EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY OF

CRUSHED SHEA NUTS

Presented to
The Department of Chemical Engineering
By

ADEFEHINTI, K. D.

In Partial Fulfillment of the requirement for the Award of

Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) Degree

In Chemical Engineering

At the

University of Lagos,
Lagos, Nigeria

April 2018
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this research project entitled “EFFECT OF PARTICLE

SIZE ON THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY OF CRUSHED SHEANUTS KERNEL” is the
original work of ADEFEHINTI, KEHINDE DAMILOLA. The research project is
submitted to the Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Lagos, Lagos in
Partial fulfillment for the award of the B.Sc degree.

Signature -------------------------------- Date------------------------

Kehinde Damilola, ADEFEHINTI
(Author)
CERTIFIED BY

Signature -------------------------------- Date------------------------

DR. DANIEL AYO
(Project Supervisor)

Signature ----------------------------------- Date----------------------

DR. F. U. BABALOLA
{Project Coordinator}

Signature ----------------------------------- Date----------------------

PROF. D. S. ARIBIKE
{Head of Department}

i
 Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Lagos,
Akoka,
Lagos
October 10, 2017.
The Head,
Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Lagos,
Lagos.

Dear Sir,

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
In accordance with the regulations of the Department of Chemical and Petroleum
and Gas Engineering of the University of Lagos, I hereby submit this research project
titled: EFFECT OF PARTICLE SIZE ON THE THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY OF
CRUSHED SHEANUTS KERNEL in partial fulfilment of the requirement of the awards
of Bachelors of Science degree in Chemical Engineering at the University of Lagos,
Akoka.

Thank you
Yours faithfully,

ADEFEHINTI, Kehinde D.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
With a warm heart full of utmost appreciation, I thank God earnestly for being with me
all through the 5-year journey in the university and through this last intense final project
year.

To my family, my father, mother and siblings, thank you for being a constant motivation
to be the best I can be and for always being a ready source of wisdom.

I dearly appreciate my project supervisors’ Dr Ayo and Dr Akinola for taking me as their
own personal student and guiding me throughout the project journey; for always lending
their knowledge to be picked and availing themselves during trial times.

Much appreciation goes to my friends, loved ones and all who wish me well for the love
and support showered on me daily and for making my whole university journey worth it.

iii
 ABSTRACT
Thermal diffusivities of sheanuts kernel were determined as a function of particle
size, and temperature. A lot of thermal diffusivity techniques has been employed in
estimating the effective thermal diffusivities of food particles. The thermal diffusivity of
the crushed sheanuts (Butyrospernum paradoxum) at different size ranges of <10mm,
10mm, 10-30mm, and 30-60mm were measured at both 60&700C using the Transient
Heat Conduction Method with heat source, in which the crushed samples were placed in
a cylinder, and immersed in a constant temperature water bath with a thermostat, and a
1.5kW heating element. The experiment was carried out for 80 minutes, and the
temperature of the samples were recorded every 5 minutes with a precision of 0.1oC.
The effective values of the thermal diffusivities were deduced from the slope of
the graph of natural log of temperature difference between the constant surface (constant
water bath) temperature and temperature at the center, against time. Using the equation:
𝛼 = 1.057 × 10−4 𝐵 2.5

Each experiment was repeated three times, and the average value and standard
deviation were reported.
It was observed from both the experimental values and theoretical values, that the
thermal diffusivity of crushed sheanuts exhibit a linear relationship with the particle sizes
as seen in the tables in the section 4.4 of this report.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents
CERTIFICATION ............................................................................................................... i
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL .......................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iii
ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... v
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of Study............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Justification of research work .............................................................................. 3
1.3 Aims and Objective of Study ............................................................................... 5
1.4 Methods and Scope of Study................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................ 6
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6
2.2 Thermal properties of materials ........................................................................... 6
2.2.1 Thermal conductivity .................................................................................... 6
2.2.2 Thermal Diffusivity ...................................................................................... 7
2.2.3 Thermal Effusivity ........................................................................................ 8
2.3 Methods of Measuring Thermal Properties .......................................................... 9
2.4 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity ............................................................... 9
2.4.1 Thermal Conductivity Measurement of Solids ........................................... 10
2.4.2 Thermal Conductivity Measurement of Liquids ......................................... 12
2.5 Measurement of Thermal Diffusivity................................................................. 12
2.5.1 The Flash Method ....................................................................................... 12
2.5.2 The Pulse method ........................................................................................ 14
2.5.3 Transient Heat Conduction method ............................................................ 14
2.5.4 The Thermal Wave Interferometry method (TWI) ..................................... 18
2.5.5 The Calorimetric Method ............................................................................ 20
2.5.6 The Mirage-Effect Method ......................................................................... 22
2.5.7 The Thermographic Method ....................................................................... 23
2.5.7 The Picosecond Time-Resolved Thermoreflectance Method ..................... 24
2.6 Measurement of Thermal Effusivity .................................................................. 25
2.7 Effect of Particle Sizes on Thermal Properties .................................................. 25
2.7.1 Thermal Conductivity Dependence on Particle sizes ................................. 25
2.7.2 Thermal Diffusivity Dependence on Particle sizes of Sheanut kernel ....... 26
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .................................................................................... 28
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 28
3.2 Materials and Apparatus..................................................................................... 28
3.3 Experimental Methods ....................................................................................... 31
3.3.1 Sieve Analysis ............................................................................................. 32

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 3.3.2 Experimental Set-up and Experimentation ................................................. 33
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS .................................................................................................. 34
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 34
4.2 Results ................................................................................................................ 34
4.3 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 35
4.4 Estimation of Thermal Diffusivity Graphically ................................................. 43
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION ......................................................................................... 44
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 45
APPENDIX I: TEMPERATURE DATA ....................................................................... 48
Appendix 1-1: Temperature Data for <10 mesh, 600C ................................................. 49
Appendix 1-2: Temperature Data for 10mesh, 600C .................................................... 50
Appendix 1-3: Temperature Data for 10-30mesh, 600C ............................................... 51
Appendix 1-4: Temperature Data for 30-60mesh, 600C ............................................... 52
Appendix 1-5: Temperature Data for <10 mesh, 700C ................................................. 53
Appendix 1-6: Temperature Data for 10mesh, 700C .................................................... 54
Appendix 1-7: Temperature Data for 10-30 mesh, 700C .............................................. 55
Appendix 1-8: Temperature Data for 30-60 mesh, 700C .............................................. 56

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Title Page No.
No.
2.1 Thermal conductivity of a solid bulk material using Fourier’s law of heat 10
conduction
2.2 TPS sensor, model Hot Disk 4922, spiral radius about 15 mm 11
2.3 Schematic of the Flash Method 12
2.4 Temperature increase for various experimental conditions 13
2.5 Transient heat conduction method apparatus 15
2.6 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples. 16
2.7 ln of the temperature difference between center and surface temperatures 17
versus time for bulgur.
2.8 Phase of the ac component of temperature versus the normalized thickness 19
h for different values of the reflection coefficient R ranging from -1 to 1 (in
the sense of the arrow)
2.9 Fig. 2.9 TWI experimental set-up 19
2.10 Thermal effusivity sensor typically used in the direct measurement of 25
materials.
3.1 Standard Test Sieves 31
3.2 A mechanical shaker used for sieve analysis 32

4.1 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 36

<10mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C
4.2 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center 36
thermocouples against time of <10mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C
4.3 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 37
10mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C.
4.4 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center 37
thermocouples against time, of 10mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C
4.5 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 10- 38
30mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C
4.6 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center 38
thermocouples against time, of 10-30mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C

4.7 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 30- 39
60mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C
4.8 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center 39

vii
 thermocouples against time, of 30-60mesh crushed sheanuts
4.9 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 40
<10mesh crushed sheanuts at 700C
4.10 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center 40
thermocouples against time, of <10mesh crushed sheanuts at 700C
4.11 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 41
10mesh crushed sheanuts at 700C
4.12 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center 41
thermocouples against time, of 10mesh crushed sheanuts at 700C
4.13 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 10- 42
30mesh crushed sheanuts at 700C
4.14 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center 42
thermocouples against time, of 10-30mesh crushed sheanuts at 700C

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Title Page No.

Industries and areas of research which currently use thermal
1.1 3
properties measurements
4.1 Thermal diffusivities values at 600C 43

4.2 Thermal diffusivities values at 700C 43

ix
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of Study

Sheanut (Butyrospernum paradoxum) is one of the important oil crops of the West
African Savannah Zone. The oil, known as Shea butter is extracted from the kernel of sheanut by
processes, which involves size reduction and heat transfer operations. It is essential to have
knowledge of the thermal properties of the sheanut kernel in order to effectively develop the
processes and equipment needed in the drying, storage and thermal processing of the product.
Thermal properties of various food and agricultural products have been studied by such
researchers as Kazarian and Hall (1965), Suter, Agarwal and Clary (1975), Shepherd and
Bhardwaj (1986) and Dutta, Nema, and Bhardwaj (1988). Works on the thermal properties of
sheanut kernel, however, appears to be rarely available.
The enzyme that is responsible for the build-up of free fatty acids (FFA) is inactivated
through sun drying and roasting of the kernels. This also prevents the growth of fungus such as
Aspergillus specie (American Shea Butter Institute [ASBI], 2004). The rural village Shea butter
processors, after de-husking the sheanuts, roast the kernels or dry them from morning until
evening for more than 2 weeks. The kernels become over heated and black as a result, dark oil is
produced from the kernels. According to ASBI [4], sun drying and roasting process should be
controlled such that the kernels are not over heated and become black as these lead to increased
FFA, peroxide value (PV) and dark oil or butter.
The objective of the work reported in this research project, was to investigate the effect of
particle size on thermal properties of crushed sheanut kernel, namely thermal conductivity and
thermal diffusivity.

Thermal property is defined as the physical property of a solid body related to application
of heat energy. Thermal properties explain the response of a material to the application of heat
and it tells important things about the material being worked with. Some thermal properties are;
Heat capacity, Thermal resistivity, Thermal conductivity, Thermal diffusivity etc. Thermal
conductivity is the ability of a material to transfer heat. Thermal resistivity, the inverse of
conductivity, illustrates how well a material will resist the transfer of heat. Volumetric heat

1
capacity is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit volume by 1 ℃. Thermal diffusivity
is a measure of how quickly heat will move through a substance.

2
1.2 Justification of research work

Thermal properties measurements are needed in various industries and research fields.
One example is underground power cable design. Other popular applications for thermal
properties measurements include thermal conductivity of concrete, the thermal conductivity of
Nano-fluids, thermal resistivity of insulating material, and thermal properties of food. Unique
applications range from measuring human tissue to adobe houses. The following chart shows a
few industries and areas of research, which currently benefit from the use of thermal properties
measurements.

Knowledge of the essential thermal properties, such as thermal conductivity, thermal

diffusivity, and specific heat of food substances, is essential to researchers and designers in the
field of food engineering. With the increasing amount of food preparation in industry and food
institutions, the importance of such fundamental data also increases. This information is required
to make proper design of food processing equipment such as tanks, pumps, pipes, chillers and
evaporators (de Moura et al., 1998). Over the years, both measured and calculated values of
thermal properties of food have been published (Bhumbla, 1989; de Moura, 1998). The
following chart shows a few industries and areas of research, which currently benefit from

the use of thermal properties measurements.

Table 1.1 Industries and areas of research which currently use thermal properties
measurements

Industry or Application Benefit

Used as a backfill material around power cables installed in
Concrete
thermally poor soil

Thermal properties need to be well known so cook times

Cooking oils
can be calculated

3
 Thermal resistance research for transplant acceptance and
Corneas and artificial skin
performance
Foods: cooking and
Determine the effects of heating, cooling, and freezing
sterilizing
Heat transfer fluids Determine how well fluids such as antifreeze transfer heat
Thermal resistivity in insulation for houses, industrial
Insulation
buildings, coats, and sleeping bags

Oils distribute heat away from engine areas with friction or

Lubricating oils
combustion

Understanding the effects of lasers, cauterization, or

Medical applications
radiation on surrounding tissue
Nano fluids Coolants in heat transfer equipment
Plastics and biomedical Because plastics are poor conductors, mitigation techniques
polymers can be implemented
Power cables Heat loss dissipating into the surrounding soil
Soils Thermal conductivity and thermal resistivity
Thermal grease/heat sink Used to move heat away from integrated circuits and other
compounds components in computers

The reports of Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) and Oil Seeds Association of Nigeria
(OSAN) confirm that Nigeria produces a significant quantity of Sheanuts annually. However,
most of these nuts produced are exported to countries like France, Japan, and the United
Kingdom. Understanding the effect of particle sizes on thermal diffusivity of the nuts during
roasting and milling would help in the fabrication of a better dryer for the nuts as a substitute for
the elongated sun drying process employed in the traditional method of producing Shea butter.

4
1.3 Aims and Objective of Study

Considering the fact that traditional Shea butter which is regarded as raw or unrefined
still retains all the vitamins, minerals and healing properties inherent in the Shea butter, one
would ask, “Why study the effect of thermal diffusivity of the crushed sheanuts?” It is this
question that this work would seek to answer and to produce results to validate the need to know
the relationship between the particle size and thermal diffusivity of the crushed sheanuts.
Consequently, the main objectives of this work is;

1. To obtain the effect of particle sizes on thermal diffusivity of crushed

sheanut kernels.

2. To obtain the thermal diffusivity values of various particle sizes of the

crushed sheanuts.

3. To estimate approximately the time needed for heat transfer operations

engrossed in any method of processing the butter.

1.4 Methods and Scope of Study

The method that will be employed in this work will be the Transient heat conduction
method, to evaluate the value of the thermal diffusivity of the crushed sheanuts.

1. A literature review on Thermal Properties.

2. Transient Heat Conduction Experimentation.

The scope of study focuses on the relationship of the thermal diffusivity with various
particle sizes.

5
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This chapter gives a literature review on thermal properties such as; Thermal effusivity,
Thermal conductivity, Thermal diffusivity, their methods of measurement, and the effect of
particle sizes on all the thermal properties stated above.

2.2 Thermal properties of materials

Several steady and unsteady state methods have been used to estimate the thermal
properties of food. The line heat source probe method can be employed for the determination of
thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity simultaneously (Choi, 1986). It has been employed
in many food applications due to its experimental short time, simplicity, low cost, and adequacy
for small sample sizes (Voudouris, 1994).
The evaluation of thermal properties of new materials is quite important. For several of
their engineering applications in microscopic or macroscopic structures, for instance, we need to
know how they are able to dissipate heat. The same is true for those systems suitable for the
recovery or storage of energy. Besides this necessity of measuring the thermal properties of new
component materials, the study and development of relevant experimental methods are quite
important for researchers and students of engineering schools too. Understanding these intrinsic
properties would help in choosing the right materials to manage heat flows.
The following thermal properties will be reviewed
1. Thermal Conductivity
2. Thermal Diffusivity
3. Thermal Effusivity

2.2.1 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity (often denoted k, or λ) is the property of a material

to conduct heat. It is evaluated primarily in terms of Fourier's Law for heat conduction.

6
 Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate across materials of low thermal conductivity than
across materials of high thermal conductivity. Correspondingly, materials of high thermal
conductivity are widely used in heat sink applications and materials of low thermal conductivity
are used as thermal insulation. The thermal conductivity of a material may depend on
temperature. The reciprocal of thermal conductivity is called thermal resistivity.
Thermal conductivity is actually a tensor, which means it is possible to have different
values in different directions.
Thermal conductivity is an important parameter for modeling thermal processes including
cooking, drying, sterilization, pasteurization, chilling, and freezing. Such models allow for
process optimization to improve quality and efficiency. A significant number of thermal
conductivity data for minimally processed foods may be found in the literature; however, there
can be significant variation in published data for a given food product, and it is often difficult to
analyze the data since one or more relevant factors such as the food’s composition, the
measurement temperature, or measurement technique are not always stated within the article.
This is particularly relevant for particulate foods, where the bulk density or porosity is often not
reported.

2.2.2 Thermal Diffusivity

Thermal diffusivity is a combination of physical properties (conductivity, density,

and specific heat capacity) (λ/ρcp) denoted by κ, naturally arising in the derivation of
the conduction equation and having physical significance in the context of transient conduction
processes. It may be regarded as the ratio of the Thermal Conductivity of a material to the
specific heat capacity of that material. Values of thermal diffusivity are often calculated from the
widely available data on density (ρ), and specific heat capacity (Cp), but directly determined
values are also available. Data values can be found in Touloukian and Ho (1977), an extensive
databank compiled by the Thermophysical Properties Research Center at Purdue University and
continually extended and updated by CINDAS at the same university. Other readily available
databooks are those by Kaye and Laby (1986) and Perry (1984). Experimental methods for the
determination of thermal diffusivity and conductivity of solids, liquids, and gases are described

7
by Tye (1969). Thermal diffusivity values for gases show a strong dependence on temperature
and pressure; methods for estimating thermal diffusivity (κ) values at temperature /pressure
values outside tabulated ranges are described by Reid et al. (1987).

2.2.3 Thermal Effusivity

In Thermodynamics, the thermal effusivity of a material is defined as the square

root of the product of the material's thermal conductivity and its volumetric heat capacity.

1 2.1
𝑒 = (𝑘𝜌𝑐𝑝 )2

Here, k is the thermal conductivity, 𝜌 is the density and 𝑐𝑝 is the specific heat capacity.
The product of 𝜌 and 𝑐𝑝 is known as the volumetric heat capacity.

A material's thermal effusivity is a measure of its ability to exchange thermal energy with
its surroundings.

If two semi-infinite bodies initially at temperatures T1 and T2 are brought in perfect

thermal contact, the temperature at the contact surface Tm will be given by their relative
effusivities.

𝑒2 2.2
𝑇𝑚 = 𝑇1 + (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
(𝑒2 + 𝑒1 )

This expression is valid for all times for semi-infinite bodies in perfect thermal contact. It
is also a good first guess for the initial contact temperature for finite bodies

8
2.3 Methods of Measuring Thermal Properties

The thermal conductivity, 𝒌, and the thermal diffusivity, k , are heat transport properties
(unlike quantities such as the specific heat, c, and enthalpy, H, which are properties of state). In
order to measure 𝑘 and a, the sample must be subjected to a heat flow whose pattern is known.
The temperature field generated by the heat flow is described by the Fourier heat
equation
𝜕𝑇 2.3
𝜌𝑐 = ∇(𝑘∇𝑇)
𝜕𝑡

with the initial and boundary conditions appropriate to the experimental situation.
𝜕𝑇
Under steady-state conditions, the partial derivative is zero and equation 2.3 reduces
𝜕𝑡

to Laplace’s equation

∇(𝑘∇𝑇) = 0 2.4

involving only thermal conductivity (k); therefore the properties density, 𝜌 and Specific
heat capacity, Cp have no bearing on the temperature field. It follows that steady-state methods
can determine only thermal conductivity k.
𝜕𝑇
Under transient conditions is not zero and therefore all the properties, 𝜌, Cp
𝜕𝑡

and k influence the temperature field. It follows that transient methods can determine both k and
the product 𝜌Cp and therefore also the thermal diffusivity, k.

2.4 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity

There are a number of ways to measure thermal conductivity. Each of these is suitable for
a limited range of materials, depending on the thermal properties and the medium temperature.
There is a distinction between steady-state and transient techniques.
In general, steady-state techniques are useful when the temperature of the material does
not change with time. This makes the signal analysis straightforward (steady state implies

9
constant signals). The disadvantage is that a well-engineered experimental setup is usually
needed. The Divided Bar (various types) is the most common device used for consolidated rock
solids.
The measurement of Thermal Conductivity will be discussed with regards to solid, liquid
and gases.

2.4.1 Thermal Conductivity Measurement of Solids

Thermal conductivity (denoted as 𝑘, or 𝜆) measures the heat conducting capability

of a material. As shown in Figure 2.1, it can be defined as the thermal energy (heat) 𝑄
transmitted through a length or thickness 𝐿, in the direction normal to a surface area 𝐴, under a
steady-state temperature difference 𝑇ℎ−𝑇𝑐.

Fig. 2.1 Definition of thermal conductivity of a solid bulk material using Fourier’s law of
heat conduction. Temperature at the left and right sides are 𝑇ℎ and 𝑇𝑐, respectively. Heat transfer
cross-sectional area is denoted by 𝐴. The heat flow is assumed to be one-dimensional with no
lateral heat loss.

10
2.4.1 Transient plane source method

Fig 2.2 TPS sensor, model Hot Disk 4922, spiral radius about 15 mm

Transient Plane Source Method, utilizing a plane sensor and a special mathematical model
describing the heat conductivity, combined with electronics, enables the method to be used to
measure Thermal Transport Properties. It covers a thermal conductivity range of at least 0.01-
500 W/m/K (in accordance with ISO 22007-2) and can be used for measuring various kinds of
materials, such as solids, liquid, paste and thin films etc. In 2008 it was approved as an ISO-
standard for measuring thermal transport properties of polymers (November 2008). This TPS
standard also covers the use of this method to test both isotropic and anisotropic materials.

The Transient Plane Source technique typically employs two samples halves, in-between which
the sensor is sandwiched. Normally the samples should be homogeneous, but extended use of
transient plane source testing of heterogeneous material is possible, with proper selection of
sensor size to maximize sample penetration. This method can also be used in a single-sided
configuration, with the introduction of a known insulation material used as sensor support.
The flat sensor consists of a continuous double spiral of electrically conducting nickel (Ni)
metal, etched out of a thin foil. The nickel spiral is situated between two layers of
thin polyimide film Kapton. The thin Kapton films provide electrical insulation and mechanical
stability to the sensor. The sensor is placed between two halves of the sample to be measured.
During the measurement a constant electrical effect passes through the conducting spiral,
increasing the sensor temperature. The heat generated dissipates into the sample on both sides of
the sensor, at a rate depending on the thermal transport properties of the material. By recording
temperature vs. time response in the sensor, the thermal conductivity, thermal diffusivity and
specific heat capacity of the material can be calculated. For highly conducting materials, very
large samples are needed (some liters of volume).

11
2.4.2 Thermal Conductivity Measurement of Liquids

The transient plane source method explained above can be used to measure the
Thermal Conductivity of liquids.

2.5 Measurement of Thermal Diffusivity

Thermal Diffusivity Measurement of Solids

Dickerson (1965) as described by Bairi, Laraqi, and Garcia de Maria (2007) usually
measures the Thermal diffusivity of a material using the transient method. However, the flash
method and the pulse method of measuring thermal diffusivity of a solid substance (sheanut
kernel) were reviewed in this report.

2.5.1 The Flash Method

The Flash Method is the most widely used method for determining thermal diffusivity. It
is fast and gives accurate and reproducible results. In this method, the sample is first stabilized at
a certain temperature T0. Once this is done, an instantaneous, high-energy pulse from a laser
source or a discharge pump irradiates the front face of the sample. The increase in temperature
with time, DT(t), on the sample’s rear surface is measured. Then the thermal diffusivity can be
calculated from the thermogram given in Fig. 1 below.

Fig. 2.3 Schematic of the Flash Method

12
 The typical shapes of the temperature rise curves under different experimental conditions
are illustrated in Fig. 2. With an increase in heat loss, the temperature on the back surface of the
sample goes down after reaching a peak as shown in curves B and C. In case of no heat loss, the
rear surface temperature of the sample will attain a peak maximum and stay therefore an
indefinite time period as depicted in curve A.

Fig. 2.4 Temperature increase for various experimental conditions

Advantages of the Flash Method

The key advantages of the Flash Method are as follows:
1. Small sample size - diameter 12 mm and thickness a few millimeters
2. Measurement is done within a few seconds
3. A wide range (10-3 to 10 cm2/s) of thermal diffusivities can be determined
using a single device
4. Other thermos-physical parameters such as thermal conductivity and
specific heat can also be measured using this method, under certain conditions
5. Samples can be tested up to higher temperatures than would otherwise be
possible by steady-state methods

13
 Disadvantages of the Flash Method
Some disadvantages of using the Flash Method are as follows:
1. Expensive instruments are often needed due to optical detection,
generation of the heat pulse, and high-speed acquisition of data.
Extra care should be taken in processing thermo-grams in the case of non-homogeneous
and porous materials.

2.5.2 The Pulse method

In two recent papers, Parker et al. have described a method of measuring the
thermal diffusivity of a thermally insulating material, which involves exposing a thin slab of the
material to a very short pulse of radiant (or another form of) energy. Their theoretical analysis of
the method is not applicable to very high temperatures (values greater than 10000 to 25000K,
depending on the slab thickness, the thermal conductivity of the sample, and the surface loss
rate) because of thermal radiation or other losses from the surfaces. In a third paper, they
consider the case of energy loss from one slab surface only; their equations are obtained from a
heat-flow problem discussed by Carslaw and Jaeger, who discuss the case of equal heat losses
from the two slab surfaces.

2.5.3 Transient Heat Conduction method

In transient heat conduction, the rate at which heat diffuses through a solid material is
controlled by the thermal diffusivity, α, of the material. The test sample is heated in a
temperature-controlled medium, and the temperature-time history is recorded. Thermal
diffusivity is calculated from the slope of the logarithm of dimensionless temperature versus
time. This procedure is based on the solution of the differential equation for transient heat
conduction in solids and has been applied to foodstuffs by Thompson (1919), Ball (1923) and
Gane (1936). (Gordon, 1990).

14
 Fig. 2.5 Transient heat conduction method apparatus

The thermal diffusivity measuring apparatus which is shown schematically in Fig. 2.3
above, consists of a water bath with a capacity of 15.8 litres, a cylindrical sample holder,
thermocouples and temperature measuring equipment. The water bath which is equipped with a
thermostat and 1.5 kW heating element, is stirred and maintained at constant temperature. The
sample holder tube consists of a chromium-plated brass cylinder, with a radius of 2.5 cm and
length 18.8 cm and two Teflon end caps of 1.5 cm length each. Chromium-plated brass was
chosen for the combined requirements of high thermal conductivity and rigidity, the chromium
plating has excellent food particle release characteristics without impairing heat transfer and also
affords protection from the corrosive effect of acidic foods. The radius of the tube was chosen to
be large enough to yield a measurable temperature difference between the centre and the surface
of the sample and small enough to eliminate the initial temperature transient. Teflon was used for
the end caps, as it has a thermal diffusivity of 1.075 x 10 -7 m2/s which approximates that of the
foods that are being evaluated. Thus, the length "𝑙" subjected to constant temperature boundary
condition should include the length of the two end caps and be taken as 21.8 cm. T-type
thermocouples, soldered to the outside surface of the cylinder, monitor the temperature of the
sample at radius R. Another T-type thermocouple of 0.2 mm in diameter consists of a thin
hypodermic probe protruding into the material sample and is located at the center of the tube.

15
 Fig. 2.6 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples.

The assembly procedure of the thermal diffusivity tube consists of inserting an end cap
and filling the tube with the food sample. Then, the other cap is positioned in place and the
thermocouple probe is inserted to full immersion before screwing the tube tightly shut. This
ensures the proper radial positioning of the center thermocouple which is sufficiently long for
proper longitudinal positioning of the temperature sensitive part of the probe.

16
 Fig. 2.7 ln of the temperature difference between center and surface temperatures versus
time for bulgur.

With the sample and caps, surface and centre thermocouples in place, the entire assembly
is positioned in the constant temperature water bath. All the thermocouples are connected to a
data logger which was set up to simultaneously read and record the temperatures every 5 minutes
with a precision of 0.1°C, see Fig.2.4. Each experimental run takes between one to two hours.
The natural log of the temperature difference between the constant surface temperature and
temperature at the centre is plotted versus time and the slope B of this graph is determined using
linear regression, see Fig. 2.5. Thermal diffusivity is then calculated from the slope B according
to the equation:

𝛼 = 1.057 × 10−4 𝐵 2.5

Each measurement is repeated five times and the average values and standard deviations
are reported. (Tavman et. al., 1997).

17
2.5.4 The Thermal Wave Interferometry method (TWI)

Thermal Wave Interferometry is a well-established technique for the measurement of the

thermal diffusivity of coatings and thin slabs. As a matter of fact, the propagation of thermal
waves with angular frequency ω generated within two layers solid is affected by the interface
between the first and the second layers. In particular thermal waves are partially reflected and
transmitted at the separation surface of the two different materials like conventional waves. The
interference between propagating and reflected waves alters the phase and the amplitude of the
ac component of the surface temperature.
2.6

Where
ℎ = 𝐿⁄𝜇 is the normalized thickness of the first layer.
𝜀 −𝜀
𝐵 = 𝜀1 +𝜀2 is the thermal wave reflection coefficient at the interface where subscripts 1
1 2

and 2 refer to first and the second layer respectively.

2𝛼1
𝜇=√ is the thermal diffusion length and represents the depth where the initial
𝜔

magnitude of the thermal wave reduces by a 1/e factor.

Experimentally, the evaluation of the thermal diffusivity α of the first layer can be
performed by fitting the experimental data acquired at different modulation frequencies with one
of the two expressions of eqn. 2.6. Phase measurement is usually preferred to the amplitude one
because it is less sensitive to the optical features of the sample surface as well as to laser power
variation during the measurement. As an example, Fig. 2.6 shows theoretical curves for phase as
a function of the normalized coating thickness h for R values ranging between -1 and 1.

18
 Fig. 2.8 Phase of the ac component of temperature versus the normalised thickness h for
different values of the reflection coefficient R ranging from -1 to 1 (in the sense of the arrow)

Fig. 2.9 TWI experimental set-up

Fig. 2.9 shows the TWI experimental set-up: the heating source is a 5W Ar ion laser
(Spectra Physics 2020). The intensity was modulated using a high stability mechanical chopper

19
(HMS ElektroniK mod. 220-RG). The laser beam was expanded on the sample surface in order
to guarantee the one-dimensional approximation. The monitoring of the ac-component of the
surface temperature was performed by an Hg1-xCdxTe infrared detector (EG&G Judson,). The
signal was amplified by a dc-coupled low noise trans-impedance preamplifier and then by a lock-
in amplifier (EG&G mod. 5501). A time averaging procedure with statistic treatment of the data
and subsequent coating thermal diffusivity evaluation was performed under the control of a
proprietary PC program. (Cernuschi, 2000).

2.5.5 The Calorimetric Method

Description

In this method (Hatta, Kato, and Maesono, 1986), a part of a thin sample is shadowed by
a mask from chopped light irradiation and then periodic thermal energy is imparted to the
remaining part of the thin sample. The ac temperature at a position of the sample lying under the
mask is detected by a fine thermocouple attached to the sample. To obtain the thermal diffusivity
parallel to the plane surface of the thin sample (case A), the ac temperature T is measured as a
function of the distance x between the positions of the thermocouple and the edge of the mask.
The relation of |IT| against x is given as

|TI| = (Q/2wcd) exp(-kx) (1)

where k is the thermal decay constant, which is defined as

(w/2D) ½, w is the angular frequency of the periodic heating

Q is the amplitude of the applied thermal-energy flux per unit area

c is the heat capacity of the sample per unit volume

d is the thickness of the sample

D is the thermal diffusivity of the sample. Frequently k is called the thermal wave
number or 1/k is called the thermal diffusion length. From the decay constant given in Eq. (1),
one can determine the value of thermal diffusivity. In order to treat the thermal system as a one-
dimensional system, the thickness of the sample should satisfy the following condition:

20
 kd__<0.1, (2)

that is, the thickness d should be smaller than 10% of the thermal diffusion length 1/k.
Then, the maximum thickness at 1 Hz is 2 mm for a diamond type IIa crystal, 0.6 mm for copper,
0.2 mm for a sapphire crystal, 0.05 mm for glass, 0.02 mm for polystyrene, etc. From the above
consideration, one can perform the measurement on almost any kind of thin material. In addition,
the size of the thermocouple for the ac temperature measurement should be smaller than the
thermal diffusion length. It is worthwhile to point out that the addenda used for the attachment of
the thermocouple do not affect the determination of the thermal diffusivity (Hatta, Kato, and
Maesono 1986). From this viewpoint, this method has the advantage that the measurement is not
influenced by contacting a temperature sensor. In this measurement, the ac temperature is
observed using a lock-in amplifier with which, notwithstanding the periodic deformation in the
shape, only the fundamental sine-wave component is detected. Therefore, the deformation of
waves does not affect the measurement at all. The contributions of the inhomogeneity of the
spatial distribution of the imparted thermal energy and of the obscureness of the imparted
thermal energy at the edge of the mask should be considered. The profile of the imparted thermal
energy should be flat over a wider region. compared to the distance x required for the
measurement. The obscureness does not affect the measurement if the mask is moved beyond the
distance corresponding to the obscured region. This method can also be applied to a multilayer
material as far as the following condition is satisfied:

ki di < l (3)

where ki means k of the ith layer and d~ is the thickness of the ith layer. Under the
condition of Eq. (3), we can obtain the thermal diffusivity of such a composite material (case A}.
The overall thermal diffusivity is given

as

D = E ci Di di /E ci di (4)

where ci and Di are c and D for the ith layer, respectively. In the case where a sample is
not optically opaque, the surface of the sample should be coated so as to absorb the optical
energy at the surface. The measurement in the coated sample corresponds to that in a bilayer

21
material, in which the thermal diffusivity is given by Eq. (4) with I = 1 and 2. The measurement
of thermal diffusivity perpendicular to the surface of a thin material (case B) has been achieved
in principle. But delicate care should be paid for carrying out the measurement at present.

2.5.5.1 Application of the calorimetric method of measuring thermal diffusivity

1. It can be applied to the correction of the edge effect of a CVD diamond film

In the thermal diffusivity measurement of a CVD diamond film using an ac calorimetric

method (Yuqin Gu and I. Hatta,1991), the reflection of an ac temperature wave at the edge of the
film sample should be considered due to the limited length of the sample and its high thermal
diffusivity, i.e., the edge effect. In this case, the measured thermal diffusivity is given as a
function of frequency. The relation between the measured thermal diffusivity and the frequency
is represented as an analytical expression. The real thermal diffusivity is obtained by correcting
the edge effect by two means. One is an iterative method using the directly measured edge length
of the sample to fit the analytical expression. The other is a parameter estimation method by
which a simplex method is used to estimate the edge length and the real thermal diffusivity.
Thermal diffusivities of two diamond films were measured, and data were analysed using the
above methods. The result shows that the parameter estimation method is relatively accurate and
convenient in processing test data.

2.5.6 The Mirage-Effect Method

Description

A mirage-effect thermal-wave method has been first applied to the thermal diffusivity
measurements of a bulk material ( Rousset and Lepoutre, (1982). Kuo Lin, Reyes, Favro,
Thomas, Kim,. Zhang, Inglehart, Fournier, and Boccara,1986). The working principle is similar
to that in the ac calorimetric method (Kuo Lin, Reyes, Favro, Thomas, Kim, Zhang, Inglehart,
Fournier, and Boccara,1986) or to that in the photoacoustic method (Rousset and Lepoutre,
1982). For the ac temperature detection, the deflection of a probe optical beam is used. The
method related to the photoacoustic method has been extended to the measurement of a thin

22
material deposited on a substrate (case C). In comparison to the photoacoustic method, this
method has the advantage that the measurement can be performed over a wide frequency range,

∞
2𝑄 ((2𝑛 − 1)𝐿)2 1 2𝑟 2 2.11
𝑇(𝑟, 𝐿, 𝑡) = ∑ exp [− ] 2 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− 2 ]
𝜀√𝜋 3 𝑡 𝑛=−∞ 4𝛼𝑡 (𝑅 + 8𝛼𝑡) (𝑅 + 8𝛼𝑡)

and the detection of the periodic deflection due to the temperature oscillation is rather easy since
the sample cell is not necessarily closed as is in the case of the photoacoustic method. In this
method, the ac thermal energy is imparted uniformly over the surface of an opaque sample and

1 1 2𝑟 2 2.12
𝑒𝑅 2 +8𝛼𝑡
2𝜋 (𝑅 2 + 8𝛼𝑡)

the probe beam passes close to the surface in a parallel direction to it. When one measures the
thermal diffusivity of a thin material deposited on a substrate, a high-frequency measurement is
required. In this measurement, the size of the probe beam affects the spatial resolution of the ac
temperature detection. To avoid this problem a method using two-phase measurements has been
developed ( Roger, Lepoutre, D. Fournier and Boccara 1987). The measurement of the periodic
deflection has been done, for instance, in a CuInS% film of 3.5/~m thick evaporated on a glass at
frequencies up to a few kilohertz. ( Roger, Lepoutre, D. Fournier and Boccara 1987).

2.5.7 The Thermographic Method

The temperature on the rear (z=L) surfaces of an infinite slab after an instantaneous
spatially Gaussian shaped heating on the front (z=0) is;
The spatial distribution of the temperature is a function of the distance r from the spot
center for the rear slab surface at different times. Computations have been performed by using
2 1/2
the thermal effusivity and thermal diffusivity values of AISI304 stainless steel (ε=8049J/m s K
-4 2
α=0.04*10 m /s) and fixing the beam radius R= 5mm and slab thickness L=1mm. The term:
In Eq.(2.11) is related to the finite size of the heating beam and it is used for the measurement of
the in-plane thermal diffusivity. In particular the proposed technique consists in best fitting, at
some times, the spatial profile of the temperature along a line passing through the center of the
heated spot on the rear sample surface (but a similar procedure could be followed for the front
surface as well) by using a Gaussian function; in fact the shape of the temperature profile at
every fixed time depends only on the Gaussian term in Eq.(2.12). The angular coefficient of the

23
straight line describing the Gaussian widening as a function of time is eight times the thermal
diffusivity of the material:
Note that neither initial time nor beam radius nor sample thickness estimation was required.
The experimental set-up consists of a 1000W continuous lamp (PSC 1000 ILC Technology Inc.
CA) electronically shuttered as the heating source and of an infrared Jade Focal Plane Array
camera (CEDIP, France) sensitive in the spectral range 8-10mm for monitoring the surface
temperature distribution of the sample. The sample was a 30x30cm AISI304 stainless steel plate
1.7mm thick.

2.5.7 The Picosecond Time-Resolved Thermoreflectance Method

Using the criteria that reflectance of metals changes linearly with temperature, one can
detect the temperature change on the surface of metals. When an instantaneous thermal energy, is
imparted to the surface of a bulk material, (Carslaw and Jaeger, 1959). For a typical metal
(D=0.15cm2.s 1), the heat imparted to the surface diffuses a distance of 55 nm after 200 ps.
Thus, the measurement of the surface temperature within the above time interval yields the
thermal diffusivity in the above distance. Therefore, this method can be used for measurements
in a single-layer material on a substrate, for instance, a 30-nm nickel film deposited over a 300-
nm-thick copper under layer and in a multilayer film, for instance, a -Ni-Cu-Ni-Cu- multilayer
with a composition modulation wavelength of 8 nm (Clemens et al, 1988). The results give rise

𝑏 2 = 𝑅 2 + 8𝛼𝑡 2.13
to an understanding of electron scattering and transport across a metallic boundary. As discussed
in the subsection on the flash method, the shape of a heating pulse affects considerably the shape
of the response. Since the full width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the pulse is about 4ps
(Paddock 1986), the problem related to its actual shape is more serious than that in the flash
method. Therefore, one cannot introduce a shift only with a small correction. In this case, the raw
data have been used to solve directly the one- dimensional heat conduction equation, assuming a
Gaussian-shaped heating pulse, for instance, with the FWHM of 4 ps. An analysis has been
performed using the data taken beyond a time delay of approximately five pulse widths (about 20
ps) after the arrival of the heating pulse (Clemens et al, 1988), From such a procedure, one
obtains the thermal diffusivity, although a lot of ambiguous points still remain in this analyses. In
this method, the heating pulse and the probe laser pulse are used, and therefore, the measurement

24
is carried out in a noncontact way. Since the energy supplied by the heating pulse is absorbed in
a volume roughly 20~um in diameter and 15 nm in depth, the rather large aspect ratio of the
heated volume permits a one-dimensional treatment of the heat flow (Clemens et al, 1988).

2.6 Measurement of Thermal Effusivity

Direct measurement of thermal effusivity can be performed via specialty sensors, as

pictured below.

Fig. 2.10 Thermal effusivity sensor typically used in the direct measurement of materials.

2.7 Effect of Particle Sizes on Thermal Properties

The transfer of thermal energy from one material to another is highly dependent of the
size of the material, and the geometry of the material must be considered as well. In this section,
the effect of particle sizes on both thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of Nano-
materials, and other seed food were reviewed.

2.7.1 Thermal Conductivity Dependence on Particle sizes

A theoretical model has been developed for the calculation of the thermal conductivity of
nanomaterials with different shapes, such as spherical Nano-solids, nanowires and Nano-films,
based on size-dependent atomic cohesive energy. Thermal conductivity of Nano-solids with
different shapes decreased as the grain size decreased.

25
 The thermal conductivity of pumpkin seeds was found to increase linearly with increase
in the moisture content has observed from the experiment carried out by (H. Kocabiyik1 , B.
Kayisoglu2 , and D. Tezer1 on the effect of moisture content on thermal properties of pumpkin
seeds. 2009).
Irtwange and Igbeka (1995) found that the thermal conductivity of African yam bean
varied from 0.217 to 0.302 W m−1 K−1 in the moisture content range of 4–16%. Tavman (2002)
found that the thermal conductivity of three varieties of wheat increased linearly with the
increase in the moisture content in a range of the 9.17–38.65%. Subramanian and Viswanathan
(2005) reported that the thermal conductivity of six types of millet and their flour increased
linearly with the increase in the moisture content in the range of 10–30%. Similarly, a linear
relationship was found between thermal conductivity and moisture content for borage seed, for
rough rice, for corn, sunflower, wheat and, barley for cumin seed, for parchment coffee bean,
and for beans
Hence, since the moisture content of a solid material has a linear relationship with the
bulk density (Kshirod R. Bhattacharya, in Rice Quality, 2013), it can, therefore be deduced also
that there exists a direct relationship between the thermal conductivity, moisture content, and the
particle size of a solid material.
It is clear that the lower thermal conductivity results in slowing the drying process
(Nouri Jangi et al., 2011). The difference in thermal conductivity may be attributed to the
variation in chemical composition, structure (porosity, pore size, shape, arrangement of different
phases, such as air, water, solids) and processing conditions (temperature, pressure)
(Gharibzahedi et al., 2013)

2.7.2 Thermal Diffusivity Dependence on Particle sizes of Sheanut kernel

Over the years, little to no research has been carried out on the effect of particle size on
the thermal diffusivity of sheanut kernel or crushed sheanut kernel. However, different journals
and articles have been published on the effect of particle size on the thermal diffusivity of other
food seeds, some of which were reviewed in this report in order to draw an approximate
conclusion to the results this research project would yield.

26
 The Thermal diffusivity of different sizes of jatropha curcas L. kernels were found to
decrease with decreasing particle sizes as reported from the experiment carried out by Pamanas
and Jetsada in their research paper (Pamanas, 2012). The results obtained from thermal
diffusivities of chickpea (Kotwaliwale, 2008), papaya (C. papaya L.) and sheanut seed (Aviara,
2001) were also found to be similar.
In addition, it has been observed that the thermal diffusivity of cowpea flour increases as
the moisture content increases. Increasing moisture content had a significant effect on thermal
diffusivity, (Mahapatra, Melton, and Isang. 2013). Effect of moisture content on thermal
properties of cowpea flours. Agric Eng Int: CIGR Journal, 15(2): 251－255.)

27
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the methods that was be used to obtain the Data for the experiment
on the effect of particle size on the thermal diffusivity of crushed sheanut kernel. As discussed in
Chapter 1 & 2, after a clear understanding of the theoretical background and considering the
equipment available at the department laboratory, the “Transient Heat Conduction Method” was
employed to carry out the analysis of the thermal diffusivity of crushed sheanuts.

3.2 Materials and Apparatus

The following materials will be used to carry out the experiment;
1. The sheanut kernel samples
2. Water bath
3. Thermocouples
4. Measuring instruments
5. American standard sieves
6. Weighing balance
7. Data Logger
8. Heat source (camp LPG burner)
9. Glass beaker (500ml)
10. Nuts crusher
11. Water
12. Heater
13. Tube
1 Sheanut Samples Preparation
The shea-butter nut samples to be used to carry out this experiment was obtained from a
market in Lagos. The nuts were crushed into smaller particle sizes (to obtain the kernels) using
the fabricated grinder provided in the laboratory. The samples were divided into five batches and
crushed, with some of the batches repeatedly crushed for further particle size reduction.

28
2. Water Bath
A water bath is laboratory equipment made from a container filled with heated water. It
is used to incubate samples in water at a constant temperature over a long period of time. All
water baths have a digital or an analogue interface to allow users to set a desired temperature.
3. Thermocouples
A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature. Thermocouples consist of two
wire legs made from different metals. The wires legs are welded together at one end, creating a
junction. This junction is where the temperature is measured. When the junction experiences a
change in temperature, a voltage is created.
4. Measuring Instruments and Auxiliary Materials
Various measurements like moisture content, weight and temperature were made using
the following instruments
1. OHAUS Moisture Analyser: The MB45 OHAUS Moisture Analyser was manufactured by
Ohaus Corporation, New Jersey, U.S.A. The moisture analyser works with the principle of
thermogravimetry i.e. moisture is determined by the weight loss of the sample dried by
heating. Technical details include

Maximum Capacity 45 g

Readability 0.001 g, 0.01%

Results Moisture (%), dry content (%), Wt (g), Regain (%)

Temperature Range 50 ⁰C to 200 ⁰C

Heat Source Halogen

Calibration External calibration mass-20 g

Dimensions (D by W by H) (in) 14 by 7.5 by 6

Pan size 90 mm

Power load Maximum 450 W during process

Current consumption 2 A to 4 A

29
 Power Supply Voltage 200 V – 250 V, 50/60 Hz

2. OHAUS Weighing Balance: The PA 4102 OHAUS Weighing Balance will be used to take
weight measurements of the carrot samples before drying. It is manufactured by Ohaus
Corporation, New Jersey, U.S.A. The balance has a readability of 0.01 g and maximum load
of 4100 g.
3. Digital Thermometer: The digital thermometer used is a 5 digit display, double reading
thermometer with model number 6802 II. The thermometer uses two detachable probes each
with a positive and negative terminal.
4. USB Thermocouple (with computer data logging): The thermocouple was used to measure
the temperature variation of the drying carrots with time by contacting the drying carrots with
a flexible probe and sending the readings to a computer through a USB connection. The
thermocouple is manufactured by PC Sensor.com with model number TEMPer1K4.
The following materials were support materials during the experiment.
1. Sample Bottles: The crushed sheanuts samples will be collected in plastic jars with plastic
caps each of 10 ml volume.
2. Extractor Fan: A HVAC type fan of model number YZF 5-13 was used to remove overhead
air-vapour from the top of the dryer. The fan rotates at 1300/1800 rpm and uses A.C. voltage
of 200-250 V-50/60 Hz and was positioned beside the Refractance Widow dryer.
5. American standard sieves (ASTME)

The system typically use meshes or perforated plates to give an aperture that separates
based on particle size. The vibration is generated by an ‘out-of-balance’ vibratory motor. The
motors are set up so the vibration moves product across the screening area, and eventually
towards the outlets. This action means the screening area is continually being cleared, allowing
more product to be processed.

ASTME conforms to ASTME 11 standard. The nominal aperture of these sieves range
from 20 micrometres to 200 millimetres, however these sieves have only 8 inches (203mm) and
12 inches (305 mm) diameter sizes.

30
Fig 3.1 Standard Test Sieves

3. Data logger
A data logger is an electronic device that records data over time or in relation to location
either with a built-in instrument or sensor or via external instruments and sensors. Increasingly,
but not entirely, they are based on a digital processor (or computer).

3.3 Experimental Methods

The following are explained here
1. Sieve Analysis
2. Experimental set-up and experimentation

31
3.3.1 Sieve Analysis

Fig 3.2 A mechanical shaker used for sieve analysis

A sieve analysis (or gradation test) is a practice or procedure used to assess the particle size
distribution (also called gradation) of a granular material. The analysis can be performed on any
type of non-organic or organic granular materials including sands, crushed rocks, granites, a
wide range of manufactured powders, grain and seeds, down to a minimum size depending on
the exact method. It is the most common as it is such a simple technique of particle sizing.

3.3.1.2 Procedure

A crushed sheanut kernel sample is weighed and poured into the top sieve which has the
largest screen openings. Each lower sieve in the column has smaller openings than the one
above. At the base was a round pan, called the receiver.
The column is typically placed in a mechanical shaker. The shaker shakes the column, for
a period of 5 minutes. After shaking, the materials on each sieve was weighed. The weight of the
sample of each sieve was then divided by the total weight to give a percentage retained on each

32
sieve. The size of the average on each sieve was then analyzed to get a cut-off point or specific
size range.

3.3.2 Experimental Set-up and Experimentation

The set-up consists of the water bath, a cylindrical samples holder which will contain the
crushed sheanuts kernel samples prepared, thermocouples and temperature measuring
equipment. The water bath which was equipped with a thermostat was stirred and maintained at
constant temperature. T-type thermocouples, soldered to the outside surface of the cylinder,
monitors the temperature of the sample at radius R, Another T-type thermocouple of 0.2mm in
diameter consists of a thin hypodermic probe protruding into the material sample and is located
at the center of the tube.
The assembly procedure of the thermal diffusivity tube consists of inserting an end cap
and filling the tube with crushed sheanuts kernel samples prepared. Then, the other cap will be
positioned in place and the thermocouple probe is inserted to full immersion before screwing the
tube tightly shut. This will ensure the proper radial positioning of the center thermocouple, which
was sufficiently long for proper longitudinal positioning of the temperature sensitive part of the
probe.
With the crushed sheanuts kernel samples and caps, surface and center thermocouple in
place, the entire assembly was positioned in a constant temperature water bath. All the
thermocouples were connected to a data logger, which was set up to simultaneously read and
record the temperatures every five (5) minutes with a precision of 20oC.
Each experimental run was taken between one to two hours.

33
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter gives information about all the data gotten from the different phases of the
experiment which are presented in tables. Table 4.1 presents the experimental drying data 3mm
sliced carrots. Graphical plots such as the temperature versus time as well as the diffusion rate
curves which help show the correlation between the different parameters are also presented and
discussed. The result of the effect of heat from the constant temperature water bath to the
crushed sheanuts content in the cylinder at two different temperatures were also discussed.

Results of regression analysis are presented with information on models that give the best
fits only reported. Detailed regression results will be found in Appendix B. For the best fitting
model to the experimental data of each sheanut size sample the regression results presented are
Coefficient of Multiple Determination (R2) and Sum of Squared of Errors (SSE).

4.2 Results

Table in the appendix presents the experimental temperatures data for different particle
sizes of crushed sheanuts at temperatures 600C & 700C. Graphical plots such as the constant
water-bath temperature versus time as well as the natural logarithmic temperature difference
between the constant wall temperature [In (Ts-Tc)] versus time curves both at 600C & 700C,
which help show the correlation between the different parameters are also presented and
discussed. Results for the different masses of crushed sheanuts varying particle sizes is also
presented. Detailed regression results will be found in the simulated graphs.

Temperature: 60-70 degrees Celsius

Contact medium: Transparent Plastic film of 1mm thickness.

34
The R2 value is calculated using the equation 4.1

 ( MRi  MR prev,i ).i 1 ( MRi  MRexp,i )

N N

R  i 1

  
2
4.1
( MRi  MR pre,i ) .  ( MRi  MRexp,i )
N 2 2
i 1

The Chi-square (χ2) is determined using equation 4.2


N
i 1
( MRexp,i  MRpre,i ) 2
χ2= 4.2
N n

4.3 Data Analysis

The data shown in Tale 4.1 to 4.8 are plotted on two different types of axis to obtain the thermal
diffusivity curve and the temperature-time plots in Figure 4.2 and 4.1 respectively.

35
 70

60

50

40
Temp In

30 Temp Wall

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Fig. 4.1 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of <10mesh crushed
sheanuts at 600C.

ln(Ts-Tc)
4.000
3.500
y = -0.0388x + 3.4638
3.000 R² = 0.9951
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

ln(Ts-Tc) Linear (ln(Ts-Tc)) Linear (ln(Ts-Tc))

Fig. 4.2 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center thermocouples
against time of <10mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C.

36
 Chart Title
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Temp In Temp Wall

Fig. 4.3 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 10mesh crushed
sheanuts at 600C.

ln(Ts-Tc)
4.000
3.500
y = -0.0393x + 3.7162
3.000 R² = 0.9859

2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

ln(Ts-Tc) Linear (ln(Ts-Tc)) Linear (ln(Ts-Tc))

Fig. 4.4 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center thermocouples
against time, of 10mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C.

37
 Chart Title
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Temp In Temp Wall

Fig. 4.5 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 10-30mesh
crushed sheanuts at 600C.

ln(Ts-Tc)
4.000
3.500 y = -0.0416x + 3.7328
R² = 0.9822
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

ln(Ts-Tc) Linear (ln(Ts-Tc))

Fig. 4.6 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center thermocouples
against time, of 10-30mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C.

38
 Chart Title
70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Temp In Temp Wall

Fig. 4.7 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 30-60mesh
crushed sheanuts at 600C.

ln(Ts-Tc)
4.000
3.500
y = -0.0401x + 3.7238
3.000 R² = 0.9856
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

ln(Ts-Tc) Linear (ln(Ts-Tc))

Fig. 4.8 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center thermocouples
against time, of 30-60mesh crushed sheanuts at 600C.

39
 Chart Title
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Temp In Temp Wall

Fig. 4.9 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of <10mesh crushed
sheanuts at 700C.

ln(Ts-Tc)
4.500
4.000
y = -0.031x + 3.8518
3.500 R² = 0.992
3.000
2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500
0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Fig. 4.10 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center thermocouples
against time, of <10mesh crushed sheanuts at 700C.

40
 80

70

60

50

40 Temp In
Temp Wall
30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig. 4.11 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 10mesh crushed
sheanuts at 700C.

4.500 y = -0.0323x + 3.849

R² = 0.9876
4.000

3.500

3.000

2.500

2.000

1.500

1.000

0.500

0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Fig. 4.12 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center thermocouples
against time, of 10mesh crushed sheanuts at 700C.

41
 Chart Title
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Temp In Temp Wall

Fig. 4.13 Time – temperature history of the surface and center thermocouples of 10-30mesh
crushed sheanuts at 700C.

ln(Ts-Tc)
4.000
y = -0.0328x + 3.7183
3.500 R² = 0.9888
3.000

2.500

2.000

1.500

1.000

0.500

0.000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Fig. 4.14 Natural logarithmic temperature difference of the surface and center thermocouples
against time, of 10-30mesh crushed sheanuts at 700C.

42
4.4 Estimation of Thermal Diffusivity Graphically

The effective thermal diffusivity for various sizes of crushed sheanuts for both temperatures at
60&700C were estimated from the slope of the graphs of natural logarithmic temperature
difference of the surface and center thermocouples against time.

From equation 2.5 in section 2.0, the effective thermal diffusivity is given by:

𝛼 = 1.057 × 10−4 𝐵 2.5

The effective thermal diffusivities obtained for each of the 8 experiments are compared
with that of the theoretical values:

Table 4.1 Thermal diffusivities values at 600C

Theoretical Thermal Diffusivity Experimental Thermal Diffusivity
0
Mesh sizes values at 60 C values at 600C
<10 6.84x10-8 6.80047x10-8
10 6.92x10-8 6.88811x10-8
-8
10-30 7.06x10 7.03x10-8
30-60 7.33x10-8 7.29x10-8
As can be seen in the above table, an increase in the size of crushed sheanuts leads to an
increase in the effective thermal diffusivity as is expected. This has also been proven
theoretically as seen in the table column above.

Table 4.2 Thermal diffusivities values at 700C

Theoretical Thermal Diffusivity Experimental Thermal Diffusivity
Mesh sizes values at 700C values at 700C
<10 5.46x10-8 5.43x10-8
10 5.69x10-8 5.66122x10-8
10-30 5.78x10-8 5.75x10-8
30-60 6.55x10-8 6.52004x10-8

43
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION

The temperatures (60&700C) data are as expected with a high conductivity rate at the
beginning which becomes less and less as time progresses, but the maximum temperatures at
both 60&700C were never attained within the intervals of the experiments.
It was also deduced that the thermal diffusivity of most food seeds (sheanuts inclusive)
has an indirect relationship with temperature. As it was seen in tables 4.1 and 4.2 in section 4.0
of this report, both the theoretical and experimental values of the thermal diffusivity of sheanuts
at 600C was relatively higher to those at 700C which justified the utmost difference between
thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of various particle sizes at different temperatures as
explained in the literature review in chapter 2.0 of this report.
Also, the various slopes of the graphs used in the calculations of the thermal diffusivities
in equation 2.5 increases with increase in particle sizes for both temperatures;
𝛼 = 1.057 × 10−4 𝐵 2.5

Therefore, it can be concluded in general that the thermal diffusivities of various food
seeds (sheanuts inclusive) exhibits a linear relationship with particle sizes and an inverse
relationship with increase in temperature.

44
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47
APPENDIX I: TEMPERATURE DATA

48
Appendix 1-1: Temperature Data for <10 mesh, 600C

Table 4.4: Temperature Data for Crushed Sheanuts <10mesh size at 600C
TIME (s) Temperature Outside (Ts) 0C Temperature Inside (Tc) 0C In (Ts-Tc) 0C
0 60.0 28.5 3.450
5 60.0 34.5 3.239
10 60.0 37.8 3.100
15 60.0 40.8 2.955
20 60.0 43.5 2.803
25 60.0 47.0 2.565
30 60.0 50.3 2.272
35 60.0 52.3 2.041
40 60.0 53.8 1.825
45 60.0 54.8 1.649
50 60.0 55.7 1.459
55 60.0 56.5 1.253
60 60.0 57.1 1.065
65 60.0 57.5 0.916
70 60.0 57.7 0.833
75 60.0 58.1 0.642
80 60.0 58.5 0.405

49
Appendix 1-2: Temperature Data for 10mesh, 600C

Table 4.1: Temperature Data for Crushed Sheanuts 10mesh size at 600C
TIME (s) Temperature Outside (Ts) 0C Temperature Inside (Tc) 0C In (Ts-Tc) 0C
0 60.0 28.8 3.440
5 60.0 30.6 3.381
10 60.0 33.3 3.285
15 60.0 36.0 3.178
20 60.0 38.7 3.059
25 60.0 41.6 2.912
30 60.0 45.8 2.653
35 60.0 49.1 2.389
40 60.0 51.0 2.197
45 60.0 52.7 1.988
50 60.0 54.0 1.792
55 60.0 54.8 1.649
60 60.0 55.8 1.435
65 60.0 57.0 1.099
70 60.0 57.5 0.916
75 60.0 58.0 0.693
80 60.0 58.5 0.405

50
Appendix 1-3: Temperature Data for 10-30mesh, 600C

Table 4.3: Temperature Data for Crushed Sheanuts 10-30mesh size at 600C
TIME (s) Temperature Outside (Ts) 0C Temperature Inside (Tc) 0C In (Ts-Tc) 0C
0 60.0 27.8 3.472
5 60.0 30.8 3.374
10 60.0 34.2 3.250
15 60.0 36.6 3.153
20 60.0 39.1 3.040
25 60.0 42.2 2.879
30 60.0 45.3 2.688
35 60.0 48.5 2.442
40 60.0 51.0 2.197
45 60.0 52.5 2.015
50 60.0 54.2 1.758
55 60.0 55.1 1.589
60 60.0 56.8 1.163
65 60.0 57.1 1.065
70 60.0 57.5 0.916
75 60.0 58.1 0.642
80 60.0 58.5 0.405

51
Appendix 1-4: Temperature Data for 30-60mesh, 600C

Table 4.2: Temperature Data for Crushed Sheanuts 30-60mesh size at 600C
TIME (s) Temperature Outside (Ts) 0C Temperature Inside (Tc) 0C In (Ts-Tc) 0C
0 60.0 29.3 3.424
5 60.0 32.2 3.325
10 60.0 34.1 3.254
15 60.0 36.5 3.157
20 60.0 38.9 3.049
25 60.0 41.8 2.901
30 60.0 45.2 2.695
35 60.0 48.6 2.434
40 60.0 51.4 2.152
45 60.0 53.3 1.902
50 60.0 54.6 1.686
55 60.0 55.8 1.435
60 60.0 56.7 1.194
65 60.0 57.4 0.956
70 60.0 57.9 0.742
75 60.0 58.2 0.588
80 60.0 58.7 0.262

52
Appendix 1-5: Temperature Data for <10 mesh, 700C

Table 4.8: Temperature Data for Crushed Sheanuts <10mesh size at 700C
TIME (s) Temperature Outside (Ts) 0C Temperature Inside (Tc) 0C In (Ts-Tc) 0C
0 70.0 26.2 3.780
5 70.0 27.2 3.757
10 70.0 31.5 3.651
15 70.0 36.8 3.503
20 70.0 43.8 3.266
25 70.0 49.5 3.020
30 70.0 53.5 2.803
35 70.0 56.1 2.632
40 70.0 58.3 2.460
45 70.0 60.1 2.293
50 70.0 61.5 2.140
55 70.0 62.7 1.988
60 70.0 63.6 1.856
65 70.0 64.4 1.723
70 70.0 64.9 1.629
75 70.0 65.4 1.526
80 70.0 65.9 1.411

53
Appendix 1-6: Temperature Data for 10mesh, 700C

Table 4.5: Temperature Data for Crushed Sheanuts 10mesh size at 700C
TIME (s) Temperature Outside (Ts) 0C Temperature Inside (Tc) 0C In (Ts-Tc) 0C
0 70.0 26.2 3.780
5 70.0 27.2 3.757
10 70.0 31.5 3.651
15 70.0 36.8 3.503
20 70.0 43.8 3.266
25 70.0 49.5 3.020
30 70.0 53.5 2.803
35 70.0 56.1 2.632
40 70.0 58.3 2.460
45 70.0 60.1 2.293
50 70.0 61.5 2.140
55 70.0 62.7 1.988
60 70.0 63.6 1.856
65 70.0 64.4 1.723
70 70.0 64.9 1.629
75 70.0 65.4 1.526
80 70.0 65.9 1.411

54
Appendix 1-7: Temperature Data for 10-30 mesh, 700C

Table 4.6: Temperature Data for Crushed Sheanuts 10-30mesh size at 700C
TIME (s) Temperature Outside (Ts) 0C Temperature Inside (Tc) 0C In (Ts-Tc) 0C
0 70.0 28.5 3.726
5 70.0 34.2 3.578
10 70.0 39.4 3.421
15 70.0 43.4 3.281
20 70.0 47.5 3.114
25 70.0 51.2 2.934
30 70.0 54.6 2.734
35 70.0 56.5 2.603
40 70.0 59.3 2.370
45 70.0 61.5 2.140
50 70.0 63.2 1.917
55 70.0 64.1 1.775
60 70.0 64.9 1.629
65 70.0 65.2 1.569
70 70.0 65.7 1.459
75 70.0 66.0 1.386
80 70.0 66.5 1.253

55
Appendix 1-8: Temperature Data for 30-60 mesh, 700C

Table 4.7: Temperature Data for Crushed Sheanuts 30-60mesh size at 700C
TIME (s) Temperature Outside (Ts) 0C Temperature Inside (Tc) 0C In (Ts-Tc) 0C
0 70.0 28.3 3.731
5 70.0 29.7 3.696
10 70.0 33.5 3.597
15 70.0 37.1 3.493
20 70.0 41.5 3.350
25 70.0 47.2 3.127
30 70.0 51.6 2.912
35 70.0 54.7 2.728
40 70.0 57.3 2.542
45 70.0 59.2 2.380
50 70.0 60.7 2.230
55 70.0 62.0 2.079
60 70.0 62.5 2.015
65 70.0 63.7 1.841
70 70.0 64.1 1.775
75 70.0 65.4 1.526
80 70.0 65.9 1,411

56
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