of wastes released from textile mills?
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q7(a)

The textile mill waste can be broadly categorized as,

(a) Pre-consumer Textile Waste
It includes the byproducts from fibre and textile industries.
(b) Post-consumer Textile Waste
This group includes the discarded textiles, worn-out and damaged textiles.
The textile industries produce the following wastes,
(i) Hazardous solid, liquid and gaseous waste
(ii) Organic solvents
(iii) Preservatives
(iv) Organic and mineral pigments
(v) Reagents for textile finishing.
Characteristics of Textile Waste
All these wastes are characterized by highly alkaline pH, high in Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and suspended solids
along with high temperature of waste water. The textile mill effluents have adverse effect on our surroundings. The discharge of
untreated effluents into waterbodies cause,
(i) Depletion of dissolved oxygen
(ii) Toxic effect on aquatic life worst
(iii) Changes in the soil characteristics.
The different process used in textile industry include ginning, opening, clearing, picking, carding, drawing, spinning,
winding, warping, singeing, desizing, kiering, bleaching, mercerizing, dyeing, finishing etc.
All these procedures utilize large volumes of water and thus generate substantial quantities of waste water.
According to EPA, 1997, ‘a large portion of waste water produced by textile industries is during the wet processing stages
which include sizing, desizing, scouring, bleaching, mercerization, dyeing, printing, finishing and ultimately washing’.
Some of the characteristics of textile waste produced in different processes are as tabulated below.
S.No. Process Involved in Pollutants in Effluent Characteristics of Effluent
Textile Manufacture
1. Sizing Carboxymethyl – cellulase, polyacrylates, High BOD, high COD, high concentration
polyesters, polyvinyl alcohol. of suspended solids.
2. Desizing Mineral acids, enzymes. High BOD, high concentration of total
solids.
3. Scanning Caustic soda, soda ash, detergents. High BOD, high COD, strongly alkaline
pH.
4. Bleaching Hydrogen peroxide, hypochlorite, paracetic High BOD.
acid, chlorine dioxide, sodium perforate,
pectins, waxes.
5. Mercerization Caustic soda, acids. Low in BOD and total acids.
6. Dyeing Vat dyes, developing dyes, napthol dyes, High salt content, high BOD, high COD.
sulfur dyes, basic dyes, direct dyes.
7. Printing Colours, starch, formaldehyde, oils, salts, High amount of total dissolved solids, and
solvents, acids/alkalis. total suspended solids, appearance of oily
residues.
8. Finishing Starch, dextrin, resin, wax, softeners and High BOD and COD, high concentration
other solvents. of suspended solids.

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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes)
Q27. Write a note on the various treatment methods
for textile mill waste.
Answer : auxiliaries in the dye, mineral salts, hydrolyzed reactive
Textile manufacturing involves intensive consumption
of water and generate effluents at various stages in the
manufacturing processes. Waste water treatment involves the
removal of contaminants from the waste water so that the treated
waste water may be reused or discharged into a receiving water
body.
The textile mill effluents are treated in the following
manner.
1. Physical Methods
The physical methods of textile mill effluent treatment
includes,
(a) Precipitation: Coagulation, flocculation and
sedimentation
(b) Adsorption: On activated carbon, peat, wood chips,
flyash, coal, silica gel, natural clay, corn cobs, rice
hulls, biological sludges.
(c) Filtration
(d) Reverse osmosis membranes processes.
(e) Advance oxidation of azodyes for conversion to
harmless chemicals.
2. Biological Methods
The biological methods of textile mill effluent treatment
includes,
(a) Activated sludge process to remove oxidizable
substances.
(b) Use of bentonite clay or activated carbon to the
biological treatment systems to eliminate the
non-biodegradable/microorganism-toxic organic
substances.
(c) Use of organic flocculants.
(d) Use of Biological Aerated Filter (BAF) based
technologies.
(e) Use of coagulation – Flocculation treatments to
eliminate insoluble dyes.
(f) Adsorption on powdered activated carbon in
combination with floculation decantation to reduce
the suspended solids and organic substances.
(g) Use of electrochemical technology to remove acids
and metal complexed dyes.
(h) Ozone treatment of effluents for decolorization of
wastewater.
(i) Decolorization of reactive azodyes by
transformation using Pseudomonas luteola.
(j) Biosorption of cationic dye by dead macrofungus
Fomitopsis carnea.
Membrane Processes
The different types of membranes processes involved
in textile mill effluent treatment are,
3 .11
(i) Reverse Osmosis
This method removes ionic compounds, chemical
dyes, resulting in the production of a high quality
permeate.
(ii) Nano Filtration
This method is used for the treatment of textile dye
effluents. This technique removes low molecular weight
organic compounds, divalent ions, large monovalent
ions, hydrolyzed reactive dyes, and dyeing auxiliaries.
(iii) Ultrafiltration
This method is used for elimination of macromolecules
and particles.
(iv) Microfiltration
This method is used to eliminate the chemicals used in
dyeing.
Q28. Write short notes on characteristics of textile
waste.
Answer : Nov./Dec.-13, R09, Q5(a)
For answer refer Unit-3, Page No. 3.10 and Q26.
3.3
manufacturing process
and design origin, special
characteristics, effects and
treatment methods of liquid waste
from paper and pulp industries
Q29. Write briefly on the processes involved in pulp
and paper making industry.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q7(b)
The different stages in the paper manufacturing process
are,
1. Raw Material Preparation
The raw material needed for paper-making is the
cellulose fibre derived from soft and hard wood, bamboo,
agricultural residues like bagasse, cereal straw, grass, bamboo,
esparto, sisal, flax and sorghum.
The preparation of raw material for paper and pulp plants
include the following.
(a) Debarking of wood either by mechanical methods
or hydraulic processes.
(b) Disintegration of wood by chipping it
(c) Screening of wood chips
(d) Cleaning of wood chips to remove the contaminants
(e) Depithing when bagasse is used.
The different types of wood used for paper-making are,
(i) Hard woods (such as eucalyptus, birch, poplar,
beech, aspen, maple, linden and alder)
(ii) Soft woods (coniferous trees)
(iii) Low resin content wood (spruce, hemlock, balsam,
fir)
(iv) Soft wood with high resin content (pines).
SIA Group
3.12
2. Manufacture of Pulp
Pulp is manufactured by mechanical, thermal, chemical
or a combination of these treatments.
In this step, the wood or fibrous raw material is reduced
to a fibrous mass by removing the intercellular substance i.e.,
lignin from the raw material. The presence of lignin in the pulp
affects the strength and brightness of the paper.
(a) Manufacture of Pulp by Mechanical Processes
In this method, mechanical energy is used to separate the
pulp from the wood. The different types of mechanical
pulping methods are,
(i) Stone Ground Wood Pulping (SGW)
The logs of wood are pressed sideways against a rotating
grinding stone, in the presence of water to produced a
ground pulp.
(ii) Refiner Mechanical Pulping (RMP)
The wood chips are reduced to pulp with the help of disc
refiners.
(iii) Chemi – groundwood pulping
(iv) Pressurized groundwood pulping
(v) Thermal refiner mechanical pulping
(vi) Thermo-mechanical pulping (TMP). The process
involves softening the wood chips by steaming followed
by the RMP process.
(vii) Chemi-thermo-mechanical pulping (CTMP):
In this method, chemicals are applied to woodchips to
produce long fibres (for higher sheet density and tensile
strength) followed by refiner pulping.
(viii) Semi-chemical mechanical pulping.
(b) Chemical Pulping Method
The main aim of the chemical pulping method is to
remove the non-cellulose wood components, (i.e.,
lignin) completely, without affecting the pulp properties.
Chemical pulping method of pulp-making includes
the alkaline process, sulfite process and semi-chemical
pulping methods.
(i) Alkaline Process
The alkaline process is of the following two types: soda
process and sulfate (kraft) process.
v Soda Process
In this method, the wood is boiled in 4% to 6% sodium
hydroxide liquor at a temperature of 170°C. However,
this method is not used anymore.
v Sulfate (Kraft) Process
In this method the wood chips are boiled in aqueous
solution of sodium sulfide (Na2S) and sodium hydroxide,
to form long fibred softwood pulp.
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(ii) Sulfite Process
In this process, a solution of calcium bisulphite
(Ca (HSO3)2) and sulfurous acid is used to defibre the wood.
(iii) Semi-chemical Pulping Method
This method involves a combination of chemical and
mechanical methods of pulping, wherein, the wood
chips are treated with conventional chemicals such as
sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate or sodium sulfate,
followed by the mechanical treatment in disk refiners.
(c) Biomechanical and Biochemical Pulping
In this method, the microorganism (such as white rot
fungi)/lignin degrading enzymes are used to treat wood chips
prior to mechanical or chemical pulping. This method helps to
reduce the impact on the environment due to paper and pulp
industries.
(d) Organosolv Pulping
In this method, the organic solvents such as methanol,
acetic acid, acetone or ethanol are used to treat the wood chips
for delignification (removal of lignin).
Nitric acid pulping and formaldehyde pulping are some
of the unconventional pulping processes.
3. Digestion
In this method, the wood chips are treated in a
pressurized vessel, called as digester (the digester is like a big
pressure cooker), under controlled conditions of temperature,
pressure, time and liquor concentration to produce a high quality
pulp that is free from lignin and hemicellulose (the non-cellulose
portion of wood).
4. Washing
Following the digestion process, the pulp is washed to
remove the cooking chemicals and lignin.
5. Bleaching
This process removes the residual lignin, resin and
hemi-cellulose present in the pulp which causes the yellowing
of paper.
Bleaching operations involve the use of chlorine (Cl2),
chlorine dioxide (ClO2), hydrogenperoxide and ozone to the
pulp. In modern mills, “total chlorine-free” bleaching method
is employed, as it is environment friendly. Thus, bleaching
improves the colour, brightness and appearance of the pulp for
use in printing books, magazines and making tissue papers. The
unbleached pulp is used to make grocery bags and cardboard
boxes.
6. Stock Preparation
In this step, the resulting pulp is dried to form dry pulp
sheets. Refining/beating of the pulp is done for fibrillating the
fibres, for better bonding during the sheet formation. Hollander
beater, Jones Bertan beater, Chaflin refiner, Jordan refiner and
disk refiners are the equipments used for this purpose.
Additionally, the following chemicals are added at this
stage.
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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes)
(a) Strength Additives
For uniform strength of the paper sheet.
(b) Fillers
E.gs: Calcium carbonate and Kaolin clay are added to
increase brightness, opacity, softness, smoothness and
ink receptivity.
(c) Sizing Agents
Eg: Rosin, starches, glues, caseins, synthetic resins and
cellulose derivatives. The sizing agents help to increase
the resistance to penetration of liquids in paper. The raw
stock thus formed is available in the form of bales.
Q30. Discuss the different types of pollutants
discharged by the pulp and paper mills into the
environment.
Answer :
Pollutants Discharged into the Environment
The different types of pollutants generated by pulp and
paper mills are as mentioned below.
(a) Various sulfur gases (hydrogen sulfide, methyl mercaptan,
dimethyl sulphide) create odour similar to rotten eggs.
The other gases discharged into the environment are
NOX, SOX, CO2 and CO.
(b) The effluents of pulp and paper industries contain the
following solid wastes – wood chips, bark pieces,
cellulose, fibres, lignin, bleaching liquids, fungicides,
additives (such as kaolin, wax, latex, resins), adhesives,
printing inks, toxic compounds.
(c) The liquid wastes generated as mill effluents contain
inorganic compounds, resins, fatty acids and phenolic
compounds, all of which increase the biological oxygen
demand (BOD).
The discharge of effluents generated by pulp and paper
mills result in,
(i) Depletion of oxygen in water
(ii) Alternation in the aesthetic appearance of water
(iii) Disturbance to the flora and fauna of water bodies
(iv) Disturbance to the fish spawning grounds
(v) Decrease in the hydraulic conductivity in the soil
(vi) Increase in the soil pH and electrical conductivity
(vii) Reduced germination, growth of roots and shoots,
decrease in protein and chlorophyll content.
Thus, the pulp and paper mill is considered to be the
most significant of industrial polluters of the environment.
Q31. Discuss the characteristics of raw waste water
from pulp and paper mill.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q7(a)
The production of pulp from wood requires large amount
of water. At the same time, a large volume of effluents are
discharged into the environment. So, the pulp and paper mill
is considered to be the most significant of industrial polluters
of the environment.
3 .13
The main components of the effluents include the
following.
1. Lignosulphonics
The action of chlorine on lignin produces chlorinated
derivatives (eg: lignosulphonic acid, resins, phenols
and hydrocarbons), thus imparting brown colour
to the effluents, which is responsible for aesthetic
unacceptability.
2. Metallic Compounds
Some of the heavy metals discharged into the effluents
are aluminium, copper, chromium, titanium, iron,
magnesium, zinc.
3. Resin acids are mostly found in softwood mill effluents.
They are a cause for concern because of their acute
toxicity to fishes in the recipient waters.
4. Phenolic Compounds
Many types of phenolic compounds are formed as a
byproduct from chlorine bleaching of pulp. The other
compounds which form an important part of the effluents
are, low molecular weight alcohols, aldehydes, ketones,
terpenes, sulphur bearing compounds, chlorocatechols,
chloroguaicols, chlorinated vanillins, and syringealdehyde.
5. Dioxins
Dioxins and dibenzo furans associated with pulp and
paper mill discharge are toxic and mutagenic to all living
organisms.
Q32. What are the various treatment methods for
effluents from paper and pulp industries?
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q7(b)
Treatment Methods for Paper and Pulp Mill Effluents
Pre-treatment
The treatment of the effluents discharged from paper
and pulp mill generally starts with pre-treatment (also called
as preliminary treatment). The first treatment step to remove
coarse solids in the effluents is by the use of screens and
comminutors. Constant velocity channels are used to remove
the grit from suspended matter.
Primary Treatment
The suspended solids in effluents may be separated by
centrifugation, filtration (eg: Ultrafiltration) decantation and
filter press. The most common method to remove fine suspended
matter in pulp and paper industry effluents is sedimentation.
Large tank used to remove the fine suspended matter
is called sedimentation tank. The effluent is passed into the
sedimentation tank where the sludge settles to the bottom of
the tank. The floating material (or scum) such as oil and grease
are skimmed off while the sludge settled at the bottom of the
tank is continuously removed.
Secondary Treatment
In this process, different types of microorganisms
(including bacteria and fungi) are employed to covert the
complex chemicals into simpler and less harmful compounds.
The secondary treatment of effluents is achieved by either of
the two ways.
SIA Group
3.14
(i) Aerobic Processes
The bacteria and fungi involved in the aerobic treatment
methods are,
Pseudomonas sps
Alcaligenes sps
Arthrobacter sps
Flavobacterium sps
Sphingomonas sps
Soil fungi – Fusarium sps
Soft rot fungi – Papulospora sps
Chaetomium sps
Pseudo soft-rot fungi – Hypoxylem, Xylaria
White rot fungi – Trametes, Phanerochate, polaria
Brown rot fungi – Gleophylluim, Poria, Coriolus
versicolor and Phanerochaete chrysosporium is used
in degradation of lignin and modified lignin. Trametes
versicolor, Tincto poria borbonica, schizophyllum
commune for the removal of colour from the effluents.
The other microorganisms used in the aerobic treatment
of effluents include Lentinus edodeus, Aspergillus
fumigatus, Pleurotus Ostreatus, Sporotrichum
pulverulentum, Heterobasidino annosum, Tinctoporia
sps, Aspergillus sps, Polyporous sps, Poria placenta,
Gleophillum trabeum, Paecilomyces sps, Polyporus
hirsutus.
(ii) Anaerobic Treatment
The anaerobic treatment of effluents involves the
degradation of organic matter into gaseous products.
The hydrolytic and fermentative bacteria convert the
insoluble organic matter to soluble organic matter. It
involves the use of anaerobic digesters, fluidized bed,
anaerobic lagoon, Imhoff tanks, anaerobic filters, and
upflow anaerobic sludge blankets to treat the paper and
pulp mill effluents.
Tertiary Treatment
The tertiary treatment of effluents includes the following
processes.
(i) Sedimentation/floatation
(ii) Coagulation and precipitation
(iii) Adsorption
(iv) Chemical oxidation
(v) Membrane filtration
(vi) Ozonation
(viii) Enzymatic treatment.
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3.4 manufacturing process
and design origin, special
characteristics, effects and
treatment methods of liquid waste
from thermal power plants
Q33. What are the different types of thermal power
plants used for generating electricity?
Answer :
The different types of thermal power plants used for
electricity generation are,
(i) Coal-fired power plants
(ii) Nuclear power plants
(iii) Hydroelectric power plants
(iv) Geothermal power plants
(v) Renewable energy plants
(vi) Solar thermal electric plants.
Q34. Explain the process involved in generating
electricity.
Answer :
The sequence of processes involved in power generation
are:
1. Burning of fuel in the boiler to boil water at a constant
temperature to convert into steam.
2. Further heating of the steam in a super heater to produce
super heated steam.
3. The high pressure steam is made to pass through a small
nozzle, which thus acquires kinetic energy and exerts
force on the turbine blades. The turbines produce the
electrical energy from the mechanical energy.
4. The steam leaving the turbine is condensed to water. The
heat from the steam is transferred to a cooling medium
i.e., water.
5. The condensate is reintroduced into the boiler.
Q35. Write a brief note on the wastes generated from
thermal power plants.
Answer :
Emissions from the Power Plants
The different types of pollutants generated by thermal
power plants are:
1. Suspended Particulate Matter as Air Pollutants
The term particulate matter refers to particles (solid or
liquid) that are suspended in the air. The power plants release
ash and unburnt carbon as emissions. Particulate emissions also
include the following:
(a) Smoke particles of less than 10 microns diameter.
(b) Fumes: These are small particles of metals and
metallic oxides.
(c) Fly ash: These are ash particles of more than 100
microns diameter.
(d) Cinders: these are ash particles of less than or equal
to 100 microns diameter.
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 Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes)
The other gaseous pollutants are sulphur dioxide,
hydrogen sulphide, oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide.
2. Solid Waste
Fly ash is generated in large amounts as solid wastes
in the thermal power plants. It is present as a finely divided
powdered form. Its constituents are calcium, magnesium,
manganese, copper, zinc, boron, phosphorus, toxic metals
like chromium, lead, mercury, nickel, vanadium, arsenic and
barium. Recent reports indicate that flyash also consists of
alumino silicates, quartz, iron oxides, mullite, haematite, calcite,
tourmaline, gypsum and portlandite.
3. Water Pollutants
When coal, oil or natural gas is burnt or when nuclear
fuels undergo fission, huge amount of energy in the form of heat
is released. This heat is used to form steam from water. The
steam, thus formed, spins turbines to generate electricity. Lots
of water is used for cooling the spent steam. This water is then
returned to the source (lake, river, stream or sea) at a higher
temperature. The hot water interferes with the natural ecosystem of
waterbodies, causing stress on aquatic life forms. The increase
in water temperature causes decrease in the solubility of oxygen,
causing stress to many cold water fish, resulting in their death
and a negative effect on the food chain.
4. Noise Pollution
Noise pollution due to thermal power plants is caused
due to crushers, belt conveyors, fans, pumps, compressors,
turbines, etc.
Q36. Write briefly on various treatment methods of
waste water from thermal power plants.
Answer : In this step, the excessive organic material on the hide/
The wastewater generated in thermal power plants is
treated as follows:
(a) Use of High Performance Oil Separators
The oil containing wastewater is treated with high
performance oil separators. The oil-separated waste water is
then passed through a number of filters consisting of sand,
oil adsorbent and activated carbon. This treatment separates
remnants of oil, suspended solids, etc.
(b) Coagulation Sedimentation
In this step, the treated waste water from the above step
undergoes neutralization and coagulation sedimentation. The
acids and alkalis are neutralized and the sedimented solids are
removed.
3.5 manufacturing Process And design
Origin, special characteristics,
effects and Treatment Methods of
liquid waste from tanneries
Q37. Discuss the manufacturing processes involved
in leather tanning industry.
Answer :
The processing steps involved in the conversion of
animal hides into finished leather are as mentioned below.
3 .15
1. Curing by Dry-salting/Brining
The hide/skin of the carcass (sheep, cattle) are stripped
off, stretched on frames or spread on the ground for
drying in the sun. The fleshy side of the hide is coated
with salt. This process is called as curing by dry-salting.
Brining consists of submerging the hide/skin in a
solution of sodium chloride and napthalene.
2. Disinfecting the Hides
The hides are treated with disinfecting agents such as
DDT, zinc chloride, mercury chloride chlorophenols,
etc.
3. Beamhouse Operations
It involves trimming, soaking, dehairing, liming, fleshing
and splitting.
(i) Soaking
The process involves the use of sodium hydroxide,
sodium hypochlorite, sulphides, wetting agents,
emulsifiers, surfactants, enzyme preparations and
bactericides for soaking the hides and skins in large
vessels to remove dirt, blood, excreta and inter-fibrillary
material.
(ii) Liming and Dehairing
The process involves the use of lime and sodium sulphide
to remove the hair, wool, interfibrillary components and
epidermis.
(iii) Fleshing
skin is scraped off mechanically. Essentially, this process
removes the excess tissue, muscles or fat sticking to the
hide, thus resulting in uniform thickness of the hide.
(iv) Splitting
In this step, knives are used to change the thickness of
hide and skins.
4. Tanyard Processes
The tanyard processing involves the following steps.
(i) Deliming
The hide/skin is treated with weak acidic salts of
ammonium chloride and ammonium sulphate to remove
the residual lime. This step makes the skin receptive to
tanning.
(ii) Bating
The process involves the use of enzymes to remove the
inter-fibrillary proteins.
(iii) Pickling
The process involves the treatment of skin/hides with
sodium chloride and sulphuric acid.
(iv) Degreasing
Degreasing involves the treatment of skin/hide with
organic solvents or non-ionic surfactants to remove the
grease.
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3.16
(v) Tanning
In this step, chromium and vegetable tanning agents
are used to stabilize the collagen fibres. Such treatment
prevents the putrefaction (rotting) of the hide/skin,
increases the resistance to mechanical action and heat.
The other tanning agents used in the process are alum,
syntans, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde and heavy oils.
The vegetable tannins are obtained from tree barks of
chestnut, oak, quebracho, myrobalan or wattle.
5. Post-tanning Operations (Wet Finishing Operations)
The different processes involved in this step are,
(i) Neutralization
This process is meant to remove the remains of the acids
present in the leather.
(ii) Retanning
To improve the appearance and feel of the leather.
(iii) Dyeing
Water soluble dyes are used to colour the surface of the
hide and skin.
(iv) Fat Liquoring
In this process, the leathers are lubricated with animal/
vegetable/synthetic oils to replace the fat content lost
during the previous processes.
(v) Drying
This step involves drying of the leather.
5. Finishing Processes
The finishing process involves the following steps.
(i) Staking
This step refers to mechanical beating process to make
the leather soft.
(ii) Buffing
In this step, fine abrasives are used to produce a suede
finish to the leather.
(iii) Spray Finishing
This step involves the use of solvents, plasticizers,
binders and pigments.
(iv) Plating
This step is meant to smoothen the surface of the coating
material with the help of extremely high pressure per
square inch.
(v) Embossing
In this step, a raised design is made on the leather surface
by applying pressure from a heated plate.
The different steps in the finishing processes results in a
smooth, polished surface of desired colour in the leather.
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waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
Q38. Write a brief note on the leather tannery
effluents.
Answer :
1. Large quantities of chemicals needed for leather
processing are released into the washwaters. These
include sodium chloride, chromium sulphate, calcium
salts, ammonium salts, acids, alkalis, fat liquor, organic
dyes, bactericides, soda ash, calcium oxide, ammonium
sulphide, ammonium chloride, sodium bisulphate,
sodium chlorite, sodium chloride, sulphuric acid, formic
acid, sodium formate, sodium bicarbonate, vegetable
tannins, syntans, resins, polyurethane, dyes, fat emulsion
pigments, binders, waxes, lacquers, formaldehyde and
volatile organic compounds, all of which impart turbidity
and foul smell to the effluents.
2. The two types of tanning processes practiced in the
leather tanning industry are: vegetable tanning and
chrome tanning. In the chrome tanning process,
chromium is used which finds its way into the waste
waters. Reports indicate that exposure to chromium
via ingestion, inhalation or dermal contact can harm
the gastro intestinal, respiratory, immunological and
reproductive systems.
Recent reports indicate that the use of hexavalent
chromium salts, aniline, azodyes, organic solvents,
formaldehyde and chlorophenols in leather tanning and
finishing cause cancer of the lungs, sino-nasal region,
pancreas, bladder and testicles in the workers.
3. The air pollutants released by leather tanneries include
H 2S, NH 3, CO, CO 2, NO 2, formaldehyde during
unhairing, liming, deliming, bating and finishing
processes, burning of tannery residuals in the open
atmosphere.
The different types of pollutants discharged by the
leather tanning industry impart high BOD, high COD,
high TDS, alkaline pH and unpleasant odour to the
wastewater.
Q39. Write briefly on the treatment methods of waste
water effluents from leather tanneries.
Answer :
The waste water effluents from leather tanneries are
treated in the following manner.
1. Preliminary Treatment
The preliminary treatment of leather tannery effluents
involves the removal of large particles/solids, sand/grit,
grease, etc.
2. Physical Treatment
The coarse matter and suspended solids are removed
to reduce the BOD and COD content to simplify the
biological treatment phase.
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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes)
The process involves the use of the following, of waste water. The dead microorganisms and organic
(a) Bar Screens – To remove large solids, flesh and hair
(b) Grit and Floating Matter Removal Chamber – To
remove grit and floating material
(c) Fine Screens – To remove the fine suspended solids.
(d) Sedimentation Tanks as drinking water without treatment. Thus, bacteria and
Sedimentation tanks are large tanks used to remove
fine suspended matter. The tannery effluents are passed
into sedimentation tanks, where the sludge settles to the
bottom of the tank. The floating material is skimmed
off while the sludge settled at the bottom of the tank is
continuously removed.
(e) Coagulation and Flocculation
It involves the use of chemicals to enable settling of
suspended solids. In this step, use of chemical coagulants
such as alum, carbondioxide, sulphuric acid, ferric
chloride and lime result in the decrease in BOD of the
effluents.
3. Biological Treatment
The biological treatment of effluents is achieved by
either of the two ways:
(a) Anaerobic Treatment
The anaerobic treatment of tannery effluents involves the
degradation of organic matter by the action of hydrolytic
and fermentative bacteria in the absence of air and free
oxygen. Anaerobic digesters and anaerobic lagoons are
used for this purpose.
(b) Aerobic Treatment
In the aerobic process of effluent treatment, the microbial
population require both oxygen and a substrate to
survive. These microbes consume the biodegradable
soluble organic contaminants such as sugars, fats,
organic short chain carbon molecules, and bind the less
soluble fraction into floc.
Some of the aerobic processes used in the treatment of
effluents are,
(i) Oxidation Ponds
The oxidation ponds, also referred to as Wastewater
Stabilization Ponds (WSP) consist of several ponds
operating in series. These ponds involve a simple process
of treating waste water in rural areas by the combined
activities of algae and bacteria.
The bacteria breakdown the organic matter and the
inorganic end products are used up by algae and in turn
produce oxygen by the process of photosynthesis. It
is this oxygen which is utilized for aerobic oxidation
3 .17
solids settle at the bottom, where the anaerobic reactions
reduce their volume. The greatest advantage is that
the organic matter gets stabilized and the number of
pathogenic microorganisms decreases. This method
of sewage treatment is beneficial especially when the
effluents are discharged to a stream or lake which is used
algae have an important role in transforming dissolved
nutrients into particle aggregates and thus contributing
to the treatment of waste water.
(ii) Activated Sludge System
The figure below is a generalized schematic representation
of an activated sludge system,
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of an Activated
Sludge System
The waste water, after the primary treatment operations,
is sent to an aeration tank containing active microbial
population. The tank must be continuously aerated. The
mixture is passed to a settling tank. The settled cells are
recycled back to the aeration tank in order to maintain
sufficient biomass (i.e., to have a high concentration of
cells) for the degradation of the organic material in the
aeration tank. Other forms of activated sludge system
include extended aeration, contact stabilization, step
aeration and pure oxygen processes.
(iii) Trickling Filter System
The trickling filter system consists of a cylindrical
concrete tank (diameter = 10 – 15 mts, depth ~ 3 mts).
The bottom of the tank is underlaid with a drain pipe.
The tank is packed with support media made up of coke
(carbonized coal), limestone chips or specially fabricated
plastic media. The biomass is attached to the support
media on which they grow. The waste water (influent)
is distributed across the biomass film using perforated
rotating arms that radiate from a central pivot. As the
liquid trickles through the bed, oxygen in the air diffuses
through the waste water film and enters the biomass. The
organic matter is absorbed and degraded by the biomass
while the liquid is collected in drains at the base.
With the growth of organic matter, the biomass layer
thickens and in due course, some inner portion of the
biomass gets detached from the support media due to
lack of oxygen and nutrients, resulting in the growth of
a new layer. The separated biomass now settles as floc.
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3.18 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of a Trickling Filter System

(iv) Aerated Lagoon
The aerated lagoons are the surface-aerated basins dug out in earth to carry out biological oxidation processes for treating
industrial waste waters.

Figure
Aerated lagoons are generally categorized into two types,
(i) The completely mixed lagoon/completely suspended lagoon.
In this type of lagoon, the concentration of solids and dissolved oxygen is almost the same.
(ii) The facultative lagoon/aerobic-anaerobic lagoon/partially suspended lagoon.
In this type of lagoon, the solids accumulate at the bottom of the basin, which undergo anaerobic decomposition
while the upper portion is open to the atmosphere, therefore, aerobic. Motor-driven floating aerators are placed on the upper
surface of the lagoons. They serve two purposes,
v Transfer of air into the basin
v For mixing the air with wastewater and microbes.
The solids that accumulate at the bottom of the aeration basins need to be removed periodically to avoid build up of a
permanent deposit.
4. Electrolytic Process
The tannery effluents are passed through a sand-bed which traps the solids like flesh, hair etc. The pH of the filtrate is
adjusted to 3.5, which is then sent to a reactor comprising an anode and a cathode. A current of 4 amperes and 11 volts is
passed between the electrodes. In this electrochemical reaction, chromium of oxidation state III is converted to chromium
of oxidation state VI. The organic matter in the suspension undergoes oxidation due to the nascent oxygen produced in
the process, whereas the suspended solids float on the surface. So, this process ensures the removal of chromium from
the tannery waste, which is considered very harmful for the microorganisms that participate in the aerobic and anaerobic
biological processes.
Q40. Write short notes on removal of chromium.
Answer : Nov./Dec.-13, (R09), Q5(b)

Chromium is widely used in the leather tanning, electroplating and metallurgical industries. Chromium in wastewater can
be reduced by using microbes like Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterobacter cloaca, P.florescens, Desulfovibrio desulfuricans,
immobilized on polyacrylamide gels. Actinomycetes strains also reduce the chromium levels considerably. Bioaccumulation of
chromium by strains of Bacillus criculans, B.megaterium have led to decrease in the concentration of chromium. Biosorption of
chromium from wastewater has been reported from microbes including Oscillatoria sps, Arthrobacter sps, Agrobacterium sps,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa as well as sulphate reducing bacteria.

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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes) 3 .19
Biosorption of trivalent chromium from the industrial effluents has been reported by the use of the following:
(i) Dried bark of Pinus sylvestris
(ii) A column packed with calcium alginate beads with humic acid.
(iii) Use of unicellular biflagellate halophilic green algae, Dunaliella, Carlina vulgaris, Scenedesmus obliquus,
Synechocystis sps, Cladonia crispata, Spirogyra sps, fungal species of Mucor meihi, Rhizopus nigricans, R.arrhizus,
Aspergillus niger, Streptomyces griseus.
The other methods of chromium removal include.
v Adsorption by using activated carbon, saw dust and flyash, agricultural products such as insoluble starch, xanthate,
peanut skin, flour waste and onion skin.
v Use of coagulating agents such as alum, lime, calcium hydroxide, magnesium oxide, magnesium hydroxide, ferrous
sulphate, ferric chloride.
v Use of precipitating agents such as sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, calcium carbonate, sodium hydroxide,
sodium sulphide, ferric chloride and ferrous sulphate.

3.6 Manufacturing Process And design Origin, SPECIAL characteristics,

effects and treatment methods of liquid waste from FERTILIZERs INDUSTRY
Q41. Discuss the various manufacturing processes in the production of fertilizers in the fertilizer industry.
Answer :
In general, the fertilizer industry is of the following types,
1. Nitrogen based fertilizer
2. Phosphate based fertilizer
3. Potassium based fertilizer.
1. Production of Nitrogen Fertilizers
The nitrogenous fertilizers used all over the world are of the following types : aqua ammonia, ammonium sulphate,
ammonium phosphate, ammonium nitrate, urea. The raw material needed for the production of nitrogenous fertilizer is ammonia.
Thus, ammonia serves as a building block for the production of nitrogen fertilizers.
The various steps involved in the production of ammonia are as discussed below.
(a) Natural Gas Desulphurization
The raw material needed for this step is the natural gas which can be obtained from natural gas deposits in many locations
especially from Mumbai High, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Tripura, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. The latest reports indicate
gas reserves in Krishna-Godavari Basin, Cauvery Basin as the most promising areas for exploration and production of natural gas.
The natural gas is first purified of dust, oil, water using separators, fillers, etc., and then passed through a bed of activated carbon
or zinc oxide, to remove the sulphur compounds in it. This step is essential because the sulphur compounds have a tendency to
deactivate the catalysts used in the subsequent steps. The H2S gas present in the natural gas gets adsorbed and the desulphurized
natural gas passes out.

(b) Catalytic Steam Reforming

This step is considered to be the most popular method of producing hydrogen for ammonia synthesis. The process takes
place in two stages.
(i) Primary Reforming
It involves the conversion of natural gas to a mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide and carbondioxide by the reaction
of steam in a primary reformer. The mixture of gases is collectively called as synthesis gas (also known as syngas).

The mixture of gases along with air is sent to the secondary reformer.
(ii) Secondary Reforming
The secondary reformer is an insulated vessel filled with nickel catalyst. Combustion of air above 1100º C result in the
following conversions,

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3.20
Methane to hydrogen, carbon monoxide and
carbondioxide. The nitrogen needed for ammonia
synthesis is supplied from the air. The different gases
leaving the secondary reformer are : hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, carbondioxide, nitrogen, and small amounts
of methane, argon and steam. These gases are cooled in
a waste heat boiler before sending them to the carbon
monoxide shift converter.
(c) Carbon monoxide Shift Converter
In this step, carbon monoxide is converted to
carbondioxide and hydrogen in the presence of nickel catalyst.
It is an exothermic reaction.
(d) Carbondioxide Removal
The carbondioxide formed in the previous step is
removed by either of the following methods,
(i) Monoethanolamine scrubbing
(ii) Hot potassium scrubbing
(iii) Sulfinol (sulfolane and an alkanolamine).
This step is essential to remove the carbon monoxide
and carbondioxide as they can poison the ammonia synthesis
catalyst in the downstream processes.
(e) Methanation
The traces of carbondioxide and carbon monoxide in the
synthetic gas are removed by catalytic methanation in a reactor
containing nickel (Ni) catalyst, temperature of 400° C – 600ºC,
and pressure upto 3000 kPa.
Carbon
monoxide
Carbondioxide Carbon
monoxide
(f) Ammonia Synthesis
The gas produced from the methanator has hydrogen and
nitrogen in the ratio of 3 : 1, which undergoes catalytic reaction
in ammonia synthesis reactor to form ammonia at temperature
of 500º C, pressure of 270 to 350 atmospheres, over an activated
iron oxide catalyst.
Ammonia is used as a fertilizer in the following forms,
(i) Aqua ammonia (also referred as aqueous solution
of ammonia, ammonia solution, ammonia liquor,
ammonium hydroxide). Compressed ammonia gas is
forced into water to yield ammonia solution.
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waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
(ii) Ammonium sulphate, (NH 2)2SO4 – Ammonia and
sulphuric acid react to form ammonium sulphate.
(iii) Ammonium phospate, (NH 4 ) 3 PO 4 – Ammonium
phosphate is prepared by treating ammonia with
phosphoric acid.
(iv) Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3 – Ammonia is converted
to nitric acid, catalyzed by platinum. Nitric acid further
reacts with ammonia to form ammonium nitrate.
(v) Urea – (NH2)2CO (also known as carbamide or carbonyl
diamide)
Ammonia and carbondioxide react to form ammonium
carbamate at temperature of 180º – 190º C and a high
pressure of 160 – 170 kg/cm2.
The above mentioned reaction is followed by dehydration
of ammonium carbamate to give urea and water.
(vi) Nitric acid
(vii) Nitrogen fertilizer solution.
2. Production of Phosphate Fertilizers
The different steps involved in the production of
phosphate fertilizers are as discussed below.
(a) Phosphate Rock Grinding
Phosphate rock is a natural mineral of geological
deposits. It is ground mechanically to form phosphorite/
mineral phosphate of optimum particle size.
(b) Wet Process Phosphoric Acid
This step involves the treatment of insoluble phosphate
rock with sulphuric acid (H2SO4) or nitric acid (HNO3).
The product, phosphoric acid formed from nitric acid is
mixed with other ingredients to produce a fertilizer. The
phosphoric acid formed from reaction of phosphate rock
with sulphuric acid needs to undergo further processing.
(c) Phosphoric Acid Concentration
Reaction of insoluble phosphate rock with sulphuric acid
yields phosphoric acid, that needs to be concentrated to
50% - 54% by using vacuum evaporators.
(d) Phosphoric Acid Clarification
This step involves removal of impurities in phosphoric
acid, such as iron phosphate, aluminium phosphate,
gypsum, fluorosilicates, by clarification and/or
centrifugation process.
(e) Normal Superphosphate (also called as Single Super
Phosphate (SSP))
The ground phosphate rock is treated with sulphuric
acid, dried, and cured for about 8 weeks.
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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes) 3 .21
(f) Triple Super Phosphate (TSP)
The ground phosphate rock is treated with phosphoric acid to form triple superphosphate as the end product. TSP is also
known as double, treble, or concentrated superphosphate.
(g) Ammonium Phosphate
Ammonium phosphate is produced by reacting phosphoric acid with ammonia. The major types of ammonium phosphatic
fertilizers are diammonium phosphate (DAP) and monoammonium phosphate (MAP). The ammonium phosphate liquid
slurry is passed through rotary drum granulator for conversion to solid granules. The granules are cooled, screened, bagged
and shipped.
The flow-chart depicts the production process of phosphate fertilizers.

Figure
The phosphatic fertilizers are used in the following forms,
– Ammonium phosphate
– Calcium phosphates
– Defluorinated phosphates
– Diammonium phosphates
– Phosphoric acid
– Super phosphates.
3. Potash Fertilizers
Potash fertilizers and potassium chloride (also known as muriate of potash), potassium sulphate and double manure salts.
These are produced from natural salts like carnallite, sylvinite, halite and kiesrite.
Q42. What are the different types of pollutants discharged from the fertilizer industry?
Answer :
The different types of pollutants released from fertilizer industries are as mentioned below.
1. Sulphur Dioxide
The phosphate fertilizer industry discharges sulphurdioxide into the environment. The discharge of sulphurdioxide can
be reduced by the use of electrostatic precipitators, mist eliminators, water scrubbers etc.
2. Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen oxides are emitted from fertilizer industry in the form of orange-coloured gas. Nitrogen oxide emissions can be
reduced by the use of tail gas combustors, which reduce nitrogen dioxide to the colorless nitric oxide (NO).
3. Fluorine Compounds
The different types of fluorine compounds released from the fertilizer industry can be controlled by wet-scrubbing of
fluorine compounds with silicic acid in a high pressure venturi scrubber and mist collector. Use of cyclone separator and vacuum
flash cooling have minimized the emissions.
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3.22
4. Particulates
Particulates are discharged from fertilizer industry
during the phosphate rock drying, grinding operations, wet-
processing of phosphoric acid, dry fertilizer processing and
ammonium nitrate plants. The particulate emissions can be
controlled by the use of baghouses, scrubbers, enclosures, and
dust collection systems in the fertilizer industry.
5. Carbondioxide
The discharge of carbondioxide gas can be controlled by
scrubbing with monoethanolamine or hot potassium carbonate
solution.
6. Wastewater
The waste water from fertilizer manufacturing
operations contain high levels of nitrogenous compounds
(ammonia, nitrates, organic nitrogen), which can be removed
by the following processes; biological nitrification, aeration,
denitrification, air or steam stripping, ion-exchange treatment,
break point chlorination. The wastes from phosphate and
phosphorus fertilizer industry can be treated by lagooning,
mechanical clarification, coagulation etc.
7. Phosphates
Phosphates in wastewater can be removed by chemical
precipitation. Phosphates precipitate as calcium phosphate,
aluminium phosphate, iron phosphate. These are removed by
the use of,
(a) Clarifiers/flocculators
(b) Sludge blanket clarifiers
(c) Dissolved air floatation process (DAF)
(d) Conventional biological sequencing batch reactors
(e) Physicochemical sequencing batch reactors.
8. Oil in wastewater can be removed by the use of gravity
separators.
3.7 Manufacturing Process and design
Origin, special characteristics,
effects and Treatment methods of
liquid Waste from Distillers
Q43. Discuss the various manufacturing processes
in the production of alcohol in the distillery
industry.
Answer :
The raw material required by the distillery industry
are sugarcane molasses, sugarcane juice, sugar beet molasses,
cereals and other agroproducts such as corn, ragi, wheat, jowar,
barley etc. The main processes involved in the distillery industry
are as mentioned below.
1. Screening
The barley grains are screened to remove the foreign
matter and debris.
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waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
2. Malting
The grains are soaked is water tanks (also called as
steeps) for 2 to 3 days. The soaked grains are spread out on
stone or concrete floors called as the malting floor and allowed
to germinate or sprout for about 10 days. During this process,
the starch stored in the barley grains in converted to sugars, the
reaction being catalyzed by the enzyme amylase. The grains
are turned at frequent intervals for,
v Providing proper ventilation to the grains
v To enable proper germination
v To control the heat produced during the germination
process.
The germination process is arrested by drying the malted
barley in the kiln.
3. Kilning
The grains are dried in a malting kiln in several stages.
During the first phase, hot air of 60° – 65°C is passed through
the grains. In the next phase, the temperature of the air is further
increased by 10°C so that the moisture content of the grains
reduce to 5%. Now, the grains called as malt is allowed to cool
down gradually.
4. Mashing
The malt is ground in a mill to form grist. It is transferred
to large vessels made of stainless steel or copper, called as
mash tubs or mash tuns. Hot water at a temperature of 64°C is
mixed with the grist. The resulting sugary liquid called wort is
drained through small holes at the bottom of the mash tun into
a collecting tank. In the next phase, more water is added to the
vessel. The temperature is raised to 70° – 75°C. The resulting
wort is again collected in the collecting tank. In the third phase,
again water is added to the vessel, and it is boiled. The liquid
is allowed to cool and mixed with another batch of grist. The
spent grain, called as draff, is removed for reuse as animal feed.
5. Fermentation
The wort is transferred into large vessels called
fermentation tanks (also known as wash backs). These tanks
are made of wood (larch or pine wood), or stainless steel. Yeast
is added to the fermentation tanks. It catalyzes the conversion
of sugar to alcohol. Lactic acid bacteria also proliferate which
lower the pH of the medium and add flavour to the final product.
6. Distillation
The alcohol in the fermented wort is separated from
the water by the process of distillation. The boiling point of
alcohol (78°C) being less than water (100°C), evaporates first,
leaving the water behind. The alcoholic vapours are collected
by distillation. The first distillate is passed through second
distillation and third distillation. Then, the alcohol or rectified
spirit of acceptable standard is collected in the receiver.
Q44. Write a brief note on the characteristics of
distillery effluent.
Answer :
The unwanted products formed after distillation of
alcohol is referred by several names – spent wash, stillage or
alcohol distillery waste.
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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes) 3 .23
The distillery effluent is characterized by,
1. High temperature
2. Low pH
3. High ash content
4. High percentage of dissolved biodegradable organic and inorganic matter, including sugar, lignin, hemicellulose, dextrin,
resin, organic acids.
5. Very high biological oxygen demand (BOD)
6. High chemical oxygen demand (COD)
7. Various types of metals including iron, manganese, zinc, copper, chromium, cadmium, cobalt.
8. High electrical conductivity of 15 – 23 decisiemens per meter, as the spent wash is loaded with organic and inorganic
salts.
Q45. Explain yeast sludge, spent wash and combined waste along with their characteristics.
Answer :
The molasses formed as a by-product of the processing of sugarcane is used as raw material in the industrial alcohol
industry. The manufacture of alcohol from molasses involves the following steps,
(i) Suitable dilution of molasses with water
(ii) Acidification of diluted molasses with sulfuric acid.
(iii) Fermentation of the mixture by inoculation with yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae under controlled conditions of
temperature and pH.
(iv) Addition of nitrogen and phosphorus to the fermenter as nutrient supplements.
(v) Distillation of the products of fermentation resulting in production of alcohol.
The yeast sludge formed at the end of the fermentation process gets deposited at the bottom of the fermentation vessels.
The deposited sludge is removed periodically and dried in the sun.
Uses of Sludge
1. It is used as manure or soil conditioner in the agricultural fields.
2. It is transported to compost yard for composting along with press mud.
3. It is used as animal or poultry feed supplement, as it is rich in vitamin B12.
The combined waste from the distillery industries consists of the following,
(a) Cooling and condenser waters
(b) Spent wash
(c) Waste produced from washing of yeast following the fermentation process.
(d) Waste formed from floor cleaning and washing of equipment.
The characteristics of combined waste are,
(i) The combined waste is brown in colour due to the presence of humus in the molasses.
(ii) Slightly low pH of 4.0
(iii) Slight turbidity due to the presence of colloids in waste water. The concentration of total solids on an average is 20,000
mg/l and suspended solids is 9000 mg/l.
(iv) Chemical oxygen demand = 60,000 mg/l
(v) Biological oxygen demand = 25,000 mg/l
The waste water from various processing units is neutralized to avoid damage to the equipment, underground sewer pipes,
and to prevent damage to the microorganisms used in the subsequent treatment processes.

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3.24 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
Q46. Discuss the effects of distillery effluent on the environment.
Answer :
Effect of Distillery Effluent on Environment
1. The distillery effluents (also known as spent wash/stillage/slop/vinasse) are highly polluted and cause harm to the
natural environment.
2. The effluents discharged into water bodies can cause severe environmental pollution problems.
3. The discharge of heavy metals like mercury, cadmium, chromium into the environment leads to biomagnification
of heavy metals as they enter the food chain.
4. Loss of soil fertility.
5. Loss of biological diversity
6. Deterioration of soil quality and environmental health.
7. Negative effect on livestock health.
8. Waterlogging problems
9. Increased susceptibility to soil erosion.
10. Wastewater with high Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) clog the fish gills.
11. The distillery effluent with high BOD causes decomposition of organic matter to form methane, ammonia and
hydrogen sulphide.
12. Low dissolved oxygen content in water threatens the survival of aquatic species.
Q47. Write a note on the treatment of distilling industry effluents.
Answer :
Treatment of Distilling Industry Effluents
Distilling industries produce large amount of effluent which needs treatment before it is released into the environment.
The different steps involved in the treatment of distillery effluents are,
1. Primary Treatment
The primary treatment of distillery effluents include,
(a) Screening
Different screening devices (bar racks, screens, rotary disks, microstrainers) are used to mainly remove materials that
would clog sewers.
(b) Flow Equalization
This step involves the use of equalization basin to maintain a steady flow of effluents for treatment.
(c) Comminution
This step involves grinding and shredding of floating solids to reduce their size.
(d) Floatation
Oils, greases and other floatable materials are removed by using special floatation tanks/skimming devices/coalescing
separators.
(e) Sedimentation
Sedimentation tanks are used for removal of heavy solids (e.g : grit). The chemicals used for the sedimentation process
are the coagulants and additives (E.gs: alum, lime, ferric chloride, activated charcoal).
(f) Decolorization of Spent Wash
The spent wash is decolorized by using chemicals like iron sulphate, iron chloride, aluminium sulphate.
2. Secondary Treatment
This is the biological treatment of waste water to remove the soluble and colloidal form of organic matter. It involves the
following processes.

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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes) 3 .25
(a) Aerobic Treatment
The melanoidin pigment is considered a major pollutant in the distillery waste water. Reports indicate that fungi Coriolus
sps, Aspergillus sp, Rhizoctonia sp and bacteria, Lactobacillus hilgardi have the ability to remove the pollutants in
the waste water. Other microorganisms that can remove the colour include Phanerochaete chrysosporium, Trametes
versicolor, Coriolus hirsultus, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus subtilis, Acetobacter acetii, Bacillus smithii, Bacillus thuringiensis,
Lactobacillus hilgardi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, P.fluorescens, P.putida, Xanthomonas fragariae.
Rotating Biological Contactor
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs) consist of disks made up of corrugated, light plastic material (polystyrene, PVC).
The biomas is attached to disks (2.5 – 3.5 m in diameter with 2 cm spacing between disks), which rotates on a central
drive shaft at 10 to 15 r.p.m through the effluent. Upto 40% of the disks are immersed in waste water. Upon exposure to
air, the biofilm on the disks absorbs air and when submerged in waste water, the microbes absorb the organic matter. A
sedimentation tank collects the effluents from the RBC, where the biomass in suspension settles as a sludge. The sludge
is withdrawn from the sedimentation tank for further treatment or disposal.
(b) Anaerobic Treatment
Different types of anaerobic treatment devices for treatment of distilling industry effluents include,
(i) Anaerobic lagoon
(ii) Anaerobic digester
(iii) Anaerobic contact reactor
(iv) Anaerobic filter
(v) Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor.
(vi) Anaerobic fluidized and expanded bed reactor.
3. Tertiary/Alternative Treatment
The processes involved in the tertiary/alternative treatment of distillery effluents include the following.
(a) Chemical Oxidation
The effluents are oxidized with ozone to remove colour and reduce the chemical oxygen demand (COD) values.
(b) Cavitation
This process involves the use of ultrasound radiation for treatment of distillery wastewater to destroy the contaminants
in water.
(c) Membrane Separation: Ultrafiltration
It is a physical separation technology for pathological macromolecules from the waste water. It is considered as a safer
and efficient method for wastewater treatment.
(d) Transmembrane Pressure Pulsed Ultrafiltration
This method reduces membrane fouling to increase the solvent and solute transport across the membrane.
(e) Membrane Bioreactors
The enzymes or microorganisms are immobilized in membrane-based bioreactors and used for separation operations.
(f) Gel Permeation Chromatography
This method is used for separation of high molecular weight compounds in the distillery effluents.
(g) Electrochemical Treatment
This method involves different techniques such as electro-oxidation, electroreduction, and electroflocculation to treat raw
wastewater.
(h) Emulsion Liquid Membrane (ELM)
This technique is used for the separation of heavy metal ions, chemicals, organic acids from the effluents followed by
their concentration.
(i) Solar Energy Method
Researchers have devised a new method of treating distillery effluent with the help of chemical and solar energy that can
reduce the COD of the effluent and make it colourless and odourless completely.

SIA Group
3.26 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

3.8 Manufacturing Process and design Origin, special characteristics, effects

and Treatment methods of liquid Waste from dairy industries
Q48. Discuss the various operations in a dairy industry.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q7(a)

Raw milk from the dairy industry may be used for immediate consumption or for conversion to other dairy products such
as butter, cheese, whey, curd, dried milk powder and ice-cream.
Raw milk is temporarily stored in refrigeration tanks, to ensure conservation until further processing starts. The processing
of fresh milk is carried out in the following manner:
1. Filtration
The raw milk received from the dairy farms is filtered to remove foreign particles, organic/inorganic dirt particles and
coagulated proteins, that could have added/formed during the milking of cows and transportation.
2. Skimming
This step ensures separation of cream from the milk. The skimming process is accomplished by gravity separation and
centrifugal separation.
3. Homogenization of Milk
This process enables the remaining fat molecules in the milk to reduce in size and distribute evenly.
4. Pasteurization
This step involves heat treatment of milk at 72°C to 85°C for 15 to 30 seconds. All the germs in the milk are not killed in
this process.
5. Sterilization
The process of sterilization can be accomplished in either of the two ways :
(a) Normal Sterilization
It involves application of high temperature of 100 – 120°C for about 20 minutes to destroy pathogenic microorganisms
and inactivate the enzymes in the milk.
(b) Ultra High Temperature Treatment (also known as Ultrapasteurization)
The method involves treatment of milk by the application of very high temperature of 135° – 150°C only for 2 to 3
seconds.
Sterilization treatment by any one of the methods mentioned above, followed by aseptic packaging, helps to conserve
milk at room temperature for a long time.
6. Refrigerated Storage
The treated milk is stored in refrigerated tanks until packaging.
7. Packaging
The final stage is the packaging of processed milk either in glass bottles/plastic bags/cardboard boxes with plastic, paraffin
or aluminium covering.
Preparation of Cream
The cream separated during the skimming operations of fresh milk undergoes further processing.
The cream for consumption is obtained after undergoing the following processes:
(i) Deodorization using vacuum evaporators
(ii) Pasteurization at 95°C – 110°C
(iii) Sterilization for microbiological stabilization
(iv) Curing : In this stage, lactic yeasts are added to the cream for converting lactose to lactic acid.
(v) Churning : The cured cream is churned resulting in the formation of lumps of butter in aqueous part (whey/buttermilk).
(vi) Washing : The butter is washed with cold and clean water to remove the remnants of the buttermilk.

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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes) 3 .27
(vii) Kneading : Kneading of butter along with additives such as salt, aromas, etc., result in the formation of a homogenous
mixture.
(viii) Packaging : The packaging of the product is done immediately after kneading to avoid microbial contamination. Butter
should be ideally packed in paper/aluminium foil lined with fat resistant paper or polythene sheet.
Production of Fermented Milk
The pasteurized milk is fermented through inoculation with bacterial culture (Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Streptococcus
thermophilus), followed by incubation at a suitable temperature (42° C to 45°C for 2 to 3 hours). The lactic acid produced as a
result of lactose metabolism cause coagulation and thickening of milk. Further processing involves the addition of skim-powdered
milk, sugar, supplements etc. The fermentation reactions in the yogurt are arrested when the temperature is reduced to 15°C. The
final product is packaged in polystyrene with aluminium layering.
Cheese Production
The process of cheese production involves the following steps :
(i) Filtering
(ii) Clarification
(iii) Standardization
(iv) Addition of ferments/enzymes for coagulation of milk
(v) Draining of the whey by either of the two ways; heat treatment or mechanical treatment.
(vi) Moulding and pressing of the curds to remove the inter-granular whey.
(vii) Salting of cheese to make it spongy, to prevent the growth of microorganisms and to maintain the pH for its conservation.
(viii) Drying of salted cheese by exposure to an air current.
(ix) Curing of cheese by physical, enzymatic and microbiological processes at controlled temperature and humidity, resulting
in a finished product with a characteristic aroma, taste and texture.
Q49. Discuss some of the environmental effects of dairy industry.
Answer :
Some of the environmental effects of the diary industry are as mentioned below:
1. Water Consumption
The different processes in dairy industry involve intensive consumption of water and generate effluents at various stages.
2. Energy Consumption
Intensive energy consumption occurs at various stages especially during heat treatment, refrigeration and storage of milk
and its products.
3. Dairy Wastewater
The wastewater generated from a dairy industry has the following characteristics:
(i) High organic content; oils and fats
(ii) Increased levels of nitrogen originating from milk proteins, and phosphorus in inorganic form (orthophosphate ,
polyphosphate ) cause eutrophication of receiving waters.
(iii) Large variations in pH and temperature.
(iv) Suspended solids in waste water from coagulated milk, cheese, curd, and flavoring ingredients.
(v) Increased concentration of selected elements such as sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, cobalt, nickel and
manganese.
4. Atmospheric Pollutants
The various processing steps in dairy industry release carbonmonoxide, sulphurdioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulates
as atmospheric emissions.
5. Noise Pollution
The noise from the packaging and refrigeration equipment, along with constant traffic of lorries cause noise pollution.

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3.28
Q50. Discuss the various treatment options of dairy
waste water.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q7(b)
The different processes in dairy industry that generate
waste water include pasteurization, homogenisation, and in
the production of cheese, butter, whey, milk powder, etc. The
modern dairy processing plants use clean-in-place (CIP) system
which pumps cleaning solutions through all the equipments
without major disassembly and assembly, work in the following
order :
(i) First rinse with water
(ii) Washing with caustic solution (sodium hydroxide)
(iii) Second rinse with water
(iv) Washing with acid solution (phosphoric acid/nitric
acid)
(v) Third rinse with water
(vi) Use of sodium hypochlorite for disinfecting the
equipments.
The wastes from dairy plants can be treated by the
following methods:
1. Physical screening of waste water using wire screen, grit
chamber to remove large particles/debris in the waste
waters.
2. pH variations in waste waters due to the use of alkaline
detergents, and acidic cleaners at various stages is
corrected to near neutral pH by the addition of common
chemicals like sulphuric acid, nitric acid, sodium
hydroxide, carbondioxide and lime.
3. The fats, oil and grease (FOG) suspended in dairy
industry effluents are eliminated by the following ways:
(a) Gravity Grease Interceptor/Gravity Traps
These are gravity separation chambers to trap the fats,
oil and grease in the diary plant effluent before it enters
into a waste water diary treatment system.
(b) Air Flotation and Dissolved Air Flotation
This technique is used to separate solid particles by
passing air bubbles into the liquid phase. Dissolved air
flotation (DAF) units remove emulsified oil by means
of chemicals, usually polymers and/or flocculants. The
polymer is mixed with the waste water and then air is
injected under pressure into it. The air bubbles formed
attach to the oil droplets as well as suspended particles/
impurities to be removed, by any of the following
mechanisms : physical entrapment, electro-chemical
attraction, surface adsorption and/or gas stripping. The
resultant formation of froth on the surface of the tank
is removed continuously with the help of specially
designed skimming devices.
Oil-water separators are the devices that use gravity
to separate and remove oils, scum and solids from the
waste water.
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waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
(c) Enzymatic Hydrolysis
This method involves the use of enzymatic extract
of lipases produced by Penicillium restrictum at a
temperature of 35°C to treat the dairy effluents. This
treatment reduces the turbidity and volatile suspended
solids in wastewater.
Such treatment of wastewater increases the efficiency
of subsequent treatment of wastewater.
4. Biological Treatment
The biological treatment of effluents is achieved by
either of the two ways :
(a) Aerobic Biological Systems
In the aerobic process of effluent treatment, the microbial
population requires oxygen-rich environment to oxidize
substrates to carbondioxide, water and other products.
Some of the aerobic processes used in the treatment of
dairy effluents are as mentioned below :
(i) Activated Sludge System
The conventional activated sludge process is a biological
method of treating the dairy effluents, accomplished
by a plethora of microorganisms in an aerobic aquatic
environment. The carbonaceous organic matter in the
dairy effluent provide energy to the mixed population
of microorganisms for reproduction, which then
release carbondioxide and water by the process of
respiration. The microorganisms used in the process are
heterotrophic and autotrophic bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
rotifers, metazoan nematode worms.
The essential components of the activated sludge process
are : primary sedimentation tank, aeration tank, an
aeration source, secondary clarifiers, collection tanks,
pumps.
The effluents from various sources are directed to
a primary sedimentation tank for removal of coarse
solids. The effluents from the sedimentation tank are
then sent to an aeration tank provided with bubble
diffusers/paddles/stirrers/ surface aerators for feeding
compressed air or pure oxygen into the tank with
vigorous agitation for appropriate mixing. The effluents
are then sent to secondary clarifiers, where the activated
sludge solids separate out from the wastewaters by the
process of flocculation (formation of large aggregates of
microorganisms) and gravity sedimentation in which the
large aggregates of microorganisms settle to the bottom
of the tank along with the formation of a secondary
effluent in the upper portion of the tank. The sludge
settled at the bottom of the tank is collected from the
secondary clarifiers sent to the sludge collection tank
and pumped back to the aeration tank to replenish the
biological community needed to metabolize organic and
inorganic matter in waste water.
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Unit-3 (Recirculation of Industrial Wastes) 3 .29
(ii) Trickling Filter Process
The trickling filter process is a biological method effluent treatment by a mixed variety of microorganisms in an aerobic
aquatic environment.
A trickling filter is known by various names : trickle filter, biofilter, trickling biofilter, biological filter or biological trickling
filter.
A trickling filter consists of a cylindrical concrete tank with a packing matrix of a bed of rocks, gravel, slag, peat, moss,
plastic media or other synthetic material. Air may be sent by natural draft of blowers to provide oxygen for microorganisms
attached to the packing matrix. The effluent that needs treatment is sprayed through the packed bed intermittently to allow
a layer of air to form on the organic matter. Microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and nematodes) responsible
for treatment are attached to the surface of the packing material. The microorganisms adsorb oxygen from the layer of
air and the organic matter from the effluents for biochemical oxidation. The effluents are then directed to secondary
sedimentation tank to remove the suspended matter. The complex organic matter is broken down and utilized. The end
products formed are carbondioxide, water and other products of oxidation. The treated effluent is sent to a settling tank
for solid-liquid separation.
(iii) Rotating Biological Contactors
Rotating Biological Contractors (RBCs) consist of disks made up of corrugated, light plastic material (polystyrene, PVC).
The biomass attached to the disks rotate on a central drive shaft at 10 to 15 r.p.m through the effluent. Upon exposure to
air, the biofilm on the disks absorb air, and when submerged in waste water, the microbes consume the dissolved organic
matter. When the biofilm on the surface of the disks grows in thickness, the excess is torn off the disks by the shear forces
produced as the disks rotate through the liquid. A sedimentation tank collects the effluents from the RBC, where the
biomass in suspension settle as a sludge. The sludge is withdrawn from the sedimentation tank for further treatment or
disposal.
(iv) Sequencing Batch Reactor System
The sequencing batch reactor system works in a batch process rather than a continuous one. It is also referred as the fill
and draw process, wherein a single tank operates in four phases :
(a) Filling Phase
A specific volume of wastewater called as a batch is allowed to flow into the tank (reactor).
(b) Aeration/Reaction Phase
Air is pumped into the tank so that sufficient oxygen is supplied for the aerobic biochemical processes to occur. The
microorganisms utilize the dissolved organic matter.
(c) Settling Phase
The wastewater in the tank is allowed to settle, wherein the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank.
(d) Decantation Phase
The treated effluent is discharged, and the solids are recycled to start another cycle. The diagram given below is a schematic
representation of sequencing batch reactor system.

Figure: Schematic Representation of Sequencing Batch Reactor System

(v) Aerated Lagoons
The aerated lagoons are the surface-aerated basins dug out in earth to carry out biological oxidation processes for treating
industrial waste waters. The sludge that accumulates at the bottom of the aeration basins need to be removed periodically to avoid
build up of a permanent deposit.

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3.30
(b) Anaerobic Biological System
The anaerobic treatment of effluents involves the
degradation of organic matter to gaseous products (mainly
methane and carbondioxide). The insoluble organic matter
present in the waste water is converted to soluble organic
matter by the action of hydrolytic and fermentative bacteria.
The acid producing bacteria consume the soluble organic matter
to produce volatile fatty acids (acetic acid, propionic acid),
carbondioxide and hydrogen, which in turn, is consumed by
methane producing bacteria to give methane and carbondioxide.
Summary of Reactions During Anaerobic Treatment
Some of the anaerobic processes developed are anaerobic
digesters (completely mixed reactors), anaerobic filters, up-flow
anaerobic sludge blankets and Imhoff tanks.
Anaerobic Digesters
Anaerobic digesters consist of digester tanks for
anaerobic digestion of effluents to occur. The tanks are sealed
properly to provide anaerobic conditions as oxygen kills some
of the anaerobic bacteria present in the digesting tank and
disrupts the process. The effluents are sent to a degasifier and
to a settling tank. The treated effluents are discharged while the
solids are recycled for reuse.
Outlet for gas
Inlet for raw
waste water
Recycled
solids
Degasifier Settling tank Effluent
Sludge
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Anaerobic Digester
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The gaseous byproducts formed are methane,
carbondioxide and small amounts of nitrogen and hydrogen.
Some digesters are equipped with heating coils for maintaining
ambient temperatures of 30ºC – 35ºC.
Anaerobic Lagoon/Anaerobic Pond
It consists of a large covered pond/tank, free from
dissolved oxygen, to promote anaerobic conditions and
to prevent loss of methane, carbondioxide, ammonia, and
hydrogen sulphide to the atmosphere. The anaerobic bacteria in
the lagoon convert organic materials into stable products such
as CO2 and CH4 under anaerobic conditions.
5. Physicochemical Treatment Methods
Post-treatment of dairy wastewater by physicochemical
treatment methods include :
(a) Coagulation/Flocculation
It involves the use of inorganic natural coagulants (e.g.,
aluminium salts, iron salts, lime, polyelectrolyte) and
organic natural coagulants (e.g., chitosan, gelatin, guar
gums, alginates, polyacrylamide, polyethylene oxide)
to enhance aggregation of suspended particles.
(b) Membrane Processes
It involves the use of nanofiltration and/or reverse
osmosis.
The treated wastewater may be reused by the processing
units or used for agriculture or in artificial wet lands.
Q51. What are the sources of waste in dairy plants?
Answer :
The different sources of waste in dairy plants include,
(a) Washwater produced from cleaning of silos, storage
tanks, trucks, heat exchangers, homogenizers,
pipelines, other equipments.
(b) Spillage of milk during churning, homogenizing,
culturing, condensing, drying etc.
(c) Waste from spoiled/returned products.
(d) Detergents used for cleaning and sanitizing
operations are discharged as waste.
(e) Lubricants used in the milk processing equipment
also contribute to waste.
(f) Sanitary sewage from the employees of the dairy
plants.
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Unit-4 (Manufacturing Process and Treatment in Specific Industries) 4 .1

Marketed by:

manufacturing
Unit PROCESS AND
TREATMENT in SPECIFIC

4 INDUSTRIES SIA GROUP

Part-A
Short Questions with Solutions
Q1. What are the chief characteristics of waste water from steel plants?

Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(g)

The major components of waste water from steel plants are,

oil and grease, dissolved solids, ammonia, nitrogen, sulfides, cyanides, thiocyanates, phenols, benzene, toluene, xylene,
aromatic volatile compounds, polynuclear aromatic compounds, toxic metals (eg. antimony, arsenic, seleniumazinc, chromium,
copper, mercury, lead, nickle). Therefore, the untreated waste water contains high level of total suspended solids.

Q2. Write a note on cooling towers?

Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(g)

Cooling towers are essential devices used in many industrial facilities such as Petrochemical and other Chemical Plants,
Oil Refineries, Nuclear Power Plants, Thermal Power Plants etc.

The device is used to remove heat from the water in industrial facilities by contact between the water and air. The exchange
of heat between the water and air occurs by the evaporation of water that needs-cooling. The heat from the water which is now
transferred to air raises the temperature of the air and its relative humidity to 100%. The cooled water is collected in a basin
which is then pumped again to absorb more heat.

Q3. What are the sources of waste water in sugar mills?

Answer : [Model Paper-I, Q1(h) | Model Paper-III, Q1(g)]

Waste water is generated during the grinding operations of the sugarcane stalk in the mill house during,

(i) Splashing of water or sugarcane stalks for inhibition, to extract more juice. The waste water thus formed is called the cane
wash water.

(ii) Water used in cooling the roller bearings of the mills as mill house water.

(iii) Wash water produced during the cleaning of the filters and housekeeping activities. A large volume of waste water is
generated from condensers and vacuum pans. Waste water also originates from leakages and spills. The waste water
discharged from sugar industries contain high BOD due to the presence of sugars and oil from the machines.

Q4. What are biological production plants?

Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(h)

Biological production plants are a category of pharmaceutical plant involved in the production of antitoxins, antisera,
vaccines, serums, toxoids, antigens.

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4.2 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
Q5. What are the chief characteristics of effluents generated from pharmaceutical industries?
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(h)
The pharmaceutical industries generally produce complex waste water that has the following constituents.
p – aminophenol, p – nitrophenolate, p – nitrochlorobenzene, Aminonitrozo – amino – benzene, chlorinated solvents,
benzene, toluene, sulphanilic acid, sulfa drugs, analogous substances, calcium chloride, sodium chloride, ammonium sulphate,
calcium sulphate, soidum sulphate, analgesics, antibiotics, antiepileptics, beta blockers, blood lipid regulators, contraceptives,
biocides, fragrances, surfactants, morphine, cocaine, methamphetamine, psychiatric pharmaceuticals such as anxiolytics, sedatives,
hypnotics, antidepressants and many more.

Part-b
eSSAY Questions with Solutions

4.1 Manufacturing Process And design Origin, special characteristics,

effects and treatment methods of liquid waste from sugar mills
Q6. Write a note on the manufacturing processes in sugar mills.
Answer : [Model Paper-I, Q8(a) | Model Paper-III, Q8(a)]
Our country is one of the largest sugar producing nations in the world and contributes successfully to the national economy.
The production activities in a sugar mill consist of several processes involving – grinding, clarification, evaporation and curing.
Grinding
It is the process of extracting the cane juice by crushing the chopped sugarcane stalks through the roller mills to extract
cane juice. The juice is then poured over a wire-mesh screen to remove the cane fibres that would have fallen during the grinding
process in the rollers of the mills.
The fibrous residue formed after the grinding operation of the sugarcane stalks known as bagasse may be used as a fuel
in the boilers or as a raw material for the production of paper, insulating board, hardboard and furfural.
Clarification
This step is meant to remove the soluble and insoluble impurities present in the extracted cane juice.
The cane juice from the mill house is acidic and sent to boiler room. This is followed by addition of milk of lime to the
juice and heating the contents to a temperature of 100ºC to 102ºC. This operation neutralizes the natural acidity of the juice in
the pH range of 7.0 to 8.4. The impurities (sand, soil, rock particles) in the cane juice get coagulated and settle at the bottom of
the vessel in the form of thick slurry. The settled impurities or the sediment is dredged out or vacuum filtered. The scum formed
in the upper region of the pan is skimmed off. The material left in the filters is referred as ‘filter cake’ or ‘press mud’, that can
be used as manure.
The clarified juice is treated by sulphitation process, wherein sulphurdioxide gas is passed through it. This operation
enables in completely bleaching the colour of the juice.
Evaporation
Evaporators and vacuum pans are employed to thicken the clarified juice and form raw sugar crystal. The mixture of syrup
and sugar crystals, known as ‘massecuite’ is discharged to large containers called as crystallizers.
Centrifugating
This process enables the separation of massecuite into raw sugar crystals and molasses.
The centrifugal machine consists of a cylindrical basket suspended on a spindle. It has minute pores of about 400 to 600
in number per square inch. The massecuite is spun in the centrifugal machine at speed of 1000 to 1800 r.p.m. The molasses pass
through the pores into a collection tank, whereas the sugar crystals are retained in the basket.
The remnants of molasses in the sugar crystals are removed by water and steam spray. The molasses in the collection
tank may need further evaporation to recover the sugar crystals. The spent molasses, often referred as ‘Black Strap Molasses’ is
disposed off or may be used in cattle feed or in distilleries for production of industrial alcohol, yeast, organic chemicals, rum etc.
Sugar Drying
The wet sugar needs to be dried as it affects the keeping quality of sugar. This is accomplished by placing the raw sugar
in a drier and passing hot air around the sugar crystals. The raw sugar, thus formed, is referred as ‘Brown sugar’ which can be
used as it is or sent to a refinery for conversion into refined/white sugar.
Packaging
The refined sugar crystals are sorted on the basis of size by passing through a vibrating screen and placed in storage bins
or packaged for transport.

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Unit-4 (Manufacturing Process and Treatment in Specific Industries) 4 .3
Q7. Discuss the characteristics of sugar mills effluent.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q8(b)

The physicochemical characteristics of sugar mills effluent are,

(i) High temperature of the effluent at 40ºC
(ii) Colour-dark brownish to black
(iii) High turbidity
(iv) High electrical conductivity
(v) High biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, total suspended solids
(vi) High chloride, sulphate, phosphate, calcium and magnesium content
(vii) High values of total alkalinity, total hardness and total acidity.
The values of all these parameters are well above the permissible limits as suggested by the Bureau of Indian Standards.
The discharge of large amount of untreated waste water by the sugar mills can have a significant role in polluting the water bodies
and landmasses. Hence, proper treatment of the sugar mills effluents is necessary before its discharge to the environment.
Q8. What is the impact of sugar factory effluent on the environment?
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q8(b)

The waste water produced from various processes in sugar factories are released to nearby water bodies or used for
irrigational purpose.
The toxic metals in effluents cause serious damage to the environment, impact the water quality, renders it unfit for human
consumption, domestic used and irrigation purposes.
The effluents cause organic pollution in both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem, affecting its flora and fauna.
The obnoxious colour released by the sugar factory effluents cause unpleasantness to the nearby residents.
Waste water with high Biochemical Oxygen Demand, Chemical Oxygen Demand and Total Dissolved Solids, released
into water bodies cause depletion of the available oxygen, often leading to massive fish mortality.
The effluents discharged on landmass affect the soil parameters and cause reduced fertility.
A number of reports indicate pollution of surface and groundwater by sugarcane effluents. The organic matter in effluents
cause massive growth of sewage fungus, aquatic plant communities (i.e., macrophytes) and abundant growth of weeds which
affect the deliverability of the canals.
Q9. Write a brief note on the sugar industry effluent treatment.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q9(b)

A number of processes adopted to treat sugar industry effluents include,

(a) Use of Bar Screens
These are meant to remove the suspended particles.
(b) Use of Grease Separators
These are meant to trap the grease present in the waste water.
(c) Anaerobic Treatment
The anaerobic treatment of sugar industry effluents involves the use of the facultative and anaerobic bacteria to degrade and
decompose the organic matter biologically. These bacteria convert the organic matter into volatile acid. Then, the methanogenic
bacteria catalyze the conversion of volatile acid to carbondioxide and methane.
(d) Aerobic Treatment
The use of oxidation pond can offer a viable solution for handling sugar mill waste water. In this method, the waste water
is treated with green algae (e.g. chlorella, scendesmus). The toxic minerals and phenolic as well as organic compounds get
absorbed. In some cases, water hyacinth are also used in treating the sugar mill effluents.
The increased rate of transpiration by water hyacinth helps to reduce the volume of effluents and its physicochemical
parameters. Further, water hyacinth also helps in scavenging the inorganic and some organic compounds from waste water and
thus, enhance the quality of the treated water. The treated waste water can now be used for irrigational purposes. The press mud
formed can be used to produce compost.
SIA Group
4.4
4.2Manufacturing Process
and design Origin, special
characteristics, effects and
Treatment methods of liquid Waste
from steel plants
Q10. Discuss the manufacturing processes and
origin of liquid waste from iron and steel
industry.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q9(a)
The major manufacturing processes in the iron and steel
industry are as discussed below.
1. Coke Making the basic oxygen furnace in railway cars called as hot
Coke is produced by heating metallurgical coal in the
absence of oxygen at high temperature of 1100ºC for 20 to 36
hours in a series of coke ovens or coke batteries to remove the
volatile compounds and other impurities in coal.
A coke battery consists of a series of coke ovens (varying
from 10 to 100) arranged in rows into which coal is loaded. The
coke, thus formed is the pure solid carbon, which is sent to the
quench tower with the help of a rail quench car for cooling. The
hot coke is cooled either by using a water spray or by passing
an inert gas (nitrogen) over it. It is this coke which is used for
reducing the iron in the blast furnace.
In the process of coke-making, nearly 30% of the
water used for cooling the coke is evaporated, while the
remaining water is drained as waste. The coke-making process
emits several by-products, such as Particulate Matter (PM),
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), Polynuclear Aromatic
Hydrocarbons (PAHs), methane, ammonia, carbonmonoxide,
hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen cyanide, sulfur oxides.
Water is used in the following processes,
(i) Cooling of coke oven gas
(ii) Processing of ammonia, tar, napthalene etc.
2. Iron Making
In this step, iron ore, coke and limestone are charged
from the top of the blast furnace. Hot air (at temperature of
1000ºC -1100ºC) is sent through tuyere pipes to the lower
portion of the furnace. The hot air sent to the furnace heats up
the materials in the furnace and participates in various reactions
to form different products.
The different chemical reactions occurring in this step
are as mentioned below,
3 Fe2O3 + CO → CO2 + 2 Fe3O4
Fe3O4 + CO → CO2 + 3 FeO
FeO + CO → CO2 + Fe
FeO + C → CO + Fe
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The final product formed is molten iron and molten slag
that sinks to the bottom of the furnace. These are drained off
separately from the bottom of the furnace at regular intervals. A
large portion of water is used in the blast furnace for cooling and
gas cleaning operations, slag cooling and processing operations.
3. Steel Making
The modern steel making technology is of two types,
(a) Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) process
(b) Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) process.
(a) Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) Process
The molten iron formed in the blast furnace is fed to
iron ladle cars or specialized refractory brick lined
‘torpedoes’. Steel scrap and lime are charged to the
pig iron. Pure oxygen is blown into the furnace at high
velocity via a lance inserted into the vessel on the molten
metal surface, causing combustion and heating on the
surface of the molten pool. At this stage, the following
chemical reactions take place,
2 C + O2 → 2 CO
C + O2 → CO2
Carbonmonoxide and carbondioxide gases escape
through the mouth of the vessel.
Si + O2 → SiO2
2 Mn + O2 → 2 MnO Slag
4P + 5O2 → 2 P2O5
The refined molten steel is cast into slabs, beams (or)
billets.
(b) Steel Making by the Electric Arc Furnace Process
The primary raw materials used for making steel by
electric arc furnace method are the scarp iron and scrap
steel delivered by the scrap basket that is loaded at the
scrap yard, along with the alloying ingredients and
limestone. The main parts of the Electric Arc Furnace
(EAF) are,
(i) Furnace shell with removable roof
(ii) Three graphite electrodes
(iii) Tapping spouts, one for molten and a second one
for removing the slag.
The electrodes are lowered on the scrap. Heat is
generated from the electric arc between the electrodes.
The scrap metals, and now the molten steel pool forms
at the bottom of the furnace.
In this step, waste water effluent is generated by the
degassing operations. A comparison of the Basic Oxygen
Furnace process and Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) process
is presented below.
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Unit-4 (Manufacturing Process and Treatment in Specific Industries) 4 .5

Basic Oxygen Furnace Electric Arc Furnace

Input material Molten iron, scrap, oxygen Scrap, electricity
Purpose Coke-making and iron making for Coke-making and iron-making processes
steel manufacture are not required
Output material Molten steel Molten steel
Use The method is used for high tonnage The method is used for the production of
production of carbon steels. carbon steels, low tonnage alloy,
speciality steels.

4. Refining and Casting

The molten steel produced by Basic Oxygen Furnace method or Electric Arc Furnace method is tapped down from the
bottom of the furnace and solidified either as cast ingots or by continuous casting (also called as stand casting). Water is used in
this step to accelerate the cooling process of the hot metal.
5. Finishing Operations
The finishing operations of steel include the following processes : Acid Pickling, Painting, Chrome Plating, Galvanizing,
Tinning, Plastic Coating and Tempering.
The finishing operations need a high pressure water spray for acid pickling and electrolytic coating process. Large amounts
of waste water is generated as spent pickle liquors, pickling rinse waters, fume scrubber effluents, spent rolling solutions, alkaline
rinse waters. However, the major consumption of water in steel industries is for the cooling purposes in different cooling and
condensing operations.
Q11. Discuss the effluent treatment methods in iron and steel industry.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q8(a)
A large volume of waste water originates from different processes in the iron and steel industries. The waste water treatment
processes from iron and steel works are discussed below.
1. Treatment of Coal Washery Waste
The suspended/colloidal solids in coal washery waste are treated by using clarifier. In this step, the gravity settling of the
solids takes place. Addition of coagulants, such as starch, lime or Nirmali seeds (strychnus potatorum) to the coal washery waste
reduce the detention time and the surface area of the tank.
Froth floatation is yet another process for treatment of coal washery waste. This process is used for selectively separating
hydrophobic material from hydrophilic material. The process involves the addition of a surfactant to form a mixture called pulp.
The pulp is introduced into a water bath. The water bath uses air spargers to generate air at the bottom of the vessel and an agitator
for mixing action. The froth/foam rises to the top of the water bath which is removed. The froth-free water can be reused as
clarified effluent.
2. Treatment of Coke Oven Waste
The objectionable pollutants in the coke oven waste include phenol, thiocyanate, thiosulphate and cyanide.
Ammonia stripping by water wash process enables removal of cyanide, phenols and volatile organic compounds in the
waste waters.
In the process of ammonia stripping by water wash process, the coke oven gas is scrubbed by water. The ammonia gas,
hydrogen sulphide and hydrogen cyanide in the coke oven gas get dissolved in water. This scrubbing solution is passed through
ammonia still, which extracts and refines the ammonia from the solution. The ammonia, thus recovered, may be used in the
following ways,
(i) To form ammonium sulphate.
(ii) The ammonia may be condensed to form ammonia solution.
(iii) The ammonia may be catalytically converted to nitrogen and hydrogen for reuse as coke oven gas.
The phenols in the coke oven waste water can be removed by the Kopper’s dephenolization process.
The phenolic waste in waste water can also be oxidized by activated sludge process and trickling filter, by microbial activity
to produce carbondioxide, methane and other compounds. The polyaromatic hydrocarbons degrade under aerobic conditions to
form carbondioxide and water.
Use of Clariflocculator
Clariflocculation is a physicochemical treatment of waste water for removal of organic compounds, sedimented particles
and heavy metals. The device clariflocculator consists of two concentric circular tanks, the inner tank for flocculation and the
outer tank function as a clarifier. This method of effluent treatment provides for rapid mixing flocculation and sedimentation of
colloidal impurities.

SIA Group
4.6
Biological Treatment of Coke Oven Waste
The phenol compounds present in coke oven waste water
are degraded by microbial activity to produce carbondioxide,
methane and other compounds. It has been reported that the
fungus, Geotrichium sps is useful for phenol degradation.
The Polyaromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) in coke oven
waste water degrade under aerobic conditions to carbondioxide
and water. The other methods reported for phenol removal
include,
(i) Activated carbon adsorption
(ii) Chemical oxidation with Potassium Permanganate,
Sodium Dichromate, Sodium Peroxide, Manganese
Ores, Chlorine, Chlorine Dioxide and Ozone
(iii) Catalytic incineration to a refinery.
(iv) Use of electrostatic forces
(v) Oil-water separation methods
(vi) Activated sludge process
(vii) Trickling filtration
(viii) Spray irrigation
(ix) Use of water hyacinth
(x) Oxidation ponds.
3. Treatment of Blast Furnace Waste
Large volume of water is used in the blast furnace for
cooling and gas cleaning operations. The water utilized for
cooling operations can be reused for the same purpose. The flue
dust generated in the blast furnace can be trapped by dry dust
catchers or by using bag house filters. The use of electrostatic
precipitator and wet scrubbing methods trap the suspended
solids and dust in the blast furnace gas.
4. Treatment of Pickling Waste
The acid pickling operations in steel plants produce
sludges and scale with high content of heavy metals such as
chromium, lead, nickel, copper, zinc. The treatment of spent
pickling liquor involves,
(a) Neutralization of waste acid with lime or some other
alkaline agent (such as magnesia, high calcium
quicklime and dolomite quickness).
(b) The reduction process of chromium with ferrous
sulphate.
(c) Precipitation of metallic species with lime.
The other methods used in the treatment of pickling
waste are,
(i) Use of scrap iron and iron oxides in the waste
pickling liquor to recover ferrous sulphate.
(ii) Extraction with acetone.
(iii) Recovery of iron by electrolysis of spent liquor.
The sludge formed at the end of treatment of
pickling waste is disposed off after dewatering.
The treated waste water is either reused or
discharged into a water body.
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waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
4.3 Manufacturing process and design
Origin, special characteristics,
effects and Treatment Methods of
LIQUID Waste from oil refineries
Q12. Discuss the manufacturing processes and
origin of liquid waste from oil refineries.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q9(a)
The first step in oil production is petroleum exploration
by geologists, followed by drilling of the oil well. The oil
recovered from the wells is a mixture of liquid petroleum,
natural gas and formation water. The natural gas and water are
drawn out, while the remaining oil is demulsified and shipped
The various steps involved in crude oil processing are
mentioned as under,
I. Physical Separation Process
The physical separation process for crude oil are
discussed below.
A. Crude Distillation
The different components in crude oil can be separated
by,
1. Desalting of Crude Oil
Desalting of crude oil is accomplished by two methods.
(a) Chemical Separation Method
It is a water-washing method, wherein heated crude
oil is mixed with water in a large cylindrical tank
to dissolve the salts and other impurities in water.
The water is then drained into a separating vessel.
(b) Electrostatic Separation
It involves the application of high-voltage
electrostatic charges to separate the crude from
the water droplets.
Desalting of crude oil is an important step to prevent,
v Fouling of the equipment
v Corrosion of the equipment
v Poisoning of the catalysts
v Plugging.
2. Distillation into Components
The fractional distillation of crude oil involves
heating of crude oil to form vapours. The vapours are
sent through the fractionating column to separate the
components in crude oil. The gases rise up in the column,
where the temperature is low. The gases condense back
into liquid, according to their boiling/condensation
point. The condensed fractions are removed from the
sides of the column.
The different fractions formed from crude oil by
fractional distillation are fuel gas, Liquid Petroleum
Gas (LPG), refinery gases, gasoline-petrol, naphtha,
paraffin, kerosene, diesel oil, gas oil, lubricating oil,
waxes, bitumen etc.
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Unit-4 (Manufacturing Process and Treatment in Specific Industries)
B. Solvent Deasphalting
In this step, the asphaltene and resins are extracted along
with sulphur and nitrogen compounds from the crude
stock. In this process, an alkane (such as propane or
propane/butane mixture) is pumped into the feedstock
to produce a deasphalted oil (DAO) (also called as
‘Bright Stock’) and propane deasphalter asphalt (PDA)
(also labelled as pitch, tar or simply asphaltenes).
The latest method of solvent deasphalting is the
‘residuum oil supercritical extraction’ or ROSE,
developed by the Kerr-McGee Corporation. The process
involves mixing of oil with solvent (such as propane,
butane or pentane), followed by heating the mixture
to above the critical temperature of the solvent, where
the oil is insoluble. The advantage in this method is
high recovery of deasphalted oil and high recovery of
solvents.
C. Solvent Extraction
The bright stock is mixed with a solvent, N-methyl-
pyrrolidone (NMP) to separate the aromatic components
from the rest of the oil.
D. Solvent Dewaxing/Wax Deoiling
The oil after solvent extraction is dissolved in the solvent
Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK). The mixture is gradually
chilled, so that the high molecular weight paraffin wax
is crystallized. The remaining solution is filtered and
now the dewaxed oil is called as ‘Lube oil’.
II. Chemical Catalytic Conversion Processes
The chemical catalytic conversion process includes the
following.
(a) Catalytic Reforming
The method is used to convert paraffin into high-octane
gasoline components in the presence of a special catalyst
(platinum metal supported on silica or silica base
alumina).
(b) Hydrotreating
In this process, hydrogen is used in the presence of
catalysts (cobalt and molybdenum oxides on alumina
matrix) at evaluated temperature and pressure, to
remove impurities from the petroleum fractions. The
different types of impurities include sulphur, nitrogen,
oxy-compounds, chloro compounds, aromatics, waxes
and metal compounds.
(c) Catalytic Hydrocracking
In this process, the cracking and hydrogenation function
is catalyzed by zeolite, in the presence of hydrogen, at
high temperature and high pressure, to form the products
like kerosene, jet fuel, diesel and fuel oil.
Hydrotreating and hydrocracking are together considered
under the general umbrella of hydro processing.
4 .7
(d) Catalytic Cracking
Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) process is an important
conversion process in petroleum refineries. It involves
the use of zeolite catalyst on the feedstock (primarily
vacuum gas oil) to generate high value products like
gasoline and olefines (such as prophylene, butylene,
amylene and isobutanol).
(e) Alkylation
The alkylation process involves the reaction of sulphuric
acid or hydrofluoric acid, which act as acid catalyst on
olefins to produce the liquid fraction of the mixture,
known as alkylate that has a high octane value.
(f) Isomerization
In this process, the hydrocarbons with low octane
number are converted to a branched product with the
same carbon number. For example, n-butane is converted
to isobutane. In a simpler sense, the straight chain
paraffins are converted to their branched counterparts.
3. Thermal Chemical Conversion Processes
The thermal chemical conversion process includes the
following.
(a) Delayed Coking
The process converts the heavy crude oil fractions of
low value waste (petrol and gas oil) into solid coke at
elevated temperature for use as fuel.
(b) Flexicoking
In this process, steam and air is used to convert coke
into fuel gas.
(c) Visbreaking
It is the short term for viscosity breaking/viscosity
lowering, wherein the heavy and high viscosity
petroleum feedstock is converted to low viscosity
fractions of light hydrocarbon gases and large amount
of gasoline.
(d) Sweetening/Mercaptan Oxidation or Merox
The process involves the removal of mercaptans (a form
of sulphur compounds) from the refinery gas streams, by
oxidation, with the help of catalysts (sodium plumbite).
The presence of sulphur emits on obnoxious/foul odour
or burning. Mercaptans are transformed to disulphides
by the use of caustic liquid (sodium hydroxide), amine
compounds (diethanolamine) or fixed bed catalysts.
The final products are stored in shipping tanks away
from the process area for transportation.
The petroleum refining industry is one of the largest
producers of waste water. The extraction of oil and gas
from the reservoirs results in production of ‘produced
water’. Drilling of the oil wells is accompanied by
pumping water into it to raise the pressure in the wells
and bring more crude to the surface. A rough estimate
indicates that an average of seven barrels of waste
SIA Group
4.8
water are produced for each barrel of oil. The physical
separation processes use water in the water cooled heat
exchangers of the fractionating towers. The chemical
catalytic conversion processes use water for cooling
and other heat transfer processes. Steam is used for
regenerating catalysts, pumping and heating purposes.
The major products from the petroleum industry are,
1. Fuels
The different types of fuels include, diesel, furnace fuels,
kerosene, jet fuel, motor gasoline, liquid petroleum gas
(LPG), coke, residual fuel oil.
2. Non-fuel Products
The different types of non-fuel products include,
solvents, lubricants, greases, paraffin, caresin, vaseline,
semi-solid jelly, asphalt, coke.
3. Chemical Industry Feedstock
The different chemical industry feedstock toluene,
xylene, benzene, methane, propylene, ethylene, alkaline
naphthaenates, sulphoacids, fatty acids.
Q13. What are the chief characteristics of effluents
generated from petrochemical facilities?
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q8(b)
Petrochemical facilities generally produce complex
waste water that has the following constituents,
1. Total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH)
2. Oil and grease
3. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
4. Phenols
5. Heavy metals
6. Sulphates
7. Ammonia (as ammonium)
8. Total suspended solids
[Minerals : Clays, silica, calcium and sulphate
mineral precipitates, iron precipitate, ferrous
sulphide.
Organic : Residual emulsions, bacteria, asphaltene
etc.]
9. Total dissolved solids
10. Sulphides
11. Volatile organic compounds : (such as Benzene,
Toluene, Xylene)
12. Particulate matter
13. Sulphur oxides and nitrogen oxides
14. Octa decylamine, Hexadecylamine, Barite, Quartz,
Calate, Dolomite, Platioclase.
The source of these components in refinery waste water
are,
(a) Equipment leakages and spills
(b) Condensate from steam stripping operations
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(c) Desalting of crude oil
(d) Waste waster from storage tanks and equipment
cleaning
(e) Regeneration of ion-exchanger units
(f) Backwashing of filters
(g) Boiler and cooling tower blowdowns
(h) Stormwater.
Q14. Discuss in detail, origin of oil field and refinery
wastes. Also give the characteristics of oil
refinery waste.
Answer :
For answer refer Unit-IV, Q12, Q13.
Q15. Discuss the various treatment options for
petroleum refinery effluents.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q9(b)
Petroleum refineries produce large amount of effluent
which needs treatment before it is released into the environment.
The main processes involved in the treatment of effluents from
petroleum refineries are as mentioned below.
1. Primary Waste Water Treatment
The primary waste water treatment generated in
petroleum refineries involves the separation of oil, water
and solids in waste water. The oil-water separation methods
generally used are the gravity settling method, or the dissolved
air floatation method.
American Petroleum Institute (API) Separators
API separators are the devices used in refineries to
remove oil and oil-bearings sludge, as well as suspended solids.
The oil in waste water occurs in three forms,
(a) Free Oil
Free oil forms an oil layer on top of the water. This oily
layer is skimmed off to an equalization tank and sent
for further processing.
(b) Emulsified Oil
Emulsified oil can be separated by the use of emulsion
breakers.
(c) Dissolved Oil
The dissolved oil can be removed by biological treatment
only.
The oil-water mixture enters the pretreatment section of
the separator. The heavier material settles to the bottom, which
is removed by a chain and flight scraper and sludge pump. The
oily layer floats on the surface and it is skimmed off. The waste
water flows out through the outlet.
Some refineries use Corrugated Plate Interceptors (CPI)
and Parallel Plate Separators (PPS).
Air Floatation
The effluent from the API separator is further sent to
Air Floatation Units to remove oil and other suspended matter
from water. The air floatation system are of two types,
(a) Induced air floatation (IAF)
(b) Dissolved air floatation (DAF).
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Unit-4 (Manufacturing Process and Treatment in Specific Industries)
(a) Induced Air Floatation (IAF) Method
Air is dissolved in waste water under pressure, with
the help of an aspirator device or a fine hole diffuser. The
pressurized air is released at atmospheric pressure. The air
bubbles, thus formed, attach to the solid matter and oil in the
waste water and float on the surface. The air/oil droplets are
continuously skimmed off and removed.
(b) Dissolved Air Floatation (DAF) Method
The first step in the dissolved air floatation (DAF)
method is the coagulation/flocculation of impurities in waste
water using chemicals such as ferric hydroxide [Fe(OH)3] or
Aluminium Hydroxide [Al(OH)3]. Extremely fine air bubbles
or microbubbles generated by using air compressor are sent to
the floatation tank. The air bubbles adhere to the suspended
material to be removed. Such attachment of air bubbles to
the impurities lowers the density of the particles, resulting in
increased buoyancy. The heavier material settles to the bottom,
while the floating layer is skimmed off and sent for further
processing.
Equalization System
The equalization system of a refinery plant consists of
large ponds or tanks that may contain mixers to stir the waste. It
is meant to minimize the fluctuations caused by sudden change
of flow/concentration in the waste water treatment plant and
thus protects the downstream equipment.
2. Secondary Waste Water Treatment
The dissolved organic compounds in waste water is
removed by biological treatment i.e., by using microorganisms.
The biological treatment of waste water can be broadly
categorized into two classes.
(a) Suspended Growth Processes
In this method, the microbial population is thoroughly
mixed with the influent waste water. The microorganisms utilize
the organic constituents in the waste water as food for their
growth.
The suspended growth processes for treatment of the
refinery waste water are of the following types,
(i) Activated Sludge Process
Activated sludge process is a biological method of
treating the refinery waste water, accomplished by a plethora
of microorganisms in an aerobic aquatic environment. The
carbonaceous organic matter in the refinery waste water
provides energy to the mixed population of microorganisms.
The microorganisms used in the process are heterotrophic and
autotrophic bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifers, and nematode
worms.
The main aim of the activated sludge process is to
remove all those substances that have a demand for oxygen
from the system.
The effluents from the oil refineries are directed to a
primary sedimentation tank for the removal of coarse solids.
4 .9
The effluents from the sedimentation tank are then sent to an
aeration tank provided with bubble diffusers/paddles/stirrers/
surface aerators for feeding compressed air or pure oxygen
into the tank with vigorous agitation for appropriate mixing.
The effluents are then sent to secondary clarifiers, where the
activated sludge solids separate out from the waste waters
by the process of flocculation (formation of large aggregates
of microorganisms) and gravity sedimentation in which the
large aggregates of microorganisms settle to the bottom of the
tank along with the formation of a secondary effluent in the
upper portion of the tank. The sludge settled at the bottom of
the tank is collected from the secondary clarifiers, sent to the
sludge collection tank and pumped back to the aeration tank
to replenish the biological community needed to metabolize
organic and inorganic matter in waste water.
(ii) Activated Sludge Process with Powdered Activated
Carbon/Powdered Activated Carbon System (PACS)
In this method, the two processes namely, biological
oxidation and carbon absorption occur simultaneously. The
powdered activated carbon is made up of organic materials
such as wood, lignite and coal. The contaminants in the refinery
waste water are adsorbed by the powdered activated carbon and
reduce its content to below acceptable limits.
Sequencing Batch Reactor
Sequencing batch reactor system works in a batch
process rather than a continuous one. It is also referred as the
fill and draw process wherein, a single tank operates in four
phases.
(i) Filling Phase
A specific volume of waste water called as a batch is
allowed to flow into the tank (reactor).
(ii) Aeration/Reaction Phase
Air is pumped into the tank so that sufficient oxygen is
supplied for the aerobic biochemical processes to occur.
The microorganisms utilize the dissolved organic matter.
(iii) Settling Phase
The waste water in the tank is allowed to settle wherein,
the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank.
(iv) Decantation Phase
The treated effluent is discharged and the solids are
recycled to start another cycle.
Figure: Schematic Representation of Sequencing Batch Reactor
System
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4.10
Membrane Bioreactor Technology
Membrane bioreactors consist of microfiltration or
ultrafiltration membranes immersed in an aeration tank. The
system effectively removes both soluble and biodegradable
materials from untreated effluents without the need for
clarification in sedimentation tanks.
Aerated Lagoons
The aerated lagoons are the surface-aerated basins dug
out in the earth to carryout biological oxidation processes
for treating industrial waste waters. The solids accumulate at
the bottom of the aeration basins which needs to be removed
periodically to avoid build up of a permanent deposit.
(b) Attached Growth Processes
In attached growth processes, the microbial population
(or the biomass) is attached to the support media made up of
coke, limestone chips, gravel, plastic material and different
types of synthetic material. The waste water (influent) is
distributed across the biomass film. The organic matter is
absorbed and degraded by the biomass while the liquid is
collected in drains at the base. With the growth of the organic
matter, the biomass layer thickens, and ultimately sloughed off
when it reaches a certain thickness.
The attached growth processes for treatment of the
refinery waste water are of the following types.
(i) Trickling Filter System
The trickling filter system consists of a cylindrical
concrete tank (diameter = 10 – 15 mts, depth ~ 3 mts)
with a drain pipe underlaid at the bottom of the tank.
(ii) Rotating Biological Contactors
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs) consist of
disks made up of corrugated, light plastic material
(polystyrene, PVC). The biomass is attached to disks
(2.5 - 3.5 m in diameter with 2 cm spacing between
disks) which rotates on a central drive shaft at 10 to
15 rpm through the effluent. Upto 40% of the disks are
immersed in waste water. Upon exposure to air, the
biofilm on the disks absorbs air and when submerged in
waste water, the microbes absorb the organic matter. The
biofilm of 4 mm thickness grows on the surface of the
disks and the excess is teared off the disks by the shear
forces produced as the disks rotate through the liquid.
A sedimentation tank collects the effluents from the
RBC, where the biomass in suspension settle as a sludge.
The sludge is withdrawn from the sedimentation tank
for further treatment or disposal.
Figure
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3. Tertiary Waste Water Treatment
Tertiary treatment of refinery effluent is a downstream
process from biological treatment and mainly aims to lower
the pH, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), bacteria
count, dissolved and suspended metals, trace organics such as
polyaromatic hydrocarbons.
The tertiary treatment of refinery waste water are as
mentioned below.
(i) Sand Filtration
In this method, sand filters are used to separate the
suspended solids in the effluents from the biological treatment
system. The waste water is passed through a filter bed of
multiple layers of sand. The sand particles are varied in size
and specific gravity. The suspended solids in waste water are
trapped between the spaces of the sand grains.
The filters used in this method are of two types, single
bed filter and dual bed/media filters. The single bed filter
consists of sand or anthracite as the filtering material. The dual
bed/media filters consist of two layers, the anthracite layer and
sandy layer.
The large particles of suspended matter are caught in the
crevices of the anthracite, while the finer particles are trapped
in the sand. As the filter media gets blocked with impurities,
the performance of the filter declines with time. At this point,
the flow direction is reversed to remove the trapped particulate
matter. This step is referred as backwash.
(ii) Activated Carbon
The non-polar organic chemicals, organic compounds
and inorganic pollutants can be removed from the refinery waste
water that has been processed in a biological treatment system.
The waste water is passed through a bed of Granular Activated
Carbon (GAC). The organic matter in water gets adsorbed to
the GAC. The adsorbed matter is periodically removed and thus
the activated carbon is regenerated.
(iii) Chemical Oxidation
The chemical oxidation of the refinery waste water that
has been processed in a biological treatment system involves
the use of the following oxidation reagents, such as hydrogen
peroxide, chlorine dioxide and ozone.
The extraction of oil and gas from the reservoirs result
in the production of ‘produced water’. Drilling of the oil wells
is accompanied by pumping water into it to raise the pressure
and bring more crude to the surface. A rough estimate indicates
that an average of seven barrels of waste water are produced
for each barrel of oil.
The physical separation processes use water in the
water cooled heat exchangers of the fractionating towers. The
chemical catalytic conversion processes use water for cooling
and other heat transfer processes. Steam is used for regenerating
catalysts, pumping and heating.
The sludge produced at different unit operations are
sent to off-site disposal, land farming and landfills. The treated
refinery waste water can be used as process water, boiler
feedwater, potable water, fire water and utility water.
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Unit-4 (Manufacturing Process and Treatment in Specific Industries)
4.4
Manufacturing process
and design origin, special
characteristics, effects and
Treatment Methods of LIQUID Waste
from pharmaceutical plants
Q16. Discuss the different processes involved in the
manufacture of pharmaceutical products in the
pharmaceutical industries.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q9(a)
The pharmaceutical industry in India is considered as one
of the largest in the world with high revenue growth and profit
margins. The various processes involved in the manufacture of
several pharmaceutical products in pharmaceutical industries
can be categorized into the following types.
1. Fermentation Plants
The fermentation plants use fermentation technique to
produce different types of pharmaceuticals, eg., antibiotics and
vitamins. Antibiotics are complex organic chemical substances
produced by or derived as a secondary metabolite from one
microorganism, that acts as a toxin against other microorganism
either by destroying or inhibiting their growth. The mechanism
of industrial antibiotic production is as discussed below.
(a) The first step involves the isolation of concerned
microorganism (E.g: Streptomyces sps) for antibiotic
production from their natural habitats. The primary
screening procedure is labour intensive and time
consuming as well. The isolated microorganism is
allowed to grow in a suitable fermentation media to
form a starter culture/initial culture. The starter culture
is placed in shake flasks containing suitable fermentation
medium necessary for growth. The resulting suspension
is transferred to fermentation tanks for further growth.
(b) Fermentation
The fermentation process is carried out in large, non-
corrosive steel vessels/tanks called as fermenters.
They contain the nutrient media for the growth of
microorganisms. The fermentation tanks are provided
with the following components.
(i) Stirrer/Agitator
It is meant for stirring the components of the vessel
to get a uniform suspension of cells in homogenous
nutrient medium and prevent the sedimentation of
cells.
(ii) Spargers
It consists of a pipe with minute holes and generally
placed below the agitator. The device allows
air under pressure to enter the vessel as tiny air
bubbles that get dispersed in the fluid medium,
to bring about effective mixing of the suspension
and improve aeration to the cells.
(iii) Baffles
Baffles are flat paddle-like structures on the inner
side of the vessels for,
4 .11
– Preventing the churning of the fluid
– Increase turbulence
– To increase the mixing efficiency
– To increase the aeration efficiency of the
contents of the fermenter.
(iv) Compressor
Compressor is used to pump sterile atmospheric air
under pressure through a tube. The inlet air and exit
air are sterilized using membrane filtration method.
The inlet air has to be sterilized to prevent the
contaminants from entering the reactor. The exit air
has to be sterilized to prevent the microorganisms
in the reactor from contaminating the outside
environment.
During the fermentation process, the
microorganisms secrete large quantities of the
antibiotic. The fermenter is maintained at average
temperature of 23ºC to 27ºC. The pH of the
medium is maintained at near neutral by addition
of acids or bases to the tank.
(c) Isolation and Purification
After 6 to 8 days of the fermentation process, the
maximum amount of antibiotic would have been
produced. The isolation and purification methods vary
for different antibiotics. For example, in the case of
antibiotic penicillin, the mycelium and cells of the
fungus Penicillium notatum are generally removed from
the fermentation medium by filtration or centrifugation.
The antibiotic is isolated by the process of solvent
extraction, adsorption or precipitation. To begin the
process, the pH of the medium is lowered to 2.0 to 2.5,
by the addition of sulphuric or phosphoric acid, followed
by counter current extraction using amylacetate,
butylacetate or methyl isobutyl ketone. The temperature
is maintained in the range of 0ºC to 3ºC so that penicillin
is not damaged. The impurities from the antibiotic is
removed by treatment with activated charcoal. This is
actually meant to decolorize penicillin.
The next step involves precipitation of penicillin in
the presence of sodium or potassium acetate to form
sodium or potassium salt. Further purification of the
antibiotic involves distillation, sublimation and column
chromatography. Any additional impurities are removed
by mixing penicillin crystals with a volatile solvent (such
as ethanol, butanol or isopropanol). Purified penicillin
crystals are collected by filtration and air dried under
required pressure. The final product is then refined into
different product types, as solution, powdered, or as
topical ointment. They are packed and transported to
distributors, medical care units etc.
The waste generated in the process is the spent
fermentation broth, containing the solvent and mycelium
(filamentous or vegetative mass of fungi/bacteria).
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4.12
2. Synthesized Organic Chemical Plants
The medicines are produced by organic synthesis process
in multipurpose reactors. The products formed during
the process are isolated by extraction, crystallization and
filtration. The final product is dried, milled and blended.
3. Biological Production Plants
(E.g: Vaccines antitoxins, allergy relief medicines,
insulin, morphine, alkaloids, papaverine). In this
category, pharmaceutical products are synthesized
from natural sources such as roots, leaves, animal parts
and fungi. The method involves processing of large
volume of biological natural resources to extract a very
small quantity of the required product from a series of
subsequent extraction operations.
4. Drug Mixing/Formulation/Compounding and
Preparation Plants
In this category, tablets, capsules, ointments, liquids,
parenterals and creams are prepared.
Tablets are produced in different varieties, namely, plain
compressed, coated and molded.
Capsules are prepared by dipping stainless steel mould
pins in gelatin solution containing colourants and process
additives. The capsule dries upon the surface of the moulds as
it is passed through a series of drying kilns. The caps and bodies
of capsules are assembled, sorted, printed and packaged. Creams
and ointments are prepared by blending the active ingredient
with petrolatum (a derivative of petroleum). They are used as
protectants, antiseptics, emollients, antipruritis, kerotolytics
and astringents.
Liquids are prepared in the form of syrups, suspensions
and tinctures, by mixing the active ingredient with a solvent
and preservative. The liquid solutions needed for opthalmic
use or for injection into body fluids need sterilization either by
dry/moist heat under pressure or by using bacteria – retaining
filters.
Q17. What are the different sources of waste
in various pharmaceutical manufacturing
processes?
Answer :
The pharmaceutical waste primarily originates from
various manufacturing processes.
1. The wastes from fermentation plants include,
(i) Spent fermentation broth/spent liquor
(ii) Waste water from floor washings and equipment
cleaning.
(iii) Laboratory wastes
(iv) Barometric condenser water from evaporation
(v) Solid cell debris, spent filter cake solids formed.
(vi) Scrubber water from pollution control equipment.
2. The wastes from the synthetic organic chemical plants
include,
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waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
(i) Cooling waters
(ii) Mother liquors
(iii) Washing of end products
(iv) Solvents produced from processing of chemicals.
3. The wastes generated from the biological production
plants include,
(i) Waste from animal testing experiments
(ii) Chemical waste produced from research
laboratories.
(iii) Sanitary waste.
4. The wastes from the formulation/mixing/compounding
of pharmaceutical drugs include,
(i) Waste water from floor washings
(ii) Equipment cleanup operations
(iii) Spills and breakage of products.
Q18. Discuss the effluent treatment methods in
pharmaceutical industry.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q9(b)
The pollutants generated from the chemical and
pharmaceutical industries can be eliminated in the following
manner.
1. Chemical Treatment: The chemical treatment of
pharmaceutical effluent includes the following.
(a) Wet Air Oxidation: The Wet Air Oxidation (WAO)
system has been used to treat the industrial wastewater. The
process converts the toxic, complex compounds to simpler
ones such as H2O and CO2 as well as biodegradable organic
compounds. The reactions occur at temperature range of 150° C
to 320° C, pressure of 150 to 3200 psi. The harmful pollutants
like NO2, SO2, HCl, dioxins, furans and flyash are not formed
in this method.
Wet Hydrogen Peroxide Oxidation (WHPCO) is also
known as catalytic wet peroxide oxidation (CWPO), Wet
Peroxidation or Wet Oxidation by hydrogen peroxide. In this
method, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is used instead of oxygen
as an oxidizing agent. The reactions occur at temperature less
than 100° C and at atmospheric pressure. The catalysts used in
this reaction are,
v Clays and anionic clays
v Metal-ion exchanged zeolites
v Mesoporous silica
v Doped metal oxides.
(b) Precipitation: The toxic metals dissolved in waste water
is converted to solid form. A precipitation reagent is added to
waste water that enhances the conversion of dissolved particles
to solid form. The subsequent filtration process removes the
The precipitation process removes metallic cations,
anions such as fluorides, cyanides, phosphates, organic
molecules such as phenols, aramatic amines, cadmium, copper,
chromium, nickel, lead and zinc.
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Unit-4 (Manufacturing Process and Treatment in Specific Industries) 4 .13
(c) Ion Exchange (IX) Process: The ion-exchange (IX) process is used to remove contaminants such as nitrate, fluoride
sulphate, arsenic from pharmaceutical effluents.
(d) Electrolysis: Electrochemical technologies such as electrolysis is carried out to remove the metal contamination from the
waste waters.
The process involves production of ions from the electrode (by electrolytic oxidation) which reacts with the metal
contaminants and neutralize the charges. The metal hydroxide and metal phosphate coagulate which are then removed by
electroflotation.
(e) Electrochemical Oxidation with Boron-doped Diamond Electrodes: The boron-doped diamond electrodes are used as
anode in the electrolytic process in wastewater treatments. These are characterized by high physical, chemical and electrochemical
stability, good conductivity and increased rate of effluent treatment.
(f) Advanced Oxidation Process by UV/H2O2/O3: The advanced oxidation process by ultraviolet rays or hydrogen peroxide
or ozone is an oxidative water treatment process by radiation and chemical oxidation to destroy a wide variety of contaminants
in water.
(g) Antiscaling Agents: These are the surface active negatively charged polymers (acrylic acid polymers) used in water
treatment processes to prevent salt incrustation in water treatment equipments.
(h) Anticorrosive Agents: The anticorrosive agents used in water treatment processes are benzotriazole (BT), Tolytriazole
(TT), Octadecylamine, to provide corrosion protection to the various equipments used in treatment processes.
2. Mechanical Treatment
The mechanical treatment of pharmaceutical effluent includes the following:
(a) Air Flotation and Dissolved Air Flotation
The fats, oil and grease (FOG) suspended in industrial effluents are eliminated by the Air Flotation (AF) and Dissolved
Air Flotation (DAF) technique.
In Air Flotation (AF), the air bubbles are introduced, with the help of a cavitation aerator attached to revolving impellor,
into the tank containing raw sewage. The air bubbles attach to the solid matter and oil in the wastewater, which floats on the
surface. The air/oil droplets are continuously skimmed off and removed.
In the DAF method, the first step is the coagulation / flocculation of impurities in wastewater using chemicals (Ferric
hydroxide [Fe(OH)3] or Aluminium hydroxide [Al(OH)3]. Extremely fine air bubbles or microbubbles generated by using air
compressor are sent to the flotation tank. The air bubbles adhere to the suspended material to be removed. Such attachment of
air bubbles to the impurities lowers the density of the particles, resulting in increased buoyancy. The heavier metal settles to the
bottom, while the floating layer is skimmed off and sent for further processing.
(b) Filtration
The solids in industrial effluents is removed by the use of filters made of membranes, nets, sand filters and high technology
filter system, thus prevent the particles from moving downstream.
(c) Sedimentation / Centrifugation
The process of sedimentation is carried out in primary sedimentation tanks (also referred as primary tanks, primary
clarifiers, primary settling tanks and primary treatment devices). The heavier solids or the suspended material in waste water that
are denser than water settle to the bottom of the tank to form the primary sludge.
The factors affecting the sedimentation process in sedimentation tanks include,
(i) Characteristics of solid particles, such as size and specific gravity.
(ii) Characteristics of liquid in the wastewater such as temperature, velocity, etc.
(iii) Characteristics of the artificial tanks such as shape, velocity of flow of liquid, etc.
In the centrifugation process, the solids are separated from the liquids in the sewage using centrifugal force.
(d) Membrane Filtration
Membrane filtration is a type of physical separation technology to separate certain suspended solids, colloids, bacteria
and virus that lie suspended in wastewater.
The membranes used in the process are generally made up of the following materials.

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4.14 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
– Natural products like cellulose acetate, cellulose nitrate
– Polyamides
– Polyacrylonitride (PAN)
– PVC / PAN copolymers
– Polysulphone
– Sulphonated polysulphates
– Polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF)
– Polyether sulfone (PES)
– Polytetrafluoroethylene, polyethylene, polypropylene.
3. Thermal Treatment
The thermal treatment of pharmaceutical effluent includes the following.
(a) Stripping
In this process, stripping is used to remove the volatile organic compounds, (VOCs), consisting of organic solvents and
other chemicals from wastewaters.
(b) Distillation
Distillation is an efficient method for removing dissolved solids in wastewater and produce distilled water. This process
removes dissolved minerals (such as Calcium, Magnesium and Phosphorus), heavy metals like lead, arsenic, mercury. The
distillation process is accomplished by two ways.
(i) Solar Distillation
(ii) Multistage Flash Distillation Wastewater Treatment
(c) Evaporation
Wastewater evaporation is yet another efficient technique to treat the effluent. The evaporators convert the water portion
of the effluent as water vapour, thus reducing the amount of waste to be disposed off. The evaporation process is accomplished
by two ways,
(i) Solar evaporation ponds
(ii) Mechanical evaporators.
(d) Hydrolysis
The thermal hydrolytic process (THP) of effluent treatment involves the use of pressure and temperature to dissolve and
disintegrate the wastewater. Saturated steam is used in the process, which hydrolyzes and changes the structure of the sludge.
The additional features of the effluent are
(i) Reduction in viscocity
(ii) Increase in biodegradability
(iii) Reduction in the amount of effluent to be digested
(iv) Elimination of odours.
The final sludge that is formed can be used as a natural fertilizer.
(e) Freeze Concentration
The process involves freezing of wastewater and subsequent separation of ice crystals resulting in the reduction in volume
of wastewater of high concentration.
Freeze concentration is carried out by two methods,
(i) Conventional Suspension Freeze Concentration
(ii) Progressive Freeze Concentration.

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Unit-4 (Manufacturing Process and Treatment in Specific Industries) 4 .15
(f) Wastewater Incineration
The process involves combustion of raw effluent in sufficient quantity of oxygen, at temperature greater than 850°C. The
waste matter is converted to carbondioxide and water. The non-combustible material like metals and glass remain as solid and
forms the bottom ash.
4. Physical Treatment
The physical treatment of pharmaceutical effluent includes the following.
(a) Coagulation/Flocculation
Coagulation is the method of mixing chemicals to waste water inorder to decrease the forces which tend to preserve
suspended particles apart. In these method mixing is achieved in rapid or flash mixing unit developed to generate velocity gradients
of 300 s or more with detention period of 15 to 50 sec. The paddles of mixing unit are prepare on vertical shaft and operate by
a constant speed motor through reduction gear.
The size and speed of the paddle is so chosen that the capacity of paddle is twice the maximum flow of the tank. The speed
of shaft should be in between 100-200 r.p.m and power of about 0.1 kW/mid is required.
The different types of coagulants used for the treatment of water are,
(i) Alum or aluminium sulphate
(ii) Ferrous sulphate or chlorinated copperas
(iii) Ferrous sulphate and lime
(iv) Magnesium carbonate (and Lime)
(v) Sodium aluminate
(vi) Polyelectrolytes.
Flocculation involves the use of inorganic natural coagulants (eg. aluminium salts, iron salts, lime, polyelectrolytes) and
organic natural coagulants (eg. chitosan, gelation, guargums, alginates) to enhance aggregation of suspended particles.
Flocculation process is carried out after mixing the coagulants with wastewater. In this method floc is developed through
slow stirring mechanisms. Flocculation comprises of paddles which rotates on vertical (on horizontal shaft with a low speed about
2-3 r.p.m (run per minute). For complete formation of floc flocculators allow number of gentle contacts between the flocculating
particles.
In mechanical focculators number of compartments are fixed along with rotating paddles and water flows through the
inlet and removed from the outlet. In flocculation the detention period should be in between 30-60 minutes to obtain best floc.
(b) Adsorption
Adsorption can be defined as a type of separation process, wherein, the dissolved substances cling to the filter material
(for instance, activated carbon), due to the force of attraction at the interface of two phases.
The two forms of activated carbon are generally used in treatment of industrial effluents.
(i) Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
(ii) Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC).
(c) Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE): Liquid Liquid Extraction (LLE), also known as partitioning is an efficient means of
extraction of contaminants from wastewaters.
In this process, the solute is transferred from one solvent to another solvent. The tow solvents used in the procedure should
be immiscible or partially miscible with each other. The two solvents considered usually are water or an aqueous mixture and
non-polar organic liquid.
The process involves introduction of the feed solution containing the solute into the extraction column. The solvent (into
which the solute can dissolve) is added to the extraction chamber. Due to the difference in the densities of the liquid, the lighter
liquid rises to the top while the denser liquid settles at the bottom. Vigorous mixing of the contents of the extraction column
cause the transfer of solute from one solvent to another.
The phase in which the solute gets dissolved is called as the solvent rich phase (also known as the extract phase). The
other solvent is the raffinate phase, which is removed from the top of the extractor.

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4.16 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

Solvent Raffinate

Solution

Mixer
and
separator

Extract
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of an Extraction Column
(d) Irradiation: Irradiation of waste water by gamma rays with a dose of 100 to 600 krad is efficient enough to reduce the
biological risk. Bacteria, viruses and other parasites can be controlled by this method.
5. Biological Treatment: The biological treatment of pharmaceutical effluent includes the following.
(a) Nitrification/Denitrification: The different forms of nitrogen present in industrial effluents have deleterious effects on
the environment. The elimination of nitrogen can be accomplished by the following steps:
(i) The first step is the nitrification process, wherein, ammonia is converted to nitrite and then to nitrate, in the presence
of oxygen and mediated by the Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.
(ii) The second step is the denitrification process, mediated by bacteria under anaerobic conditions.
(b) Anaerobic Treatment
For answer refer Unit-IV, Q9, Topic: Anaerobic Treatment.
(c) Aerobic Treatment
For answer refer Unit-IV, Q9, Topic: Aerobic Treatment.

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Unit-5 (Common Effluent Treatment Plants) 5 .1

Marketed by:

Unit common effluent treatment

5
plants
SIA GROUP

Part-A
Short Questions with Solutions
Q1. Write a short note on primary treatment of raw sewage.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(i)

Primary treatment of raw sewage or effluent involves,

(a) Use of screens: Screens are used to remove large suspended matter.
(b) Comminutors are used to reduce the particle size of suspended solid matter.
(c) Constant velocity channels are used in effluent treatment plants to remove grit from suspended matter to prevent damage
to sewage treatment plants.
(d) Sedimentation tanks are used to remove fine suspended matter. The sewage is passed into large sedimentation tanks, where
the sludge s ettles to the bottom of the tank. The floating material (or scum) like oil and grease and skimmed off while
the sludge settled at the bottom of the tank is continuously removed.
Q2. Write briefly on the tertiary treatment of waste water.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(i)

The tertiary treatment of wastewater refers to the treatment process of wastewater beyond the secondary treatment level
in order to improve the quality of water before it is reused, recycled or discharged to the environment. The tertiary treatment
techniques involve the following,
(a) Carbon adsorption
(b) Flocculation / Precipitation
(c) Membranes for advanced filtration
(d) Ion exchange
(e) Dechlorination
(f) Reverse osmosis.
Q3. How is the chemical waste disposed?
Answer :
The chemical liquids or solutions must be disposed through proper waste disposal procedures. Some compounds may be
poured into the drains. These drains must be connected to the wastewater treatment plants. The chemical compounds that can be
drained include acetic acid, acetone, glycerol, methanol, propanol, formic acids, sugars, sodium and potassium salts of carboxylic
acids.
The compounds that are not suitable for drain disposal must be carefully packed and transported to designated landfill
sites.
Q4. Write a note on the aerobic composting of solid waste.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q1(j)

Composting is a biological process, wherein, the biodegradable organic matter undergoes decomposition by aerobic
microorganisms, ants, nematodes and oligochaete worms to form compost. Compost is very rich in nutrients, especially carbon
and nitrogen. The waste produced in the kitchen too can be recycled by the method of composting and used as organic fertilizer
for growing plants.

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5.2 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
Advantages of composting
The advantages of composting are as follows,
1. Easy cultivation of soil
2. The method prevents the erosion of soil by keeping the soil covered
3. It helps to keep the soil cool in summer and warm in winter
4. The method supplies essential nutrients to the growing plants.
Q5. Write briefly on water pollution by chemicals.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(j)

The chemical wastes discharged into the environment by various anthropogenic activities cause chemical pollution.
Photochemical smog, ozone layer depletion, global warming, acid deposition and acid rain are the resultant effects of chemical
pollution.
Chemicals that cause water pollution
(a) Dumping of industrial effluents, municipal wastes and domestic sewage into water bodies.
(b) Runoff of fertilizers and pesticides into rivers and streams.
(c) Spillage of oil rigs, pipelines from oil offshore exploration and tankers.
Q6. Write briefly on chemical pollution in the atmosphere.
Answer :
A major source of chemical pollution in the atmosphere is from the internal combustion engines of automobiles. The
pollutants include carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide, suspended particles, benzene, formaldehyde, lead,
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). Other chemicals that cause air pollution include aerosol spray propellants containing
chlorofluoro carbons. Indoor air pollution is caused by cooking and heating with solid fuels like wood, dung, agricultural
residues, pesticides, household care products, perfumes, hair sprays, furniture polish, glues, air fresheners, moth repellants, wood
preservatives, tobacco smoke, etc.
Q7. Name the toxic metals found in waste water.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q1(i)

Toxic metals are chemical elements that are hazardous to human health and affect the quality of life. The names of the
toxic metals encountered in everyday life are arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, iron, aluminium, chromium, copper and mercury.
Q8. What is ocean acidification?
Answer :
The term ocean acidification refers to the absorption of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by burning of fossil
fuels by the earth’s oceans and form carbonic acid. The carbonic acid thus formed, alters the chemistry of the sea and this is
proving to be harmful to many marine life forms.
Q9. Write a short note on hazardous waste.
Answer :
Hazardous waste may be defined as the solid, liquid and semi-solid waste materials discarded from various sources such
as households, manufacturing units, mining and agricultural industries. They are toxic chemicals that are harmful to humans,
plants and animals. The hazardous waste are characterized by ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity.
Q10. What is TSDF? What is the need of TSDF?
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q1(j)

TSDF is the acronym for Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities, mainly pertaining to the hazardous waste management.
For remaining answer refer Unit-V, Q9.
These toxic chemicals have the potential of producing harmful physical or health effects, therefore they should be handled
and stored in an appropriate manner.

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Unit-5 (Common Effluent Treatment Plants) 5 .3

Part-b
eSSAY Questions with Solutions
5.1 common effluent treatment plants : advantages and suitability,
limitations and challenges

Q11. What is the concept of common effluent treatment plants (CETP)? What is the need for CETP? What
are the advantages of CETP ?
Answer : [Nov/Dec-13, R09, Q8 | Model Paper-II, Q10(a)]

Common Effluent Treatment Plants (CETP) are treatment systems for waste water generated from industries, so that the
treated water can be reused for various non-potable applications (such as industrial use, toilet flushing, landscape irrigation, street
washing, fire-fighting, etc.) or discharged back to nature.
The concept of Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) is aimed at collective treatment of heterogenous nature of the
effluents generated from different industries before disposal to the stream, land, sewerage system or the sea.
Types of Wastes
CETPs are broadly categorized into two classes.
(a) Homogenous CETPs
It includes the industries which produce similar types of effluents, Examples: Paper and Pulp, Tannery and Textile Industries.
(b) Heterogenous CETPs
It includes the industries which produce dissimilar types of effluents, Examples: Dairy, Chemicals, Pharmaceuticals.
The different types of wastes that need treatment are microbial cells, raw materials, organic matter, suspended solids,
wash waters, cooling towers etc.
Advantages of CETPs
The advantages of CETP are,
(a) It helps to control different types of pollution.
(b) It is a better and economical option when compared to waste water treatment by individual industries, particularly
the small and medium scale industries, as it can be operated at lower unit cost.
(c) Professionally trained staff are involved in waste water treatment.
(d) The space constraint at individual industry level is avoided.
(e) The problems of monitoring by the pollution control board is reduced. Thus, the problem of lack of technical
assistance and trained personnel at individual factories is minimized.
Limitations of CETP
The limitations of CETP are as follows,
1. Lack of access to capital investments
2. Lack of specialized technical skills
3. Poor management of waste treatment units
4. Lack of separate treatment units to tackle the problem of hazardous and toxic effluents.
Q12. Describe the preliminary operation/treatment methodology of CETP.
Answer : [Model Paper-I, Q10(b) | Model Paper-III, Q10(a)]

Operation/Treatment Methodology of CETP

The treatment of waste water is carried out in a sequential manner with increasing effectiveness and complexity. The
conventional sequence of waste water treatment is the preliminary treatment, primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary
treatment followed by the disposal of sludge.
Preliminary Treatment
The main objective of the preliminary treatment of waste water is to remove the non-biodegradable, coarse and floating
solids to prevent their interference in the subsequent treatment processes. The preliminary treatment of effluents involves the
following processes.

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5.4
1. Screening
Screening is the first step in an effluent treatment plant. It
involves the removal of non-biodegradable, coarse and floating
solids such as rags, paper, plastics, metals, containers, branches,
wood etc., before the waste water flows into downstream
processes.
Types of Screens
The different types of screens used in waste water
treatment are,
(a) Bar Screens (Coarse Bar Screens)
It consists of a set of parallel metal bars or heavy wires
spaced at 3 inches (75 mm). Generally, inclined at an
angle of 30° to 60° to the base, to facilitate easy cleaning
of the screen by manual or mechanical raking.
(b) Medium Screens
The openings in the medium screens vary in the range
of 20mm-50mm.
(c) Fine Screens
The size of the openings vary from 3 mm to 10 mm.
The fine bar screens are generally placed down stream
of coarse screens.
Based on the cleaning mechanism, the screens are
categorized as,
(i) Mechanically cleaned screens
(ii) Manually cleaned screens.
The screening method (mechanical or manual) used in
the treatment of waste water depends on the design of the waste
water treatment plant. The accumulated debris from the screen
is removed by brush, by water spray, or by both methods.
The other types of screens used in waste water treatment
are,
(i) Drum Screen
The drum screen consists of a cylindrical surface of 2 m
to 5 m in diameter, made up of specially woven stainless
steel wire cloth/nylon cloth, with pore size of 20 to 60
µ. It is considered as a cost effective way to treatment
challenges for industrial applications or municipal waste
water. The waste water enters the drum screen axially,
the screenings are trapped inside the drum, then the
water leaves radially. A jet of water may be introduced
into the drum to dislodge the screenings into a trough.
(ii) Cutting Screen
As the name indicate these are modified bar screens but
with cutting mechanism that help in cutting the screening
into small pieces and allows them to pass through the
openings in the screen.
(iii) Bond Screen
These are perforated screen curtains (panels) placed
vertically on a constantly rotating conveyor belt. As the
waste water enters the screen curtain, the solids are held
back or retained, which is then subsequently moved out
by the rotating conveyor belt from the screening zone
to the panel cleaning area.
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waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
2. Grit Chamber
Grit chamber are basins/large tanks intended to remove
the coarse impurities (called as grit) in waste water, such as
sand, gravel, sinder, heavy solid materials, egg shells, bone
chips, seeds, wood pieces, vegetable cuttings, rags etc.
Types of Grit Chambers
The grit chambers are of the following types,
(a) Horizontal Flow Grit Chambers
The waste water flows through the chamber in the
horizontal direction. These chambers have the ability to remove
grit in the size range of 0.15 mm to 0.21 mm diameter. The
velocity of the water flow is maintained constant with the help
of proportional weir or parshall flume, to enable removal of
the impurities. The grit settle to the bottom of the tank, while
the lighter particles remain suspended in the water. The settled
material is removed with the help of a conveyor with scrapers,
buckets or plows.
(b) Aerated Grit Chambers (Also known as Aerated
Detritus Tank)
A blower injects air via a tube placed above the floor
of the tank. The circular or spiral toroidal flow of air bubbles
through the chamber causes the heavy inorganic solids to settle
the bottom of the tank while the lighter organic matter remains
in suspension.
The settled grit is removed by using a recessed-impeller
grit pump or an air-lift pump.
(c) Vortex-type (Paddle/Jet Induced Vortex) Grit-
Removal System (Also called as Accelerated Gravity
Separation Device)
The device has a cylindrical tank for removal of grit
with vortex flow pattern with the following parts,
(i) Circulator or rotating turbine
(ii) Variable speed drive unit.
The raw waste water containing grit is made to flow
tangentially at the top from the outside edge of the tank. The
circulator or the rotating turbine creates a toroidal flow path to
lift the lighter organic materials. The settleable solids move in
a circular motion towards the centre and settle at the bottom.
The grit settles to the bottom of the tank due to the gravitational
forces. The settled grit particles are removed by a belt conveyor
or grit pump or airlift pump. The degritted effluent flows out
from the top of the tank.
Purpose of Grit Chamber
The main purpose of using grit chambers in waste water
treatment are,
(i) To avoid abnormal abrasive wear and tear of the
mechanical equipment and sludge pumps.
(ii) To prevent obstruction of pipes by deposition of
grit.
(iii) To prevent accumulation of grit in the sludge
holding tanks and digesters.
(iv) To prevent interference with the subsequent
biological treatment.
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Unit-5 (Common Effluent Treatment Plants) 5 .5
Proportional flow weir

Influent

Effluent

Grit

Figure: Horizontal Flow Grit Chamber

Figure: Aerated Grit Chamber

Figure: Vortex-type Grit Removal System

3. Detritus Tank (Short Term Sedimentation Basins)
These are simple square tanks used for removal of large quantities of grit and organic material from waste water. The
modern detritus tanks are rectangular shaped with vertical sides and tapered bottom. The influent from the grit chamber flows
into the tank with low velocity. The fine particles in the waste water settle to the bottom of the tank which are frequently removed
by scraping.
4. Hydrocyclones
(Cyclonic Inertial Separation), also known as cyclone degritters are used to remove both grit and suspended solids in
waste water.
The device is in the shape of a cone with an inlet pipe placed tangentially for the introduction of sewage water. As the feed
water is sent into the device, it follows a circular path, forming an air core at the central axis till the spigot/apex. The centrifugal
force produced by the flow of fluid pushes the grit outwards towards the wall of the device and downwards because of greater
density.
The lighter particles leave the hydrocyclone through the top. The grit thus collected can be disposed in the following ways,
(i) Incineration of grit along with sludge
(ii) Disposal into the sea
(iii) Disposal into the land
(iv) Disposal by burial.

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5.6 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]

Figure: Detritus Tank

Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of a Hydrocyclone

5. Comminutor
Comminutor is a device used for cutting/shredding large solids into smaller ones to avoid causing mechanical problems
or clogging of the equipment in subsequent processes. These are generally installed following the screening process,
The main parts of a comminutor are,
(a) A slotted basket/screen
(b) A rotating/oscillating cutter
(c) Stationary cutter.
The solids are broken up between the blades of the rotating/oscillating cutter and stationary cutter.
Shredding is also accomplished by using barminutor. The device has a bar screen to collect the solids present in waste
water, which then undergoes shredding to form small sized solids. The shredded material is passed through bar screen again for
removal of larger solids.

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Unit-5 (Common Effluent Treatment Plants) 5 .7

Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of a Comminutor

6. Pre-aeration for Odour Control
The odourous emissions from waste water consist of Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S), mercaptans, disulfides, skatoles, indoles,
inorganic acids, aldehydes, ketones, organic compounds containing nitrogen and sulphur atoms.
Pre-aeration of waste water involves the following processes,
(a) Injection of large air bubbles for 20 to 30 minutes following the screening of waste water.
(b) Mechanical agitation of waste water to enable more absorption of air.
Such aeration methods help in flocculation of lighter suspended solids to form heavier masses.
(a) Chlorination of Waste Water
Chlorination of waste water is yet another method to ward off the offensive odours. Chlorine dioxide, Potassium Permanganate
and ozone have the oxidative power on odorous substances.
(b) Carbon Adsorption
Carbon adsorption method of deodorizing waste water is accomplished by the use of activated carbon. Activated carbon
is a widely used adsorbent in waste water treatment systems. It is prepared by thermal decomposition under controlled
atmosphere and heat.
(c) Biofilters
Biofilters consist of a media bed of naturally occurring microorganisms.
The different types of microorganisms in the matrix include Bacillus sps, Streptomyces sps, Pseudomonas, Nitrosomonas,
Thiobacillus, Hyphomicrobium, Doratomyces, Fusarium sps etc. The odourous air is collected by using ventilation fans
and channelized to booster fans. The booster fans pass the foul air to the matrix of biofilters. The foul air is passed into
the matrix via a system of distribution pipes. As the odourous air move upwards, the micro organisms in the media trap
the odourous compounds before being discharged to air.

Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of a Biofilter

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5.8 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
7. Oil/Grease Separation
The excessive amount of grease and fats in waste water are removed by using oil/grease separators to prevent their
interference during subsequent treatment and disposal of waste.
The methods used for the treatment of waste water contaminated with oil and grease are,
(i) Gravity separators
(ii) Ultrafiltration
(iii) Coalescing
(iv) Chemical treatment
(v) Floatation technology.
(i) Vertical Gravity Separator
Vertical gravity separator is used to remove oil, grease and suspended solids in waste water.
The device has a longitudinal column, tapered at the lower end. The interior of the column has a spiral pack made up of
Oleophilic material. The oleophilic spiral pack is suspended from the lid.
The waste water containing oil and grease is allowed to flow into the device via an inlet pipe and discharged into the bottom
of the main body. The low density fluid (oil) and suspended solids move up the main body. Heavy solids and sludge move down
and settle to the base which can be removed from the system via a sludge valve. The cleaned water devoid of contaminants pass
out through the outlet pipe.
(ii) Removal of Oil and Grease by Coalescing
The waste water containing oil and grease droplets are placed in coalescing medium. The coalescing media are the tilted
plates made of Polypropylene, Ceramic and Glass. The oil and grease droplets adhere to one another and rise to the surface of
the solution.
(iii) Chemical Treatment of Waste Water
The chemicals used in treating waste water for removal of oil and grease are,
(a) Ferric Chloride
Ferric chloride (FeCl3) is used as a purifying agent in waste water treatment for the following reasons,
(i) Highly efficient in removing impurities
(ii) Effective clarification of water
(iii) Used in sludge dewatering
(iv) Rapid hydrolysis in water.
Hydrolysis of ferric chloride in water produce ferric hydroxide which absorb suspended materials in water such as colloids,
bacteria etc. Thus, ferric chloride can be chosen as an ideal flocculating and precipitating agent.
(b) Aluminium Chloride
Aluminium chloride is used in waste water treatment facilities. It is very effective but expensive chemical than ferric
chloride. Other chemicals used in chemical treatment of waste water are ferric sulphate Fe2(SO4)3, Aluminium sulphate (Al(SO4)3),
Ferrous sulphate (FeSO4), Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), Polyaluminium chloride (PACL), lime and alum.
(iv) Removal of Oil and Grease by Dissolved Air Floatation (DAF) Technology
Dissolved air floatation is a physical process that is most widely used to remove suspended or colloidal particles from
liquid by bringing them to the surface of the liquid. The attachment of air bubbles to the suspended or colloidal particle reduce
the density of the particle, resulting in increased buoyancy and thus cause floatation on the surface.
The skimmers provided at the top of the flotation tank remove the floating material. Some chemicals may be added to the
waste water to promote flotation of solid particles. These chemical conditioner include aluminium and iron salts activated silica
and organic polymers.
The main components of the DAF technology are,
(i) Air supply
(ii) Pressurizing pump
(iii) Saturator/retention tank
(iv) Flotation chamber.

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Unit-5 (Common Effluent Treatment Plants) 5 .9
The DAF process is of the following types,
(a) Full Flow Dissolved Air Flotation
In this method, air is dissolved in waste water under high pressure in a closed tank called as saturation/retention tank and
then sent to the flotation tank. The clarified effluent is then drawn out from the bottom of the flotation tank.

Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Full Flow DAF Mechanism

(b) Partial Flow Dissolved Air Flotation Without Recycle
In this method, a small part of the influent waste water from a closed tank called as retention tank is pressurized with air
and sent to the flotation tank. The remaining part of the waste water is sent to the flotation tank either by gravity or low pressure
pump.

Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Recycle Flow DAF Mechanism

(c) Recycle Flow Dissolved Air Flotation
In this method a small portion of the clarified effluent is pressurized and sent to the flotation tank.

Figure: Recycle Flow Dissolved Air Floatation

Pretreatment of waste water for oil and grease removal is essential to prevent the fouling of the materials in the subsequent
treatment processes.

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5.10 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
(v) Biodemulsifiers (Also known as Microbial Demulsifying Agents)
Biodemulsifiers such as Nacardia amaraebacteria, Corynebacterium petrophilum, Rhodococcus aurantiacus are reported
to be very effective in demulsification of water-in-oil emulsions. Cactus extracts and oxalkylated, alkylpolyglycosides is used in
some industries. The other demulsifiers used in oil industries include Mycobacterium sps, Bacillus subtilis, Torulopsis bombicola,
Acinetabacter calcaoceticus, Arthrobacter sps, Micrococcus sps, Alteromonas sps, Aeromonas sps and mixed aerobic bacterial
culture. Reports indicate that the biosurfactants produced by the microbes contain hydrophobic and hydrophilic components that
help to displace the emulsifiers present at water/air, oil/air, or the oil/water interfaces.
The advantages of using microbial demulsifiers are,
(i) Excellent surface properties
(ii) Low toxicity
(iii) Easy biodegradability
(iv) Low cost
(v) High specificity at extreme temperatures
(vi) Environmental compatibility
(vii) Effective at low concentrations
(viii) The process can be carried out at non-extreme conditions.
Q13. Describe the primary treatment methodology of CETP. [Model Paper-I, Q11(a) | Model Paper-III, Q11(a)]
OR
Write short notes on pretreatment of industrial wastes.
Answer : Nov./Dec.-13, (R09), Q5(c)
Primary Treatment
The primary treatment of effluents (also referred as primary clarification) involves the following processes.
(a) Equalization
Equalization refers to the collection of different types of wastes discharged by an industrial set up, in an equalization basin
to stabilize the pH and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) of the wastes. The stable effluents formed in the basin are treated
by industrial and/or municipal treatment plants.
Some examples of equalization such as mixing of cool and hot wastes, acids and alkalis, strong waste and dilute waste,
result in neutralization and precipitation of pollutants.
The main aim of equalization is,
(i) Stabilization of pH
(ii) Stabilization of biochemical oxygen demand
(iii) Settling of solids and heavy metals in the equalization basin.
Proportioning refers to mixing of sewage and industrial waste water to reduce the strength of the total waste so that minimal
treatment is required before its disposal. The mixture of sewage and industrial waste is treated in a combined treatment unit and
then disposed.
Example
Salt used for curing cucumbers during pickle making forms a large percentage of the total processing waste. The salt brine
waste can be collected in large vats along with other wastes and discharged slowly so that equalization between plant waste and
brine waste takes place.
(b) Neutralization
Neutralization of industrial waste water refers to the treatment of waste water to neutral pH for safe discharge. Some
examples of neutralization are given below,
(i) The acid wastes from industries can be neutralized by passing through beds of limestone. Eg. Sulphuric acid is passed
through calcium carbonate.
The chemical reaction involved is,

This reaction depends upon the availability of limestone. The sulphuric acid passed through the limestone bed must not
be diluted beyond 5% and allowed to flow at the rate of 5 gallons per minute per square foot. When excess acid is allowed to
pass down the limestone bed, calcium sulphate may get precipitated, which may even inactivate the limestone. Therefore, this
method needs replacement of fresh limestone bed at regular intervals.

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Unit-5 (Common Effluent Treatment Plants) 5 .11
(ii) The carbonic acid waste from boiler units can be neutralized by reacting with caustic wastes/lime slurries/dolomitic lime
slurries.
The method is similar to the one mentioned above, except for the fact that lime is used up continuously as it is converted
to calcium sulphate and discharged as waste.
(iii) Addition of caustic soda/soda ash/ sodium bicarbonate to acid wastes.
(iv) Alkaline wastes are neutralized by using waste boiler flue gas.
The waste boiler flue gas dissolves in waste water to form a weak acid, carbonic acid. Carbonic acid reacts with caustic
wastes to form soda ash.
The chemical reactions involved are,

(v) Addition of sulphuric acid to alkaline wastes. This method is considered as an expensive means of neutralization of alkaline
waste.
(c) Sedimentation
The process of sedimentation is widely used in waste water treatment systems for separation of suspended particles that
are heavier than water. The sedimentation process is carried out by using sedimentation chambers or settling basins along with baffles,
oil skimmers and mechanical scrapers.
The primary sedimentation tanks are either round or rectangular basins, which are also referred as primary tanks, primary
clarifiers, primary settling tanks and primary treatment devices. The heavier solids or the suspended material in waste water that
are denser than water settle to the bottom of the tank to form the primary sludge.
The floating material (or scum) like oil and grease are skimmed off while the sludge settled at the bottom of the tank is
continuously removed for further processing.
(d) Flocculation/Coagulation
The main objective of coagulation/flocculation is to separate the suspended solids from the waste water. This type of
treatment involves two steps,
1. First, the waste is made to flow into the flash mix chamber.
The coagulant chemicals are added to the water in the chamber. The different types of coagulants used for this purpose
are,
Aluminium Phosphate, Polyaluminium Chloride, Aluminium Chlorohydrate, Polyaluminium Sulphate Chloride,
Polyaluminium Silicate Chloride, Ferrous Sulphate, Sodium Aluminate, Silicon Derivatives, Lime and Synthetic Organic Polymers.
The contents of the flash mix chamber are mixed quickly and vigourously for a minute, so that the chemicals distribute evenly
in water.
The coagulant traps the impurities and form a precipitate. During the process of coagulation, the electrical charge on the
suspended particle is neutralized by the coagulant to prevent the particles from repelling each other. The particles now come
closer and form clumps/floc.
2. Next, the coagulant treated waste water directed to the flocculation basin.
The flocculation basin has a number compartments with decreasing speeds so that the larger flocs are formed without
being broken by the blades of the mixer. The contents of the basin are mixed gently for thirty minutes to an hour, to enable the
fine particles formed by coagulation to come closer. The precipitate thus formed settle to the bottom of the basin. The figure given
below is a diagrammatic representation of the flocculation mechanism for waste water treatment.

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5.12
The use of natural coagulants is considered as
environmentally friendly and an ideal choice in dye waste water
treatment for its,
(a) High efficiency in colour removal and COD reduction.
(b) Non-toxic nature
(c) Biodegradable
Examples include chitosan and Moringa olifera seeds.
The primary treatment of waste water ensures removal
of the rubbish and solid waste material. Now, the waste water
is directed to secondary treatment.
Q14. Describe the secondary treatment methodology
of CETP.
Answer : [Model Paper-II, Q11(a) | Model Paper-III, Q11(b)]
Secondary Treatment
The secondary treatment of waste water is the biological
treatment of waste water mainly by anaerobic and/or aerobic
treatment methods.
Biological Treatment
The biological treatment of effluents is achieved by
either of the two ways.
1. Aerobic Biological Systems
In the aerobic process of effluent treatment, the microbial
population requires oxygen-rich environment to oxidize
substrates to carbondioxide, water and other products.
Some of the aerobic processes used in the treatment of
dairy effluents are as mentioned below.
(a) Activated Sludge System
The conventional activated sludge process is a biological
method of treating the dairy effluents, accomplished
by a plethora of microorganisms in an aerobic aquatic
environment. The carbonaceous organic matter in the
dairy effluent provide energy to the mixed population
of microorganisms for reproduction, which then
release carbondioxide and water by the process of
respiration. The microorganisms used in the process are
heterotrophic and autotrophic bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
rotifers, metazoan nematode worms.
The essential components of the activated sludge process
are: primary sedimentation tank, aeration tank, an
aeration source, secondary clarifiers, collection tanks,
pumps.
The effluents from various sources are directed to
a primary sedimentation tank for removal of coarse
solids. The effluents from the sedimentation tank are
then sent to an aeration tank provided with bubble
diffusers/paddles/stirrers/ surface aerators for feeding
compressed air or pure oxygen into the tank with
vigorous agitation for appropriate mixing. The effluents
are then sent to secondary clarifiers, where the activated
sludge solids separate out from the wastewaters by the
process of flocculation (formation of large aggregates of
microorganisms) and gravity sedimentation in which the
large aggregates of microorganisms settle to the bottom
of the tank along with the formation of a secondary
effluent in the upper portion of the tank. The sludge
settled at the bottom of the tank is collected from the
secondary clarifiers sent to the sludge collection tank
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and pumped back to the aeration tank to replenish the
biological community needed to metabolize organic and
inorganic matter in waste water.
(b) Trickling Filter Process
The trickling filter process is a biological method effluent
treatment by a mixed variety of microorganisms in an
aerobic aquatic environment.
A trickling filter is known by various names : trickle
filter, biofilter, trickling biofilter, biological filter or
biological trickling filter.
A trickling filter consists of a cylindrical concrete tank
with a packing matrix of a bed of rocks, gravel, slag,
peat, moss, plastic media or other synthetic material.
Air may be sent by natural draft of blowers to provide
oxygen for microorganisms attached to the packing
matrix. The effluent that needs treatment is sprayed
through the packed bed intermittently to allow a layer
of air to form on the organic matter. Microorganisms
(bacteria, fungi, algae, protozoa and nematodes)
responsible for treatment are attached to the surface
of the packing material. The microorganisms adsorb
oxygen from the layer of air and the organic matter from
the effluents for biochemical oxidation. The effluents
are then directed to secondary sedimentation tank to
remove the suspended matter. The complex organic
matter is broken down and utilized. The end products
formed are carbondioxide, water and other products of
oxidation. The treated effluent is sent to a settling tank
for solid-liquid separation.
(c) Rotating Biological Contactors
Rotating Biological Contractors (RBCs) consist of
disks made up of corrugated, light plastic material
(polystyrene, PVC). The biomass attached to the disks
rotate on a central drive shaft at 10 to 15 r.p.m through
the effluent. Upon exposure to air, the biofilm on the
disks absorb air, and when submerged in waste water,
the microbes consume the dissolved organic matter.
When the biofilm on the surface of the disks grows in
thickness, the excess is torn off the disks by the shear
forces produced as the disks rotate through the liquid. A
sedimentation tank collects the effluents from the RBC,
where the biomass in suspension settle as a sludge. The
sludge is withdrawn from the sedimentation tank for
further treatment or disposal.
(d) Sequencing Batch Reactor System
The sequencing batch reactor system works in a batch
process rather than a continuous one. It is also referred as
the fill and draw process, wherein a single tank operates
in four phases.
(i) Filling Phase
A specific volume of wastewater called as a batch is
allowed to flow into the tank (reactor).
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Unit-5 (Common Effluent Treatment Plants) 5 .13
(ii) Aeration/Reaction Phase
Air is pumped into the tank so that sufficient oxygen is supplied for the aerobic biochemical processes to occur. The
microorganisms utilize the dissolved organic matter.
(iii) Settling Phase
The wastewater in the tank is allowed to settle, wherein the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank.
(iv) Decantation Phase
The treated effluent is discharged, and the solids are recycled to start another cycle. The diagram given below is a schematic
representation of sequencing batch reactor system.

Figure: Schematic Representation of Sequencing Batch Reactor System

(e) Aerated Lagoons
The aerated lagoons are the surface-aerated basins dug out in earth to carry out biological oxidation processes for treating
industrial waste waters. The sludge that accumulates at the bottom of the aeration basins need to be removed periodically
to avoid build up of a permanent deposit.
2. Anaerobic Biological System
The anaerobic treatment of effluents involves the degradation of organic matter to gaseous products (mainly methane and
carbondioxide). The insoluble organic matter present in the waste water is converted to soluble organic matter by the action of
hydrolytic and fermentative bacteria. The acid producing bacteria consume the soluble organic matter to produce volatile fatty
acids (acetic acid, propionic acid), carbondioxide and hydrogen, which in turn, is consumed by methane producing bacteria to
give methane and carbondioxide.

Summary of Reactions During Anaerobic Treatment

Some of the anaerobic processes developed are anaerobic digesters (completely mixed reactors), anaerobic filters, up-flow
anaerobic sludge blankets and Imhoff tanks.
Anaerobic Digesters
Anaerobic digesters consist of digester tanks for anaerobic digestion of effluents to occur. The tanks are sealed properly
to provide anaerobic conditions as oxygen kills some of the anaerobic bacteria present in the digesting tank and disrupts the
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5.14
process. The effluents are sent to a degasifier and to a settling
tank. The treated effluents are discharged while the solids are
recycled for reuse.
Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of Anaerobic Digester
The gaseous byproducts formed are methane,
carbondioxide and small amounts of nitrogen and hydrogen.
Some digesters are equipped with heating coils for maintaining
ambient temperatures of 30ºC – 35ºC.
Anaerobic Lagoon/Anaerobic Pond
It consists of a large covered pond/tank, free from
dissolved oxygen, to promote anaerobic conditions and
to prevent loss of methane, carbondioxide, ammonia, and
hydrogen sulphide to the atmosphere. The anaerobic bacteria in
the lagoon convert organic materials into stable products such
as CO2 and CH4 under anaerobic conditions.
Q15. Describe the tertiary treatment methodology of
CETP?
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q11(b)
Tertiary Treatment
The tertiary treatment of waste water (also called as
auxiliary treatment or secondary clarification) is the final stage
of the treatment process with the main objective to improve
the waste water quality before it is reused or discharged into
the environment. It involves the removal of contaminants, toxic
materials and nutrients by using the following advance methods.
1. Sand Filters
The sand filter is considered as a simple and inexpensive
method of waste water treatment. The process of filtration is
carried out in liners made of concrete, plastic or impervious
material. This filter media consist of fine sand over a layer of
supporting gravel. The depth of the bed range from 24 to 42
inches. Other materials used instead of sand are the crushed
glass, anthracite, garnet, mine tailings or bottom ash.
Sand filtration is of the following types,
(a) Slow sand filtration
(b) Rapid sand filtration/mechanical sand filtration.
(a) Slow Sand Filtration: In this method, water is pumped
into the slow sand filters. The filtered water is drained to
storage tanks. Continuous use of the filter media clogs
the pore openings with the material being filtered out of
the water. When there is excessive clogging of the filter
bed, then the upper layers of sand need to be removed
manually for cleaning.
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(b) Rapid Sand Filtration: The filter media in rapid
sand filtration consist of a single layer of coarse sand
(diameter 0.5 - 1mm) of 1 m thick. An alternative filter
media that may be used in rapid sand filtration consist
of two layers of media.
(i) Coarse sand sized coal or anthracite of 40 cm
thickness.
(ii) Sand and gravel of 60 cm thickness.
The impurities in waste water are absorbed by the filter
media. The filtered/clarified water is collected through
the outlet pipe fitted at the bottom of the filter bed. Upon
continuously use of the filter bed. The rate of water
flow through the filter gradually decreases because the
pore openings in the filter media get clogged with the
material being filtered out the water. The media is then
backwashed by pumping treated water under pressure
upwards, to dislodge the adsorbed sludge from the filter
medium. Such reverse flow of treated water also expands
the filter bed. Thus, the sand gets freed from the clogging
material and can be reused again.
The rate and frequency of back washing operation must
be controlled to prevent the loss of sand or anthracite grains.
2. Activated Carbon Filter
For answer refer Unit-III, Q15, Topic: Chemisorption.
3. Microfiltration
For answer refer Unit-III, Q18.
4. Ultrafiltration
For answer refer Unit-III, Q17.
Q16. Write about the causes, effects and control
measures of industrial wastes.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q11(b)
Industrial Waste
Industrial waste refers to solid, liquid and semi-solid
waste material produced by manufacturing and industrial
processes. The industrial wastes are broadly categorized
into hazardous and non-hazardous waste. Hazardous waste
includes heavy metals, cyanides, pesticides, complex aromatic
compounds, toxic chemicals that are harmful to humans, plants
and animals. The non-hazardous industrial waste includes
non-radioactive medical waste, glass, aluminium foil, plastic,
styrofoam, paper cardboard, plastics, packaging, wood, textiles,
rubble, scrap metal, heat-resistant bricks, etc.
Impacts of Industrial Waste on Environment and Human
Health
The impacts of industrial waste on human health and
environment are considered as an important concern. Some of
the effects are,
(a) The waste water discarded from manufacturing or
industrial processes contribute to water pollution.
(b) The toxic contaminants in water have found their way
into the animals, fish, birds and humans via the food
chain.
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Unit-5 (Common Effluent Treatment Plants) 5 .15
(c) The toxic contaminants pollute the ground water supplies as well.
(d) The polluted water is unfit for drinking, recreation, agriculture and industry. The polluted water affects the reproductive
abilities of aquatic life.
(e) Pollution of air is caused due to the greenhouse gases, ozone depleting substances, smog-producing substances and eco-
toxic substances.
(f) Changes in the landscape patterns through illegal disposal and discharge of pollutants leading to visual nuisance.
(g) Changes in the soil fertility due to discharge of ecotoxic substances.
(h) Substances such as cadmium, arsenic, chromium, nickel, dioxins, Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) disposed at
the landfill site are carcinogenic in nature. These substances further cause toxic effects on the central nervous system, liver,
kidneys, heart, lungs, skin, reproductive system etc. The other health problems include respiratory symptoms, irritation
of the skin, nose and eyes, gastrointestinal problems, fatigue, headache, psychological problems and allergies.
Measures to Control Industrial Waste Production
Waste generated in an industrial setting can be reduced/controlled by many ways. Some of them are discussed below.
1. Reduction of Waste at Source
Some of the waste reduction techniques include,
(a) The product composition can be changed to reduce the amount of waste production.
(b) Minimize the use of hazardous materials that enter the production process.
(c) Technological innovations may be introduced to make changes to the production process.
(d) Purchase of unnecessary items must be discouraged to avoid waste from unwanted materials.
2. Recycling of Waste
(a) Processing and recycling of metallic elements should be done to avoid continuous mining.
(b) Waste material generated in an industrial setting may be used as a raw material substitute for another process.
(c) The waste material may be returned to the original process.
(d) The packaging material (such as cardboard, bubble wrap or polystyrene) can be reused.
Q17. What are the toxic metals and different sources of toxic metals in the waste water?
Answer :
Toxic metals are chemical elements that are hazardous to human health and affect the quality of life. Some of the toxic
metals encountered in everyday life are arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, iron and aluminium.
The various sources of toxic metals in the waste water are depicted in tabular form.
Metal Source
1. Arsenic (a) Smelting process of copper, zinc and lead.
(b) Manufacture of arsenic containing pesticides.
(c) Water supplies, paints, fungicides, wood preservatives.
2. Lead Pipes, drains, soldering materials, batteries, cable coverings, ammunition, fuel additives.
3. Mercury Mixing operations, chloralkali plants, paper industries.
4. Cadmium Run-off from nickel-cadmium batteries, PVC, plastics, paints, insecticides, fungicides,
commercial fertilizers, cigarettes, release from metal refineries.
5. Iron Drinking water, iron pipes, cookware.
6. Aluminium Food additives, antacids, astringents, nasal sprays, antiperspirants, automobile exhaust
and tobacco smoke.
7. Chromium Discharge from steel and pulp mills, erosion of natural deposits.
8. Copper and lead Corrosion of household plumbing system, erosion of natural deposits.
9. Mercury Erosion of natural deposits, discharge from refineries and factories, runoff from landfills
and croplands.

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The toxic metals mentioned above are non-essential
elements and have no role in human physiology. In fact,
exposure to these metals have led to toxic or lethal effects.
These include damaged or reduced mental and central
nervous function, decreased levels of energy, effect the blood
composition, damage to lungs, kidneys, liver and other vital
organs, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, muscular
dystrophy and multiple sclerosis.
Q18. What are the various causes of inland water
pollution?
Answer : 9. The dissolved nitrogen in the form of nitrates and heavy
Water that percolates through the surface layers of soil
and rock until it reaches the impervious rocky layer where it
accumulates is called as groundwater. Surface water is the water
in lakes, rivers, streams or other fresh water bodies.
The industrial and municipal water supplies rely on
two major sources of drinking water: groundwater and surface
water. Both these sources of water are likely to be polluted by
contaminants. The ground water contains pesticides, chemicals
and nitrates while most bacteria and other microorganisms
contaminate the surface waters.
The groundwater generally stored in underground
aquifers receives water from soil, saturated with precipitation
or through stream and river runoff. When the storing capacity
of aquifers exceed, the excess water is drained into streams
or rivers. The groundwater and surface water are intimately
interconnected such that pollution of surface water can reach
groundwater and vice versa. Over-exploitation of groundwater
for industrial, domestic and irrigation purposes can lead to
drying up of rivers and lakes.
The pollution of groundwater sources is due to the
following reasons,
1. Industrial pollution caused by haphazard disposal of
industrial effluents. Pumping of untreated effluents
contaminated with toxic organic and inorganic substances
flows into rivers and polluting the groundwater for years
rendering it unfit for human consumption.
2. Agrochemical pollution of groundwater due to extensive
farming. The agrochemicals and pesticides like nitrates
and DDT used in farming enters the groundwater
through surface runoff or underground leaching.
3. Unplanned disposal of industrial effluents have polluted
the groundwater with heavy metals like chromium, lead
and nickel in several parts of the country.
4. Domestic waste water too is a major source of pollution
to the ground waters.
5. Salinity of the groundwater due to ingress of seawater
in coastal regions. Inland salinity of groundwater has
been reported in some areas possibly due to overuse of
surface water and groundwater or inherent characteristic
of aquifers.
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6. About 80% to 90% of rural population of our country
depend on groundwater for drinking and domestic
purposes. The fluoride content in groundwater has
been reported to be beyond permissible limits, thus
threatening the rural dwellers with serious health hazards
of fluorosis.
7. The arsenic content in groundwater has been reported
to be beyond permissible limits, thus putting the people
in the risk zone.
8. Several parts of the country have high concentration of
iron contaminating the groundwater.
metals like chromium, lead and nickel are the common
contaminants identified in groundwater in several parts
of rural and urban India.
10. The surface waters are reported to have elevated level
of bacteria, low dissolved oxygen content, elevated
concentrations of organics like, malathion, polychlorinated
biphenyls and dioxins, high concentrations of dissolved
solids like chlorides, metals, cadmium, zinc, lead, silver,
aluminium etc.
High levels of pathogens (fecal coliform or other
bacteria) and plant nutrients are a concern in some waters.
It is presumed that the drinking water of groundwater
has low concentration of pathogens because, as the water flows
through the underground layers of sand, clay or rocks, it gets
filtered of microorganisms. However, hazardous chemicals are
likely to be dissolved from soil into groundwater.
Q19. Write about the different causes for coastal
pollution.
Answer :
Marine pollution involves dumping of undesirable
material into the marine environment by human activities,
directly or indirectly, resulting in hazardous effects to human
health, impairing the quality of sea water and hampering the
marine activities.
Some of the causes of marine pollution are as follows,
(a) The coastal towns discharge the municipal waste and
sewage into the sea directly.
(b) The synthetic pesticides and fertilizers in the runoff
water eventually enter the sea water.
DDT is a widely used pesticide found concentrated
in marine fish. Due to the effect of DDT, the brown
pelicans and ospreys produce thin egg shells. Owing
to the harmful effect of the DDT, its uses has been
banned from agricultural practices, but still it is found
in developing countries.
PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls) are the industrial
chemicals used as liquid coolants and insulators in
power transformers. This chemical enters the marine
environment through leakages and discarded equipment
which then accumulates in animal tissues and alter their
reproductive abilities.
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Unit-5 (Common Effluent Treatment Plants)
(c) Spillage from oil rigs, pipelines from oil offshore
exploration and tankers pollute sea water to a greater
extent. The tanker accidents, intentional dumping and
drilling/pumping operations too contribute to marine
pollution.
(d) Hazardous contaminants of oceans - this includes the
heavy metal poisoning discharged as industrial effluents
into the marine environment.
In Minamata, Japan, during the industrial production
of acetaldehyde, inorganic mercury was discharged
into the nearby ocean as part of waste water. The
organisms residing in the bottom sediments ingested
it along with the food material. The fish which prey
upon these organisms were contaminated with mercury,
thereby polluting the natural food chain. People who
consumed these contaminated fish suffered from MeHg
(Methyl Mercury) intoxication, more commonly known
as Minamata disease, a neurological disease and birth
disorders.
(e) Rivers carry the pollutants such as nutrients and
pesticides from agricultural runoff, faecal pollutants as
a result of poor sanitation and other effluents from the
industrial plants into the sea.
(f) The radioactive waste enters the oceans as a result
of nuclear weapon testing and nuclear accidents. The
radioactive material may get absorbed by the plankton,
but cannot be metabolized, hence gets accumulated in
the food chain.
(g) The electrical power stations located along the coastlines
use the sea water for cooling purposes. The heated water
discharged into the marine environment contributes to
the degradation of the marine environment.
Q20. Write about the misuse of international water
for dumping hazardous waste.
Answer : volume. The methods involved in sludge concentration are
Hazardous waste includes the waste generated
by chemical industries and nuclear energy plants. The
industrialized nations generate huge quantities of hazardous
wastes. It includes dredged material, industrial waste, sewage
sludge and radioactive waste. The increase in industrialization
in developed countries has further accelerated the production
of toxic hazardous wastes. And on the contrary, the technology
to handle these wastes could not be developed with the same
intensity. Therefore, the problem of hazardous waste disposal
still remains unsolved.
Some of the possible reasons for dumping hazardous
waste in international waters are - lack of suitable dumping sites
within the countries generating these wastes, high costs incurred
in transportation, recycling and incineration of waste, lack of
public awareness about the waste dumping, lack of awareness
about the effects of hazardous wastes on human health and
environment. The tourism and recreation sector too has
contributed significantly to this problem. The tourists visiting
the beaches and seashores dispose off their mineral water
bottles, juice bottles and other waste material without giving a
serious thought to the consequences of their carelessness.
5 .17
Radioactive waste is generated from the nuclear power
process, medical use of radioisotopes, use of radioisotopes in
research laboratories and industrial applications. The disposal of
nuclear waste involves special care by putting them in concrete
drums and placing them in the ocean floor. This practice often
poses a great danger to marine life and humans due to the
radiation. Poor insulation of the containers, leakages from the
drums, volcanic activity, tectonic plate movement are some of
the factors that may lead to dire consequences. Radioactive
materials would accumulate in almost every marine organism,
from the tiniest plankton to whales and polar bears. The
phytoplankton and the zooplankton absorb the chemicals as
they feed. The chemicals accumulate and concentrate in their
bodies. When these organisms are eaten by small animals, the
chemicals are transferred into their bodies. The smaller animals
are in turn eaten by larger animals such as seals and polar bears.
People become contaminated by eating contaminated seafood
and animal fats, resulting in serious health problems including
cancer, damage to the immune system, behavioural problems
and reduced fertility.
5.2 effluent disposal methods
Q21. Suggest various ways of sludge treatment
process.
Answer : Model Paper-I, Q10(a)
Sludge Treatment Processes
The sludge generated by water and waste water treatment
processes is managed by various methods of sludge treatment.
These include concentration/thickening of raw sludge,
digestion/stabilization, sludge conditioning, dewatering, heat
drying of sludge and incineration.
1. Concentration/Thickening of Raw Sludge
Concentration or thickening of raw sludge refers to the
removal of liquid fraction in the sludge by various means to
increase the solid content of the sludge and reduce the sludge
gravity settling, flotation, centrifugation gravity belt and rotary
drum.
2. Digestion/Stabilization
The main aim of digestion or stabilization of sludge are,
(i) To reduce the disease causing micro organisms
(ii) To get rid of the offensive odours
(iii) To increase the density of the sludge
(iv) Stabilization of organic solids
(v) To make the sludge more acceptable for final
disposal.
The common methods of stabilization of raw sludge are,
(a) Aerobic Oxidation
The organic sludge is aerated in an open tank.
(b) Anaerobic Digestion
The anaerobic digestion of raw sludge involves the use of
anaerobic micro organisms in airtight tanks (anoxygenic
conditions) to digest the organic matter. This process
results in the formation of methane and other inorganic
products like carbondioxide, water, volatile acids and
hydrogen sulphate.
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5.18
The other methods of sludge stabilization include chemical
stabilization and fixation, lime stabilization and thermal
conditioning. The methane formed during the anaerobic
digestion of sludge can be used to supplement natural
gas provisions.
3. Sludge Conditioning
Sludge conditioning involves the addition of chemicals to
sludge to enhance the dewatering and thickening characteristics
of the sludge. The common methods of sludge conditioning are,
(a) Chemical Conditioning
It involves the use of chemicals such Sulphuric Acid,
Alum, Chlorinated Copperas, Ferrous Sulphate, Ferric
Chloride either alone or in combination with lime, or
organic polymers. Addition of chemicals to the sludge
cause coagulation of small particles into larger ones.
(b) Thermal Conditioning/Heat Treatment
In this process, the sludge is heated at high temperature
of 140° C to 240° C and at high pressure for about 30
minutes.
The resultant effects of this process are,
(i) Increased dewater ability of the sludge.
(ii) Formation of a sterilized sludge.
(iii) Production of a deodorized sludge.
(c) Elutriation
In this step, the soluble organic and inorganic compounds
in the sludge are eliminated by washing the sludge with
either water or the final effluent followed by settling in
a gravity thickener.
4. Dewatering
In this step the moisture content of the sludge is reduced
by any of the following processes,
(i) Natural evaporation
(ii) Percolation method (drying beds and sludge
lagoons)
(iii) Belt filter press
(iv) Vacuum filtration
(v) Centrifugation
(vi) Recessed plate filter presses.
5. Heat Drying of Sludge
Heat drying of sludge is an important step to reduce both
pathogens and the moisture content of the sewage sludge. This
method employs the following processes,
(i) Flash dryers
(ii) Direct rotary dryers
(iii) Fluidized bed dryers.
6. Incineration
The term incineration refers to combustion or burning of
the sewage sludge at high temperature in an enclosed structure.
The aim of incineration process is to,
(a) Reduce the volume of the sludge
(b) Dry the sludge to form ash/sterile residue
(c) Destroy the toxic components in the sludge
(d) Elimination of environment and health problems
by destroying pathogens.
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This method employs the following types of incinerators,
(i) Multiple hearth incinerator
(ii) Fluidized bed incinerator
(iii) Electric furnace
(iv) Cyclonic furnace.
Incineration results in emission of significant quantities
of pollutants such as,
(i) Particulate matter
(ii) Metals
(iii) Carbonmonoxide
(iv) Nitrogenoxides
(v) Sulphurdioxide
(vi) Unburnt hydrocarbons
(vii) Toxic organic compounds.
Disposal of Sludge
The ash formed as a by-product of incineration process
may be utilized in the following ways,
(a) It can be used as a raw material in the manufacture of
cement and brick
(b) Landfills and land reclamations
(c) Used for agricultural purpose as a substitute for
commercial fertilizers, for growing a wide range of crops
including grains, animal feeds and non-food crops.
(d) Use of ash in forestry.
Q22. Briefly explain the methods of heating and
disposal of solid waste`.
Answer : Model Paper-II, Q10(b)
Incineration is considered as one of the best methods
of waste disposal as it provides for reliability, safety and
efficiency. During the process, the wastes are converted to
carbonmonoxide, carbondioxide, water and ash. The other
products formed after incineration are halogens, metals,
nitrogen and sulfur - all these are harmful to the environment.
To achieve complete destruction efficiency of hazardous wastes,
the incinerators must be equipped with burners, scrubbers,
filtration units and membranes. Based on the physical and
combustibility characteristics of the wastes, different types of
incinerators are manufactured. They are discussed below,
1. Rotary Kiln Incinerator
This type of incinerator operates at temperatures from
1500-3000 oF and can handle liquid, sludge, solid
or gases in very large quantities. It has a cylindrical
container to rotate wastes for thorough mixing with air.
2. Fluidized Bed Incinerator
This type of combustor contains a bed of sand and
operates at temperatures from 1400-1800oF and can
handle liquid, sludge, solid or gases. The waste enters
through the nozzle into the vessel made up of inert
granular material.
3. Liquid Injection Incinerator
In this type of incinerator, the wastes are sent through
nozzles and broken down into small droplets to enable
maximum mixing with air. It operates at temperature
ranging from 1200 to 3000°F.
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Unit-5 (Common Effluent Treatment Plants) 5 .19
4. Multiple Hearth Incinerator
This type of incinerator has vertically shaped hearths and used mainly for sewage sludge.
5. Catalytic Combustors
These are used for low organic concentration wastes for combustion with the help of a catalyst.
6. Waste-gas Flares
This type of incinerators are used for non-hazardous waste that has high organic content.
7. Direct Flame Incinerator
Direct flame incinerators are used for combustion of waste gas containing particles operating at 1000-1500oF.
8. Ocean Incineration
The toxic and hazardous waste such as chlorinated matter, polychlorinated biphenyls and organometallics is carried in
two incinerators mounted on a huge ship. These are carried to the middle of the ocean and burnt.
There are several advantages and disadvantages of incineration. Some of the advantages are, reduction in the volume of
wastes, destruction of combustible toxins and pathogenically contaminated material. The disadvantages are, air pollution problems,
ash produced has to be landfilled and may prove to be hazardous, incurs high capital and operation costs.

Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of an Incinerator

Q23. Explain the different methods used for landfilling of solid waste.
Answer : Model Paper-III, Q10(b)

Landfills refer to a pit that is dug in the ground. The solid wastes are dumped into this pit and covered so as to prevent
the breeding of flies, mosquitoes and breeding of flies, mosquitoes and rodent. Then a layer of soil is spread on top of the waste
matter and it is then compressed by using an earth moving equipment. Once the landfill is full by repeating the above process,
the area is covered by a thick layer of soil and the area is developed and used as a parking lot or a recreation park.
The modern landfills are engineered structure that are used for the disposal of municipal solid waste and also prevent the
contamination of the environment. The major components of a landfill are as discussed below.
(a) Bottom Liner System
The bottom region of the landfill is generally made of synthetic plastic (polyethylene, high density polyethylene,
polyvinylchloride) , compacted clay and geotextile mat. All these components of the bottom liner system provide strong
base to prevent wear and tear from the rocks and gravel, and at the same time prevent the seepage of contaminants into
the groundwater.

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5.20 waste Management [JNTU-Hyderabad]
(b) Leachate Collecting Pipe
Leachate collecting pipes are placed at the bottom of the landfill and the opening is surrounded by gravel. The leachate
collected at the landfill is pumped to leachate collecting facility (or leachate pond) for cleaning in a wastewater treatment
plant.
(c) Geotextile fabric
The main purpose of geotextile fabric is to prevent the clogging of leachate collecting pipes by serving as a filter for
separation of solids and liquids.
(d) Leachate Collection Layer
The components of this layer are sand, gravel and geonet ( a synthetic filter) that helps to filter the leachate.
(e) Waste Material Layer
The solid waste dumped into the landfill is covered by a thick layer of soil. The process is repeated and the area is
compressed by using an earth-moving equipment.
(f) Compacted Clay Layer
(g) Geomembrane layer
Both the compacted clay layer and the geomembrane layer prevent the excess precipitation from entering the landfill.
(h) The upper most layers in a landfill are protective soil cover and the vegetation.
The figure given below is a schematic representation of the landfill system.

Figure: Diagrammatic Representation of a Typical Landfill

The siting of landfills should be avoided in the following areas namely, environmentally sensitive areas, faults, wetlines,
flood plains, mines quarries, airports, airbase, places of important cultural, religious or archaeological interest, forest areas,
residential localities, monuments and national parks. A buffer-zone or no-development zone should be maintained around the
landfill areas. Serious consideration must be given towards the protection of public health, safety, welfare and quality of life.
The different methods used for landfilling of solid waste are as discussed below.
1. Area Method
A specific area is dug out and the solid waste collected from various places is placed from one side of the dugged out
area. The refuge is compacted with heavy machinery and layered with soil. These areas are then used as public parks, shopping
centres, parking areas, recreational sites or agricultural fields. This method is best suited for uneven, low-lying lands and for
areas that receive large quantities of solid waste.

2. Excavated Cell/Trench Method

In this method, trenches with dimensions 100 m × 0.5 – 2.5 m + 0.5 – 1.5 m are dug out, especially in areas with gently
rolling land surface, low ground water table, thick soil layer of about 2m. The refuge is placed in the trenches which is then
covered by a layer of excavated earth.

3. Depression/Canyon Method
The operation technique is similar to the above mentioned methods. In this method, the refuge is packed against the slope
with the help of heavy equipment such as a bulldozer. This method is best suited in canyons, ravines and quarries.

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