An Analysis of Bilingualism in the United States versus the European Union

Nicholas Hart

SFCE 328W: Schools for a Diverse and Democratic Society

Dr. Paul Ramsey

April 20th, 2021

 Introduction

Bilingualism in the United States seems to come solely from those who learned English

as a Second Language. The current American education system does not require students to learn

a foreign language before high school. It is true that adults learn better than children when it

comes to language learning/acquisition, though children are more capable of immersing

themselves than their adult counterparts. Bilingualism has continued to dissipate in the United

States, explained as “Eradication of students’ bilingualism seemed to be the best way for them to

become “good Americans,” so “children were often punished for speaking their L1 in school and

were made to feel ashamed of their own language and cultural background.”1 When viewing

bilingualism outside of the United States, one can see great development and success in Europe.

Over fifty percent of Europeans speak two or more languages; The European education system

requires students to learn languages at a young age, therefore leading to more success in the

classroom. If Europeans can speak two or more languages and there is evidence that shows the

benefits of learning more languages, then why is the United States hesitant? Democratic

Education reinforces that those within a given community are equal, though, with the focus on

English alone, equality quickly dissipates. There are several main reasons why the United States

focuses less on bilingualism than Europe, all of which will be analyzed in this paper.

Early America & Bilingualism

1
Gabrijela Reljic, Ferring Dieter, and Martin Romain. "A Meta-Analysis on the Effectiveness of Bilingual Programs in
Europe." Review of Educational Research 85, no. 1 (2015): 92-128.
 The United States was colonized by White Englishmen, where speaking English was

commonplace as the displacement of Native Americans began. Before this, as explained in Paul

Ramsey’s book, The Polyglot Boardinghouse, “Linguistic diversity has always been a feature of

the territory that would become the United States. Prior to the Revolutionary War, German,

Dutch, French, Spanish, English, and -most importantly- a host of indigenous languages could be

heard throughout the lands of America.”2 As America developed, specifically into the 18th and

19th centuries, the increased number of immigrants and those from countries where English was

not taught became commonplace. Ramsey also notes, “Prior to the Progressive era, the Germans

were the most numerous group of immigrants speaking a foreign tongue in the United States.”

This number consisted of 1,967,000 in 1880 alone.3 One can imagine that an extensive cultural

and linguistic group such as the Germans, there would be a push to imbed this language into the

school system. This is what the Germans achieved in the late 19th century. An estimated nine

million German-language speakers were in America during the early 20th century, over eight

times the amount just 25 years before.4 Ramsey explains German bilingualism “Bilingual

education did not take root among all linguistic groups equally either. In the Northeast and

South, it was primarily the German-speaking immigrants who were most successful in setting up

bilingual programs in the emerging public schools.”5 The increased number of immigrants into

the United States from Germany was ever-growing and would continue to intertwine into the

education system. German would soon begin losing its importance within this system thanks to

World War I and the upcoming Germanophobia. This had a direct effect on the eventual

downfall of German as a second language within the education system that it once dominated.

2
Paul J. Ramsey. Bilingual Public Schooling in the United States: A History of America's "Polyglot Boardinghouse".
New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014: 20.
3
Ramsey, “Bilingual” 22.
4
Ramsey, “Bilingual” 37.
5
Ramsey, “Bilingual” 37.
Ramsey elaborates, “While the war “over here” was fought against foreign influences in the

colleges, the war also was waged in the high schools, and German was the primary target.

During the war, enrollment in high school German classes waned significantly, and, as in the

colleges, numerous teachers of German were dismissed or reassigned. Throughout the nation,

secondary German instruction was dropped, with nearly 150 school districts ending their

classes.”6 The United States is a country that developed from the multitude of languages and

cultures it offered. German immigrants made large strides in success in implementing

bilingualism amongst the developing schools. This German-English bilingualism was quickly

dismissed with the Anti-German Semitic that occurred during World War I. The United States

would continue to promote English as the primary language, an idea that would stay throughout

the 21st century.

American Education System & Language Learning

The American Education system has experienced countless reformations, both large and

small. The area within this system that has seen minimal improvement is that of language

education for the students that are best able to be immersed in a second language. Language

Acquisition in the United States can be broken into two distinct levels: Kindergarten-8th grade &

9th-12th grade. There is a clear lack of language programs within the K-8 students. The National

K-12 Foreign Language Enrollment Survey Report from June 2017 helps to give an accurate

representation of the distinct differences. This report identified eighteen languages that were

being taught in K-8 schools from 35 states, with a total of 291 schools offering second language

classes.7 The report also identified sixteen languages that were being taught in high school, from

6
Ramsey, “Bilingual” 152.
7
American Councils for International Education. The National K-12 Foreign Language Enrollment Survey Report.
PDF File. June 2017.
50 states, with a total of 17,778 schools offering second language programs.8 There is a trend

within this report that shows an exponential increase of second language programs, one that

would not change with a complete list of 50 primary schools. There is a common misconception

that children are best suited to learn a language at a young age and if this is the case, why is there

such a minute number of programs available for them? It turns out that children are not better

language learners than their high school/adult counterparts, but instead, they are more efficient at

language acquisition. Young children do not have the brain capability to learn a language and the

rules surrounding it, though they can learn and replicate a language by listening and learning

what is correct from incorrect. Developing children absorb information and learn how to handle

that information from a guardian positive/negative response. High school students on the other

hand are at a level of development where information can be taught and consciously examined,

meaning they can apply the rules being taught to them, unlike children. The United States is

missing out on an opportunity that could both increase both bilingualism and language

learning/acquisition overall. This opportunity is one of an increased Foreign Language in

Elementary Schools that leads to an acquired language, and then teaching the same language to

students in high school which increases their learning language abilities. As to be examined, dual

language integration is effective in European countries where bilingualism is more accepted and

common, unlike the United States where there many believe that English should be the only

language taught and spoken within the education system.

English & Spanish

The United States was colonized by countless immigrants, the majority of whom were

English speakers. The United States was also founded on inherent racism, social injustices, and a

8
American Councils for International Education.
community that consisted of White Anglo-Saxon Protestant elites. To argue that the United

States is not a cultural melting-pot would be incorrect, though this does not mean there is racism

and spite towards those who do not share the same “qualities” that make one American. Those

Americans of Hispanic or Latino origin consist of 18.5% of the United States population, making

them the second-highest race in America.9 This in part is due to the location of Mexico, Central

America, and Latin America, areas of high Spanish speaking populations. Rumbaut and Massey

discuss this immigration in their Immigration and Language Diversity in the United States as,

“Mexicans presently constitute around 62% of all undocumented residents of the United States,

and Mexico was the tail wagging the dog of Spanish language immigration to the United States

in recent decades. No other country comes even close to matching Mexico's dominance.”10

When examining which language is most common in the K-12 system, Spanish is the highest

with over 7 million students enrolled in a Spanish language program.11 Despite the United States

being a country with countless identities, nearly one-fifth of its population is of Hispanic descent,

and Spanish being the most widely taught languages behind English, there is still a clear level of

racism and disdain towards the Hispanic and Latino community. Ofelia Garcia, a professor of

bilingual education, explains “U.S. educational policies also view the “English” of “nonnative”

Latinos as a problem, guaranteeing that monolingual English speakers conserve advantages.”12

The United States educational system is inherently against Latino English speakers, thus leading

to lower student equity within the classroom. With this information, it is not hard to imagine that

the disdain towards Spanish-speaking Americans comes from the anger that Americans feel

towards undocumented citizens and a belief that all Spanish speakers fall within that category.
9
U.S. Census Bureau. Quick Facts, United States, 2010-2019.
10
Ruben G Rumbaut and Douglas S Massey. “Immigration and Language Diversity in the United States.” Daedalus
vol. 142,3 (2013): 141-154.
11
American Councils for International Education. (8)
12
Ofelia García. "U.S. Spanish and Education: Global and Local Intersections." Review of Research in Education 38
(2014): 58-80.
The United States also lacks an official language, an idea that it does not require a title solely due

to the lack of second languages that could compete within the country.

Europe & Bilingualism due to Geography

When comparing the United States and Europe, one of the clear differences is that of

language inclusion and the number of Europeans that are bilingual in comparison to their

American counterparts. The reasoning for increased bilingualism in Europe is a multitude of

factors, but the main one that will be discussed in this section is that of geography and close

accessibility to countries that speak a different language. Firstly, roughly 35% of citizens in the

European Union speak one foreign language, while 21% speak two or more foreign languages.13

If we combine these numbers, we end up with over 50% of European Citizens speaking at least

one foreign language. As mentioned before, geography plays a large role in the yearning for

bilingualism in the continent with an extensive amount of diverse countries. As Internazionale

author Jacopo Ottaviani explains, “Multilingualism is one of the founding principles of the

European Union. It is understood by the European institutions as either the capacity of a single

individual to express themselves in other languages (plurilingualism), or the coexistence of

different linguistic communities in a specific geographic area. Beyond the clear commercial and

industrial implications, the promotion of language learning means supporting understanding

between people of different cultures, facilitating public transnational debate, and strengthening

the European identity. Thus, multilingualism has a strategic dimension for Europe: as the

Council itself argues, “multilingual competence is at the heart of the vision of a European

Education Area” Europe understands the importance of diversity both culturally and

linguistically, one where superiority complexes do not harm the overall development of a nation
13
Jacopo Ottaviani. “In Europe, Speaking More than One Language Is Still a Privilege.” European Data Journalism
Network, December 30, 2019.
as it does in the United States. The geographical proximity means that the ability to speak in

more than one language offers you more relationships, experiences, and more importantly job

opportunities. If one lives in Germany, but speaks French, they can travel a short distance to

another country and work in a career that is nearly separate from their normal life. Europe is an

excellent example of how successful integration of bilingualism can benefit an entire society.

European Education System & Language Learning

The number of Europeans that speak two or more languages is exponentially higher than

the United States. This number can be tied to the number of students studying a language

amongst the European Union. The data to be presented is from Euro Stat, the analytical tracker

for the European Commission; the numbers presented are from 2018-2019. In 2018, Europe’s

primary education had a total of 18,966,594 pupils enrolled in a second language program.14 In

2018, Europe’s lower-secondary education had a total of 17,006,729 pupils enrolled in a second

language program.15 In 2019, Europe’s upper-secondary education had a total of 8,142,279

pupils enrolled in a second language program.16 If we examine the numbers of students that are

within these two education levels, the extent of students who are within second language

programs becomes clearer. In 2018 there were a total of 24,512,837 pupils in primary education,

18,273,248 pupils in lower-secondary education, and 17,651,214 pupils in upper-secondary

education.17 Based on the information provided, students in Europe are experiencing the

introduction of second languages far earlier than their American counterparts. The sooner a

student is exposed to both language learning and acquisition, the higher their cognitive abilities

14
Eurostat. Pupils by Education Level and Modern Foreign Language Studied, Primary Education, 2018.
15
Eurostat. Pupils by Education Level and Modern Foreign Language Studied, Lower Secondary Education, 2018.
16
Eurostat. Pupils by Education Level and Modern Foreign Language Studied, Upper Secondary Education, 2018.
17
Eurostat. Pupils and Students Enrolled by Education Level, Sex and Age, Primary Education, Lower Secondary
Education, and Upper Secondary Education, 2018.
will be when it comes to learning a second language later in life. The European Union recognizes

the benefits of language promotion when students are at differing levels, thus leading to an easy

time developing potentially more than two languages when they are at a higher-educational level.

The graph presented at the end of this section helps to visualize the percentage of European

students that are studying second languages and clearly defines the support given by the

European Union onto supporting the socio-economic and cognitive benefits that bilingualism

provides.

Benefits of

Bilingualism

The ability to speak two or more languages offers countless development opportunities.

The two most assessed are that of economical and cognitive development, which will be

discussed within this section. Firstly, research performed in Southern California, “Fluent

bilingualism, net of other predictors in the equation, is associated with an annual gain of $2,827;

when GPA and years of education are entered into the second model, the effect is reduced but

fluent bilinguals still are seen to earn $2,234 more than English monolinguals. Even a lesser
level of bilingual proficiency carries an economic payoff. Moderate bilingualism, net of other

predictors in the equation, is associated with an added annual gain of $2,425; once GPA and

years of education are entered into the second equation, moderate bilinguals still earn $1,876

more than English monolinguals.”18 This again is in a country where bilingualism is not a

priority amongst the education system. Those who can speak two or more languages are

therefore more valuable in given career fields than those without it. Europe has similar statistics

regarding increased wages and job opportunities. The European Commission stated, “Europe’s

vision for 2020 is to become a smart, sustainable and inclusive economy. Therefore, improving

the outcomes of education and training and investing in skills in general—and language skills in

particular—are important prerequisites to achieve the EU goal of increasing growth, creating

jobs, promoting employability and increasing competitiveness.”19 The article continues to

explain the advantages of speaking English as, “The results reveal that skills in English increase

the probability of being employed for men in the three countries, respectively, by 3.4, 4.3 and

5.2%. Knowledge of English increases the probability of being employed for women in Germany

and Italy—respectively, by 5.6 and 5.7%- but not in Spain.”20 Secondly, the cognitive

development benefits of students who speak two or more languages are inarguable. Cognitive

research Dr. Viorica Marian explains, “The cognitive and neurological benefits of bilingualism

also extend into older adulthood. Bilingualism appears to provide a means of fending off a

natural decline of cognitive function and maintaining what is called “cognitive reserve.”

Cognitive reserve refers to the efficient utilization of brain networks to enhance brain function

during aging.”21 Marian concludes her research by stating, “The cognitive, neural, and social
18
Ruben G Rumbaut. “English Plus: Exploring the Socioeconomic Benefits of Bilingualism in Southern California.”
(2014): 1-23.
19
Michele Gazola and Daniele Mazzacani. “Foreign language skills and employment status of European natives:
evidence from Germany, Italy and Spain.” (2019): 713-740.
20
Gazola and Mazzacani “Foreign” (713-740)
21
Marian Viorica and Anthony Shook. “The Cognitive Benefits of Being Bilingual.” (2012).
advantages observed in bilingual people highlight the need to consider how bilingualism shapes

the activity and the architecture of the brain, and ultimately how language is represented in the

human mind, especially since the majority of speakers in the world experience life through more

than one language.”22 The benefits that one can gain from learning a second language either

during childhood or later in life can not be undermined. Based on the information presented

earlier within this paper, childhood language acquisition allows for one to learn a third language

faster and more proficiently later in life.

Conclusion

The United States is a melting pot of both languages and cultures. The colonization of the

Americas introduced these diverse communities, ones that would help increase the inclusivity of

immigrants and differing ideas. One of the first widely accepted second languages was German

but was phased out in the early 20th century. The Education System has experienced minimal

reforms surrounding language learning within the classroom, despite evidence showing that

students who learn a second language are more successful later in their schooling. The United

States does not have an official language, though English acts as the main connector language

between those here and those visiting; The United States’ second most spoken language is

Spanish, though there is a large disdain against those who speak Spanish in America. This

disdain likely ties into the negative context of Mexican immigrants coming to the United States

illegally. The connection that is made between Americans and Spanish is that of the “illegal

alien” mindset, thus generalizing an entire population. Europe is exponentially more developed

when it comes to citizens speaking two or more languages. The geographical locations of the

countries within the European Union help to increase how many languages are available to speak

22
Viorica and Shook. “The Cognitive”
with others; the European Union has spoken out about the importance of socio-economic

development within Europe and how it comes from their citizens being bilingual. When viewing

the percentage of students within the European K-12 equivalent, nearly three-quarters of students

are in a second-language program. Europe understands the socio-economic and cognitive

benefits that come from speaking two or more languages. Those in America and Europe can

experience higher percentages of both pay and job opportunities when they speak two or more

languages and are also more likely to retain important cognitive functions later in life.

Bilingualism is inarguably important to individual development and the countries that support an

inclusive learning environment. The United States is lacking educational reform, the following

reform needs to acknowledge the importance of second language acquisition and learning for a

more intelligent and developed society.

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