Microbial Diversity
Part 2: Eukaryotic Microbes
Eukaryotic Microbes
 include some species of algae, all protozoa, some
species of fungi, all lichens, and all slime moulds
 not yet determined its first existence in world
Algae (sing., alga) – photosynthetic
Characteristics and Classification
 2nd kingdom Protista , some treated it as Chromista
 referred to as protists
 phycology (or algology): study of algae
 phycologist (or algologist): studies algae
 algal cells consist of cytoplasm, a cell wall (usually),
a cell membrane, a nucleus, plastids, ribosomes,
mitochondria, and Golgi bodies
 some algal cells have a pellicle (a thickened cell
membrane), a stigma (a lightsensing organelle, also
known as an eyespot), and flagella
 not plants, but more plantlike than protozoa
 lack true roots, stems, and leaves
 it range in size from tiny, unicellular, microscopic
organisms (e.g., diatoms, dinoflagellates, desmids)
to large, multicellular, plantlike seaweeds (e.g.,
kelp), so not all algae are microorganisms
 Ostreococcus tauri
o tiny green alga, as small as 1.0 µm in diameter
o one of the smallest eukaryotes ever discovered
o contains one chloroplast, one mitochondrion,
and one Golgi body.
 Tiny eukaryotes that range in size from 0.2 to 2 µm
in diameter are known as picoeukaryotes. They are
smaller than some prokaryotes
 may be arranged in colonies or strands and are found
in freshwater, salt water, in wet soil, and on wet rock
 produce their energy by photosynthesis, using
energy from the sun, carbon dioxide, water, and
inorganic nutrients from the soil to build cellular
material
 few species use organic nutrients, and others survive
with very little sunlight
 Most algal cell walls have cellulose, a
polysaccharide not found in cell walls of any other
microorganisms
 Classified as green, golden (or golden brown),
brown, or red (depends on photosynthetic pigment)
 Diatoms (microorganism)
o Tiny, usually unicellular algae that live in both
freshwater and seawater
o important members of the phytoplankton
o have silicon dioxide in their cell walls; thus, they
have cell walls made of glass
o its deposits are used to make diatomaceous
earth, used in filtration systems, insulation, and
abrasive
o has attractive, geometric, and varied appearance,
so they are interesting to observe
microscopically
 Dinoflagellates (microorganism)
o microscopic, unicellular, flagellated, often
photosynthetic algae
o important members of the phytoplankton
o produce much of the oxygen in our atmosphere
and serving as important links in food chains
o some produce light, referred to as fire algae
o responsible for what are known as “red tides”
 Green algae include desmids, Spirogyra,
Chlamydomonas, Volvox, and Euglena, all of which
can be found in pond water
o Desmids - unicellular algae, some resemble a
microscopic banana
o Spirogyra - a filamentous (threadlike) alga,
often producing long green strands in pond
water
o Chlamydomonas – unicellular, biflagellated
(has 2 flagella) alga, contains 1 chloroplast & a
stigma
o Volvox
 multicellular alga (sometimes referred to as
a colonial alga or colony)
 consist of as many as 60,000 interconnected,
biflagellated cells, forming a hollow sphere
 its flagella beat in a coordinated manner,
causing the Volvox colony to move through
the water in a rolling motion.
 Sometimes, daughter colonies can be seen
within a Volvox colony.
o Euglena
 interesting alga, because it has features
possessed by both algae and protozoa.
 has chloroplasts, photosynthetic, and stores
energy in the form of starch (like algae).
 Have a primitive mouth (called a cytostome)
and the absence of a cell wall (hence, no
cellulose) – like protozoa
 Has a photosensing organelle called a stigma
(it can sense light) and a single flagellum (it
can swim into the light)
 When there is no light, it can continue to
obtain nutrients by ingesting food through
its cytostome
 has no cell wall, but possess a pellicle,
which functions for protection like the cell
wall
 algae are easy to find
 include large seaweeds of various colors
 o brown kelp (up to 10 m in length) found along
ocean shores
o green scum floating on ponds
o slippery green material on wet rocks
 can also be found in the hot waters of thermal
features at Yellowstone National Park
 important source of food, iodine and other minerals,
fertilizers, emulsifiers for pudding, and stabilizers
for ice cream and salad dressings; they are also used
as a gelling agent for jams and nutrient media for
bacterial growth
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29999416/)
 algae are nearly 50% oil, so scientists are studying
them as a source of biofuels.
 agar used as a solidifying agent in laboratory culture
media is a complex polysaccharide derived from a
red marine alga
 Damage to water systems is frequently caused by
algae clogging filters and pipes
Medical Significance (of algae)
 Prototheca
o a genus of algae, and a very rare cause of human
infections (causes a disease called protothecosis)
o lives in soil and can enter wounds, especially
those located on the feet
o produces a small subcutaneous lesion that can
progress to a crusty, warty looking lesion
o when it enters the lymphatic system, it may
cause a debilitating, sometimes fatal infection,
especially in immunosuppressed individuals
 Algae in other genera secrete substances
(phycotoxins) that are poisonous to humans, fish,
and other animals
Protozoa (sing., protozoan) – nonphotosynthetic
Characteristics
 Eukaryotic organism
 classified in the second kingdom (Protista)
 protozoology: study of protozoa
 protozoologist: studies protozoa
 unicellular, ranging in length from 3 to 2,000 µm
 most are free-living organisms, found in soil &
water
 Protozoal cells are more animal-like than plantlike
 protozoal cells possess a variety of eukaryotic
structures and organelles, including cell membranes,
nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, Golgi
bodies, lysosomes, centrioles, and food vacuoles
 some protozoa possess pellicles, cytostomes,
contractile vacuoles, pseudopodia, cilia, and flagella.
 have no chlorophyll so they cannot make their own
food by photosynthesis
 Some ingest whole algae, yeasts, bacteria, and
smaller protozoans as their source of nutrients;
others live on dead and decaying organic matter
 do not have cell walls, but some, including some
flagellates and some ciliates, possess a pellicle,
which serves the same purpose as a cell wall—
protection
 some flagellates and some ciliates ingest food
through a primitive mouth or opening, called a
cytostome
 Paramecium spp. (common pond water ciliates)
possess both a pellicle and a cytostome.
 Some pond water protozoa (such as amebae and
Paramecium) contain an organelle called a
contractile vacuole, which pumps water out of the
cell
 Vorticella spp. have a contractile stalk, where there
is a primitive muscle fiber called a myoneme
 typical protozoan life cycle consists of two stages
o trophozoite stage
 motile, feeding, dividing stage
o cyst stage
 nonmotile, dormant, survival stage
 in some ways (e.g., the presence of a thick
outer wall), cysts are like bacterial spores
 some are parasitic protozoa, they break down &
absorb nutrients from body of host in which they
live
 Many parasitic protozoa are pathogens, such as those
that cause malaria, giardiasis, African sleeping
sickness, and amebic dysentery
 Some coexist with the host animal in a type of
mutualistic symbiotic relationship—a relationship in
which both organisms benefit
- Ex: Protozoa digest the wood eaten by the
termite, enabling both organisms to absorb the
nutrients needed for life. Without the intestinal
protozoa, the termite would be unable to digest
the wood that it eats and would starve to death
Classification and Medical Significance
 protozoa may be divided into groups (variously
referred to as phyla, subphyla, or classes) according
to their method of locomotion
 some move by pseudopodia, by flagella, by cilia,
other are nonmotile.
 Amebae (sing., ameba)
o move by means of cytoplasmic extensions called
pseudopodia (sing., pseudopodium; false feet)
o first extends a pseudopodium in the direction it
intends to move, and then the rest of the cell
slowly flows into it; ameboid movement
o ingests a food particle by surrounding the
particle with pseudopodia, which then fuse
together; this process is known as phagocytosis
 o ingested particle, surrounded by a membrane, is
referred to as a food vacuole (or phagosome)
o Digestive enzymes, released from lysosomes,
then digest or break down the food into
nutrients.
 some WBC in our bodies ingest and digest materials
in the same manner as amebae
 When fluids are ingested in a similar manner, the
process is known as pinocytosis
 Entamoeba histolytica
o Medically important ameba
o causes amebic dysentery (amebiasis) and
extraintestinal (meaning away from the
intestine) amebic abscesses
 Ciliates
o move about by means of large numbers of
hairlike cilia on their surfaces
o exhibit an oarlike motion
o most complex of all protozoa
o Balantidium coli
 Pathogenic ciliate
 causes dysentery in underdeveloped countries
 usually transmitted to humans from drinking
water that has been contaminated by swine feces
 the only ciliated protozoan that causes disease
 Blepharisma, Didinium, Euplotes, Paramecium,
Stentor, and Vorticella spp.
 Flagellates
o Flagellated protozoa move by means of whiplike
flagella.
o A basal body (or kinetosome or kinetoplast)
anchors each flagellum within the cytoplasm
o Flagella exhibit a wavelike motion
o Some flagellates are pathogenic
 Trypanosoma brucei subspecies gambiense,
transmitted by the tsetse fly, causes African
sleeping sickness in humans
 Trypanosoma cruzi causes American
trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease)
 Trichomonas vaginalis causes persistent
sexually transmitted infections (trichomoniasis)
of the male and female genital tracts
 Giardia lamblia (Giardia intestinalis) causes a
persistent diarrheal disease (giardiasis)
 Sporozoa
o Nonmotile protozoa—protozoa lacking
pseudopodia, flagella, cilia—are classified here
o most important sporozoan pathogens are the
Plasmodium spp. that cause malaria in many
areas of the world
o Plasmodium vivax, causes a few cases of
malaria annually in the United States.
o Malarial parasites are transmitted by female
Anopheles mosquitoes, which become infected
when they take a blood from person with
malaria
o Cryptosporidium parvum, causes severe
diarrheal disease (cryptosporidiosis) in
immunosuppressed patients, especially those
with AIDS
o Other pathogenic sporozoans include
 Babesia spp. (the cause of babesiosis),
 Cyclospora cayetanensis (the cause of a
diarrheal disease called cyclosporiasis)
 Toxoplasma gondii (the cause of toxoplasmosis)
Fungi – not plants
Characteristics
 Kingdom Fungi
 Mycology: study of fungi
 Mycologist: studies fungi
 found almost everywhere on Earth
 saprophytic fungi live on organic matter in
water/soil, source of food is dead and decaying
organic matter
 parasitic fungi live on and within animals and plant
 live on many unlikely materials, causing
deterioration of leather and plastics and spoilage of
jams, pickles, and many other foods
 important in the production of cheeses, beer, wine,
and other foods, as well as certain drugs (e.g., the
immunosuppressant drug cyclosporine) and
antibiotics (e.g., penicillin
 diverse group of eukaryotic organisms that include
yeasts, moulds, and mushrooms.
 “garbage disposers” of nature—the “vultures” of
the microbial world
 By secreting digestive enzymes into dead plant and
animal matter, they decompose this material into
absorbable nutrients for themselves and other living
organisms; thus, they are the original “recyclers.”
 Not photosynthetic, no chlorophyll/ photosynthetic
pigments, its cell walls do not contain cellulose
 Its cell walls contain a polysaccharide called chitin
(found in exoskeleton of arthropods), which is not
found in the cell walls of any other microorganisms
 many fungi are unicellular (e.g., yeasts), but others
grow as filaments called hyphae (sing., hypha),
 which intertwine to form a mass called a mycelium
(pl., mycelia) or thallus; different from bacteria,
which are always unicellular. (moulds are
multicellular)
 some fungi have
o septate hyphae
 the cytoplasm within the hypha is divided into
cells by cross-walls or septa)
o aseptate hyphae
 the cytoplasm within the hypha is not divided
into cells; no septa. contain multinucleated
cytoplasm (described as being coenocytic)
o important “clue” when attempting to identify a
fungus that is isolated from a clinical specimen
 classified taxonomically with the type of sexual
spore that they produce or the type of structure on
which the spores are produced
Reproduction
 reproduce by budding, hyphal extension, or
formation of spores
 2 categories of fungal spores
o Sexual pores
 produced by the fusion of two gametes (2
nuclei)
 have a variety of names (e.g., ascospores,
basidiospores, zygospores), depending on the
exact manner in which they are formed
o Asexual pores
 Also called conidia (sing., conidium)
 formed in many different ways, but not by the
fusion of gametes
 Fungal spores
o Some fungi produce both asexual and sexual
o very resistant structures that are carried great
distances by wind.
o resistant to heat, cold, acids, bases, chemicals
o many people are allergic to fungal spores
Classification
 Kingdom Fungi: divided into 5 phyla based
primarily on their mode of sexual reproduction
 2 phyla known as “lower fungi”
o Zygomycotina (or Zygomycota)
 include the common bread moulds and other
fungi that cause food spoilage
o Chytridiomycotina (or Chytridiomycota)
 not considered to be true fungi by taxonomists
 live in water (“water moulds”) and soil
 2 phyla known as “higher fungi”
o Ascomycotina (or Ascomycota)
 include certain yeasts and some fungi that cause
plant diseases (e.g., Dutch Elm disease)
o Basidiomycotina (or Basidiomycota)
 include some yeasts, some fungi that cause plant
diseases, and the large “fleshy fungi” that live in
the woods (e.g., mushrooms, toadstools, bracket
fungi, puffballs)
 “Fungi Imperfecti”
o Deuteromycotina (or Deuteromycota)
 contains fungi having no mode of sexual
reproduction, or in which the mode of sexual
reproduction is not known
 include certain medically important moulds such
as Aspergillus and Penicillium
Yeasts
 eukaryotic unicellular organisms that lack mycelia
 Individual yeast cells (blastospores or blastoconidia)
can be observed only through a microscope
 usually larger than bacteria (ranging from 3 to 8 µm
in diameter) and are usually ovalshaped; some may
be observed in the process of budding
 Usually reproduce by budding, but occasionally do
so by a type of spore formation
 Sometimes a string of elongated buds is formed
called a pseudohypha (pl., pseudohyphae) –
resembles a hypha, but it is not a hypha
 Some yeasts produce thick-walled, sporelike
structures called chlamydospores
(chlamydoconidia)
 found in soil, water, skins of fruits and vegetables
 Wine, beer, and alcoholic beverages had been
produced for centuries before Louis Pasteur
discovered that naturally occurring yeasts on the
skin of grapes – other fruits and grains were
responsible for these fermentation processes
 common yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae (“baker’s
yeast”) ferments sugar to alcohol under anaerobic
conditions (does not require molecular oxygen)
 under aerobic conditions, (require molecular O2)
yeast breaks down simple sugars to carbon dioxide
and water; for this reason, it has long been used as a
leavening agent in bread production
 good source of nutrients for humans because they
produce many vitamins and proteins
 Candida albicans
o Human pathogen, causes infections
o most frequently isolated from human clinical
specimens, and is also the fungus most
frequently isolated from human clinical
specimens
 To distinguish between a yeast colony and a
bacterial colony, a wet mount can be performed.
o small portion of the colony is mixed with a drop
of water or saline on a microscope slide
o a coverslip is added
o preparation is examined under the microscope
o Alternatively, the preparation can be stained
using the Gram staining procedure
Moulds
 fungi often seen in water and soil and on food
 grow in the form of cytoplasmic filaments or hyphae
that make up the mycelium of the mould
 hyphae
o aerial hyphae
 extend above the surface of whatever the mould
is growing on
 Reproduction is by spore formation, either
sexually or asexually
 sometimes referred to as reproductive hyphae
o vegetative hyphae
 extend beneath the surface of whatever the
mould is growing on
 various species of moulds are found in each of the
classes of fungi except Basidiomycotina
 under spp. Ascomycotina are many antibiotic-
producing moulds, such as Penicillium and
Acremonium
 used to produce large quantities of enzymes (such as
amylase, which converts starch to glucose), citric
acid, and other organic acid
 flavor of cheeses such as bleu cheese, Roquefort,
camembert, and limburger is the result of moulds
that grow in them
Fleshy Fungi
 large fungi that are encountered in forests, such as
mushrooms, toadstools, puffballs, and bracket fungi
 not microorganisms
 Mushrooms
o class of true fungi that consist of a network of
filaments or strands (the mycelium) that grow in
the soil or in a rotting log, and a fruiting body
(the mushroom that rises above the ground) that
forms and releases spores
o Each spore, like the seed of a plant, germinates
into a new organism
o Delicious to eat, but others, including some that
resemble edible fungi, are extremely toxic and
may cause permanent liver and brain damage or
death if ingested
Medical Significance
 variety of fungi (including yeasts, moulds, and some
fleshy fungi) are of medical, veterinary, and
agricultural importance because of the diseases they
cause in humans, animals, and plants
 Many diseases of crop plants, grains, corn, and
potatoes are caused by moulds (referred to as blights
and rusts)
 fungi destroy crops, and some produce toxins
(mycotoxins) that cause disease in humans/ animals
 moulds and yeasts also cause a variety of infectious
diseases of humans and animals—called mycoses
Fungal Infections of Humans
 known as mycoses (sing., mycosis),
 categorized as superficial, cutaneous, subcutaneous,
or systemic mycoses
Superficial and Cutaneous Mycoses
 Superficial Mycoses
o fungal infections of the outermost areas of the
human body: hair, fingernails, toenails, and the
dead, outermost layers of the skin (epidermis)
 Cutaneous Mycoses
o fungal infections of living layers of skin
( dermis)
 dermatophytes, a group of moulds, cause tinea
infections, which are often referred to as
“ringworm” infections
 Tinea Infections: named in accordance with the part
of the anatomy that is infected; examples include:
o tinea pedis (athlete’s foot)
o tinea unguium (fingernails and toenails)
o tinea capitis (scalp)
o tinea barbae (face and neck)
o tinea corporis (trunk of the body)
o tinea cruris (groin area)
 C. albicans
o opportunistic yeast that lives harmlessly on the
skin and mucous membranes of the mouth,
gastrointestinal tract, and genitourinary tract
o flourishes when conditions cause a reduction in
the number of indigenous bacteria at these
anatomic locations, leading to yeast infections of
 mouth (thrush), skin, and vagina (yeast
vaginitis)
o This type of local infection may become a focal
site from which the organisms invade the
bloodstream to become a generalized or
systemic infection in many internal areas of the
body
Subcutaneous and Systemic Mycoses
 more severe types of mycoses
 Subcutaneous Mycoses
o fungal infections of the dermis and underlying
tissues
o quite grotesque in appearance
o ex: Madura foot (a type of eukaryotic
mycetoma), in which the patient’s foot becomes
covered with large, unsightly, fungus-containing
bumps
 Systemic or generalized mycoses
o fungal infections of internal organs of the body
o sometimes affects two or more different organ
systems simultaneously (e.g., simultaneous
infection of the respiratory system and the
bloodstream)
 Spores of some pathogenic fungi may be inhaled
with dust from contaminated soil or dried bird and
bat feces (guano), or they may enter through wounds
of the hands and feet. If the spores are inhaled into
the lungs, they may germinate there to cause a
respiratory infection similar to tuberculosis.
o Ex: blastomycosis, coccidioidomycosis,
cryptococcosis, and histoplasmosis.
o the pathogens may invade further to cause
widespread systemic infections, especially in
immunosuppressed individuals
 combination of two organisms: an alga (or a
cyanobacterium) and a fungus—living together in
such a close relationship that they appear to be one
organism
 Symbiotic Relationship
o Close relationships of lichens (alga and fungus)
are referred to as symbiotic relationships, and
the partners in the relationship are referred to as
symbionts
o represents a particular type of symbiotic
relationship known as mutualism—a
relationship in which both parties benefit
o alga or cyanobacterium in a lichen is sometimes
referred to as the photobiont (the photosynthetic
partner in the relationship), and the fungus is
referred to as the mycobiont
 20,000 different species
 may be gray, brown, black, orange, various
shades of green, and other colors, depending on
the specific combination of alga and fungus
 foliose lichens: leaflike, crustose lichens:
crusty, fructicose lichens: shrubby
 classified as protest
 don’t cause disease, shown to have antibacterial
properties
Slime Moulds
 found in soil and on rotting logs
 have both fungal and protozoal characteristics and
very interesting life cycle
 not known to cause human disease

Dimorphic Fungi
 dimorphism: can either as yeasts or as moulds,
depending on growth condition
 exist as unicellular yeasts and produce yeast colonies
when grown in vitro at body temperature (37°C)
 exist as moulds, producing mould colonies (mycelia)
when grown in vitro at room temperature (25°C)
 exist as yeast in vivo ( within human body)
 Dimorphic fungi that cause human diseases include
o Histoplasma capsulatum (causes histoplasmosis)
o Sporothrix schenckii (causes sporotrichosis)
o Coccidioides immitis (causes
coccidioidomycosis)
o Blastomyces dermatitidis (causes blastomycosis)

Lichens
 appear as colored, often circular patches on tree
trunks and rocks