TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................2

Introduction....................................................................................................................3

Goals & Objectives .........................................................................................................3

Background ....................................................................................................................4
Water Quality Problems in Taulabe .....................................................................................4
Stakeholders and Communities Involved............................................................................5
Previous Class Work...............................................................................................................5

Drinking Water Treatment.............................................................................................5

Water Quality Problems in Developing Countries ............................................................5
Filtration...................................................................................................................................6
Disinfection .............................................................................................................................9
Distribution............................................................................................................................12
Storage ....................................................................................................................................12
Current Water Project Groups Involved in Honduras ...................................................12

Methodology................................................................................................................. 13

Results .......................................................................................................................... 14

Discussion ....................................................................................................................42

Challenges Encountered ..............................................................................................45

Further Challenges .......................................................................................................46

Recommendations........................................................................................................47

Conclusion ....................................................................................................................48

Future Work..................................................................................................................49

Bibliography .................................................................................................................50

Appendix....................................................................................................................... 52
A. Map of Taulabe Water Test Sites ..................................................................................53
B. Biological Contaminants Found in Drinking Water...................................................54
C. Diagrams of Typical Treatment Operations................................................................55
D. Comparisons of Different Methods of Water Treatment.........................................57
E. Interest in Water Monitoring Program and Households Served..............................58
F. Designing a Slow Sand Filter..........................................................................................59
G. Resource CD Contents...................................................................................................68
 1. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project would not be possible without the work done by past students in collecting

measurements of the water systems and testing the water quality. Furthermore, the project has

relied heavily on the guidance of Professor Dan Baker, and student leaders Dave Chappelle and

Brooke Ray. I would also like to thank Professor Donna Rizzo and Professor Mandar Dewoolkar

of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering for their advice and use of laboratory

equipment. I would like to thank Doug Mealey for taking the time to share his experiences of

working on water system projects in El Salvador.

 2. INTRODUCTION
The Department of Community Development and Applied Economics (CDAE) at the

University of Vermont (UVM) has been working on projects related to water quality in Honduras

since 2002. The projects are part of a larger project led by Professor Dan Baker working in

community development dealing with ecological sugar production. The water projects have taken

place in many different villages (aldeas) within the municipality of Taulabe, Honduras.

In 2002, Lee Silkman completed an environmental health assessment of Taulabe and found

that poor water quality was one of the primary factors affecting the health of villagers (Silkman,

2003). In the subsequent years UVM students have worked with a local high school to monitor and

test the quality of the water systems serving the different villages. The data collected has shown a

need for improvement in the water systems of all the aldeas that were visited (See Appendix A). In

2004, preliminary measurements were taken on some of the systems to begin the work towards

helping repair or install new drinking water systems in Taulabe.

The purpose of this project is to continue where last year’s water quality project left off in

preparing for an engineering assessment of the water systems present. In May and June of 2005, all

of the tanks of the water systems were measured. In addition, the sources of the systems, as well as

the turbidity and flow rates were measured when possible. The system specifications along with

background information was used to help decide which aldea would receive assistance. The next

step of this project will be the design and installation of a water filtration/purification process in the

system.

3. GOALS & OBJECTIVES

3.1 Goal
 The goal of this project is to improve the drinking water quality of communities in

Honduras by assisting municipalities in repairing, installing, and operating water systems.

3.2 Pre-Trip Objectives

• To research what type of water filtration systems exist and how they operate
• Research types of systems that have been and are being installed in Honduras currently
and how successful they were.
• Develop a matrix to assist in choosing what types of systems are applicable in certain
situations.
• Determine what type of infrastructure exists in communities and if and why they have
failed.
• Develop a method of deciding what communities are most in need of water systems.
• Create list of additional information that should be collected during fieldwork.

3.3 In Field Objectives

• Visit communities that have expressed need for improved water quality
• Complete detailed review of existing facilities and infrastructure present in each
community. Also establish a list of goals or needs that are unique to each community.
• Participate in water monitoring and testing to determine what type of filtration that is
needed in each community.
• Develop a set of criteria to choose what community to assist.

4. BACKGROUND

4.1 Water Quality Problems in Taulabe

The contaminants found in the drinking water in the municipality of Taulabe come from

many sources. Most water systems collect their water from surface water that has already been

contaminated upstream by agriculture and other human activity. This correlates to all of the test

sites that had successful data collection having positive test results for coliform contamination. In

addition it has been found through interviews with community health officials that diarrhea and

intestinal illness are common problems among villagers, especially children (Ray, et al., 2004).
 4.2 Stakeholders and Communities Involved

The primary group that the water project has worked with is the patronado of the aldeas. The

patronado is the local form of elected government in the villages that is responsible for most of the

functions within each aldea. The president of the patronado is responsible for ? Another official

position within the aldea is that of the fontenero, who is responsible for the maintenance and operation

of the water system within the aldea. Twelve different tanks were tested last year in eight different

aldeas. This year a thirteenth tank was added in the village of Jaitique.

4.3 Previous Class Work

To date, the past students who have worked on the water quality project in Taulabe have

collected water quality data at eleven different tanks within the municipality of Taulabe. In some

communities data has also been collected at the source of the water systems as well as from the tap

in some of the communities. There has been interest from even more communities to have water

projects done in their community, but due to time constraints only so many tanks can be tested. In

addition, the dimensions of each tank have been recorded as well as preliminary data on the pipe

network. Estimates of the number of people that are being served by each of the systems have also

been compiled. Dave Chappelle recently completed interviews of the fonteneros in the aldeas in regard

to the use of chlorine for disinfection of drinking water.

5. DRINKING WATER TREATMENT

5.1 Water Quality Problems in Developing Countries

Obtaining clean drinking water and plentiful supply is one of the most important steps to

improving the quality of life in many developing countries. It is estimated that 80% of all sickness

in the developing world is caused by water related diseases (WaterPartners 2005). Some of the most

prevalent diseased associated with water supply and sanitation are Diarrhea, Ascaris, Dracunculisis,
Hookworm, Schistosomiasis, and Trachoma. Diarrhea, caused by a number of microbial and viral

pathogens is the most prevalent and deadly condition with about 400 children younger than 5 years

old die every hour in the developing world (Gadgil, 1998).

Most of the diseases are caused by biological contaminants in the water supply. There are

many different types of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa that cause serious health problems for

humans (See Appendix B). It has been well established that one of the best indicators of poor water

quality is the presence of Escherichia coli (E. coli). However; the lack of E. coli in the water does not

indicate absence of viruses and the cysts of parasites such as Giardia.

Chemical contamination of the water can be categorized into two groups: inorganic and

organic matter. High organic matter can often be found in surface waters of developing countries

due to high levels of erosion and contamination from anthropogenic origin. Chemical

contamination can lead to color, taste, and odor problems, oxygen depletion in streams, and

interference with water treatment (Tchobanoglous, 1987). One of the most common measurements

of organic matter in water is known as Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). High levels of BOD

are often caused by fecal contamination of surface water. Inorganic matter, such as Calcium (Ca+2)

and Magnesium (Mg+2), do not often concern water project related to human health since human

activity does not impact the inorganic matter significantly.

5.2 Filtration

Surface water is often the primary source of drinking water in developing countries due to

the high cost of drilling wells. As a result some filtration is often needed to remove suspended

solids (turbidity) and in some cases larger debris. To remove large debris, screens can be used very

successfully. The only operation and maintenance requirements are periodic cleaning of the screen

to ensure that there is no clogging. The main method of filtration is sand or granular filtration. This
can be done through numerous different filter designs. The most common methods are rapid sand,

slow sand, intermittent, and biosand filtration.

Rapid sand filters are very effective at removing suspended solids as well as some larger

parasites. These types of filters are used commonly in both water and wastewater systems

throughout the world. Because they do not remove biological contaminants they are often used as

pretreatment for disinfection by chlorine or UV radiation. Rapid sand filters can become compacted

easily and thus require regular monitoring and backwashing (Gadgil, 1998). As a result rapid sand

filters are often found in more technologically advanced facilities where they are on automated

backwash schedules (SAIC, 1992).

Slow sand filters are more effective at removing particulates than rapid sand filters due to

smaller grained sand being used. In addition, slow sand filters remove biological contaminants very

effectively from water supplies. This is done by the formation of a biological mat called a

schmutzdecke that traps organic particles and degrades organic matter in the water. At periodic

intervals this top layer of sand must be removed and replaced with clean sand to ensure adequate

flow through the filter. However, slow sand filters are still much simpler to operate than rapid sand

filters (SAIC, 1992). Slow sand filters operate under a continuous flow of water and thus are not

ideal for situations with varying flow rates. While proper maintenance is crucial in slow sand filters,

they can be designed to remove all pathogens, cysts, spores, and viruses from raw water (Ellis, 1992).

Intermittent sand filters are commonly used for small scale wastewater treatment facilities

where use of traditional leach fields is not possible. These simple systems consist of a layer of sand

with a distribution system on top and a drainage system underneath. The filters are dosed and then

allowed to drain completely in order to maintain aerobic conditions. Intermittent sand filters are

effective at removing suspended solids in addition to nitrogen removal (SAIC, 1992). Most

intermittent sand filters in the United States are buried systems but they can also be effectively used
in open conditions. In areas where water quality is very poor or surface water is heavily

contaminated with organic matter, intermittent sand filters can be a highly effective method of

filtration.

Biosand filters are a new type of sand filter that is experiencing increasing popularity in the

world. Biosand filters operate similar to a slow sand filter but allow for faster flow rates and

intermittent use. The filters have become very popular at the household level due to the low cost of

construction and installation, although the filters can also be used for community scale treatment.

Laboratory tests have shown that these filters remove contaminates as effectively as traditional slow

sand filtration but with faster flow rates and easier maintenance (Manz, 2004). As with any

household filtration technology, proper education on the operation and maintenance of the filters is

necessary to insure successful treatment of the water.

Two less common filtration methods that have been used successfully in certain conditions

are impoundment lakes and infiltration through river banks. Surface water can be stored in

impoundment lakes, or protected reservoirs, and experience significant reduction in the biological

contamination of the water. Due to the effect of UV radiation from the sun and predation of the

bacteria, it has been observed that the bacterial count can be reduced radically (Gadgil, 1998). This

treatment method can only be considered if the impoundment lakes can be protected from cattle

and human contamination otherwise algal blooms can occur. The other type of filtration that has

been shown to be effective is infiltration of water through the silt of the riverbank. By pulling the

water through the river bank by digging shallow wells on the other side of the river, the water quality

can be improved by adsorption within the soil (Ellis, 1991).

 5.3 Disinfection

Water disinfection is the most critical part of water treatment in developing countries as well

as developed countries. Disinfection of water, primarily with chlorine, has virtually eliminated

outbreaks of cholera and typhoid.

Chlorination is the primary method of disinfection of water for many reasons. First, is that

chlorine is highly effective at killing biological contaminants found in water supplies. Second, it has

also been shown to have the added benefit of removing excess iron, manganese, and color (Bryant,

1992). However, one of its most attractive properties is the formation of a residual that provides

secondary disinfection in distribution pipes or storage tanks.

Chlorination can be performed using various forms of chlorine. Chlorine gas, sodium

hypochlorite (bleach), calcium hypochlorite (HTH), and chloride of lime (bleaching powder) can all

be used effectively in the disinfection of water. Due to the high cost and danger in handling

chlorine gas it is often only used in large treatment plants with highly trained operators. As a result

small communities in developing countries rely on the liquid and solid forms of chlorine to use as a

disinfectant (Gadgil, 1998). Bleach can be highly effective and easy to administer to a water supply,

especially at smaller scale and household levels. However, the disadvantage of bleach is that loss of

chlorine during storage, especially after the container has been opened can be significant. Thus a

measured amount of bleach will not yield the same amount of chlorine from week to week. Calcium

hypochlorite (HTH) or granular chlorine is the preferred choice for small scale water treatment due

to its ease of transport and long storage life with minimal chlorine loss (Ellis, 1991). The drawback

to HTH is the higher cost compared to bleach or bleaching powder. As a result, bleaching powder

may offer a more cost effective solution to disinfection. However, similar to bleach, bleaching

powder experiences a high rate of chlorine loss and it is possible to have a complete loss of chlorine

(Ellis, 1991).
 While chlorine’s disinfection properties have been extensively documented, there are still

disadvantages in choosing chlorination as the method of disinfection. The chain of supply must be

maintained which can be very difficult in areas prone to natural disasters. Another disadvantage is

the necessity of a trained technician to administer the proper dosage of chlorine to the incoming

water. This can become more complicated than it seems when changing flow rates and decreases in

the chlorine concentration of the disinfectant have to be taken into consideration. The final

disadvantage to disinfecting with chlorine is the formation of byproducts. The most commonly

known byproducts are trihalomethanes (THMs) that are formed from the reaction of chlorine with

organic matter in the water to form the carcinogenic THMs. In addition there is evidence that there

could be many more byproducts formed that have not been fully investigated (Bryant, 1992). It is

important to remember that the alternative to some byproducts is the possibility of many different

types of diseases.

Disinfection with ultraviolet radiation (UV) is becoming increasingly popular in the

developing world as an alternative to chlorine for wastewater disinfection. UV treatment does not

form the chlorine residuals or byproducts that are harmful to aquatic ecosystems. However, since

UV treatment does not form a disinfectant residual it has experienced limited popularity in the field

of water treatment (Bryant, 1992). UV treatment does offer a number of advantages over other

methods in that it has a very short contact time and is highly effective against bacteria and viruses.

The operation of a UV system can be very straightforward and reliable with the main concern being

keeping the UV bulb clean.

The numerous disadvantages of the UV system have kept it from being promoted more in

the developed world. The foremost concern is the inability of the radiation to inactivate Giardia

cysts in the water supply. Another disadvantage is that effectiveness of treatment decreases

significantly with increasing turbidity in the water. The cost of replacement of UV bulbs must also
be factored in when considering the appropriateness of using UV disinfection in developing

countries. For systems without the threat of Giardia and a reliable supply of electricity, UV

treatment could be an appropriate solution. Alternatively, solar panels can be used to power the UV

systems as the power requirements can be relatively low at 40 watts (Gadgil, 1998).

Pasteurization or Solar Water Disinfection (SODIS) can be used safely to kill biological

contaminants in water. Boiling water is the oldest form of disinfection and pasteurization of water.

It has been proven that it is only necessary to heat the water to 70° C (160° F) fro 6 minutes to

render the water safe for drinking (Gadgil, 1998). A number of different systems have been

designed using this fact. The simplest system is simply to place clear bottles filled with water in the

sun on top of a hot surface (e.g. metal roof) for the day resulting in disinfected water. More

advanced systems have been developed to deal with larger quantities of water. One type of

successful system has been developed where water is pasteurized as it passes through a solar hot

plate collector and is then stored in a treated water tank. The obvious disadvantage to this type of

system is the reduction in treatment during cloudy days.

Activated Carbon treats a wide range of organic compounds found in water using

adsorption. Activated carbon filters are common household filters in the developed world that are

effective in removing chlorine residuals as well as taste and odor in water. The main dilemma in

using activated carbon filters is the growth of bacteria within the filter. While this is not of concern

in areas where the water has already been disinfected, in areas where biological contamination of the

water is possible, activated carbon filters can become a problem. When excessive bacteria

contamination of the filter occurs it can come lose and slough off in large quantities back into the

water stream (Gadgil, 1998). In addition, activated carbon filters must be replaced fairly often which

could pose problems in areas where replacement filters are not readily available or affordable.
 5.4 Distribution

Water distribution systems in developing countries are normally simple gravity systems with very

few pipes. However, they can still be a source of contamination in the water systems. Leaks can

allow contaminants to enter the water system as well as lose vital supplies of water. Often pipe

networks are not documented clearly resulting in difficulties in maintenance and replacement.

5.5 Storage

It is becoming more recognized that contamination of drinking water after treatment has

occurred is common in developing countries. Because many systems in rural areas serve people that

do not have a water tap within their home, there is potential for contamination in the handling and

transportation that is performed. Often reused chemical containers and fuel containers are used to

transport water which can lead to contamination. It has also been observed that people often use

containers with no lid and contaminate the water with unclean hands while transporting it (Trevett,

2004).

5.6 Current Water Project Groups involved in Honduras

A number of groups have undertaken water projects in Honduras of varying scope. Three

of the more prominent groups are: Pure Water for the World, Water for People, and WaterPartners.

Pure Water for the World works primarily on installing household biosand filters in Honduran

communities. Much of their funding and support come from the Rotarian groups in the United

States. To date they have installed hundreds of filters in the country. For more information visit

their website at http://www.purewaterfortheworld.org. Water for People works in the northern

portion of Honduras in assisting communities to install and operate water and sanitation systems.

They have projects throughout the world and are supported by the American Association of Water

Works. The group focuses on helping small rural communities design small water treatment systems.
More information can be found on their website at http://www.waterforpeople.org. WaterPartners

has undertaken numerous water projects in the department of Lempira in Honduras dealing with all

aspects of water quality and sanitation. A complete list of their past and current projects can be

found at their website, http://www.water.org.

6. METHODOLOGY

Previous measurements of the tanks that were recorded will be confirmed by either visual

confirmation of numbers or through re-measurement of a few measurements. Any missing

dimensions or measurements will be recorded using tape measures or a taped off rope. Where data

was estimated previously, accurate measurements will be made if possible. To present this data,

diagrams of each tank will be created using AutoCAD to scale with proper dimensioning.

The flow rates coming into the tanks will be recorded for all tanks using appropriate

methods of measurement. In most cases this will be recording the time required to fill a container

of known volume. Where open channels or streams are encountered flow rates will either be

measured by the use of a float and a profile of the stream bed at two locations. These flow rates will

be compared to the estimates of the number of households that each system serves.

In addition to the tanks being measured, as much of the piping network will be documented

as possible. This will include sizes of the pipes, materials that the pipes are made out of, visual

condition of the piping. Using measured distances and as many GPS points as possible, a network

of the distribution system will be made. Using both GIS and AutoCAD maps of the systems will be

made showing all above ground piping and approximate location of underground piping. At the

least, GPS points of the tank and first and last house on the water system will be obtained.

Interviews with the patronado or fontenero will be used to obtain information about how the

systems operated, where the source of the system is, and the locations of underground piping.