CHAPTER-1

1.INTRODUCTION
MostIelectricityIproductionIbyIsolarIenergyIisIseparatedIintoItwoIforms.IFirstIone
IisIsolarIrooftopwhichIisIaIsmallIelectricityIproductionIandIcanImanageIunusedIspa-
ceIonItheIrooftopIforIgainingIbenefits.IThisIconfigurationIgeneratesIlessIenergythan
gridIsystem,IbutIifIthereIareImanyIsolarIrooftopsIinItheIarea,itIcanIgenerateImuchI
energyIandIreduceIelectricalpowerIconsumptionIinItransmissionIline.IAnotherIformI
isIsolarIfarm,whichIisIaIlargeIelectricityIproductionIandIgeneratesIhugeIenergySince
bothIformsIsendIelectricalIpowerItoItransmissionIline,IsoIitIisIrequiredItocontrolI
electricalIpowerIqualityIandIstabilityIinIpowertransmissionIsystem.RegardingIpower
quality,ItheIsignificantIfactorIisIharmonicsIthatIareIgeneratedIbyIsolarIsystem,IandI
thenItheIgeneratedIpowerIwillIbeIsentItoIcustomersIinItheIarea.IfItheIsolarIsystemI
haImoreIharmonics,itIwouldIaffectItoIelectric/electronicIequipment,andIpowerItran-
smissionIsystem.IAInumberIofIresearchIpapersIinIfieldIofIharmonicsIfromPVIsyste
mandtheIeffectIofIinverterIhaveIbeenIreviewed.IFeiIWangIandIetIal[1],introducedaI
wayItoforecastIimpedanceInetworkIquasiresonanceIbetweenIDGIinvertersandItheI
grid.HarmonicIinteractionsIbetweenItheIgridIandIaIcertainInumberIofIDGIinvertersI
canIbeIpreliminarilyIestimated.InI[2],byIusingItheIfourthorderIbandIpassfilter,theI
proposedIharmonicdetectorIcanIeffectivelyIextractIharmonicIcomponentsIwithoutI
phaseIdelay.InI[3],IaIclosedformIanalyticalIapproximationIofItheIoutputharmonicI
spectrumIofIaIsinglephaseItwoIlevelIinverterIunderItheIactionIofIhysteresisIcurrentI
controlIhasIbeenIdone.ITheIselectiveIharmonicIeliminationIproblemIusingIartificialI
neuralInetworksI(ANNs)ItoIgenerateItheIswitchingIanglesIinIanI11levelIfullbridge
cascadeIinverterIwasIpoweredbyIfiveIvaryingIdcIinputIsources[4].InI[5],IitIanalyzedI
theIlimitationsIofItheIstandardIresonantIcurrentIcontroloperatingIunderIabnormalI
gridIconditionsIandIintroducedIaIcontrolIschemeIfromIaIthreephaseIPVIinverter.I
AbhijitIKulkarniIandIetIalI[6],showedIaInovelIdesignIofIinverterIcurrentcontrolIthatI
mitigatedIlowerIorderIharmonics.ITheIcompleteIdesignIhadIbeenvalidatedIwithIexpe
-
rimentalIresultsIandIgoodIagreementIwithItheoreticalIanalysisIofItheIoverallIsystemI
wasIobserved.IInI[7],IaIharmonicIimpedanceIsynthesisItechniqueforIvoltage contro
-lled distributedIgenerationIinvertersIinIorderItoIdampIharmonicvoltageIdistortionI
onIaIdistribtion networkIwasIinvestigated.IMdIShirajumIMunirandIetIalI[8],
1
studiedIanIindepthanalysisandIcomparisonIofIdifferentIcompensationschemesIbasedI
onItheIvirtual harmonicIdampingIimpedanceIconcept,carriedoutinIphotovoltaicI(PV)I
interfacing inverters.SolutionIeliminatesItheIbulkyIelectrolyticcapacitorsIwhileIsmal-
lerIamountIofIACIcapacitorsIwereIneededItoIcompareIwithIthebuck-typeIAC–
ACIconvertersIthatIcontinuousIgridsidecurrentIwasIobtained,IwhichimpliedIthatIno
IextraIgridsideIfiltersIwereIneeded[9].IIn[10],itIappliedItheIselectiveharmonicIelimi-
nationI(SHE)ItechniqueItoIdetermineItheIswitchingIanglesIforaImultilevelIinverterI
thatIcooperatedIwithIspeciallyIconnectedItransformers.IInI[11],itIstudiedItheIcombi-
nationIofItheIgridIvoltageIfeedforwardIandItheImulti HRIcontrolwasIproposedItoI
suppressIlow orderIharmonics.TheIcomparativeanalysis,simulationsIandexperimentsI
indicatedIthatItheIproposedIstrategyIgreatlyIimprovedItheIabilityofItheIinverterItoI
rejectItheIcurrentIharmonicsIinducedIbyImulti harmonicIsourcesaslongasItheIgrid
feedforwardIandItheIresonantIcontrolIwereIcomplementary.InI[12],itIshowedIaI
frequencyIadaptiveIselectiveIharmonicIcontrolI(FA-SHC)schemeIthatIcouldIbeI
designedIforIgridconnectedIinvertersItoIoptimallyImitigateIfeedinIcurrentIharmonics.
ExperimentalItestsIhademonstratedItheIeffectivenessIofItheproposedIFASHCIschemI
inItermsIofIaccurateIfrequencyIadaptabilityIandIalsoIfastItransientIresponse.I
HaitaoIHuIandIetIalI[13],IpresentedaIclarificationIstudyItoidentifyItheIpotentialI
resonanceIphenomenonIbetweenphotovoltaicI(PV)IinvertersandItheIdistributionIsys-
temIthatIcanIbeIattenuatedIifItheIdampingIresistance,suchIasIdampingIresistorIand
residentialIlinearIloads,wasIlargeIenough.TheIharmonicsIinIPVsystemIareIpresentlyI
aIconcernedIproblemofIpowersystembecauseItheyIaffectItoelectricIequipmentIofItheI
endIusersIandIstabilityIofItheItransmissionIsystem.ITherefore,IinIthisIstudy,Idifferent
configurationsIbyIconnectingItoIPVIsystemIandIloadsIare carriedIoutIinIorderIto
IrevealItheIrealIbehaviorIofItheIharmonicsIinItheIconsideredIsystem.

PV
ConvertingIsolarIenergyIintoIelectricalIenergyIbyIPVIinstallationsIisItheImostI
recognizedIwayItoIuseIsolarIenergy.ISinceIsolarIphotovoltaicIcellsIareIsemicondu-
ctorIdevices,theyIhaveIaIlotIinIcommonIwithIprocessingIandIproductionItechniquesI
2
of otherIsemiconductordevicesIsuchIasIcomputersIandImemoryIchips.IAsIitIisI
wellknown,ItheIrequirementsIforpurityIandIqualityIcontrolIofIsemiconductorIdevice
sIarequiteIlarge.WithItoday'sIproductiowhichIreachedIaIlargeIscale,ItheIwholeIindu-
stryproductionIofIsolarIcellsIhasIbeenIdevelopedIand,IdueItoIlowIproductionIcost,Iit
isImostlyIlocatedIinItheIFarIEast.I

PhotovoltaicIcellsIIproducedIbyItheImajorityIofItoday’sImostIlargeIproducersIare
mainlymadeIofIcrystallineIsiliconIasIsemiconductorImaterial.ISolarIphotovoltaicIm-
odules,IwhichareIaIresultIofIcombinationIofIphotovoltaicIcellsItoIincreaseItheirI
power,areIhighlyIreliable,durableIandIlowInoiseIdevicesItoIproduceIelectricity.ITheI
fuelIforItheIphotovoltaicIcellIisIfree.ITheIsunIisItheIonlyIresourceIthatIisIrequiredI
forItheIoperationIofIPVIsystems,IandIitsIenergyIisIalmostIinexhaustible.I

AItypicalIphotovoltaicIcellIefficiencyIisIaboutI15%,IwhichImeansIitIcanIconve-
rtI1/6IofIsolarIenergyIintoIelectricity.IPhotovoltaicIsystemsIproduceInoInoise,IthereI
areInoImovingIpartsIandItheyIdoInotIemitIpollutantsIintoItheIenvironment.ITakingin
toIaccountItheIenergyconsumedIinItheIproductionIofIphotovoltaicIcells,ItheyIpro-
duceIseveralItensIofItimesIlessIcarbonIdioxideIperIunitIinIrelationItoItheIenergyIpr-
oducedIfromIfossilIfuelItechnologies.II

PhotovoltaicIcellIhasIaIlifetimeIofImoreIthanIthirtyIyearsIandIisIoneIofItheImostI
reliablesemiconductorIproducts.IMostIsolarIcellsIareIproducedIfromIsilicon,whichI
non‐toxicIandisIfoundIinIabundanceIinItheIearth'sIcrust.

PhotovoltaicIsystemsI(cell,Imodule,Inetwork)IrequireIminimalImaintenance.IAtI
theIendIofItheIlifeIcycle,IphotovoltaicImodulesIcanIalmostIbeIcompletelyIrecycled.I
PhotovoltaicImodulesIbringIelectricityItoIruralIareasIwhereIthereIisInoIelectricIpow-
erIgrid,IandIthusIincreaseItheIlifeIvalueIofItheseIareas.IPhotovoltaicIsystemsIwill
continueItheIfutureIdevelopmentIinIaIdirectionItoIbecomeIaIkeyIfactorIinItheIprod-
uctionIofIelectricityIforIhouseholdsIandIbuildingsIinIgeneral.ITheIsystemsIareIinstal
ledIonIexistingIroofsIand/orIareIintegratedIintoItheIfacade.ITheseIsystemsIcontributI
toIreducingIenergyIconsumptionIinIbuildings.

IAIseriesIofIlegislativeIactsIofItheIEuropeanIUnionIinItheIfieldIofIrenewableIen-
ergyIandenergyIefficiencyIhaveIbeenIdeveloped,IparticularlyIpromotingIphotovoltai
cItechnologyIforachievingItheIobjectivesIofIenergyIsavingsIandICO2IreductionIinI
3
public,privateIandIcommercialIbuildings.Also,photovoltaicItechnology,asIaIrenewa-
bleIenergyIsource,contributestopowerIsystemsIthroughIdiversificationIofIenergy
sourcesIandIsecurityIofIelectricityIsupply.I

ByItheIintroductionIofIincentivesIforItheIenergyIproducedIbyIrenewableIsourcesI
inIallIdevelopedIcountries,IphotovoltaicIsystemsIhaveIbecomeIveryIaffordable,Iand
timelyIreturnIofIinvestmentIinIphotovoltaicIsystemsIhasIbecomeIshortIandIconstant-
lyIdecreasing.InIrecentIyears,thisIindustryIisIgrowingIatIaIrateIofI40%IperIyearIandI
theIphotovoltaicItechnologycreatesIthousandsIofIjobsIatItheIlocalIlevel.

2.OVERVIEW
TheIphotovoltaicIeffectIhasIbeenIdiscoveredIinItheIfirstIhalfIofItheI19thItheIcen-
tury.IInI1839,IaIyoungIFrenchIphysicistIAlexandreIEdmondIBecquerelIobservedI
aphysicalIphenomenonIorIeffectIthatIallowsItheIconversionIofIlightIintoIelectricity.
TheIsolarIcells'IworkIIisbasedIonIthisIprincipleIofIphotovoltaicIeffect.InItheIfollow-
ingIyears,IaInumberIofIscientistsIhaveIcontributedItoItheIdevelopmentIofIthisIeffect
andItechnologiesIthroughItheirIresearches,ItheImostIrelevantIamongIthemIareIChar-
lesIFritts,IEdwardIWeston,INikolaITeslaIandAlbertIEinstein,IwhoIhasIbeenIawarded
theINobelIPrizeIforIhisIworkIonI"photoelectricIeffect"IinItheIyearI1904.IHowever,
dueItoIhighIproductionIrates,aIgreaterIdevelopmentIofIthisItechnologyIhas
begunonlyIalongIwithItheIdevelopmentIofIsemiconductorIindustryIinItheIlateIfiftiesI
ofIthe20thIcentury.IDuringItheIsixties,ItheIsolarIcellsIareIusedIexclusivelyIforIsupp-
lyingIelectricityItoIorbitingIsatellitesIinIEarthIorbit,IwhereItheyIproveIthemselvesIas
veryIreliableIandIcompetitiveItechnology.InItheIseventiesIthereIareIimprovementsI-
inIproduction,performanceIandIqualityIofIsolarIcells,IwhileItheIcomingIoilIcrisisI
helpsItoreduceIproductionIcostsIofIsolarIcellsIandIopenIupImanyIpossibilitiesIforI
theirIpracticalIimplementation.ISolarIcellshaveIbeenIrecognizedIasIanIexcellentIrep-
lacementforItheIsupplyIofIelectricityIatIlocationsIdistantIfromItheIelectricityIgrid.
TheIenergyisIsuppliedItoIwirelessIapplications,lighthouses'batteries,IvariousIsignalsI
telecommunicationIequipmentIandIotherIlowIpowerIelectricityIdependentIequipment
.DuringItheIeighties,IsolarIcellsIhaveIbecomeIpopularIasIanIenergyIsourceIforIcon-
sumerIelectronicIdevicesIincludingIcalculators,Iwatches,Iradios,IlampsIandIother
applicationsIwithIsmallIbatteries.

4
 IAlso,IafterItheIcrisisIinItheIseventies,IgreatIeffortsIhaveIbeenImadeIinItheIdeve-
lopmentIofIsolarIcellsIforIcommercialIuseIinIhouseholds.IIndependentIsolarIcellsI
systemsI(off‐grid)IhaveIbeenIdeveloped,IasIwellIasInetworkIconnectedIsystemsI(on‐
grid).IInItheImeanItime,IaconsiderableIincreaseIinIwideIuseIofIsolarIcellsIhasIbeen
recordedIinIruralIareasIwhereIelectricityInetworkIandIinfrastructureIhaveInotIbeen
developed.ElectricityIproducedIinItheseIareasIisIusedIforIpumpingIwater,IcoolingI
energy,telecommunicationsIandIotherIhouseholdIappliancesIandIeverydayIlifeIneedI

PhotovoltaicImodulesItechnologyIandImarketIdevelopmentIhasIgrownIrapidlyIby
introducingIincentivesIforItheIproductionIofIelectricityIfromIrenewableIenergyIsou-
rces.IncentivesareIimplementedIinIallIdevelopedIcountries,ItheIleadersIareItheIEur-
opeanIUnion,theIUnitedStates,IJapan,IAustralia,Ietc.ITheIRepublicIofICroatiaIhasI
alsoIadoptedIaIlegislationIwhichIregulatesItheIproductionIofIelectricityIfromIrenew-
ableIenergyIsourcesIaccordingItoItheIstatusIofIeligibleIproducerIofIelectricIenergy,
basedIonIincentiveItariffsPhotovoltaic’sI(PV)IisIaImethodIofIgeneratingIelectricalI
powerIbyIconvertingIsunlightintoIdirectIcurrentIelectricityIusingIsemiconducting
materialsIthatIexhibitItheIphotovoltaicIeffect.IAIphotovoltaicIsystemIemploysIsolarI
panelsIcomposedIofIaInumberIofIsolarIcellsItosupplyIusableIsolarIpower.IPower
generationIfromIsolarIPVIhasIlongIbeenIseenIasIaIcleanIsustainable[1]IenergyItech-
nologyIwhichIdrawsIuponItheIplanet’sImostIplentifulIandIwidelydistributedIrenew-
ableIenergyIsourceItheIsun.ITheIdirectIconversionIofIsunlightItoIelectricityIoccursI
withoutIanyImovingIpartsIorIenvironmentalIemissionsIduringIoperation.IItIisIwell
proven,IasIphotovoltaicIsystemsIhaveInowIbeenIusedIforIfiftyIyearsIinIspecializedI
applications,andIgridconnectedIPVIsystemsIhaveIbeenIinIuseIforIoverItwentyIyears.

DrivenIbyIadvancesIinItechnologyIandIincreasesIinImanufacturingIscaleIandIso
phistication,ItheIcostIofIphotovoltaicsIhasIdeclinedIsteadilyIsinceItheIfirstIsolarIcell
swereImanufactured,[2][3]IandItheIlevelisedIcostIofIelectricityI(LCOE)IfromIPVI
iscompetitiveIwithIconventionalIelectricityIsourcesIinIanIexpandingIlistIofIgeo grap-
hicIregions.[4]INetImeteringandIfinancialIincentives,IsuchIasIpreferentialIfeed-
inItariffsIforIsolar generatedIelectricity,haveIsupportedIsolarIPVIinstallationsinI
manyIcountries.[5]I

SolarIPVIisInow,IafterIhydroIandIwindIpower,ItheIthirdImostIimportantIrenewa-

5
bleIenergyIsourceIinItermsIofIgloballyIinstalledIcapacity.MoreIthanI100Icountriesu-
se solarIPV.IInstallationsImayIbeIground mounted(andIsometimesIintegrated withI
farmingIandIgrazing)orIbuiltIintoItheIroofI orIwallsIofIaIbuildingI(eitherIbuilding-
integratedIphotovoltaicsIorIsimplyrooftop).

InI2013,ItheIfast growingIcapacityIofIworldwideIinstalledIsolarIPVIincreasedIby
38IpercentItoI139IgigawattsI(GW).IThisIisIsufficientItoIgenerateIatIleastI160Iteraw-
attIhoursIIoraboutI0.85IpercentIofItheIelectricityIdemandIonItheIplanet.IChina,Ifoll-
owedIbyIJapanIandItheIUnitedIStates,IisInowItheIfastestIgrowingImarket,Iwhile
GermanyIremainsItheIworld'sIlargestIproducer,IcontributingIalmostI6IpercentItoIitsI
nationalIelectricityIdemands.

SOLARICELLS
PhotovoltaicsIareIbestIknownIasIaImethodIforIgeneratingIelectricIpowerIbyIusin
gIsolarIcellsItoIconvertIenergyIfromItheIsunIintoIaIflowIofIelectrons.TheIphotovolt-
aicIeffectIreferstphotonsIofIlightIexcitingIelectronsIintoIaIhigherIstateIofIenergy,Iall
owingIthemItoIactIasIchargeIcarriersIforIanIelectricIcurrent.ITheIphotovoltaicIeffect
wasIfirstIobservedIbyIAlexandreEdmondIBecquerelIinI1839.[11][12]ITheItermIph-
otovoltaicIdenotesItheIunbiasedIoperatingImodeIofIaIphotodiodeIinIwhichIcurrent
throughItheIdeviceIisIentirelyIdueItoItheItransducedIlightIenergy.IVirtuallyIallIpho-
tovoltaicIdevicesIareIsomeItypeIofIphotodiode.

SolarIcellsIproduceIdirectIcurrentIelectricityIfromIsunIlightIwhichIcanIbeIusedItoI
powerequipmentIorItoIrechargeIaIbattery.ITheIfirstIpracticalIapplicationIofIphotovo-
ltaicsIwasItoIpowerIorbitingIsatellitesIandIotherIspacecraft,IbutItodayItheImajorityI
ofIphotovoltaicImodulesIareIusedIforIgridIconnectedIpowerIgeneration.IInIthis case
anIinverterIisIrequiredItoIconvertItheIDCItoIAC.IThereIisIaIsmallerImarketIforIoff-
gridIpowerIforIremoteIdwellings,Iboats,IrecreationalIvehicles,IelectricIcars,road side
emergencyItelephones,IremoteIsensing,IandIcathodicIprotectionIofIpipelines.

6
 PhotovoltaicIpowerIgenerationIemploysIsolarIpanelsIcomposedIofIaInumberIof
solarIcellsIcontainingIaIphotovoltaicImaterial.IMaterialsIpresentlyIusedIforIphotovo-
ltaicsIincludemonocrystallineIsilicon,IpolycrystallineIsilicon,IamorphousIsilicon,cad-
miumItelluride,IandIcopperIindiumIgalliumIselenide/sulfide.
[13]ICopperIsolarcablesIconnectImodulesI(moduleIcable),IarraysI(arrayIcable),IandI
subfields.BecauseofItheIgrowingIdemandIforIrenewableenergyIsources,ItheImanufac
turingIofIsolarIcellsIandIphotovoltaicIarraysIhasIadvancedIcon-
siderablyIinIrecentIyears.[14][15][16]

SolarIphotovoltaicsIpowerIgenerationIhasIlongIbeenIseenIasIaIcleanIenergyItech-
nologyIwhichIdrawsIuponItheIplanet’sImostIplentifulIandIwidelyIdistributedIrene-
wableIenergyIsourceItheIsun.ITheItechnologyIisI“inherentlyIelegant”IinIthatIthe
directIconversionIofsunlightItoelectricityIoccursIwithoutIanyImovingIpartsIorIenvir-
onmentalIemissionsIduringoperation.ItIisIwellIproven,asIphotovoltaicIsystemshaveI
nowIbeenIusedIforIfiftyIyearsIinspecialisedIapplications,IandIgrid-
connectedIsystemsIhaveIbeenIinIuseIforIoverItwentyyears.

CellsIrequireIprotectionIfromItheIenvironmentIandIareIusuallyIpackagedItightlyI
behindIaglassIsheet.IWhenImoreIpowerIisIrequiredIthanIaIsingleIcellIcanIdeliver,
cellsIareIelectricallyIconnectedItogetherItoIformIphotovoltaicImodules,IorIsolarIpa-
nels.IAIsingleImoduleIisIenoughItoIpowerIanIemergencyItelephone,IbutIforIaIhouse
orIaIpowerIplantItheImodulesI-mustIbeIarrangedIinImultiplesIasIarrays.

PhotovoltaicIpowerIcapacityIisImeasuredIasImaximumIpowerIoutputIunderIstandar-
dizedtestIconditionsI(STC)IinI"Wp"I(WattsIpeak).
[17]ITheIactualIpowerIoutputIatIaparticularIpointIinItimeImayIbeIlessIthanIorIgreate
rIthanIthisIstandardized,IorI"rated,"Ivalue,IdependingIonIgeographicalIlocation,Itime
IofIday,IweatherIconditions,IandIotherIfactors.
[18]ISolarIphotovoltaicIarrayIcapacityIfactorsIareItypicallyIunderI25%IwhichIisIlow
erIthanImanyIotherIindustrialIsourcesIofIelectricity.

7
3.CURRENTIDEVELOPMENTS
ForIbestIperformance,IterrestrialIPVIsystemsIaimItoImaximizeItheItimeItheyIface
theIsun.ISolarItrackersIachieveIthisIbyImovingIPVIpanelsItoIfollowItheIsun.TheIin-
creaseIcanIbebyIasImuchIasI20%IinIwinterIandIbyIasImuchIasI50%IinIsummer.ISt-
aticImountedIsystemscanIbeIoptimizedIbyIanalysisIofItheIsunIpath.IPanelsIareIoften
setItoIlatitudeItilt,IanIangleIequalItoItheIlatitude,IbutIperformanceIcanIbeIimprovedI
byIadjustingItheIangleIforIsummerIorIwinter.IGenerally,IasIwithIotherIsemiconduc-
torIdevices,ItemperaturesIaboveIroomItemperatureIreduceItheIperformanceIofIphoto
voltaics.[20]

AInumberIofIsolarIpanelsImayIalsoIbeImountedIverticallyIaboveIeachIotherIinIaI
tower,IifItheIzenithIdistanceIofItheISunIisIgreaterIthanIzero,IandItheItowerIcanIbeI
turnedIhorizontallyIasIaIwholeIandIeachIpanelsIadditionallyIaroundIaIhorizontalI
axis.IInIsuchIaItowerItheIpanelsIcanIfollowItheISunIexactly.ISuchIaIdeviceImayIbeI
describedIasIaIladderImountedIonIaIturnableIdisk.IEachIstepIofIthatIladderIisItheI
middleIaxisIofIaIrectangularIsolarIpanel.InIcaseItheIzenithIdistanceIofItheISunIreac-
hesIzero,the"ladder"ImayIbeIrotatedItoItheInorthorItheIsouthItoIavoidIaIsolarIpanelI
producingIaIshadowIonIaIlowerIsolarIpanel.IInsteadIofIanIexactlyIverticalItowerIon
eIcanIchooseIaItowerIwithIanIaxisIdirectedItoItheIpolarIstar.IMeaningIthatIitIisparal
lelItoItheIrotationIaxisIofItheIEarth.InIthisIcaseItheIangleIbetweenItheIaxisIandtheI
SunIisIalwaysIlargerIthanI66Idegrees.IDuringIaIdayIitIisIonlyInecessaryItoturntheI
panelsIaroundIthisIaxisItoIfollowItheISun.IInstallationsImayIbeIground-
mounted(andIsometimesIintegratedIwithIfarmingIandIgrazing)[21]IorIbuiltIintoIthe
roofIorwallsIofIaIbuilding.

APPLICATIONS
PowerIstations

MainIarticle:IListIofIphotovoltaicIpowerIstations

8
ManyIsolarIphotovoltaicIpowerIstationsIhaveIbeenIbuilt,ImainlyIinIEurope.
[53]IAsIofIJulyI2012,ItheIlargestIphotovoltaicI(PV)IpowerIplantsIinItheIworldIareIt
heIAgua-
CalienteISolarIProjectI(USA,I247IMW),ICharankaISolarIParkI(India,I214IMW),I
GolmudISolarIPark(China,I200IMW),IPerovoISolarIParkI(UkraineI100IMW),I
SarniaIPhotovoltaicIPowerIPlant(Canada,I97IMW),IBrandenburgBriestISolarpark
(GermanyI91IMW),ISolarparkIFinowTower(GermanyI84.7IMW),MontaltoIdiI
CastroIPhotovoltaicIPowerIStation(Italy,84.2IMW),EggebekISolarIParkI(GermanyI
83.6IMW),ISenftenbergISolarparkI(GermanyI82IMW),IFinsterwaldeISolarIPark(Ger
many,I80.7IMW),IOkhotnykovoISolarIParkI(Ukraine,I80IMW),ILopburiISolarIFarm
(ThailandI73.16IMW),RovigoIPhotovoltaicIPowerIPlant(Italy,72IMW),IandIthe
LieberoseIPhotovoltaicIParkI(Germany,I71.8IMW).[53]

ThereIareIalsoImanyIlargeIplantsIunderIconstruction.ITheIDesertISunlightISolarI
FarmunderIconstructionIinIRiversideICounty,CaliforniaIandITopazISolarIFarmIbein-
gIbuiltIinISanILuisIObispoICounty,ICaliforniaIareIbothI550IMWIsolarIparksIthat
willIuseIthinfilmIsolarIphotovoltaicImodulesImadeIbyIFirstISolar.[54]ITheIBlytheI
SolarIPowerIProjectIisIaI500IMWIphotovoltaicIstationIunderIconstructionIinIRiver-
sideICounty,ICalifornia.ITheICaliforniaIValleyISolarIRanchI(CVSR)IisIaI250Imega-
wattI(MW)IsolarIphotovoltaicIpowerIplant,IwhichIisIbeingIbuiltIbyISunPowerIin
theICarrizoIPlain,northeastIofICaliforniaIValley[55]TheI230IMWIAntelopeIValleyI
SolarIRanchIisIaIFirstISolarIphotovoltaicIprojectIwhichisIunderIconstructionIinItheI
AntelopeIValleyIareaIofItheIWesternIMojaveIDesert,andIduetoIbeIcompletedIinI
2013.[56]ITheIMesquiteISolarIprojectIisIaIphotovoltaicIsolarIpowerIplantIbeingI
builtIinIArlington,IMaricopaICounty,IArizona,IownedIbyISempraIGeneration.[57]I
PhaseI1IwillIhaveIaInameplateIcapacityIofI150Imegawatts.[58]

ManyIofItheseIplantsIareIintegratedIwithIagricultureIandIsomeIuseIinnovativeI
trackingIsystems[59]thatIfollowItheIsun'sIdailyIpathIacrossItheIskyItoIgenerateImor
eelectricityIthanconventionalIfixedmountedIsystems.ThereIareInoIfuelIcostsIorIemis
-sionsIduringIoperationofItheIpowerIstations.

InIBuildings:

9
PhotovoltaicIarraysIareIoftenIassociatedIwithIbuildings:IeitherIintegratedIintoIthem,I
mountedIonIthemIorImountedInearbyIonItheIground.

ArraysIareImostIoftenIretrofittedIintoIexistingIbuildings,IusuallyImountedIonItop
ofItheIexistingIroofIstructureIorIonItheIexistingIwalls.IAlternatively,IanIarrayIcan
beIlocatedIseparatelyIfromItheIbuildingIbutIconnectedIbyIcableItoIsupplyIpower
ofIotheIbuilding.IInI2010,moreIthanIfourfifthsIofItheI9,000IMWIofIsolarIPVIopera-
tingIinIGermanyIwereIinstalledonIrooftops.[60]IBuildingintegratedIphotovoltaicsI
(BIPV)IareIincreasinglyIincorporatedIintoInewdomesticIandIindustrialIbuildingsIasI
aIprincipalIorIancillaryIsourceIofIelectricalpower.[61]ITypically,IanIarrayIisIin
corporatedIintoItheIroofIorIwallsIofIaIbuilding.IRoofItilesIwithIintegratedIPVIcellsI
areIalsoIcommon.IAI2011IstudyIusingIthermalIimagingIhasIshownIthatIsolarIpanels
,IprovidedIthereIisIanIopenIgapIinIwhichIairIcanIcirculateIbetweenIthemIandItheI
roof,IprovideIaIpassiveIcoolingIeffectIonIbuildingsIduringItheIdayIandIalsoIkeepI
accumulatedIheatIinIatInight.[62]

TheIpowerIoutputIofIphotovoltaicIsystemsIforIinstallationIinIbuildingsIisIusuallyI
describedIinIkilowatt-peakIunitsI(kWp).

4.ADVANTAGESIANDIDISADVANTAGES

TheI122IPWIofIsunlightIreachingItheIEarth'sIsurfaceIisIplentifulalmostI10,000
timesImoreIthanItheI13ITWIequivalentIofIaverageIpowerIconsumedIinI2005Iby
humans.[91]ThisabundanceIleadsItoItheIsuggestionIthatIitIwillInotIbeIlongIbefore
solarIenergyIwillIbecomeItheIworld'sIprimaryIenergyIsource.
[92]Additionally,solarIelectricIgenerationIhasItheIhighestIpowerIdensity(globalImea
nIofI170IW/m2)amongrenewableIenergies.[91]

SolarIpowerIisIpollutionfreeIduringIuse.IProductionIendwastesIandIemissionsIare
manageableIusingIexistingIpollutionIcontrols.IEnofuseIrecyclingItechnologiesIareI
underIdevelopment[93]IandIpoliciesIareIbeingIproducedIthatIencourageIrecyclingI
10
fromIproducers.[94]

PVIinstallationsIcanIoperateIforI100IyearsIorIevenImoreI[95]IwithIlittleImainten-
anceIorIinterventionIafterItheirIinitialIsetup,IsoIafterItheIinitialIcapitalIcostIofIbuild-
ingIanyIsolarpowerIplant,IoperatingIcostsIareIextremelyIlowIcomparedItoIexistingI
powerItechnologies.GridconnectedIsolarIelectricityIcanIbeIusedIlocallyIthus
reducingItransmission/distributionlossesI(transmissionIlossesIinItheIUSIwereIappr-
oximatelyI7.2%IinI1995).[96]

ComparedItoIfossilIandInuclearIenergyIsources,IveryIlittleIresearchImoneyIhasI
beenIinvestedIinItheIdevelopmentIofIsolarIcells,IsoIthereIisIconsiderableIroomI
forimprovement.Nevertheless,IexperimentalIhighIefficiencyIsolarIcellsIalreadyIhave
efficienciesIofIoverI40%IinIcaseIofIconcentratingIphotovoltaicIcells[97]andIefficie-
nciesIareIrapidlyIrisingIwhilemass-productionIcostsIareIrapidlyIfalling.[98]

InIsomeIstatesIofItheIUnitedIStates,ImuchIofItheIinvestmentIinIaIhome-
mountedIsystemmayIbeIlostIifItheIhome-
ownerImovesIandItheIbuyerIputsIlessIvalueIonIthesystemIthantheseller.ITheIcityIofI
BerkeleyIdevelopedIanIinnovativeIfinancingmethodItoIremoveIthisIlimitation,IbyI
addingIaItaxIassessmentIthatIisItransferredIwithItheIhomeItoIpayIforItheIsolarpanels
.
[99]INowIknownIasIPACE,IPropertyIAssessedICleanIEnergy,I28IU.S.IstatesIhavedu
plicatedIthisIsolution.[100]

ThereIisIevidence,IatIleastIinICalifornia,IthatItheIpresenceIofIaIhomemountedI
solarsystemIcanIactuallyIincreaseItheIvalueIofIaIhome.IAccordingItoIaIpaperIpubl-
ishedIinIApril2011IbyItheIErnestIOrlandoILawrenceIBerkeleyINationalILaboratoryI
titledIAnIAnalysisIofItheIEffectsIofIResidentialIPhotovoltaicIEnergyISystemsIonI
HomeISalesIPricesIinICalifornia:

IIIITheIresearchIfindsIstrongIevidenceIthatIhomesIwithIPVIsystemsIinICaliforniI

11
haveIsoldIforIaIpremiumIoverIcomparableIhomesIwithoutIPVIsystems.IMoreIspeci-
ficallestimatesIforIaverageIPVIpremiumsIrangeIfromIapproximatelyI$3.9ItoI$6.4per
installedIwattI(DC)amongIaIlargeInumberIofIdifferentImodelIspecifications,withI
mostImodelsIcoalescingInearI$5.5/watt.IThatIvalueIcorrespondsItoIaIpremiumIofI
approximatelyI$17,000IforIaIrelativelyInewI3,100IwattIPVIsystemI(theIaverageIsize
ofIPVIsystemsIinItheIstudy).[101]

MAXIMUMIPOWERIPOINTITRACKINGI(MPPT)
MaximumIPowerIPointITracking,frequentlyIreferredItoIasIMPPT,isIanIelectronic
systemthatIoperatesItheIPhotovoltaicI(PV)ImodulesIinIaImannerIthatIallowsItheI
modulesItoIproduceIallItheIpowerItheyIareIcapableIof.IMPPTIisInotIaImechanicalI
trackingIsystemIthat“physicallyImoves”ItheImodulesItoImakeIthemIpointImoreI
directlyIatItheIsun.IMPPTIisIaIfullyIelectronicIsystemIthatIvariesItheIelectricalIope-
ratingpointIofItheImodulesIsoIthatItheImodulesIareIableItoIdeliverImaximumIavail-
ableIpower.IadditionalIpowerIharvestedIfromtheImodulesIisIthenImadeIavailableI
asincreasedIbatteryIchargeIcurrent.IMPPTIcanIbeIusedinIconjunctionIwithIaImecha-
nicalItrackingIsystem,IbutItheItwoIsystemsIareIcompletelyIdifferent.

ANIOVERVIEWIOFIMAXIMUMIPOWERIPOINTITRACKINGI
AItypicalIsolarIpanelIconvertsIonlyI30ItoI40percentIofItheIincidentIsolarIirradiat-
ionIintoelectricalIenergy.MaximumIpowerIpointItrackingItechniqueIisIusedItoIimpr-
oveItheIefficie-ncyIofItheIsolarIpanel.I

AccordingItoIMaximumIPowerITransferItheorem,ItheIpowerIoutputIofIaIcircuitI
isImaximumIwhenItheITheveninIimpedanceIofItheIcircuitI(sourceIimpedance)Imat-
chesIwithItheIloadIimpedance.HenceIourIproblemIofItrackingItheImaximumIpowerI
pointIreducesItoIanIimpedanceImatchingIproblem.IInItheIsourceIsideIweIareIusingII
boostIconvertorIconnectedItoIaIsolarIpanelIinIorderItoIenhanceItheIoutputIvoltage
so thatIitIcanIbeIusedIforIdifferentIapplicationsIlikeImotorIload.I

12
DIFFERENTIMPPTITECHNIQUES
IThereIareIdifferentItechniquesIusedItoItrackItheImaximumIpowerIpoint.IFewIofI
theImostIpopularItechniquesIare:I

1)IPerturbIandIObserveI(hillIclimbingImethod)I

2)IIncrementalIConductanceImethodI

3)IFractionalIshortIcircuitIcurrentI

4)IFractionalIopenIcircuitIvoltageI

5)INeuralInetworksI

6)IFuzzyIlogicItheIchoiceIofItheIalgorithmIdependsIonItheItimeIcomplexityItheI
algorithmItakestoItrackItheIMPP,IimplementationIcostIandItheIeaseIofIimplementa-
tion.I

PERTURBI&IOBSERVEI
PerturbI&IObserveI(P&O)IisItheIsimplestImethod.IInIthisIweIuseIonlyIoneIsens-
or,IthatIisItheIvoltageIsensor,ItoIsenseItheIPVIarrayIvoltageIandIsoItheIcostIofIimp-
lementationIisIlessIandIhenceIeasyItoIimplement.TheItimeIcomplexityIofIthisIalgo-
rithmIisIveryIlessIbutIonIreachingIveryIcloseItoItheIMPPIitIdoesn’tIstopIatItheIMPI
andIkeepsIonIperturbingIonIbothItheIdirections.IWhenIthisIhappensItheIalgorithmI
hasIreachedIveryIcloseItoItheIMPPIandIweIcanIsetIanIappropriateIerrorIlimitIorIcan
useIaIwaitIfunctionIwhichIendsIupIincreasingItheItimeIcomplexityIofItheIalgorithm.
HoweverItheImethodIdoesInotItakeIaccountIofItheIrapidIchangeIofIirradiationIlevelI
(dueItoIwhichIMPPTIchanges)IandIconsidersIitIasIaIchangeIinIMPPIdueItoIperturb-
ationIandIendsIupIcalculatingItheIwrongIMPP.IToIavoidIthisproblemIweIcanIuseIin
crementalIconductanceImethod.I

13
 CHAPTER-I2
2.1.HARMONICS
DEFINITION:
TheItypicalIdefinitionIforIaIharmonicIisI“aIsinusoidalIcomponentIofIaIperio-
dicIwaveIorIquantityIhavingIaIfrequencyIthatIisIanIintegralImultipleIofItheIfundam-
entalIfrequency.ISomeIreferencesIreferItoI“clean”IorI“pure”IpowerIasIthoseIwithoutI
anyIharmonics.ButIsuchcleanIwaveformsItypicallyIonlyIexistIinIaIlaboratoryIHarm-
onicsIhaveIbeenIaroundIforIaIlongItimeIandIwillIcontinueItoIdoIso.IInIfact,Imusici-
ansIhaveIbeenIawareIofIsuchIsinceItheIinventionIofItheIfirstIstringIorIwoodwindI
instrument.HarmonicsI(calledI“overtones”IinImusic)areIresponsibleIforIwhatImakesI
aItrumpetIsoundIlikeIaItrumpet,andIaIclarinetIlikeIaIclarinetElectricalIgeneratorsItryI
toproduceIelectricIpowerIwhereItheIvoltageIwaveformIhasIonlyoneIfrequencyIassoc-
iatedIwithIit,ItheIfundamentalIfrequency.IInItheINorthIAmerica,thisIfrequencyIisI60I
Hz,IorIcyclesIperIsecond.IInIEuropeanIcountriesIandIotherIpartsIofItheIworld,thisI
frequencyIisIusuallyI50IHz.AircraftIoftenIuses400IHzIasItheIfundamentalIfrequency.
I

Fig.I2.A:ISineIWave
TheIfrequencyIofItheIharmonicsIisIdifferent,IdependingIonItheIfun damental
frequency.IForIexample,ItheI2ndIharmonicIonIaI60IHzIsystemIisI2*60IorI120IHz.I
AtI50Hz,ItheIsecondIharmonicIisI2*I50IorI100Hz.300HzIisItheI5thIharmonicIinIa
14
60IHzIsystem,IorItheI6thIharmonicIinIaI50IHzIsystem.FigureI2.A
showsIhowIaIsignalIwithItwoIharmonicsIwouldIappearIonIanIoscilloscope typeI
display,whichIsomeIpowerIqualityIanalyzersIprovide.

Fig.2.B:IFundamentalIWithITwoIHarmonics
InIorderItoIbeIableItoIanalyzeIcomplexIsignalsIthatIhaveImanyIdifferent
IfrequenciesIpresent,IaInumberIofImathematicalImethodsIwereIdeveloped.IOneIofI
themoreIpopularIisIcalledItheIFourierITransform.IHowever,IduplicatingItheImathe-
maticalIstepsIrequiredIinIaImicroprocessorIorIcomputerbasedIinstrumentIisIquiteI
difficult.SoImoreIcompatibleIprocesses,calledItheIFFTIforIFastIFourierItransformIorI
DFTIforDiscreteIFourierITransformIareIused.
TheseImethodsIonlyIworkIproperlyIifItheIsignalIisIcomposedIofIonlyItheI
fundamentalIandIharmonicIfrequenciesIinIaIcertainIfrequencyIrangeI(calledItheINy-
quist frequency,whichIisIonehalfIofItheIsamplingIfrequency).TheIfrequencyIvaluesI
mustnotIchangeIduringItheImeasurementIperiod.IFailureIofItheseIrulesItoIbeImainta
0inedIcanIresultIinImisinformation.IForIexample,IifIaIvoltageIwaveformIisIcompris-
edIof60IHzIandI200IHzIsignals,ItheIFFTIcannotIdirectlyIseeItheI200IHz.IItIonlyIkn
owsI60,I120,I180,I240,...,IwhichIareIoftenIcalledI“bins”.ITheIresultIwouldIbeIthatI
theIenergyIofItheI200IHzIsignalIwouldIappearpartiallyIinItheI180HzIbin,IandIpartia-
llyinItheI240IHzIbin.IAnIFFTbasedIprocesserIcouldshowIaIvoltageIvalueIofI115VIat
60IHz,I18IVIatItheI3rdIharmonic,IandI12IVIatItheI4thIharmonic,IwhenIitIreallyI
shouldIhaveIbeenI30IVIatI200IHz.
TheseIinbetweenIfrequenciesIareIcalledI“interIharmonics”.IThereIisIalsoIaI
specialIcategoryIofIinterIharmonics,IwhichIareIfrequencyIvaluesIlessIthanItheIfund-
15
amentalIfrequencyIvalue,calledIsubharmonics.IForIexample,theIprocessIofImelting-
metalIinIanelectricIarcfurnaceIcanIresultIlargeIcurrentsIthatIareIcomprisedIofItheI
fundamental,interIharmonic,IandsubIharmonicIfrequenciesIbeingIdrawnIfromIthe
electricIpowerIgrid.ITheseIlevelsIcanIbequiteIhighIduringItheImeltdownIphase,IandI
usuallyIeffectItheIvoltageIwaveform.

2.2IPROBLEMSIWITHIHARMONICS
TheIpresenceIofIharmonicsIdoesInotImeanIthatItheIfactoryIorIofficeIcannotIrun
properly.ILikeIotherIpowerIqualityIphenomena,IitIdependsIonItheI“stiffness”IofItheI
powerIdistributionIsystemIandItheIsusceptibilityIofItheIequipment.AsIshownIbelow,I
thereIareIaInumberIofIdifferentItypesIofIequipmentIthatIcanIhaveImisIoperationsIorI
failuresIdueItoIhighIharmonicIvoltageIand/orIcurrentIlevels.IInIaddition,IoneIfactory
mayIbeItheIsourceIofIhighIharmonicsbutIableItoIrunIproperly.IThisIharmonicIpollut-
ionIisIoftenIcarriedIbackIontoItheIelectricIutilityIdistributionIsystem,IandImayIeffect
facilitiesIonItheIsameIsystemIwhichIareImoreIsusc-eptible.

Fig.2.C:IAdditiveIThirdIHarmonics

16
 IncorrectIreadingImeters,IincludingIinductionIdiscIWhrImetersIandIaveragingItype
currentImeters.
 ReducedItrueIPF,IwhereIPF=IWatts/VA.
 OverheatedItransformers,IespeciallyIdeltaIwindingsIwhereItriplenIharmonicsIgenera-
tedIonItheIloadIsideIofIaIdeltawyeItransformerIwillIcirculateIinItheIprimaryIside.I
SomeItypeIofIlossesIgoIupIasItheIsquareofIharmonicIvalueI(suchIasIskinIeffectIandI
eddyIcurrentIlosses).IThisIisIalsoItrueIforIsole-noidIcoilsIandIlightingIballasts.
 Zero,InegativeIsequenceIvoltagesIonImotorsIandIgenerators.IInIaIbalancedIsystem,
voltageIharmonicsIcanIeitherIbeIpositiveI(fundamental,I4th,I7th,...),InegativeI(2nd,I
5th,I8th...)IorIzeroI(3rd,I6th,I9th,...)IsequencingIvalues.IThisImeansIthatItheIvoltageI
atIthatIparticularIfrequencyItriesItoIrotateItheImotorIforward,Ibackward,IorIneitherI
(justIheatsIupItheImotor),respectively.IThereIisIalsoIheatingIfromIincreasedIlossesIas
inIaItransformer.

Table2.D.IHarmonicISequencingIValuesIInIBalancedISystems
HARMONICS FUND 2 3 4 5 6 7 ETC

SEQUENCE + - 0 + - 0 + ……

 NuisanceIoperationIofIprotectiveIdevices,IincludingIfalseItrippingIofIrelaysIandI
failureIofIaIUPSItoItransferIproperly,especiallyIifIcontrolsIincorporateIzero crossing
sensingIcircuits.
 BearingIfailureIfromIshaftIcurrentsIthroughIunIinsulatedIbearingsIofIelectricImotors.
 BlownfusesIonIPFIcorrectionIcaps,IdueItoIhighIvoltageIandIcurrentsIfromIresona-
ncewithIlineIimpedance.
 Mis-operationIorIfailureIofIelectronicIequipment
 IfIthereIareIvoltageIsubIharmonicsIinItheIrangeIofI130Hz,ItheIeffectIonIlightingIisc-
alledflicker.ThisIisIespeciallyItrueIatI8.8Hz,whereItheIhumanIeyeIisImostIsensit-
ive,andIjust0.5%variationIinItheIvoltageIisInoticeableIwithIsomeItypesIofIlighting.

TableI2.E:ITypicalIHarmonicsIFoundIForIDifferentIConverters.
17
 TYPEIOFIDEVICE NUMBERIOFIPULSE HARMONICSIPRESENT

HalfIwaveIrectifier 1 2,3,4,5,6,7…

FullIwaveIrectifier 2 3,5,7,9…

ThreeIphase,IfullIwave 6 5,7,11,13,17,19…

(2)IthreeIphaseI,fullIwave 12 11,13,23,25,35,37…

RecommendedIPracticeIforIEstablishingITransformerICompatibilityIWhenI
SupplyingINoIsinusoidalILoadICurrentsIisIaIusefulIdocumentIforIdeterminingIhowI
muchIaItransformerIshouldIbeIderatedIfromIitsInameplateIratingIwhenIoperatingIinI
theIpresenceIofIharmonics.

TableI2.F:ICurrentIHarmonicILimit
RATIOIIsccII/IIIload HarmonicsIRange LimitIasI%IofIfundamental

LessIthanI20 OddInumberIlessIthanI11 4.0I%

BetweenI20IandI50 OddInumberIlessIthanI11 7.0I%

GreaterIthanI1000 OddInumberIgreaterIthanI1 1.4I%

1

TableI2.G:IVoltageIIHarmonicILimits.

ForIvoltageIharmonics,ItheIvoltageIlevelIofItheIsystemIisIusedItoIdetermineItheIlim-
its,IasIshownIinITableIIII.IAtItheIhigherIvoltages,ImoreIcustomersIwillIbeIeffective,
hence,IthelowerIlimits.

BusIvoltage VoltageIharmonicsIlimitsIasI%IofIfundamental

69kvIandIbelow IndividualIharmonicsI=3.0%

69kvIandIbelow THD=5.0%

161kvIandIabove IndividualIharmonicsI=I1.0%
18
 161kvIandIabove THDI=I1.0%

2.3IHARMONICIMITIGATIONIAPPROACHES
HarmonicIdistortionIinIpowerIdistributionIsystemsIcanIbeIsuppressedI
throughIthreeIbasicIapproachesInamely:
 PassiveIfilter.
 ActiveIpowerIfilter.
 HybridIactiveIpowerIfilter.

PASSIVEIFILTERINGIOFIHARMONIC

ConventionalIsolutionsItoItheIharmonicIdistortionIproblemsIhaveIexistedIforI
aIlongItime.ItheIpassiveIfilteringIisItheIsimplestIconventionalIsolutionItoImitigate
theharmonicIdistortion.IPassiveIfiltersIareIinductance,Icapacitance,IandIresistanceI
elementsIconfiguredIandItunedItoIcontrolIharmonics.IFig.2.4IshowsIcommonItypesI
ofIpassiveIfiltersIandItheirIconfigurations.

Fig.2.3.A.ICommonItypesIofIpassiveIfiltersIandItheirIconfigurations
TheIsingletunedInotchIfilterIisItheImostIcommonIandIeconomicalItype of
IpassiveIfilter.TheInotchIfilterIisIconnectedIinIshuntIwithItheIpowerIdistributionIsys-
temIandIisseriestunedItoIpresentIlowIimpedanceItoIaIparticularIharmonicIcurrent.I
Thus,IharmonicIcurrentsIareIdivertedIfromItheirInormalIflowIpathIthroughItheIfilter.
AnotherIpopularItypeIofIpassiveIfilterIisItheIHighIPassIFilterI(HPF).IAIHPFIwillI

19
allowIaIlargeIpercentageIofIallIharmonicsIaboveIitsIcornerIfrequencyItoIpassIthrou-
gh.IHPFItypicallyItakesIonIoneIofItheIthreeIforms,IasIshownIinIFig.2.3.A.I

AlthoughIsimpleIandIleastIexpensive,ItheIpassiveIfilterIinheritsIseveralIshortco-
mings.ITheIfilterIcomponentsIareIveryIbulkyIbecauseItheIharmonicsIthatIneedItoIbe
suppressedIareIusuallyIofItheIlowIorder.IFurthermoreItheIcompensationIcharacteris-
ticsIofItheseIfiltersIareIinfluencedIbyItheIsourceIimpedance.IAsIsuch,ItheIfilterI
designIisIheavilyIdependentIontheIpowerIsystemIinIwhichIitIisIconnectedIto.ITheI
passiveIfilterIisIalsoIknownItoIcauseIresonance,IthusIaffectingItheIstabilityIofIthep-
owerIdistributionIsystems.

PHOTOVOLTAICIINVERTER
TheIinverterIisItheIheartIofItheIPVIsystemIandIisItheIfocusIofIallIutilityinterconec-
tioncodesIandIstandards.AISolarIinverterIorIPVIinverterIisIaItypeIofIelectricalI
inverterIthatismadeItoIchangeItheIdirectIcurrent(DC)IelectricityIfromIaIphotovoltaicI
arrayIinto alternatingcurrentI(AC)IforIuseIwithIhomeIappliancesIandIpossiblyIaI
utilityIgrid.SinceItheIPVIarrayIisaIdcIsource,anIinverterIisIrequiredItoIconvertItheIdc
powerItoInormalIacIpowerIthatisIusedinIourIhomesIandIoffices.ItosaveIenergyItheyI
runIonlyIwhenItheIsunIisIupIandIshouldIbeIlocatedIinIcoolIlocationsIawayIfromI
directIsunlight.ITheIPCUIisaIgeneralItermIforIallItheIequipmentIinvolvedIincludingI
theIinverterIandItheIinterfaceIwithItheIPV(andIbatterysystemIifIused)IandItheIutilityI
grid.ItIisIveryIimportantItoIpointIoutIthatIinvertersIareIbydesign muchIsaferIthanI
rotatingIgenerators.OfIparticularIconcernItoIutilityIengineersIisIhowImuchcurrentIaI
generatorIcanIdeliverIduringIaIfaultIonItheirIsystem.InvertersIgenerallyIproducelessI
thanI20%IofItheIfaultIcurrentIasIaIsynchronousIgeneratorIofItheIsameInameplate
capacity.ThisIisIaIveryIsignificantIdifference.

2.4 INVERTERICLASSIFICATION
SolarIinvertersImayIbeIclassifiedIintoIthreeIbroadItypes:

 Stand-
aloneIinverters,IusedIinIisolatedIsystemsIwhereItheIinverterIdrawsIitsIDCenergy
20
 fromIbatteriesIchargedIbyIphotovoltaicIarraysIand/orIotherIsources,IsuchasIwind
turbines,IhydroIturbines,IorIengineIgenerators.IManyIstandaloneIinvertersIalsoI
incorporateIintegralIbatteryIchargersItoIreplenishItheIbatteryIfromIanIACIsource
,IwhenIavailable.INormallyItheseIdoInotIinterfaceIinIanyIwayIwiththeIutilityI
grid,IandIasIsuch,IareInotIrequiredItoIhaveIanti-islandingIprotection.

 GridItieIinverters,IwhichImatchIphaseIwithIaIutility-
suppliedIsineIwave.IGrid-
tieinvertersIareIdesignedItoIshutIdownIautomaticallyIuponIlossIofIutilityIsupply,
forsafetyIreasons.ITheyIdoInotIprovideIbackupIpowerIduringIutilityIoutages.

 BatteryIbackupIinverters.TheseIareIspecialIinvertersIwhichIareIdesignedItoId
rawenergy
fromIaIbattery,ImanageItheIbatteryIchargeIviaIanIonboardIcharger,Iand exportI
excessenergyItoItheIutilityIgrid.ITheseIinvertersIareIcapableIofIsupply-ing
ACIenergyItoIselectedIloadsIduringIaIutilityIoutage,IandIareIrequiredItoI
haveIanti-islandingIprotection.

ANTI-ISLANDINGIPROTECTION
Normally,gridtiedIinvertersIwillIshutIoffIifItheyIdoInotIdetectItheIpresenceIofIthe
utilityIgrid.IIf,Ihowever,IthereIareIloadIcircuitsIinItheIelectricalIsystemIthatIhappenI
toIresonateatItheIfrequencyIofItheIutilityIgrid,ItheIinverterImayIbeIfooledIintoIthink
ingIthatIthegridIisstillIactiveIevenIafterIitIhadIbeenIshutIdown.IThisIisIcalledI
islanding.

IslandingIrefersItoItheIconditionIofIaIdistributedIgeneration(DG)IgeneratorIconti-
nuingtoIpowerIaIlocationIevenIthoughIpowerIfromItheIelectricIutilityIisInoIlongerp-
resent.IConsiderIforIexampleIaIbuildingIthatIhasIsolarIpanelsIthatIfeedIpowerIback
toItheIelectricalIgrid;inIcaseIofIaIpowerIblackout,IifItheIsolarIpanelsIcontinueItoI
powerItheIbuilding,thebuildingIbecomesIanI"island"IwithIpowerIsurroundedIbyIaI
"sea"IofIunpoweredIbuildings.

IslandingIcanIbeIdangerousItoIutilityIworkers,IwhoImayInotIrealizeIthatItheIbui-
ldingIisIstillIpoweredIevenIthoughIthere'sInoIpowerIfromItheIgrid.IForIthatIreason,I
distributedIgeneratorsImustIdetectIislandingIandIimmediatelyIstopIproducingIpower;
IthisIisIreferredItoIasIanti-islanding.
21
 AnIinverterIdesignedIforIgridtieIoperationIwillIhaveIantiislandingIprotectionI
builtin;itIwillIinjectIsmallIpulsesIthatIareIslightlyIoutIofIphaseIwithItheIACIelectric-
alIsystemIinIorderItoIcancelIanyIstrayIresonancesIthatImayIbeIpresentIwhenItheI
gridIshutsIdown.SinceI1999,theIstandardIforIantiislandingIprotectionIinItheIUnitedI
StateshasIbeenIULI1741IharmonizedIwithIIEEEI1547.IAnyIinverterIwhichIisIlistedI
toItheUL1741IstandardImayIbeIconnectedItoIaIutilityIgridIwithoutItheIneedIforI
additionalantiislandingequipment,IanywhereIinItheIUnitedIStatesIorIotherIcountriesI
whereIULIstandardsIareIacce-pted.

DetectionImethods

DetectingItheIabsenceIofIpowerIfromItheIgridIisIcomplicatedIbyItwoIitems:

1.TheIdistributedIgeneratorIitselfIisIaIsourceIofIpowerIwhoseIvoltageIisIbyIdefinitio
nIidenticalItoItheIvoltageIfromItheIgrid,IsoIitIisIhardItoIdistinguishItheItwo

2.AInearbyImotorImayIcontinueItoIspinIandIactIasIaIgenerator,IcreatingIaIfrequency
I similarItoItheIoriginalIlineIfrequencyI(50IorI60IHz).IThatImayIbeIalsoItrueIifItheI
loadIinItheIbuildingIformsIaIresonantIcircuitIatItheIlineIfrequency.

IslandingImayIbeIdetectedIpassively,IactivelyIorIbyIutilityInotification:

PassiveIdetectionIisIdoneIbyIdetectingIthatItheIlineIvoltageIandIfrequencyIareIno
IlongerIwithinIcertainIlimits.

OneIprincipleIisIthat,IonceItheIgridIisInoIlongerIestablishingItheIlineIvoltage,that
IvoltageIwillIchangeI(itIwillIusuallyIdrop,IbutInotInecessarily).

TheIotherIprincipleIisIthat,IevenIifIaImotorIisIcreatingIaIlineIfrequency,IitIwill
slowIdown,andIthereforeIdoIsoIatIlowerIfrequencyIthanItheIstandardIlineIfrequency.

ActiveIdetectionIisIdoneIbyIpurposelyIaddingIaIdisturbanceItoItheIline,andIseeingIit
seffectTheIprincipleIisIthatItheIgridIoffersIessentiallyIzeroIohmIimpedance.IInIthe
absenceIofItheIgrid,ItheIimpedanceIthatIisIseenIisItheIloadIinItheIbuilding,IwhichIis
substantially higher.

ForIutilityInotification,ItheIutilityIknowsIwhenIitIremovesIpowerItoItheIbuilding,
andItellsItheIinverterItoIstopIgeneratingIpower

MAXIMUMIPOWERIPOINTITRACKINGI(MPPT)

22
 MainIarticle:IMaximumIpowerIpointItracker

Fig:2.4.AII-VIcurveIforIaIsolarIcell,IshowingItheImaximumI

powerIpointIPmax.

MaximumIpowerIpointItrackingIisIaItechniqueIthatIsolarIinvertersIuseItoIgetItheI
mostIpossibleIpowerIfromItheIPVIarray.AnyIgivenIPVImoduleIorIstringIofImodules
willIhaveIamaximumIpowerIpoint:Iessentially,IthisIdefinesIcurrentIthatItheIinverterI
shouldIdrawIfromItheIPVIinIorderItoIgetItheImostIpossibleIpowerI(powerIisIequalI
toIvoltageItimesIcurrent).

AImaximumIpowerIpointItrackerI(orIMPPT)IisIaIhighIefficiencyIDCItoIDC
converterIthatIpresentsIanIoptimalIelectricalIloadItoIaIsolarIpanelIorIarrayIandI
producesIaIvoltagesuitableIforItheIload.

PVIcellsIhaveIaIsingleIoperatingIpointIwhereItheIvaluesIofItheIcurrentI(I)Iand
Voltage(V)IofItheIcellIresultIinIaImaximumIpowerIoutput.ITheseIvaluesIcorrespond
toIaIparticularloadIresistance,IwhichIisIequalItoIV/IIasIspecifiedIbyIOhm'sILaw.AI
PVIcellIhasIanIexponentialIrelationshipIbetweenIcurrentIandIvoltage,IandIthe
maximumIpowerIpointI(MPP)occursIatItheIkneeIofItheIcurve,IwhereItheIresistanceI
isIequalItoItheInegativeIofItheIdifferentialIresistanceI(V/II=I-dV/dI).IMaximum
powerpointItrackersIutilizeIsomeItypeIofIcontrolIcircuitIorIlogicItoIsearchIforIthis
pointIandIthusItoIallowItheIconverterIcircuitItoIextractItheImaximumIpowerIavail-
ableIfromIaIcell.

TraditionalIsolarIinvertersIperformIMPPTIforIanIentireIarrayIasIaIwhole.InIsuchI
systemsItheIsameIcurrent,IdictatedIbyItheIinverter,IflowsIthoughIallIpanelsIinItheI
string.I
23
 ButIbecauseIdifferentIpanelsIhaveIdifferentIIVIcurves,Ii.e.IdifferentIMPPsI(due
toImanufacturingItolerance,IpartialIshading,Ietc.)IthisIarchitectureImeansIsomeIpan-
elsIwillIbeIper-formingIbelowItheirIMPP,IresultingIinItheIlossIofIenergy.

SomeIcompaniesI(seeIpowerIoptimizer)IareInowIplacingIpeakIpowerIpointIcon-
vertersintoIindividualIpanels,IallowingIeachItoIoperateIatIpeakIefficiencyIdespite-I
un evenIshadingsoilingIorIelectricalImismatch.

AtInight,IanIoffgridIPVIpowerIsystemIusesIbatteriesItoIsupplyIitsIloads.IAl
thoughIthebatteryIpackIvoltageIwhenIfullyIchargedImayIbeIcloseItoItheIPVIarray's
IpeakIpowerIpointthisIisIunlikelyItoIbeItrueIatIsunriseIwhenItheIbatteryIispartiallyI
discharged.ChargingImayIbeginIatIaIvoltageIconsiderablyIbelowItheIarray peakI
powerIpoint,IandIaIMPPTIcanIresolveIthisImismatch.

WhenItheIbatteriesIinIanIoffgridIsystemIareIfullIandIPVIproductionIexceedsI
localloads,IaIMPPTIcanInoIlongerIoperateItheIarrayIatIitsIpeakIpowerIpointIasIthe
IexcessIpowerIhasInowhereItoIgo.TheIMPPTImustIthenIshiftItheIarrayIoperatingI
pointIawayIfromtheIpeakIpowerIpointIuntilIproductionIexactlyImatchesIdemand(A
nIalternativeIapproachIcommonlyIusedIinIspacecraftIisItoIdivertIsurplusIPV
powerIintoIaIresistiveIload,IallowingtheIarrayItoIoperateIcontinuouslyIatIitsIpeak
powerIpoint.)

InIaIgridtiedIphotovoltaicIsystem,ItheIgridIisIessentiallyIaIbatteryIwithInear
infinite capacity.ITheIgridIcanIalwaysIabsorbIsurplusIPVIpower,IandIitIcanIcover-
shortfallsIinIPVproductionI(e.g.,IatInight).BatteriesIareIthusIneededIonlyIforIprote-
ctionIfromIgridIoutages.TheIMPPTIinIaIgridItiedIPVIsystemIwillIalwaysIoperateI
theIarrayIatIitsIpeakIpowerIpointIunlessItheIgridIfailsIwhenItheIbatteriesIareIfullIa
ndIthereIareIinsufficientIlocalIloads.IItIwouldIthenIhaveItoIbackItheIarrayIaway
fromIitsIpeakIpowerIpointIasIinItheIoffgridIcaseI(whichIitIhasItemporarilyIbecom-
e).MPPTsIcanIbeIdesignedItoIdriveIanIelectricImotorIwithoutIaIstorageIbattery.I
TheyIprovideIsignificantIadvantages,IespeciallyIwhenIstartingIaImotorIunderIload.I
ThisIcanIrequireIaIstartingIcurrentIthatIisIwellIaboveItheIshortcircuitIratingIofItheI
PVIpanel.IAIMPPTIcanIstepItheIpanel'sIrelativelyIhighIvoltageIandIlowIcurrent
downItoItheIlowIvoltageIandIhighIcurrentIneededItoIstartItheImotor.IOnceItheI
motorIisIrunningIandIitsIcurrentIrequirementsIhaveIdropped,ItheIMPPTIwillIaut-
omaticallyIincreaseItheIvoltageItoInormal.IInIthisIapplication,ItheIMPPTIcanIbe

24
seenIasIanIelectricalIanalogueItoItheItransmissionIinIaIcar;ItheIlowIgearsIprovide
extraItorqueItoItheIwheelsIuntilItheIcarIisIupItoIspeed.

GRIDITIEIINVERTERS
ManyIsolarIinvertersIareIdesignedItoIbeIconnectedItoIaIutilityIgrid,IandIwillInotI
operatewhenItheyIdoInotIdetectItheIpresenceIofItheIgrid.TheyIcontainIspecialIcircu-
itryItoIpreciselImatchItheIvoltageIandIfrequencyIofItheIgrid.

CHARGEICONTROLLERS
Stand-aloneIinvertersI–
thatIis,IinvertersIthatIareIdesignedItoIbeIusedIwithoutItheIpresenceIofItheIelectri-
calutilityIgridIcanIbeIrunIfromIPVIpanelsIandIbatteriesIusingIaIchargeIcontroller.I
TheIchargeIcontrollerIregulatesItheIinputIfromItheIPVIandItheIbatteries,IregulatesI
theIbatteryIoutput,IandIhandleschargingItheIbatteries.

POWERIQUALITYIPROBLEMSIWITHIPVIINVERTERS
LargeInumbersIofIPVIinvertersIonIlowvoltageIfeedersIcanIgiveIpowerIquality
problemsandImayIresultIthatIinIcertainIcases,ItemporarilyItheInationalIstandard forI
powerIqualityIEN50160IisIexceeded.IThisIisItheIresultIevenIwhenIallItheIPVIinve-
rtersIindividuallyIsatisfyItheIIECI610003Ispecification.InotIcompletelyIcovered byI
standardsIatIthisImomentistheIeffectIofIharmonicIcurrentIemissionIbyIPVIinve-
rtersIasIaIresponseIonIharmonicIdistortionIofItheIgridIvoltage.IAlsoInotIcompletelyI
coveredIbyIstandardsIatIthisImomentIisItheIproductionIofIharmonicIcurrentIemiss-
ionIdueItoIaIresonanceIphenomenonIbetweenItheInetworkIandIPVIinverters.

AllItheseIeffectsIcanIleadItoIaIhigherIharmonicIcurrentIemissionIofItheIPV-
inverters,IwhichIisIdesignIdependent.ITheseIharmonicIemissionsIcanIbeIminimizedI
byIgoodIdesignIpractice,IwhichIanticipatesIonIfutureIstandardization.

2.5 POWERIQUALITYIOFIPVIINVERTERS,IRELATEDITO
ITOPOLOGYIANDICONTROLIASPECTS
25
 ConvertersIforIPVIsystemsIcanIbeIdividedIintoItwoIgroups,Inamely:ILineIcomm-
utatedIinvertersIandIselfIcommutatedIinverters.ILineIcommutatedIinvertersIareI
commonlyIusedIforIhighIpowerIconverters,IwhileIselfcommutatedIconvertersIare
commonlyIusedIforIsmallIPVinverters.IOnlyIinvertersIwithIlineIcurrentsIupItoI
maximumI16IamperesIperIphaseIandIthereforeIonlyIself commutated inverters Iwill
beIdiscussed.AIfurtherIlimitationIwillIbeItheIfocusIonIsinglephaseinverters.With in
theImentionedIlimitations,IPVIinvertersIconsistIinIgeneralIofIdifferentIstagesIandI
transformerIoptions.IToIcomplyIwithIstandards,ItheseIinvertersIwithItheirIpulse-
widthImodulationI(PWM)IconverterIcontrollersIgenerateIaIsinusoidalIoutputIcurrent
InIpracticeIswitchingIfrequenciesIofI500IkHzIareIusedIinIdifferentIpowerIstages.

SeveralIinverterIconceptsIareIusedIinItheseIgroupIofIsmallIsingle-
phaseIinverters,IexamplesIare:

·ISingle-stageIconceptIofIH-bridgeIpulse-width-modulatedI(PWM)IDC-
DCIconverterIdirectlyIcoupledItoItheIgrid

·ISingle-stageIconceptIofIH-bridgeIPWMIDC-
DCIconverterIcoupledtoItheIgridIwithIaIlowfrequencyI(LF)IisolationItransformer

Fig:2.5.AISingle-stageIH-BridgeIPWMIconverterIandIlow-
frequencyItransformer

·IMultistageIconceptIofIPWMIDC-DCIconverterIfrontend,IwithI50HzIunfolding
bridgeIdirectlyIcoupledItoItheIgrid

26
 Fig:2.5.BIMulti-stageIhigh-frequencyItransformerIH-
BridgeIPWMIConverterIwithIlow-frequencyIunfoldingIbridge

·IMultistageIconceptIofIPWMIDC-DCIconverterIfrontendIwithI50HzIunfoldingI
bridgeIcoupledItoItheIgridIwithIaILF-isolationItransformer

·IMulti-stageIconceptIofIPWMIDC-DCIconverterIfront-endIincludingIaIhigh-
frequencyI(HF)IisolationItransformer,IandIaI50HzIunfoldingIbridgeIcoupledItoItheI
grid.

InvertersIcanImakeIuseIofIanIextraIinputIbuckIorIboostIconverterItoIgainItheIdy-
namicIrangeIatItheIinput.IInItheseItopologiesItheIenergyIstorageIcapacitor,Ineed
edinIonephaseinverters,IcanIbeIplacedIatItheIinputIofItheIinverterIorIbetweenIthe
twoIconverterIstages.TheseItypesIcoverItheImajorityIofIsmallIsinglephaseIinverters.I
ForIallItheseIinverterItypestheIACIoutputIcurrentIwillImainlyIbeIcharacterizedIbyI
theIcurrentfeedbackIcontrolloop.TheImajorityIofItheseIinvertersIareIcapableIofIself-
generatingIaI50HzIsinusoidalIoutputIcurrentIbasedIonIinternalIprocessorItablesIandI
synchronizationIwithItheIsupplyIvoltage.ThisIsynchronizationIisIoftenIdoneIbyIme-
ansIofIaIPhaselockedILoopI(PLL).

SomeIinvertersIcombineItheIreferenceIsourceIandItheIsynchronizationIinItheIgrid
voltage,IbyIusingItheIshapeIofItheIgridIvoltageIasIaIreferenceIsource.IHoweverIif
theIgridIvoltageIisIpolluted,ItheIreferenceIsourceIwillIalsoIbeIpollutedIandItheI
currentIcontrolIloopIofItheIinverterIpollutesIhisIoutputIcurrentIaccordingly.FilteringI
outItheIpollutionIusingIsuchIaIcontrollerIisIdifficultItoIdo,IwhileIobtainingIaIgoodI
(unity)IpowerIfactor.IifIitIisIdesiredItoIdesignIanIinverterIwithIanIunpollutedIsinus-
oidalIoutputIcurrentIshape,evenIifItheIgridIvoltageIisIpollutedIwithIharmonics,using
aIgoodIreferenceIsourceIisItheIfirstIdemand.IFurtherItheIinvertersIoutputIimpedance
,IasIfunctionIofItheIfrequencyIhasItoIbeIhighIasIwell.IInpracticeItheIoutputIimpeda-
nceIhasItoIbeIhighIupItoItheI40thIharmonic,ItoIavoidIharmonicIcurrentIpollutionIasI

27
anIinteractionIonIharmonicIvoltageIpollution.

HighIoutputIimpedanceIcanIbeIachievedIactivelyIbyImeansIofItheIcurrentIcontrol
loopIperformance,IbutIalsoIinIaIpassiveIway.ITheIpassiveIwayIcanIbeIachievedIbyI
inductanceIinItheIinvertersIoutputIcircuit,Ii.e.ItheIleakageIinductanceIofItheILF
transformer.IInIpracticeIthisIisIonlyIusefulIforItheIhigherIharmonics.IActiveIcomp-
ensationIremainsInecessaryIforIaIgoodIoverallIresult.IForImodernIhighIfrequency
switchingIinverters,IaddingIinductanceIforIreducingItheIlowerIharmonicsIisIvery
bulkyIandIcostly.

ToIimproveItheIcurrentIsourceIcharacter,IaIcontrollerIwithIaIsufficientlyIhighIga-
inbandwidthIproductIofItheIcurrentIfeedbackIloopIisItheIfirstIdemand.IForIaIgood
resultItheIplaceIofItheIcurrentIsensorIinItheIinverterIcircuitIisIimportant.ITheIbestI
placeItoIsenseItheIoutputIcurrentIisIdirectlyIonItheIoutputIterminalsIofItheIinverter,I
howeverIinIgeneralIEMIIfiltersIandIoutputIfilterIcapacitorsIareItheIlastIcomponentsI
inItheIoutputIcircuit.VeryIoftenItheseIcurrentIsensorsIwillIbeIcombinedIwithIcurrent
sensorsIalreadyIneededIinIaIDC-DCconverterIstage.IalItheseIaspectsImakesIthatI
theIcurrentIsourceIbehaviourIofItheIinverterIiscommonlyInotIasIgoodIasIitIcanIbe.

InvertersIwithItheirIfastIswitchingIpowerIelectronicIcomponentsIinside,IareIpote-
ntialEMIIsources.IForIthisIreasonIhighIfrequencyI(HF)IfilteringIinIanIinverterIis
needed.IAIlowfrequencyIfilterIisIusedItoIfilterIoutIdistortionIfromItheIswitchingI
frequency,IwhichIliesIgenerallyIbelowItheIEMIIfilteringIrange.ITheIfilterIcompon-
entsIinItheseItypesIofIfiltersIareinductorsIandIcapacitorsIlocatedIatItheIinputIandIout
putIsideIofItheIinverter.ITheIoutputIcapacitor(s)IofItheIinverterIstronglyIreducetheI
currentIsourceIbehaviourIofItheIinverterIandcanIalsoIbeImainlyIresponsibleIforIset-
tingIupIaIresonanceIcircuitItogetherIwithItheInetworkreactanceI(transformerIandI
cableIreactance).ItheseIeffectsIareInotIdetectedIorIreducedIbyItheIcurrentIcontrolI
loopIofItheIinverter,IifItheIcurrentIloopIofItheIinverterIisInotIoptimisedIforIthis.IAtI
thisImomentIsuchIanIoptimisationIisInotIdrivenIbyIobligedIstandards.

ForIgridconnectedIinvertersIwithIoutputIcurrentIdistortionIasIanIinteractionIwithI
theIgridvoltageIdistortion,IthisIinteractionIcharacterIwillIbeIgainedIbyItheIfollowing
items:

·ICurrent-shapeIreferenceIsourceIisIaIcopyIfromItheIgridIvoltage

·IOutputIimpedanceIasIaIfunctionIofItheIfrequencyIisIpoor
28
 ·IHighIoutputIcapacitance.

ForIimprovementIofIthisIcharacterItheIfollowingImayIbeIdone:

·IcurrentshapeIreferenceIsourceIbeIgeneratedIfromIaIsinusoidalItableIinItheI
processor

·IOutputIimpedanceIasIaIfunctionIofItheIfrequencyIshouldIbeIhigh

·IAIlowIoutputIcapacitanceIshouldIbeIusedIasIfilter.

CHAPTER-3
3.1 PHOTOVOLTAICITECHNOLOGY
Photovoltaic’sIisItheIfieldIofItechnologyIandIresearchIrelatedItoItheIdevicesI
whichIdirectlyIconvertIsunlightIintoIelectricityIusingIsemiconductorsIthatIexhibitIthe
photovoltaicIeffect.PhotovoltaicIeffectIinvolvesItheIcreationIofIvoltageIinIaImaterial
uponIexposureItoIelectromagneticIradiation.
ITheIphotovoltaicIeffectIwasIfirstInotedIbyIaIFrenchIphysicist,IEdmundIBe-
cquerel,IinI1839,IwhoIfoundIthatIcertainImaterialsIwouldIproduceIsmallIamountsIofI
electricIcurrentIwhenIexposedItoIlight.IInI1905,IAlbertIEinsteinIdescribedItheInature
ofIlightIandItheIphotoelectricIeffectIonIwhichIphotovoltaicItechnologyIisIbased,IforI
whichIheIlaterIwonIaINobelIprizeIinIphysics.ITheIfirstIphotovoltaicImoduleIwasIbu-
iltIbyIBellILaboratoriesIinI1954.IItIwasIbilledIasIaIsolarIbatteryIandIwasImostlyIjust
aIcuriosityIasIitIwasItooIexpensiveItoIgainIwidespreadIuse.IInItheI1960s,ItheIspace-
industryIbeganItoImakeItheIfirstIseriousIuseIofItheItechnologyItoIprovideIpower
aboardIspacecraft.IThroughItheIspaceIprograms,ItheItechnologyIadvanced,IitsIreliab-

29
ilityIwasIestablished,IandItheIcostIbeganItoIdecline.IDuringtheIenergyIcrisisIinIthe
1970s,IphotovoltaicItechnologyIgainedIrecognitionIasIaIsourceIofIpowerIforInon-
spaceIapplications.TheIsolarIcellIisItheIelementaryIbuildingIblockIofItheIphotovolta-
icItechnology.SolarIcellsIareImadeIofIsemiconductorImaterials,IsuchIasIsilicon.IOne
ofItheIpropertiesIofIsemiconductorsIthatImakesIthemImostIusefulIisIthatItheirIcond-
uctivityImayIeasilyIbemodifiedIbyIintroducingIimpuritiesIintoItheirIcrystalIlattice.I
ForIinstance,IinItheIfabricationIofIaIphotovoltaicIsolarIcell,Isilicon,IwhichIhasIfourI
valenceIelectrons,IisItreatedItoIincreaseIitsIconductivity.IOnIoneIsideIofItheIcell,Ithe
impurities,IwhichIarephosphorusIatomsIwithIfiveIvalenceIelectronsI(ndonor),dona-
teIweaklyIboundIvalenceelectronsItoItheIsiliconImaterial,creatingIexcessInegativeI
chargeIcarriers.
IOnItheIotherIside,atomsIofIboronIwithIthreeIvalenceIelectrons(p-
donor)IcrateIaIgreaterIaffinityIthanIsiliconItoIattractIelectrons.IBecauseItheIp-typeI
siliconIisIinIintimateIcontactIwithItheIantypeIsiliconIaIp-nIjunctionIisIestablishedI
andIaIdiffusionIofIelectronsIoccursIfromItheIregionIofIhighIelectronIconcentrationI
(theIn-typeIside)IintoItheIregionIofIlowIelectronIconcentrationI(p-typeIside).WhenI
theIelectronsIdiffuseIacrossItheIp-nIjunction,theyIrecombineIwithIholesonItheI
p-typeIside.I
However,ItheIdiffusionIofIcarriersIdoesInotIoccurIindefinitely,becauseItheI
imbalanceIofIchargeIimmediatelyIonIeitherIsidesIofItheIjunctionIoriginatesIanIelect-
ricIfield.I
ThisIelectricIfieldIformsIaIdiodeIthatIpromotesIcurrentItoIflowIinIonlyIoneI
direction.I
OhmicImetal-semiconductorIcontactsIareImadeItoIbothItheIn-typeIandIp-
typeIsidesIofItheIsolarIcell,IandItheIelectrodesIareIreadyItoIbeIconnectedItoIanIexte-
rnalIload.IWhenIphotonsIofIlightIfallIonItheIcell,ItheyItransferItheirIenergyItoIthe
chargeIcarriers.ITheelectricIfieldIacrossItheIjunctionIseparatesIphotogeneratedIposi-
tiveIchargeIcarriersI(holes)IfromItheirInegativeIcounterpartI(electrons).IInIthisIwayIa
nIelectricalIcurrentIisIextractedIonceItheIcircuitIisIclosedIonIanIexternalIload.

30
 Fig:I3.1.AIsolaricell
TheIphotovoltaicIeffectIwasIfirstIreportedIbyIEdmundIBecquerelIinI1839I
whenIheIobservedIthatItheIactionIofIlightIonIaIsilverIcoatedIplatinumIelectrode
immersedIinIelectrolyteIproducedIanIelectricIcurrent.IfortyIyearsIlaterItheIfirstIsolid
stateIphotovoltaicIdevicesIwereIconstructedIbyIworkersIinvestigatingItheIrecentlyI
discoveredIphotoconductivityIofIselenium.IInI1876IWilliamIAdamsIandIRichardI
DayIfoundIthatIaIphotocurrentIcouldIbeproducedIinIaIsampleIofIseleniumIwhenI
contactedIbyItwoIheatedIplatinumIcontacts.ItheIphotovoltaicIactionIofItheIselenium
differedIfromIitsIphotoconductiveIactionIinIthatIaIcurrentIwasIproducedIspontaneo-
uslyIbyItheIactionIofIlight.
INoIexternalIpowerIsupplyIwasIneeded.InIthisIearlyIphotovoltaicIdevice,a
rectifyingIjunctionIhadIbeenIformedIbetweenItheIsemiconductorIandItheImetalIcont-
act.IInI1894,CharlesIFrittsIpreparedIwhatIwasIprobablyItheIfirstIlargeIareaIsolarIcell
IbyIpressingIaIlayerofIseleniumIbetweenIgoldIandIanotherImetal.
IInItheIfollowingIyearsIphotovoltaicIeffectsIwereIobservedIinIcopper{copper
oxidethinI_lmIstructures,IinIleadIsuppliedIandIthalliumIsupplied.TheseIearlyIcellsI
wereIthinIfilmSchottkyIbarrierIdevices,IwhereIaIsemitransparentIlayerIofImetalIdep-
ositedIonItopIofItheIsemiconductorIprovidedIbothItheIasymmetricIelectronicIjunct-
ion,IwhichIisInecessaryIforphotovoltaicIaction,IandIaccessItoItheIjunctionIforItheI
incidentIlight.ITheIphotovoltaicIeffectIofIstructuresIlikeIthisIwasIrelatedItoItheIexis-
tenceIofIaIbarrierItoIcurrentIflowIatIoneIofItheIsemiconductorI{metalIinterfacesI(i.e.
,rectifyingIaction)IbyIGoldmanIandIBrodskyIinI1914.ILater,IduringItheI1930s,ItheI
theoryIofImetalI{semiconductorIbarrierIlayersIwasIdevelopedIbyIWalterISchottky,I
NevilleIMottIandIothers.

31
 However,IitIwasInotItheIphotovoltaicIpropertiesIofImaterialsIlikeIseleniumI
whichIexcitedIresearchers,IbutItheIphotoconductivity.ITheIfactIthatItheIcurrentIpro-
ducedIwasIproportionalItoItheIintensityIofItheIincidentIlight,IandIrelatedItoItheIwa-
velengthIinIaIdefiniteIwayImeantIthatIphotoconductiveImaterialsIwereIidealIfor
photographicIlightImeters.IThephotovoltaicIeffectinIbarrierIstructuresIwasIanaddedI
benefit,ImeaningIthatItheIlightImeterIcouldIoperateIwithoutIaIpowerIsupply.ItwasI
notIuntilItheI1950s,withItheIdevelopmentIofIgoodIqualityIsiliconwafersIforIapp-
licationsIinItheInewIsolidIstateIelectronics,thatIpotentiallyIusefulIquantitiesIofIpower
wereIproducedIbyIphotovoltaicIdevicesIinIcrystallineIsilicon.
InItheI1950s,theIdevelopmentIofIsiliconIelectronicsIfollowedItheIdiscoveryI
ofIaIwaytoImanufactureIp{nIjunctionsIinIsilicon.INaturallyInItypeIsiliconIwafersI
developedIaIpItypeskinIwhenIexposedItoItheIgasIboronItrichloride.IPartIofItheIskinI
couldIbeIetchedIawayItoIgiveIaccessItoItheInItypeIlayerIbeneath.TheseIp{nIjunction
structuresIproducedImuchIbetterrectifyingIactionIthanISchottkyIbarriers,IandIbetterI
photovoltaicIbehavior.ITheIfirstIsiliconIsolarIcellIwasIreportedIbyIChapin,IFullerIan
dIPearsonIinI1954IandIconvertedIsunlightIwithIanIefficiencyIofI6%,IsixItime
shigherIthanItheIbestIpreviousIattempt.ThatIfigureIwasItoIriseIsignificantlyIoverIthef
ollowingIyearsIandIdecadesIbut,IatIanIestimatedIproductionIcostIofIsomeI$200IperI
Watt,ItheseIcellsIwereInotIseriouslyIconsideredIforIpowerIgenerationIforseveralI
decades.INevertheless,ItheIearlyIsiliconIsolarIcellIdidIintroduceItheIpossibilityIofI
powerIgenerationIinIremoteIlocationsIwhereIfuelIcouldInotIeasilyIbeIdelivered.TheI
obviousapplicationIwasItoIsatellitesIwhereItheIrequirementIofIreliabilityIandIlowIwe
ightImadeItheIcostIofItheIcellsIunimportantIandIduringItheI1950sIandI60s,Isilicon
solarIcellsIwereIwidelyIdevelopedIforIapplicationsIinIspace.
AlsoIinI1954,IaIcadmiumIsuppliedIp{nIjunctionIwasIproducedIwithIanIeffic-
iencyIofI6%,andIinItheIfollowingIyearsIstudiesIofIp{nIjunctionIphotovoltaicIdevices
inIgalliumIarsenide,IindiumIphosphateIandIcadmiumItellurideIwereIstimulatedIbyI
theoreticalIworkIindicatingIthatItheseImaterialsIwouldIofferIaIhigherIefficiency.How
ever,IsiliconIremainedIandIremainsItheIforemostIphotovoltaicImaterial,Ibenefit-
ingIfromItheIadvancesIofIsiliconItechnologyIforItheImicroelectronicsIindustry.IShort
historiesIofItheIsolarIcellIareIgivenIelsewhereI[Shive,I1959;IWolf,I1972;IGreen,I
1990].
InItheI1970sItheIcrisisIinIenergyIsupplyIexperiencedIbyItheIoildependentIwe
32
sternworldIledItoIaIsuddenIgrowthIofIinterestIinIalternativeIsourcesIofIenergy,Iand
fundingIforIresearchIandIdevelopmentIinIthoseIareas.IPhotovoltaic’sIwasIaIsub-
jectIofIintenseIinterestIduringIthisIperiod,IandIaIrangeIofIstrategiesIforIproducing
IphotovoltaicIdevicesIandImateri-alsImoreIcheaplyIandIforIimprovingIdeviceI
EfficiencyIwereIexplored.IRoutesItoIlowerIcostIincludedIphotoIelectro chem-
icalIjunctions,IandIalternativeImaterialsIsuchIasIpolycrystallineIsilicon,Iamorphous
silicon,Iother`thinI_lm'materialsIandIorganicIconductors.StrategiesIforIhigherIeffici-
encyIincludedItandemandIotherImultipleIbandIgapIdesigns.AlthoughInoneIofItheseI
ledItoIwidespreadIcommercialdevelopment,IourIunderstandingIofItheIscienceIofIph-
otovoltaic’sIisImainlyIrootedIinIthisIperiod.
DuringItheI1990s,IinterestIinIphotovoltaic’sIexpanded,IalongIwithIgrowingIa
warenessIofItheIneedItoIsecureIsourcesIofIelectricityIalternativeItoIfossilIfuels.ITheI
trendIcoincidesIwithItheIwidespreadIderegulationIofItheIelectricityImarketsIandI
growingIrecognitionIofItheIviabilityIofIdecentralizedIpower.IDuringIthisIperiod,ItheI
economicsIofIphotovoltaic’sIimprovedIprimarilyIthroughIeconomiesIofIscale.IInItheI
lateI1990sItheIphotovoltaicIproductionIexpandedIatIaIrateIofI15{25%IperIannum,I
drivingIaIreductionIinIcost.IPhotovoltaicIfirstIbecameIcompetitiveIinIcontextsIwhere
conventionalIelectricityIsupplyIisImostIexpensive,IforIinstance,IforIremoteIlow
powerIapplicationsIsuchIasInavigation,Itelecommunications,IandIruralIelectrification
andIforIenhancementIofIsupplyIinIgridconnectedIloadsIatIpeakIuse[Anderson,2001].I
AsIpricesIfall,InewImarketsIareIopenedIup.IAnIimportantIexampleisIbuildingIinteg-
ratedIphotovoltaicIapplications,IwhereItheIcostIofItheIphotovoltaicIsystemIisIoffsetI
byItheIsavingsIinIbuildingImaterials.
ThereIareIseveralItypesIofIsolarIcells.IHowever,ImoreIthanI90I
%IofItheIsolarIcellsIcurrentlyImadeIworldwideIconsistIofIwafer-basedIsiliconIcells.I
TheyIareIeitherIcutIfromIaIsingleIcrystalIrodIorIfromIaIblockIcomposedIofI
manyIcrystalsIandIareIcorrespondinglyIcalledImonocrystallineIorImulticrystallineIsi-
liconIsolarcells.IWaferbasedIsiliconIsolarIcellsIareIapproximatelyI200IμmIthick.
AnotherIimportantIfamilyIofIsolarIcellsIisIbasedIonIthinfilms,IwhichIareIapproxim-
atelyI1-2IμmIthickIandthereforeIrequireIsignificantlyIlessIactive,Isemiconducting
material.IThinfilmIsolarIcellsIcanIbeImanufacturedIatIlowerIcostIinIlargeIproduction
quantities;IhenceItheirImarketIshareIwillIlikelyIincreaseIinItheIfuture.IHowever,Ithey
indicateIlowerIefficienciesIthanIwaferbasedIsiliconIsolarIcells,IwhichImeanIthatI
33
 moreIexposureIsurfaceIandImaterialIforItheIinstallationIisIrequiredIforIaIsimilarI
performance.
IAInumberIofIsolarIcellsIelectricallyIconnectedItoIeachIotherIandImountedIin
aIsingleIsupportIstructureIorIframeIisIcalledIaI‘photovoltaicImodule’.IModulesIareI
designedItoIsupplyIelectricityIatIaIcertainIvoltage,suchIasIaIcommonI12IvoltIsystem.
TheIcurrentIproducedIisIdirectlyIdependentIonItheIintensityIofIlightIreachingIthem-
odule.ISeveralImodulesIcanIbeIwiredItogetherItoIformIanIarray.PhotovoltaicImodule
sIandIarraysIproduceIdirectcurrentIelectricity.ItheyIcanIbeIconnectedIinIbothseriesIa
ndIparallelIelectricalIarrangementsItoIproduceIanyIrequiredIvoltageIandIcurrentI
combination.
IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII
3.2IELECTRICALICONNECTIONIOFITHEICELLS
TheIelectricalIoutputIofIaIsingleIcellIisIdependentIonItheIdesignIofItheIdevi-
ceIandtheSemiconductorImaterial(s)Ichosen,IbutIisIusuallyIinsufficientIforImostIapp-
lications.IInorderItoIprovideItheIappropriateIquantityIofIelectricalIpower,IaInumberI
ofIcellsImustIbeIelectricallyIconnected.IThereIareItwoIbasicIconnectionImethods:I
seriesIconnection,inIwhichtheItopIcontactIofIeachIcellIisIconnectedItoItheIbackIcon-
tactIofItheInextIcellIinItheIsequence,IandIparallelIconnection,IinIwhichIalltheItopI
contactsIareIconnectedItogether,IasIareIallItheIbottomIcontacts.IInIbothIcases,IthisI
resultsIinIjustItwoIelectricalIconnectionIpointsIfortheIgroupIofIcells.

 SeriesIconnection:

FigureIshowsItheIseriesIconnectionIofIthreeIindividualIcellsIasIanIexampleIandI
theIresultantIgroupIofIconnectedIcellsIisIcommonlyIreferredItoIasIaIseriesIstring.I
TheIcurrentIoutputIofItheIstringIisIequivalentItoItheIcurrentIofIaIsingleIcell,IbutItheI
voltageIoutputIisIincreased,IbeingIanIadditionIofItheIvoltagesIfromIallItheIcellsIinI
theIstringI(i.e.IinIthisIcase,IthevoltageIoutputIisIequalItoI3Vcell).

34
 FigI3.2.A.ISeriesIconnectionIofIcells,IwithIresultingIcurrent–
voltageIcharacteristic.
ItIisIimportantItoIhaveIwellImatchedIcellsIinItheIseriesIstring,Iparticularly
withIrespectItoIcurrent.IfIoneIcellIproducesIaIsignificantlyIlowerIcurrentIthanItheI
otherIcellsI(undertheIsameIilluminationIconditions),thenItheIstringIwillIoperateIatI
thatIlowerIcurrentIlevelIandItheIremainingIcellsIwillInotIbeIoperatingIatItheirImax-
imumIpowerIpoints.I
 ParallelIconnection

FigureIshowsItheIparallelIconnectionIofIthreeIindividualIcellsIasIanIexample.In
this case,ItheIcurrentIfromItheIcellIgroupIisIequivalentItoItheIadditionIofItheIcurr-
entIfromIeachIcellI(inIthisIcase,I3IIIcell),IbutItheIvoltageIremainsIequivalentItoIthatI
ofIaIsingleIcell.
AsIbefore,IitIisIimportantItoIhaveItheIcellsIwellImatchedIinIorderItoIgainI
maximum
output,IbutIthisItimeItheIvoltageIisItheIimportantIparameterIsinceIallIcellsImustIbeI
atItheIsameIoperatingIvoltage.IfItheIvoltageIatItheImaximumIpowerIpointIisIsubsta-
ntiallyIdifferentforIoneIofItheIcells,IthenIthisIwillIforceIallItheIcellsItooperateIoffIth-
eirImaximumIpowerpoint,IwithItheIpoorerIcellIbeingIpushedItowardsIitsIopen
circuitIvoltageIvalueIandIthebetterIcellsItoIvoltagesIbelowItheImaximumIpowerI
pointIvoltage.IInIallIcases,ItheIpowerIlevelIwillIbeIreducedIbelowItheIoptimum.

35
 FigI3.2.B.IParallelIconnectionIofIcells,IwithIresultingIcurrent–
voltageIcharacteristic.

THEIPHOTOVOLTAICIARRAY
AIPVIarrayIconsistsIofIaInumberIofIPVImodules,mountedIinItheIsameIplane
andIelectricallyIconnectedItoIgiveItheIrequiredIelectricalIoutputIforItheIapplication.
TheIPVIarraycanIbeIofIanyIsizeIfromIaIfewIhundredIwattsItoIhundredsIofIkilowatts,
althoughItheIlargerIsystemsIareIoftenIdividedIintoIseveralIelectricallyIindependentI
subIarraysIeachIfeedingIintotheirIownIpowerIconditioningIsystem.

MOUNTINGISTRUCTURE
TheImainIpurposeIofItheImountingIstructureIisItoIholdItheImodulesIinItheI
requiredIpositionIwithoutIundueIstress.ITheIstructureImayIalsoIprovideIaIrouteIforI
theelectricalIwiringIandImayIbeIfreeIstandingIorIpartIofIanotherIstructureI
(e.g.IaIbuilding).IAtIitsIsimplest,ItheImountingIstructureIisIaImetalIframe
work,IsecurelyIfixedIintoItheIground.IitImustIbeIcapableIofIwithstandingIappropriate
environmentalIstresses,IsuchIasIwindIloading,IforItheIlocation.IAsIwellIasItheImec-
hanicalIissues,IthemountingIhasIanIinfluenceIonItheIoperatingItemperatureIofItheI
system,IdependingonIhowIeasilyIheatIcanIbeIdissipatedIbyItheImodule.

TILTIANGLEIANDIORIENTATION
TheIorientationIofItheImoduleIwithIrespectItoItheIdirectionIofItheISunIdete-
36
rminesItheIintensityIofItheIsunlightIfallingIonItheImoduleIsurface.TwoImainIparam-
etersIareIdefinedItoIdescribeIthis.ITheIfirstIisItheItiltIangle,IwhichIisItheIangleIbet-
weenItheIplaneIofItheImoduleIandItheIhorizontal.ITheIsecondIparameterIisItheIazi-
muthIangle,IwhichIisItheIangleIbetweenItheIplaneIofItheImoduleIandIdueIsouthI(orI
sometimesIdueInorthIdependingIonItheIdefinitionIused).ICorrectionIofItheIdirect
normalIirradianceItoIthatIonIanyIsurfaceIcanIbeIdeterminedIusingItheIcosineIofItheI
angleIbetweenItheInormalItoItheISunIandItheImoduleplane.
TheIoptimumIarrayIorientationIwillIdependIonItheIlatitudeIofItheIsite,Iprev-
ailingIweatherIconditionsIandItheIloadsItoIbeImet.IItIisIgenerallyIacceptedIthat,Ifor
lowIlatitudes,IthemaximumIannualIoutputIisIobtainedIwhenItheIarrayItiltIangleIisI
roughlyIequalItoItheIlatitudeIangleIandItheIarrayIfacesIdueIsouthI(inItheInorthernIhe
misphere)IorIdueInorthI(forIthesouthernIhemisphere).IForIhigherIlatitudes,IsuchI
asthoseIinInorthernIEurope,ItheImaximumoutputIisIusuallyIobtainedIforItiltIanglesI
ofIapproximatelyItheIlatitudeIangleIminusI10–15Idegrees.I
TheIoptimumItiltIangleIisIalsoIaffectedIbyItheIproportionIofIdiffuseIradiation
inItheIsunlight,sinceIdiffuseIlightIisIonlyIweaklyIdirectional.ITherefore,forIlocations
withIaIhighIproportionIofIdiffuseIsunlight,ItheIeffectIofItiltIangleIisIreduced.
However,IalthoughIthisIconditionIwillIgiveItheImaximumIoutputIoverItheyea
r,thereIcanIbeIconsiderableIvariationIinIoutputIwithIseason.IThisIisIparticularlyItrueI
inIhighlatitudeIlocationsIwhereItheIdayIlengthIvariesIsignificantlyIbetweenIsummerI
andIwinter.Therefore,ifIaIconstantIorIreasonablyIconstantIloadIisItoIbeImetIor,parti-
cularly,ifItheIwinterloadIisIhigherIthanItheIsummerIload,IthenItheIbesttiltIangleImay
IbeIhigherIinIorderItoIboostIwinterIoutput.PrevailingIweatherIconditi-
onsIcanIinfluenceItheIoptimizationIofItheIarrayIorientationIifItheyIaffectItheIsunlight
levelsIavailableIatIcertainItimesIofItheIday.IAlternatively,ItheIloadItoIbeImetImayIal
soIvaryIduringItheIdayIandItheIarrayIcanIbeIdesignedItoImatchItheIoutputIwiththisI
variableIdemandIbyIvaryingItheIazimuthIangle.NotwithstandingItheIabilityItotailorI
theIoutputIprofileIbyIalteringItheItiltIandIazimuthIangles,ItheoverallIarrayIperforma-
nceIdoesInotIvaryIsubstantiallyIforIsmallIdifferencesIinIarrayIorientation.FigureIIsho
wsItheIpercentageIvariationIinIannualIinsulationIlevelsIforItheIlocationIofILondonIa
sItiltIangleIisIvariedIbetweenI0IandI90IdegreesIandIazimuthIangleIisIvariedIbet-
weenI–45oI(southIeast)IandI+45oI(southIwest).I
TheImaximumIinsulationIlevelIisIobtainedIforIaIsouthfacingIsurfaceIatIaItiltI
37
angleofIaboutI35Idegrees,IasIwouldIbeIexpectedIforIaIlatitudeIofIaboutI51oN.How
ever,ItheIisolationIlevelIvariesIbyIlessIthanI10%IwithIchangingIazimuthIangleatIthis
tiltIangle.IAsimilarlyIlowIvariationIisIobservedIforIsouthIfacingIsurfacesIforIa
variationIofI+/-30IdegreesIfromItheIoptimumItiltIangle.

Fig3.2.C.IPercentageIvariationIofIannualIsunlightIlevelsIasIaIfunctionIofItiltIa
ngleIandIazimuthIangle.
TheIcalculationsIwereIcarriedIoutIforItheIlocationIofILondonIusingIMetron-
omeIVersion3.0.TheIfinalIaspectItoIconsiderIwhenIdecidingIonIarrayIorientationIis
theIincorporationinItheIsupportIstructure.IForIbuildingintegratedIapplications,ItheI
systemIorientationIisIalsoIdictatedIbyItheInatureIofItheIroofIorIfaçadeIinIwhichIitIisI
toIbeIincorporated.IitImayIbeInecessaryItoItradeIoffItheIadditionalIoutputIfromItheI
optimumIorientationIagainstIanyIadditionalIcostsIthatImightIbeIincurredItoIaccompl-
ishIthis.ITheIaestheticIissuesImustIalsoIbeIconsidered.

SUN-TRACKING/CONCENTRATORISYSTEMS
TheIpreviousIsectionIhasIassumedIaIfixedIarrayIwithInoIchangeIofIorientat-
ionIduringIoperation.ThisIisItheIusualIconfigurationIforIaIflatplateIarray.However,so
mearraysareIdesignedItoItrackItheIpathIofItheISun.IThisIcanIaccountIfullyIforIthe
sun’smovementsbyItrackingIinItwoIaxesIorIcanIaccountIpartiallyIbyItrackingIonly
inIoneIaxis,IfromIeastItoIwest.I
ForIaIflat-plateIarray,Isingle-axisItracking,whereItheIarrayIfollowsItheIeast-
westImovementIofItheISun,hasIbeenIshownItoIincreaseItheIoutputIbyIupItoI30%of
38
IaIlocationIwithpredominantlyIclearIskyIconditions.ITwoaxisItracking,IwhereIthe
arrayIfollowsIbothItheIdailyeastwestIandInortsouthImovementIofItheIsun,IcouldI
provideIaIfurtherIincreaseIofIaboutI20%I(Lepley,I1990).IForIlocationsIwhereIthereI
areIfrequentIovercastIconditions,IsuchasInorthernIEurope,ItheIbenefitsIofItrackingI
areIconsiderablyIless.I
ItIisIusuallyImoreIeconomicalItoIinstallIaIlargerIpanelIforIlocationsIwithIless
thanIaboutI3000IhoursIofIdirectIsunshineIperIannum.IForIeachIcase,ItheIadditionalI
outputIfromItheIsystemImustIbeIcomparedItoItheIadditionalIcostIofIincludingIthe
trackingIsystem,whichincludesIbothItheIcontrolIsystemIandItheImechanismIforImov-
ingItheIarray.ForIconcentratorsystems,theIsystemImustItrackItheISunItoImaintainIthe
concentratedIlightIfallingIonItheIcellTheIaccuracyIofItracking,IandIhenceItheIcostIof
theItrackingIsystem,IincreasesIasItheIconcentrationIratioIincreases.

SHADING
ShadingIofIanyIpartIofItheIarrayIwillIreduceIitsIoutput,butIthisIreductionIwill
varyIinImagnitudeIdependingIonItheIelectricalIconfigurationIofItheIarray.IClearly,
theIoutputIofIanyIcellIorImoduleIwhichIisIshadedIwillIbeIreducedIaccordingItoIthere
ductionIofIlightIintensityIfallingIonIit.IHowever,ifIthisIshadedIcellIorImoduleIisI
electricallyIconnectedItoIothercellsIandImodulesIwhichIareIunshaded,ItheirIperform-
anceImayIalsoIbeIreducedIsinceIthisisIessentiallyIaImismatchIsituation.
ForIexample,IifIaIsingleImoduleIofIaIseriesIstringIisIpartiallyIshaded,IitsIcu-
rrentIoutputIwillIbeIreducedIandIthisIwillIthenIdictateItheIoperatingIpointIofIthe
wholeIstring.IIfIseveralImodulesIareIshaded,ItheIstringIvoltageImayIbeIreducedIto
theIpointIwhereItheIopencircuitIvoltageIofIthatIstringIisIbelowItheIoperatingIpointI
ofItheIrestIofItheIarray,IandIthenthatIstringIwillInotIcontributeItoItheIarrayIoutput.IfI
thisIisIlikelyItoIoccur,IitIisIoftenIusefultoIincludeIaIblockingIdiodeIforIstringIpro-
tection,IasIdiscussedIearlier.
Thus,ItheIreductionIinIoutputIfromIshadingIofIanIarrayIcanIbeIsignificantlyI
greaterIthanItheIreductionIinIilluminatedIarea,IsinceIitIresultsIfrom
•ITheIlossIofIoutputIfromIshadedIcellsIandImodules;
•ItheIlossIofIoutputIfromIilluminatedImodulesIinIanyIseverelyIshadedIstringsIthatI
can notImaintainIoperatingIvoltage;Iand
•ItheIlossIofIoutputIfromItheIremainderIofItheIarrayIbecauseItheIstringsIareInotIope-
39
ratingIatItheirIindividualImaximumIpowerIpoints.
ForIsomeIsystems,IsuchIasIthoseIinIaIcityIenvironment,IitImayIbeIimpossibl
etoIavoidIallIshadingIwithoutIseverelyIrestrictingItheIsizeIofItheIarrayIandIhenceIlos
-ingIoutputIatIotherItimes.I
InItheseIcases,IgoodIsystemIdesign,IincludingItheIoptimumIinterconnection
ofImodules,ItheIuseIofIstringIorImoduleIinvertersIand,IwhereIappropriate,ItheIuseIof
IprotectionIdevicesIsuchIasIblockingIdiodes,IcanIminimizeItheIreductionIinIsystemI
outputIforItheImostprevalentIshadingIconditions.

THEIPHOTOVOLTAICISYSTEM
AIPVIsystemIconsistsIofIaInumberIofIinterconnectedIcomponentsIdesignedI
toIaccomplishIaIdesiredItask,IwhichImayIbeItoIfeedIelectricityIintoItheImainIdistri-
butionIgrid,ItoIpumpIwaterIfromIaIwell,ItoIpowerIaIsmallIcalculatorIorIoneIofImany
moreIpossibleIusesIofsolargeneratedIelectricity.TheIdesignIofItheIsystemIdependsIon
theItaskIitImustIperformIandIthelocationIandIotherIsiteIconditionsIunderIwhichIitI
mustIoperate.IThisIsectionIwillIconsiderItheIcomponentsIofIaIPVIsystem,Ivariati-
onsIinIdesignIaccordingItoItheIpurposeIofItheIsystem,IsystemIsizingIandIaspectsIofI
systemIoperationIandImaintenance.
SYSTEMIDESIGN
ThereIareItwoImainIsystemIconfigurationsIstandaloneIandIgridconnected.AsI
itsInameIimplies,theIstandaloneIPVIsystemIoperatesIindependentlyIofIanyIotherI
powerIsupplyandIitIusuallyIsuppliesIelectricityItoIaIdedicatedIloadIorIloads.IItImay
includeIaIstorageIfacility(e.g.IbatteryIbank)toIallowIelectricityItoIbeIprovidedIduring
theInightIorIatItimesIofIpoorIsunlightIlevels.IStandaloneIsystemsIareIalsoIoftenIref-
erredItoIasIautonomousIsystemsIsinceItheirIoperationIisIindependentIofIotherIpower
sources.IByIcontrast,ItheIgridconnectedIPVIsystemIoperatesIinIparallelIwithItheIco-
nventionalIelectricityIdistributionsystem.IItIcanIbeIusedItoIfeedIelectricityIintoItheI
gridIdistributionIsystemIorItoIpowerIloadsIwhichIcanIalsoIbeIfedIfromItheIgrid.
ItIisIalsoIpossibleItoIaddIoneIorImoreIalternativeIpowerIsuppliesI(e.g.IdieselI
generator,IwindIturbine)ItoItheIsystemItoImeetIsomeIofItheIloadIrequirements.These
systemsIareIthenIknownIasI‘hybrid’Isystems.
IhybridIsystemsIcanIbeIusedIinIbothIstandaloneIandIgridconnectedIapplicat-
ionsIbutIareImoreIcommonIinItheIformerIbecause,providedItheIpowerIsuppliesIhave
40
beenIchosenItoIbeIcomplementary,ItheyIallowIreductionIofItheIstorageIrequirementI
withoutIincreasedIlossIofIloadIprobability.IFiguresIbelowIillustrateItheIschematic
diagramsIofItheIthreeImainIsystemItypes.

FigI3.2.D.ISchematicIdiagramIofIaIstand-aloneIphotovoltaicIsystem.

CHAPTERI4

4.1 EXPERIMENTATION
ForIexperiment,IweIusedIaIPVISimulatorItoIgenerateIdirectIcurrentIofIsolarI
energy.IThen,IanIongridIinverterItransformedIdirectIcurrentItoIalternatingIcurrentI
forIsendingItogridIconnectedIand/orIelectricalIloads.IThereIareI5ItypesIofIloads,I
whichIareIhereinIincandescent,ballast,incandescentIandIballast,LightIEmitting
DiodeI(LED),IandImotor.IInIthisIsystem,weIconnectedIsolarIenergyIfromIPVIsim-
41
 ulatorItoIongridIinverter,IgridIsystem,andIloadsIatItheIconnectingIpoint.ItheItest-
ingIresultsIwereIrecordedIusingIoscilloscopeItoIkeepIcurrentIandIvoltageIwavefo-
rmsIofItheIsystemIatItheIconnectingIpoint,IandIusingIPowerIQualityIAnalyzerItoI
keepIelectricalIparametersIandIharmonics.

SolarIenergyIwasIsentItoIeachIloadIaccordingItoItheIloadIpower.

- IncandescentIofI500IW
- BallastIofI850IW
- IncandescentIandIBallastIofI1000IW
- LEDIlampIofI300IW

MotorIofI200IW

PIIcontroller
TheIgeneralIblockIdiagramIofItheIPIIspeedIcontrollerIisIshownIinIFigureI4.1.AI

TheIoutput
OfItheIspeedIcontrollerI(torqueIcommand)IatIn-thIinstantIisIexpressedIasIfollows:
TeI(n)=Te(n−1)+Kp_ωre(n)+Kiωre(n)I(10)
WhereITeI(n)IisItheItorqueIoutputIofItheIcontrollerIatItheIn-
thIinstant,IandIKpIandIKiItheproportionalIandIintegralIgainIconstants,respectively.AI
limitIofItheItorque

Fig 4.1.A.Block diagram of PI Controller

commandIisIimposedIas

42
TheIgainsIofIPIIcontrollerIshownIinI(10)IcanIbeIselectedIbyImanyImethodsIsuchIasI
trialandIerrorImethod,IZiegler–NicholsImethodIandIevolutionaryItechniques-
basedIsearching.ThenumericalIvaluesIofItheseIcontrollerIgainsIdependIonItheratingsI
ofItheImotor.

ADVANTAGESIANDIDISADVANTAGES

1.TheIintegralItermIinIaIPIIcontrollerIcausesItheIsteadystateIerrorItoIreduceItoIzero,
whichIisInotItheIcaseIforIproportional-onlyIcontrolIinIgeneral.I

2.TheIlackIofIderivativeIactionImayImakeItheIsystemImoreIsteadyIinItheIsteadyIstat
eIinItheIcaseIofInoisyIdata.IThisIisIbecauseIderivativeIactionIisImoreIsensitiveIto
higher frequency termsIinItheIinputs.I

METHODSIFORITUNINGIPI-CONTROLLERS
IPIcontrollersIhaveIbeenIappliedItoIcontrolIalmostIanyIprocessIoneIcouldIthinkIof,
fromaerospaceItoImotionIcontrol,IfromIslowItoIfastIsystems.IWithIchangesIinIsyst-
emIdynamicsIandIvariationIinIoperatingIpointsIPIcontrollersIshouldIbeIretunedIonIa
IregularIbasis.IAdaptiveIPIcontrollersIavoidItimeconsumingImanualItuningIbyIprovi
dingIoptimalIPIcontrollersIsettingsIautomaticallyIasItheIsystemIdynamicsIorIoperatin
gpointsIchange.ThereIareIvariousIconventionalImethodsIusedIforItuningIofIPI-
controllerIsuchIasI:

43
1.ITrialIandIerrorI
2.IContinuousIcyclingImethodI(ZieglerINicholsImethod)
3.IProcessIReactionICurveIMethodsI(Ziegler-NicholsIandICohen-CoonImethods)I
4.IZiegler-NicholsImethodI(bothItypesIofIresponses)I
5.ICohen-CoonImethodI(selfIregulatingIresponseIonly

TRIALIANDIERRORI
PI-ControllerIequationIis:I

ItIisIquiteItimeIconsumingIifIaIlargeInumberIofItrialIareIrequiredIorIifItheIprocessI
dynamicsIareIslow.ITestingIcanIbeIexpensiveIbecauseIofIlostIproductivityIorIpoor
productIqualityIContinuousIcyclingImayIbeIobjectionableIbecauseItheIprocessIisI
pushedItoItheIstabilityIlimit.IConsequently,IifIexternalIdisturbancesIorIaIchangeIin
theIprocessIoccursIduringIcontrollerItuningIanIunstableIoperationIorIaIhazardousIsi-
tuationIcouldIresult.ITheItuningIprocessIisInotIapplicableItoIprocessesIthatIareIopenI
loopIbecauseIsuchIprocessesItypicallyIareIunstableIatIhighIandIlowIvaluesIofIKcIbut

areIstableIatIintermediateIrangeIvalues.IThisIinformationIisIanIanalogyIofIknowledgeIof
IhowItheIotherIagentsIaroundIthemIhaveIperformed.INamely,IeachIagentItriesItoImodifyI

PULSEIWIDTHIMODULATION
WhatIisIPWM?
PulseIWidthIModulationI(PWM)IisItheImostIeffectiveImeansItoIachieveIco
nstantIvoltageIbatteryIchargingIbyIswitchingItheIsolarIsystemIcontroller’sIpowerIde
vices.IWhenIinPWMIregulation,theIcurrentIfromItheIsolarIarrayItapersIaccordingItoI
theIbattery’sIconditionandIrechargingIneedsIConsiderIaIwaveformIsuchIasIthis:IitisI
aIvoltageIswitchingIbetweenI0vIandI12v.IItIisIfairlyIobviousIthat,IsinceItheIvolta-
geIisIatI12vIforIexactlyIasIlongIasIitIisIatI0v,IthenIaI'suitableIdevice'IconnectedItoIit

44
outputIwillIseeItheIaverageIvoltageIandIthinkitIisIbeingIfedI6vIexactlyIhalfIofI12v.I
SoIbyIvaryingItheIwidthIofItheIpositiveIpulseI-weIcanIvaryItheI'average'Ivoltage.

Similarly,IifItheIswitchesIkeepItheIvoltageIatI12IforI3ItimesIasIlongIasIatI0v,
ItheIaverageIwillIbeI3/4IofI12vI-IorI9v,IasIshownIbelow.

andIifItheIoutputIpulseIofI12vIlastsIonlyI25%IofItheIoverallItime,IthenItheIaverageI
is

ByIvaryingIIorI'modulating'ItheItimeIthatItheIoutputIisIatI12v(i.e.ItheIwidth
ofIthepositiveIpulse)IweIcanIalterItheIaverageIvoltage.ISoIweIareIdoingI'pulseIwidth
modulation'.IIsaidIearlierIthatItheIoutputIhadItoIfeedI'aIsuitableIdevice'.IAradioI
wouldInotIworkIfromIthis:ItheIradioIwouldIseeI12vIthenI0v,IandIwouldIprob-
ablyInotIworkIproperly.IHoweverIaIdeviceIsuchIasIaImotorIwillIrespondItoItheIave-
rage,IsoIPWMIisIaInaturalIforImotorIcontrol.

45
PULSEIWIDTHIMODULATOR
So,IhowIdoIweIgenerateIaIPWMIwaveform?
IIt'sIactuallyIveryIeasy,thereIareIcircuitsavailableIinItheITECIsite.FirstIyouIgenerateI
aItriangleIwaveformIasIshownIintheIdiagrambelow.YouIcompareIthisIwithIaId.cIvolt
age,IwhichIyouIadjustItoIcontrolItheIratioIofIonItoIoffItimeIthatIyouIrequire.IWhenI
theItriangleIisIaboveIthe'demand'Ivoltage,ItheIoutputIgoeshigh.IWhenItheItriangleIisI
belowItheIdemandIvolt-age,Ithe

WhenItheIdemandIspeedIitIinItheImiddleI(A)IyouIgetIaI50:50Ioutput,IasIin
black.HalfItheItimeItheIoutputIisIhighIandIhalfItheItimeIitIisIlow.IFortunately,Ithere
isIanIICI(IntegratedIcircuit)IcalledIaIcomparator:ItheseIcomeIusuallyI4IsectionsIinIa
singleIpackage.OneIcanIbeIusedIasItheIoscillatorItoIproduceItheItriangularIwave-
formIandIanotherItoIdoIthecomparing,IsoIaIcompleteIoscillatorIandImodulatorIcanI
beIdoneIwithIhalfIanIICIandImaybe 7IotherIbits.I

TheItriangleIwaveform,whichIhasIapproximatelyIequalIriseIandIfallIslopes,Iis
oneIofItheIcommonestIused,IbutIyouIcanIuseIaIsawItoothI(whereItheIvoltageIfallsI
quicklyIandIrinsesIslowly).IYouIcouldIuseIotherIwaveformsIandItheIexactIlinearityI
(howIgoodItheIriseIandIfallIare)IisInotItooIimportant.

TraditionalIsolenoidIdriverIelectronicsIrelyIonIlinearIcontrol,whichIisItheIap-
plicationIofIaIconstantIvoltageIacrossIaIresistanceItoIproduceIanIoutputIcurrentIthatI
isIdirectlyIproportionalItoItheIvoltage.IFeedbackIcanIbeIusedItoIachieveIanIoutputI

46
thatImatchesIexactlyIthecontrolIsignal.IHowever,IthisIschemeIdissipatesIaIlotofI
powerIasIheat,IandIitIisIthereforeveryIinefficient.I

AImoreIefficientItechniqueIemploysIpulseIwidthImodulation(PWM)toIpro-
duceItheconstantIcurrentIthroughItheIcoil.IAIPWMIsignalIisInotIconstant.IRather,
ItheIsignalIisIonforIpartIofIitsIperiod,IandIoffIforItheIrest.ITheIdutyIcycle,ID,refersI
toItheIpercentageIofItheperiodIforIwhichItheIsignalIisIon.ITheIdutyIcycleIcanIbeI
anywherefromI0,off,ItoI1,IwhereItheIsignalIisIconstantlyIon.IAI50%IDIresultsIinIa

IperfectIsquareIwave.I
AIsolenoidIisIaIlengthIofIwireIwoundIinIaIcoil.IBecauseIofIthisIconfigurat-
ion,IthesolenoidIhas,IinIadditionItoIitsIresistance,IR,IaIcertainIinductance,IL.IWhen
aIvoltage,IV,isIappliedIacrossIanIinductiveIelement,ItheIcurrent,II,IproducedIinIthatI
elementIdoesInotIjumpIupItoIitsIconstantIvalue,IbutIgraduallyIrisesItoIitsImaximumI
overIaIperiodIofItimeIcalledItheIriseItimeI.IConversely,IIIdoesInotIdisap-
pearIinstantaneously,IevenIifIVisIremovedIabruptly,IbutIdecreasesIbackItoIzeroIinIth
eIsameIamountIofItimeIastheIriseItime.

47
 Therefore,IwhenIaIlowIfrequencyIPWMIvoltageIisIappliedIacrossIaIsolenoid,
theIcurrentIthroughIitIwillIbeIincreasingIandIdecreasingIasIVIturnsIonIandIoff.IIfI
DisIshorterIthanItheIriseItime,IIIwillIneverIachieveIitsImaximumIvalue,IandIwillIbeI
discontinuousIsinceIitIwillIgoIbackItoIzeroIduringIV’sIoffIperiod.IInIcontrast,ifIDIis
IlargerIthanItheriseItime,IIIwillIneverIfallIbackItoIzero,IsoIitIwillIbeIcontinuous,andI
haveIaIDCIaveragevalue.TheIcurrentIwillInotIbeIconstant,Ihowever,IbutIwillIhaveIaI
ripple.

I
AtIhighIfrequencies,IVIturnsIonIandIoffIveryIquickly,IregardlessIofID,IsuchI
thatItheIcurrentIdoesInotIhaveItimeItoIdecreaseIveryIfarIbeforeItheIvoltageIisIturned
backIon.ItheIresultingIcurrentIthroughItheIsolenoidIisIthereforeIconsideredItoIbeIco-
nstant.IByIadjustingItheID,ItheIamountIofIoutputIcurrentIcanIbeIcontrolled.IWithIaIs
mallID,ItheIcurrentIwillInotIhaveImuchItimeItoIriseIbeforeItheIhighIfrequencyIPW
MIvoltageItakesIeffectIandItheIcurrentIstaysIconstant.IWithIaIlargeID,ItheIcurre-
ntIwillIbeIableItoIriseIhigherIbeforeIitIbecomesIconstant.

48
DITHER
StaticIfriction,Istiction,IandIhysteresisIcanIcauseItheIcontrolIofIaIhydraulicI
valveItoIbeIerraticIandIunpredictable.IStictionIcanIpreventItheIvalveIspoolIfromI
movingIwithIsmallIinputIchanges,IandIhysteresisIcanIcauseItheIshiftItoIbeIdifferentI
forItheIsameIinputIsignal.IInIorderItoIcounteractItheIeffectsIofIstictionIandIhysteres-
is,IsmallIvibrationsIaboutItheIdesiredIpositionIareIcreatedIinItheIspool.IThisIconsta-
ntlyIbreaksItheIstaticIfrictionIensuringIthatitIwillImoveIevenIwithIsmallIinputIchan-
ges,IandItheIeffectsIofIhysteresisIareIaverageIout.

IditherIisIaIsmallIrippleIinItheIsolenoidIcurrentIthatIcausesItheIdesiredIvib-
rationIandIthereIbyIincreasesItheIlinearityIofItheIvalve.ITheIamplitudeIandIfrequen-
cyIofItheIdithermustIbeIcarefullyIchosen.ITheIamplitudeImustIbeIlargeIenoughIand
theIfrequencyIslowIenoughIthatItheIspoolIwillIrespond,IyetItheyImustIalsoIbeIsmallI
andIfastIenoughInotItoIresultIinIaIpulsatingIoutput.I

TheIoptimumIditherImustIbeIchosenIsuchIthatItheIproblemsIofIstictionIand
hysteresisIareIovercomeIwithoutInewIproblemsIbeingIcreated.IDitherIinItheIoutputIc
urrentIisIaIbyproductIofIlowIfrequencyIPWM,IasIseenIabove.IHowever,ItheIfrequ-
encyIandIamplitudeIofItheIditherIwillIbeIaIfunctionIofItheIdutyIcycle,IwhichIisIalsoI
usedItoIsetItheIoutputIcurrentIlevel.IThisImeansIthatIlowIfrequencyIditherIisInotIin-
dependentIofIcurrentImagnitude.ITheadvantageIofIusingIhighIfrequencyIPWMIisItha
tIditherIcanIbeIgeneratedIseparately,IandIthenIsuperimposedIonItopIofItheIoutputI
current.I
49
 ThisIallowsItheIuserItoIindependentlyIsetItheIcurrentImagnitude(byIadjusting
ItheID)asIwellIasItheIditherIfrequencyIandIamplitude.ITheIoptimumIdither,IasIsetIby
ItheIuser,IwillIthereforeIbeIconstantIatIallIcurrentIlevels.I

WHYITHEIPWMIFREQUENCYIISIIMPORTANTI

TheIPWMIisIaIlargeIamplitudeIdigitalIsignalIthatIswingsIfromIoneIvoltageex
tremeItoItheIother.IAnd,IthisIwideIvoltageIswingItakesIaIlotIofIfilteringItoIsmooth-
out.IWhenItheIPWMIfrequencyIisIcloseItoItheIfrequencyIofItheIwaveformIthatIyouI
areIgenerating,thenIanyIPWMIfilterIwillIalsoIsmoothIoutIyourIgeneratedIwaveformI
andIdrasticallyIreduceIitsIamplitude.ISo,IaIgoodIruleIofIthumbIisItoIkeepItheIPWMI
frequencyImuchIhigherIthanItheIfrequencyIofIanyIwaveformIyouIgenerate.

IFinally,IfilteringIpulsesIisInotIjustIaboutItheIpulseIfrequencyIbutIaboutItheI
dutyIcycleIandIhowImuchIenergyIisIinItheIpulse.ITheIsameIfilterIwillIdoIbetterIonIa
lowIorIhighIdutyIcycleIpulseIcomparedItoIaI50%IdutyIcycleIpulse.IBecauseItheIwi-
derIpulseIhasImoreItimeItoIintegrateItoIaIstableIfilterIvoltageIandItheIsmallerIpulseI
hasIlessItimeItoIdisturbIitItheIinspirationIwasIaIrequestItoIcontrolItheIspeedIofIaIla-
rgeIpositiveIdisplacementIfuelIpump.ITheIpumpIwasIsizedItoIallowIfullIpowerIofIaI
boostedIengineIinIexcessIofI600IHp.I
AtIidleIorIhighwayIcruise,IthisIsameIengineIneedsIfarIlessIfuelIyetItheIpump
stillInormallyIsuppliesItheIsameIamountIofIfuel.IAsIaIresultItheIfuelIgetsIrecycled
backItoItheIfuelItank,IunnecessarilyIheatingItheIfuel.IThisIPWMIcontrollerIcircuitIis
intendedItoIrunItheIpumpIatIaIlowIspeedIsettingIduringIlowIpowerIandIallowIfull
pumpIspeedIwhenIneed-edIatIhighIengineIpowerIlevels.I

4.3 MOTORISPEEDICONTROLI(POWERICONTROL)
TypicallyIwhenImostIofIusIthinkIaboutIcontrollingItheIspeedIofIaIDCImotorI
weIthinkIofIvaryingItheIvoltageItoItheImotor.IThisIisInormallyIdoneIwithIaIvariable
resistorIandIprovidesIaIlimitedIusefulIrangeIofIoperation.ITheIoperationalIrangeIisI
limitedIforImostIapplicationsIprimarilyIbecauseItorqueIdropsIoffIfasterIthanItheI
voltageIdrops.I
MostIDCImotorsIcannotIeffectivelyIoperateIwithIaIveryIlowIvoltage.IThis
50
methodIalsoIcausesIoverheatingIofItheIcoilsIandIeventualIfailureIofItheImotorIifI
operatedItooIslowly.IOfIcourse,IDCImotorsIhaveIhadIspeedIcontrollersIbasedIonva-
ryingIvoltageIforIyears,IbutItheIrangeIofIlowIspeedIoperationIhadItoIstayIaboveItheI
failureIzoneIdescribedIabove.I

Additionally,ItheIcontrollingIresistorsIareIlargeIandIdissipateIaIlargeIpercent-
ageIofIenergyIinItheIformIofIheat.IWithItheIadventIofIsolidIstateIelectronicsIinItheI
1950’sIandI1960’sIandIthisItechnologyIbecomingIveryIaffordableIinItheI1970’sI&I
80’sItheIuseIofIpulseIwidthImodulationI(PWM)IbecameImuchImoreIpractical.ITheI
basicIconceptIisItoIkeepItheIvoltageIatItheIfullIvalueIandIsimplyIvaryItheIamountIof
timeItheIvoltageIisIappliedItoItheImotorIwindings.IMostIPWMIcircuitsIuseIlargeItr-
ansistorsItoIsimplyIallowIpowerIOnI&IOff,IlikeIaIveryIfastIswitch.I

ThisIsendsIaIsteadyIfrequencyIofIpulsesIintoItheImotorIwindings.IWhenIfullI
powerIisIneededIoneIpulseIendsIjustIasItheInextIpulseIbegins,I100%Imodulation.IAt
lowerIpowerIsettingsItheIpulsesIareIofIshorterIduration.IWhenItheIpulseIisIOnIasI
longIasIitIisIOff,ItheImotorIisIoperatingIatI50%Imodulation.ISeveralIadvantagesIofI
PWMIareIefficiency,IwiderIoperationalIrangeIandIlongerIlivedImotors.IAllIofItheseI
advantagesIresultIfromIkeepingItheIvoltageIatIfullIscaleIresultingIinIcurrentIbeingI
limitedItoIaIsafeIlimitIforItheIwindings.I

PWMIallowsIaIveryIlinearIresponseIinImotorItorqueIevenIdownItoIlowI
PWM%IwithoutIcausingIdamageItoItheImotor.IMostImotorImanufacturersIrecomm-
endIPWMIcontrolIratherIthanItheIolderIvoltageIcontrolImethod.IPWMIcontrollersI
canIbeoperatedIatIaIwideIrangeIofIfrequencies.IInItheoryIveryIhighIfrequenciesI(gre
aterIthanI20IkHz)IwillIbeIlessIefficientIthanIlowerIfrequenciesI(asIlowIasI100IHz)
becauseIofIswitchingIlosses.I

TheIlargeItransistorsIusedIforIthisIOn/OffIactivityIhaveIresistanceIwhenIflow
ingIcurrent,IaIlossIthatIexistsIatIanyIfrequency.ITheseItransistorsIalsoIhaveIaIlossI
everyItimeItheyI“turnIon”IandIeveryItimeItheyI“turnIoff”.ISoIatIveryIhighIfrequenc-
ies,ItheI“turnIon/off”IlossesIbecomeImuchImoreIsignificant.IForIourIpurposesItheI
circuitIasIdesignedIisIrunningIatI526IHz.ISomewhatIofIanIarbitraryIfrequency,IitI
51
worksIfine.I
DependingIonItheImotorIused,IthereIcanIbeIaIhumIfromItheImotorIatIlowerI
PWM
%.IIfIobjectionableItheIfrequencyIcanIbeIchangedItoIaImuchIhigherIfrequencyabove
IourIno-rmalIhearingIlevelI(>20,000Hz)I.I

4.4 PWMICONTROLLERIFEATURES
ThisIcontrollerIoffersIaIbasicI“HiISpeed”IandI“LowISpeed”IsettingIandIhasI
theIoptionItoIuseIaI“Progressive”IincreaseIbetweenILowIandIHiIspeed.ILowISpeedI
isIsetIwithIaItrimIpotIinsideItheIcontrollerIbox.INormallyIwhenIinstallingItheIcontr-
oller,IthisIspeedIwillIbeIsetIdependingIonItheIminimumIspeed/loadIneededIforItheI
motor.NormallyItheIcontrollerIkeepsItheImotorIatIthisILoISpeedIexceptIwhenIProg-
ressiveIisIusedIandIwhenIHiISpeedIisIcommandedI(seeIbelow).LowISpeedIcanIvary
IanywhereIfromI0%IPWMItoI100%.I

ProgressiveIcontrolIisIcommandedIbyIaI0-5IvoltIinputIsignal.IThisIstartsIto
increasePWM%IfromItheIlowIspeedIsettingIasItheI05IvoltIsignalIclimbs.IThis
signalIcanIbeIgeneratedIfromIaIthrottleIpositionIsensor,IaIMassIAirIFlowIsensor,IaI
ManifoldIAbsoluteIPressuresensorIorIanyIotherIwayItheIuserIwantsItoIcreateIaI0-
5IvoltIsignal.IThisIfunctionIcouldIbesetItoIincreaseIfuelIpumpIpowerIasIturboIboostI
startsItoIclimbI(MAPIsensor).IOr,IifIcontrollingIaIwaterIinjectionIpump,ILowISpeed
couldIbeIsetIatIzeroIPWM%IandIasItheITPSIsignalIclimbsIitIcouldIincreaseIPWM
%effectivelyIincreasingIwaterIflowItoItheIengineIasIengineIloadIincreases.ThisIcontr
o-
llerIcouldIevenIbeIusedIasIaIsecondaryIinjectorIdriver(severalinjectorsIcouldIbeIdri-
venIinIaIbatchImode,IhiIimpedanceIonly),IwithIProgressiveIcontrolI(0-
100%)IyouIcouldIcontrolItheirIoutputIforIfuelIorIwaterIwithItheI0-5IvoltIsignal.I

ProgressiveIcontrolIaddsIenormousIflexibilityItoItheIuseIofIthisIcontroller.Hi
SpeedIisIthatIsameIasIhardIwiringItheImotorItoIaIsteadyI12IvoltIDCIsource.IThe
controllerIisIprovidingI100%IPWM,IsteadyI12IvoltIDCIpower.IHiISpeedIisIselectedt
hreeIdifferentIwaysonIthisIcontroller:I
1)IHiISpeedIisIautomaticallyIselectedIforIaboutIoneIsecondIwhenIpowerIgoesIon.
52
ThisIgivesItheImotorIfullItorqueIatItheIstart.IfIneededIthisItimeIcanIbeIincreased(the
IvalueIofIC1IwouldIneedItoIbeIincreased).I
2)IHighISpeedIcanIalsoIbeIselectedIbyIapplyingI12IvoltsItoItheIHighISpeedIsignalI
wire.IThisIgivesIHiISpeedIregardlessIofItheIProgre-ssiveIsignal.I
WhenItheIProgressiveIsignalIgetsItoIapproximatelyI4.5Ivolts,theIcircuitIachie
ves100%IPWMI–IHiISpeed.

HOWIDOESITHISITECHNOLOGYIHELPI?:
TheIbenefitsInotedIaboveIareItechnologyIdriven.ITheImoreIimportantIquestionIis
howIthePWMtechnologyIJumpingIfromIaI1970’sItechnologyIintoItheInewI
millenniumIoffers:

•ILongerIbatteryIlife:
–IreducingItheIcostsIofItheIsolarIsystem
–IreducingIbatteryIdisposalIproblems

•IMoreIbatteryIreserveIcapacity:
–IincreasingItheIreliabilityIofItheIsolarIsystem
–IreducingIloadIdisconnects
–IopportunityItoIreduceIbatteryIsizeItoIlower
theIsystemIcost

•IGreaterIuserIsatisfaction:
–IgetImoreIpowerIwhenIyouIneedIitIforIless
money!!

53
 RESULT

TheIresultIshowsIthatItheIsystemIisIstudyIincludeI2Istates.IFrist,IwhenItheIPVIsy
stemIdoesn’tIfeedIpowerItoIconnectedIpoint,IloadsIreceiveIpowerIfromIgridIandIge-
nerateIharmonicsIthatIpayIbackItoItheIgrid.Therefore,ItheIharmonicsIinIthisIstateI
areIload’sIharmonics.Next,IwhenItheIPVIsystemIfeedIpowerItoIconnectedIpoint.IInI
thisIstudy,itIisImainlyIconsideredIintoI2Iconfigurations:withIandIwithoutIPVIsystem
toIobserveItheIharmonicsIgeneratedIinItheIsystem.IInItwoIcases,ItheIvoltageIharmo-
nicsImeasuredIatItheIconnectingIpointIareIbothIlowIwhereasItheIcurrentIharmonicsI
areIhigh.

WhenIPVIgeneratesImoreIelectricalIpowerItoItheIsystem,ItheIvoltageIharmonic
sareIstillIunchanged.IButItheIcurrentIharmonicsIcanIbeImore,IdependingIonItheI
suppliedIpowerIandItheItypeIofIload;ItheInonlinearIloadIwithIactiveIcomponentIsuc
hIasILEDIwithIitsIdriverIcanIcauseIandIincreaseItheItotalIharmonicsIinItheIsystem.I
Therefore,IweIwillImainlyIpayIattentionItoItheIcurrentIharmonicsIinIgridIsystem,PV
systemIandIload.

WhenItheIPVIdoesInotIgenerateIenergy,IgridIfeedsIlowIpowerItoItheIconnectedI
inverter;theIcurrentIharmonicsIpercentageIgeneratedIfromIinverterIinIeachIharmonic
orderIareIshownI inI Fig.I2.I ItI isI foundI thatI theI grid-
connectedI inverterIbehavesIlikeIanIelectricalIloadIbecauseIitIreceivesIpowerIfromI
theIgridIforIsystemIconnectionIverification;hence,thereisIlowIcurrentIflowingIfromI
gridItoIinverter.IWhileIPVgeneratesI 100ITheIsecondIcomparisonIwasItheIcaseIofI
ballastsIasIaIload.ITheIcurrentIharmonicsIpercentageIwhenIPVIdidInotIgenerateIpo
werIinI3rd,I5th,IandI7thIordersIareI9.I46%,I2.73%,IandI1.11%Irespectively,Imeasu-
redIatIloadIposition.IInIPVIsystemIposition,IcurrentIharmonicsIatI3rd,I5th,I7th,I9th,I
andI11thIordersIwereI8.72%,I11.23%,I5.65I%,I2.21I%,IandI2.28%Irespectively.

54
 FIG:5.1.A.Voltage and Current wave forms incandescent load when PV
generates and does not generate solar energy

ICurrentIharmonicsImeasuredIatIloadIandIPVIsystemIpositionsIaffectedItoIgridIp
ositionIatI3IrdIandI5IthIorders,IwhichIwereI9.54I
%IandI3.46%Irespectively.CurrentIharmonicsofgirdIsideIandIloadIsideIwereIsimilarI
becauseIgridIsentImorecurrentItoIloadIthanIinverter.IAfterItheIPVIgeneratedIenergy,
currentIharmonicsIatIloadIandIgridIpositionIpettyIincreased.CurrentIharmonicsIatIP
VIsystemIpositionIinI2nd,I3rd,I4th,I5th,I6th,I7th,I8th,I9th,I10th,Iand11thIordersIincr
easedItoI4.33%,I5.593%,I2.14%,I14.65%,I1.29%,I8.89%,I1.31%,I6.27%,0.97%,Iand
I7.624%Irespectively.

FIG:5.1.B.Voltage and Current wave forms in case LED load when PV

generates and does not generate solar energy

55
TheIthirdIcomparisonIwasIforItheIcombinationIofIincandescentIandIballastsIloads.
TheIcurrentIharmonicsIpercentageIwhenIPVIdidInotIgenerateIpowerIinI3rd,I5th,a

ndI7thW,ItotalIcurrentIharmonicsIareIincreased,IespeciallyItheI5thIandI11thIorder
s,IthenIPVIoperationIwaschangedItoI500W,1000W,andI3000W,harmonicsIproduct
ionIwereIalsoIinvestigatedIthoughtheyIareIlowerIthanI100IW.operation.Thus,IitIse
emsItoIdevicesItheIswitchingbeIconcludethatinsideItheIgrid-
tieinverterIcauseItheIincrementIofIcurrentIharmonics.WhentheIPVIgeneratesIhighI
currentIandIpower,ItheIfundamentalIcurrentIisIhigh.IComparisonIstudyIofIcurrent
harmonicsIinItheIsystemIisdividedIintoItwoIIconfigurations;withandwithoutPVco
nnection,measuringIatIthreeIpositions(IgridIsystem,IPVIsystem,IandIload).ThereIa
reIfiveItypesIofIload,IwhichIareIconsideredIinItheIexperiment,consistingofIincand
escent,Iballast,IincandescentIwithIballast,ILEDIlamp,IandImotor.
TheIfirstIcomparisonIwasItheIcaseIofIincandescentIasIaIload.IWhenIPVIdidInotIgen-

erateIpower,ItheIcurrentIharmonicsIpercentageIinI3rd,I5th,IandI7thIordersIwereI9.7%,I
12.26%,IandI6.28%respectively,andItotalIharmonicsIdistortionIwasI17.I25%Imeasure
datIPVIsystemIpositionIwhereasItheIgridIandIloadIpositionIwereIrelativelyIsmallIam
ountIbecauseIthereIwasI morepowerIdeliveredIfromIgridItoIloadIthanItheinverterIasI
shownIinFig.I4.IAfterItheIPVgeneratedIIenergy,IcurrentIharmonicsIatIloadIsideIwasI
unchanged.
IOverallIcurrentIharmonicsIofIgridIandIPVIsystemIwereIsteppedupIandIdramatic-

allyincreasedIinI5thIandI11thIorders.IordersIareI8.11%,I1.95%,IandI1.18%Irespe-
ctivelyImeasuredIatIloadIposition.IInIPVIsystemIposition,IcurrentIharmonicsIatI3I
rd,I5th,I7th,I9th,andI11thIordersIwereI88.92%,11.21%,5.48%,I2.25%,IandI2.3%re
spectively.ICurrentIharmonicsImeasuredIatIgridIpositionIatI3Ird,I5th,IandI7thIorde
rsIwereI8I.04I%,2.48%,I1.03I
%respectively.CurrentIharmonicsIwereImoreIsignificantIthanItheIfirstIcaseIbutIles
sIthantheIsecondIone.AfterItheIPVIgeneratedIenergy,IcurrentIharmonicsIatIloadIp
ositionIwereIunchanged.ICurrentIharmonicsIat2Ind,I3rd,4th,5th,I6th,I7th,I8th,I9th,
I10th,IandI11thIordersIofIPVIsystemIpositionIdrasticallyIincreasedItoI4.27%,5.77
%,I2.07%,I17.28%,I1.29%,I7.31%,I1.23%,I6.06%,I0.92%,Iand7.87%Irespectively
IandIgridIpositionIwasIslightlyIincreasedIinoddIorders.ISo,itIcouldIbeIconcludeIth
56
atIcurrentharmonicsIofIgridIsideIareImoreIaffectedIfromIloadIsideIthanIPVIsyste
mIside.

ForItheIfourthIcase,ItheIloadItakenIintoIaccountIwasILEDIlampIwithIitsIdriver.II
nIFig.I5(a),currentIharmonicsIatIloadIpositionIwhenIPVIdidInotIgenerateIpowerIwer
eIdifferentIfromItheIpreviousIcasesIandIhadIhighIvaluesIinIorderI3Ird,I5th,I7th,I9th,
I11th,I13th,I15th,I17th,I19th,21st,23rd,25th,I27th,29th,I31st,33rd,35th,37th,39th,andI
41stIordersIthatIwereI26.46%,23.88%,I24.78%,18.25%,I16.58%,I15.51%,I11.94%,I1
1.67%,I11.02%,I8.12%,I8.10%,6.63%,I4.73%,I5.01%,I3.29%,I2.48%,I2.29%,I1.57%
,I1.31%,Iand1.48%Irespectively.IInPVIsystemIposition,IcurrentIharmonicsIwereIsim
ilarItoItheIformerIcases,IincludingI3rd,5th,7th,9th,IandI11thIordersIofcurrentIharmo
nics,IwhichIwere9.21%,10.54%,5.04%,1.77%,andI2.50%Irespectively.CurrentIharm
onicsImeasuredIatIgridIpositionIatI3rd,I5th,I7th,I9th,I11th,I13th,I15th,I17th,I19th,I2
1st,I23rd,I25th,I27th,I29th,I31st,I33rd,I35th,I37th,I39th,IandI41stIwereI25.37%,I22.
06%,I22.79%,I17.08%,I15.91%,I14.77%,I11.16%,10.96%,I10.40%,7.62%,7.64%,I6.
27%,I4.43%,I4.79%,I3.11%,2.36%,2.15%,1.51%,1.22%,IandI1.37%respectivelyIasIs
hownIinIFig.I6.IItIcanIbeIseenIthatIcurrentIharmonicsIofILEDIlamphadmoreIthanIot
herIcases.AfterIPVIgeneratedIenergyIasIshownIincurrentIharmoni-
csIofIloadsideIIwereIunchanged.

CurrentIharmonicsIofIPVIsystemIpositionIatI2nd,I3rd,I4th,I5th,I6th,I7th,I8th,I9th,
10th,IandI11thIordersIdrasticallyIincreasedIto5.6I
%,I9.1%,3.26%,I18.48%,I1.75%,I11.23%,I1.77%,I9.25%,I1.37%,Iand10.77%Irespec
tively.IInIgridIposition,IcurrentIharmonicsIwereImoreIincreasedIatI2Ind,I3rd,I4th,I5t
h,I6th,I7th,I8th,I9th,I10th,IandI11thIordersItoI2I.I9I3I
%,I52.41%,I2.06%,I39.95%,I1.13%,I42.45%,I1.14%,30.94%,I0.95%,IandI34.79%Ire
spectivelyIbecauseIthereIwereIeffectsIfromIcurrentIharmonicsofIloadIandIPVIsyste
m.TheIlastIcomparisonIcaseIwasIforIloadIofImotor.TheIcurrentharmonicsIpercentag
eIwhenIPVIdidInotIgenerateIpowerIinI3IrdIandI5thIordersIwasI3.97%IandI2.75%Im
easuredIatIloadposition.CurrentIharmonicsIatI3rd,5th,7th,9th,I11th,IandI13thIordersI
were8.78%,11.56%,I6.85%,I2.08%,I2.16%,IandI1.29%Irespectively.InPVIsystemIpo
sition.IGridIcurrentIharmonicsIatI3rdIandI5thIordersIwereI4.9%IandI1.98%.IThisIca
seIisIsimilarItoItheIthirdIcase.AftertheIPVIgenerate-
dIenergy,IcurrentIharmonicsIatIloadIpositionIwereunchanged.IOverallIcurrentIhar-
monicsIatIPVIsystemIandIgridIpositionIslightlyIincreased.
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MATLABISIMLATIONIRESULTS

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SIMULATIONICIRCUIT

60
CONTROLIALGORITHMIFORIVSC

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 CONCLUSION
ThisIpaperIpresentedItheIcomparisonIresultsIofInoloadIandIwithIdifferentIloadsI
system betweenIPVIgeneratingIsystemIandIwithoutIPVIgeneration.ITheIexperiment-
alIresultsconcludedIthatIgridIconnectedIinverterIbehavesIasIloadIwhenIPVIdoesInotI
generateIsolarIenergyIbecauseIitIreceivesIpowerIfromIgridItoIverifyItheIsystemI
connection.TheIoperationIofIpassivecomponentsIandIswitchingIequipmentIaffectsIto
the currentIharmonicsIgenerationIbecauseItheIsystemIhasIlowIcurrentIflow.IDuringI
PVIdoesInotIgenerateIsolarIenergy,IpercentageIofIcurrentIharmonicsIdecrease
becauseIcurrentIflowIinItheIsystemIincreases.RegardingItheIcomparisonIstudyIofI
currentIharmonicsIinItheIsystemIwithIvariousIloads,IitIcanIbeIanalyzedIthatIgrid
harmonicsIareImostlyIaffectedIfromIharmonicsIofIloadIandIPVIsystemIbutIharmon-
icsIofIloadIhasImoreIaffectIthanIPVIsystem.IResistiveIandIinductiveIloadsIgenerateI
lessIcurrentharmonicsIthanIcapacitiveIoneIandIswitchingIload,IandIharmonicsIofIPV
systemIdonotIaffectItoIload.

73
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