ASIAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION, 2018

VOL. 28, NO. 2, 153–169

https://doi.org/10.1080/01292986.2017.1382544

An integrated model of workload, autonomy, burnout, job

satisfaction, and turnover intention among Taiwanese
reporters
Huei-Ling Liua and Ven-hwei Lob
a
Graduate Institute of Arts Administration and Management, Taipei National University of the Arts, Taipei,
Taiwan; bSchool of Journalism and Communication, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study examines the relationships among workload, news Received 27 April 2017
autonomy, burnout, job satisfaction, and turnover intention Revised 2 August 2017
among Taiwanese reporters. Results of a survey of 1,099 reporters Accepted 10 September 2017
indicate that workload and news autonomy were significantly
KEYWORDS
associated with burnout. In addition, burnout was found to be Burnout; job satisfaction;
negatively related to job satisfaction, which in turn had a workload; news autonomy;
significant effect on turnover intention. The results not only turnover intention
highlight the important role of workload and news autonomy in
predicting burnout, but also extend previous research on
journalist burnout by showing that job satisfaction acts as a
mediator in the relationship between burnout and turnover
intention.

Introduction
Burnout is a process of mental exhaustion and depersonalization that can occur among
individuals who encounter chronic job stressors (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). In
recent decades, researchers have shown considerable interest in examining the major
causes and consequences of burnout (Leiter, Bakker, & Maslach, 2014). Research on jour-
nalist burnout has also expanded in recent years (Jung & Kim, 2012; Reinardy, 2008,
2011). Previous research in journalist burnout focused on assessing the impact of personal
background (Cook, Banks, & Turner, 1993; Jung & Kim, 2012), work environment (Jung
& Kim, 2012), perceived organizational support (Reinardy, 2008), size of newspapers
(Cook et al., 1993; Reinardy, 2011), and job satisfaction (Cook et al., 1993; Jung & Kim,
2012; Reinardy, 2008) on burnout. Very few studies, however, examined the impact of
workload and news autonomy on journalist burnout. The purpose of this study is to fill
in the gap by expanding previous research on journalist burnout, focusing on the relation-
ships among workload, news autonomy and burnout among Taiwanese reporters from a
job demands and resources framework.
The job demands-resources model suggests that job demands and job resources can
affect employee motivation and health (Demerouti, Bakker, Nachreiner, & Schaufeli,

CONTACT Ven-hwei Lo loven@cuhk.edu.hk School of Journalism and Communication, The Chinese University of
Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong
© AMIC/WKWSCI-NTU 2017
154 H.-L. LIU AND V.-H. LO

2001). Excessive job demands can lead to job burnout and positive job resources can buffer
the impact of job demands and lead to increased engagement (Day & Leiter, 2014). Past
studies suggest that workload is the most important indicator of job demand and auton-
omy is a critical resource in the workplace (Fernet, Austin, Trepanier, & Dussault, 2013;
Veldhoven, 2014). Based on the demands-resources model and previous research in job
burnout, we expect that workload and news autonomy will affect journalist burnout.
Specifically, we expect that high workload and low autonomy are more likely to
produce the highest levels of job burnout.
Another purpose of the study is to examine the relationships among workload, auton-
omy, burnout, job satisfaction and turnover intention of Taiwanese reporters. Previous
research has examined the impact of burnout on job satisfaction (Jung & Kim, 2012)
and turnover intention (Cook et al., 1993; Reinardy, 2011). Other studies have analyzed
the impact of job satisfaction on intention to quit and organizational commitment
(Chang & Massey, 2010). However, no previous study has attempted to assess the relation-
ships among workload, autonomy, burnout, job satisfaction and turnover intention from
an integrated approach. This study aims to fill the gap by developing a theoretical model
that explores the theoretical linkages among workload, autonomy, burnout, job satisfac-
tion and turnover intention. Based on the job demands-resources model and burnout
theory, this study proposes that work demands and resources such as workload and
news autonomy will affect journalist burnout, which will in turn affect job satisfaction
and turnover intention.

Literature review
The changing media landscape
The rapid development of digital communication and media convergence have changed
the structure of news organizations and the process of news production. For example,
Fox News and BBC renovated their newsrooms in October and March 2013, respectively,
with an emphasis on the convergent functions and multi-platform. News production in
everyday settings has also changed from the single-platform to multiple platforms
(Dupagne & Garrison, 2006; García Avilés, Meier, Kaltenbrunner, Carvajal, & Kraus,
2009; Smith, Tanner, & Duhe, 2007). As a result, use of multimedia materials (e.g.
image, video, graphic, and text) in reporting has become part of the work demands.
Since news convergence requires integrated production and cooperation between different
media, it has greatly changed news work. One of the major changes is the increasing
emphasis on multimedia skills as a new requirement for news professionals. This trend
is particularly salient in digital environments where visual-audio products are of great
importance. For example, in addition to reporting in text, print reporters are often
required to take photographs, shoot and edit videos, and even run stories online using
multimedia skills.
Taiwan is no exception to this trend. Facing the new digital convergence, changed
market structure, and decline in advertising revenue, news organizations have to take
measures to cope with the new media market and the changing media landscape. First,
print media have started to provide audio-visual training to their reporters, requiring
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION 155

them to acquire new skills to adapt to the new digital environment, such as multimedia
reporting, web design, video shooting and editing, and instantaneous news production
(Wang, 2013). Second, the establishment of converged newsrooms and formation of
cross-media work have become increasingly common in recent years. As a result, reporters
are required to take on additional duties and responsibilities, which make news work more
challenging and demanding (Wang, 2013). The changing media environment has changed
the news production process and working conditions of journalists (Lo, Liu, & Pan, 2017;
Weaver & Willnat, 2016). It is therefore necessary to investigate how work demands and
resources affect job burnout, job satisfaction and turnover intention of reporters in a con-
vergent media environment.

Job burnout
Burnout is a psychological syndrome of emotional exhaustion and cynicism that occurs
frequently among individuals who encounter chronic job stressors (Leiter et al., 2014).
Burnout is a serious problem for organizations, employers and individuals because
burnout affects productivity, quality, job satisfaction and work performance (Cook
et al., 1993; Reinardy, 2006). Burnout not only causes psychological distress such as
anxiety and depression (Peterson et al., 2008), it also leads to job dissatisfaction
(Becker, Milad, & Klock, 2006), reduction in quality and quantity of work (Laschinger
& Fida, 2014; Reinardy, 2006, 2011) and employee turnover (Laschinger & Fida, 2014).
Therefore, research on job burnout has expanded rapidly in recent years (Leiter et al.,
2014; Schwartzhoffer, 2009).
Maslach and Jackson (1981) developed the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI) to evalu-
ate the degree of burnout, which they call a chronic problem. The MBI has become an
important measurement for burnout, and is used to test in many different occupations
such as human services, nursing, medical doctor, special education, teaching, social
work, and psychiatry, all of which have direct contact with clients or patients.
Maslach et al. (1996) further developed a general survey version of MBI, the Maslach
Burnout Inventory-General Survey (MBI-GS) to include job burnout in a wider range
of occupations. It includes three subscales: exhaustion, cynicism and professional efficacy.
In their view, exhaustion means work fatigue and emotional exhaustion; cynicism reflects
indifference or a distant attitude toward one’s work; and professional efficacy, which is
similar to personal accomplishment, refers to an individual’s expectations of his or her
own work (Jung & Kim, 2012; Maslach et al., 1996).
These two inventories have been used to evaluate the situation of job burnout in many
different occupations. According to Schaufeli and Enzmann (1998), more than 90% of all
empirical studies on job burnout have used the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Although the
three subscales of the Maslach Burnout Inventory have been widely employed in the lit-
erature, several researchers have questioned the inclusion of professional efficacy as a
component of burnout. For example, Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) argued that professional
efficacy, which emphasizes competence and achievement in one’s work, should be viewed
as a component of work engagement, rather than burnout. In fact, previous studies
designed to examine the reliability and validity of the three subscales of burnout also indi-
cated that the correlations between the professional efficacy subscale and the other
156 H.-L. LIU AND V.-H. LO

subscales were quite low, indicating it is largely independent of exhaustion and cynicism
(Lee & Ashforth, 1993; Maslach & Jackson, 1981; Stout & Williams, 1983). More recently,
Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) analyzed data from four independent samples to test the
factor structure of the three subscales of the Maslach Burnout Inventory. Their findings
found that a model, which includes exhaustion and cynicism, fit the data better than an
alternative model that includes the original three subscales of burnout. Consequently,
exhaustion and cynicism were viewed as the core components of burnout (Green,
Walkey, & Taylor, 1991;Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). In contrast, professional efficacy was
seen as dispensable because it is not a critical feature of the burnout phenomenon
(Laschinger & Fida, 2014; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).
Therefore, the present study uses the term burnout to refer to exhaustion and cynicism.
Exhaustion refers being emotionally drained by one’s work (Leiter et al., 2014). Cynicism
refers to negative and cynical attitudes towards one’s work (Leiter et al., 2014). We were
interested in examining the impact of exhaustion and cynicism on job satisfaction and
turnover intention of Taiwanese journalists. Professional efficacy was eliminated
because it is not an essential dimension of burnout (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).
Numerous researchers are dedicated to finding the causes and consequences of
burnout. However, only a few studies have focused on journalist burnout (Jung & Kim,
2012). The Cook and Banks study (1993) may be the first one to utilize the MBI inventory
to examine burnout among American journalists. Its findings indicate that copy editors
had a significantly higher degree of burnout than reporters. Reinardy (2006) also utilized
the MBI inventory to examine burnout of sports journalists and found that sports editors
tended to have higher levels of burnout than sports writers or desk personnel. In his sub-
sequent studies, Reinardy (2008) adopted the MBI-GS inventory to examine burnout of
newspaper sports editors and found that respondents experienced moderate levels of
exhaustion and cynicism, but high levels of professional efficacy. Later, Reinardy (2011)
continued to use the MBI-GS inventory to examine burnout of American newspaper jour-
nalists and found that journalists experienced moderate levels of exhaustion and pro-
fessional efficacy, but high levels of cynicism. The findings also showed that younger
journalists and journalists in non-management positions had significantly higher rates
of burnout than their colleagues (Reinardy, 2011).
In the present study, we have focused on analyzing the impact of workload and news
autonomy on job burnout. We expect that workload and news autonomy will be signifi-
cantly associated with the level of job burnout. According to the job demands-resources
model (Demerouti et al., 2001), job demands and job resources are two different under-
lying psychological processes that affect employee burnout. Job demands refer to
various physical, psychological, social or organizational aspects of the job that require sus-
tained physical and mental efforts or skills and are associated with certain costs (Bakker &
Demerouti, 2007). In contrast, job resources refer to various physical, psychological, social
or organizational aspects of the job that are important in achieving work goals, reducing
job demands and stimulating employee growth, learning and development (Bakker &
Demerouti, 2007). The job demands-resources model assumes burnout develops when
job demands are high and job resources are low. Specifically, excessive job demands
exhaust employees’ mental and physical energy, whereas lack of job resources leads to
reduced motivation and poor job performance and evokes a cynical attitude towards
work (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007).
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION 157

Workload
As a core dimension of job demands (Veldhoven, 2014), workload refers to the amount of
work, either assigned to or expected from, an individual. When there are too many jobs to
do in a limited time, the workload may become overwhelming and the employee will feel
overworked (Burke, 2003). Jyrkiäinen and Heinonen (2012) investigated Finnish journal-
ists’ working conditions and found that 45% felt pressured when their overtime increased;
40% said their extra assignments had increased during the past year. Their study also indi-
cated that nearly 70% of the journalists felt that the most serious workplace problems were
haste and increased time pressure. Wang (2013) also found that Taiwanese journalists
have a much heavier workload than in the past. Multiple skills are required for covering
news. Supervisors always expect journalists to improve their skills to meet the demands of
the new media environment which include multimedia reporting, Web and graphic
design, real-time news reporting, and social media engagement.
A heavier workload creates more stress for journalists. Previous studies indicate that
stress and workload are directly related to job burnout (Iverson, Olekalns, & Erwin,
1998; Reinardy, 2008, 2011). Based on the job demands-resources model and findings
in previous burnout research, we expect that higher workloads will be correlated with
higher burnout in reporters. Accordingly, we hypothesize that:
H1: Workload will be positively correlated with job burnout.

News autonomy
News autonomy is a crucial characteristic of professional journalism (Weaver & Wilhoit,
1986). In the workplace, autonomy refers to the freedom to conduct work in accordance
with one’s own discretion (Demers, 1995; Engel, 1970). In the newsroom, autonomy refers
to journalists’ freedom in making news decisions without being controlled by internal or
external forces (Weaver, 1998). According to the job demands-resources model, autonomy
is an important psychological resource that plays a role in stimulating work motivation,
engagement and job performance (Fernet et al., 2013). In addition, autonomy may help
prevent job stressors and mitigate the impact of job demands (De Jonge, Demerouti, &
Dormann, 2014). Past research indicates that news autonomy is positively associated
with journalists’ professional identification and job satisfaction (McDevitt, Gassaway, &
Perez, 2002). It also has positive effects on job stress and protects against emotional
exhaustion and depersonalization (Fernet et al., 2013). For example, Jung and Kim
(2012) found that autonomy was a significant predictor of the three dimensions of
burnout. Accordingly, we hypothesize that:
H2: News autonomy will be negatively correlated with job burnout.

Burnout, job satisfaction and turnover intentions

The impact of job burnout has been a significant social concern and a focus of occupation
research over the past decades (Leiter et al., 2014). One important impact of job burnout is
its influences on job satisfaction (Hombrados-Mendieta & Cosano-Rivas, 2011). Past
research indicates that burnout was negatively correlated with job satisfaction (Hombra-
dos-Mendieta & Cosano-Rivas, 2011; Jung & Kim, 2012; Ybema, Smulders, & Bongers,
158 H.-L. LIU AND V.-H. LO

2010). The more burned out the employees were, the less satisfied they were with their
work. Although these studies have linked burnout to job satisfaction, journalism research
has paid less attention to this relationship.
Job satisfaction refers to the extent to which people like or dislike their jobs (Spector,
1997), or a psychological condition in which their wishes and needs can be achieved
through work (Demers, 1995). Because job satisfaction is related to job performance,
organizational citizen behavior, counterproductive work behavior, employee withdrawal
behavior, organizational commitment, and physical and psychological health (Bowling,
2014; Spector, 1997), it is a popular theme in journalism studies (Weaver, Beam, Brown-
less, Voakes, & Wilhoit, 2007; Weaver & Wilhoit, 1986, 1996; Willnat & Weaver, 2014). In
the present study, we propose that burnout will be negatively related to journalists’ job sat-
isfaction. This expectation is derived from findings in previous research that associated
higher levels of job burnout with lower levels of job satisfaction (Hombrados-Mendieta
& Cosano-Rivas, 2011). For example, Ybema et al. (2010) found that burnout was nega-
tively associated with job satisfaction. Hombrados-Mendieta and Cosano-Rivas (2011)
found that burnout had a negative influence on social workers’ job satisfaction. In a
recent survey of Korean journalists, Jung and Kim (2012) also found that emotional
exhaustion and cynicism were significantly and negatively related to job satisfaction.
Based on these consistent findings, our third hypothesis proposes:
H3: Job burnout will be negatively correlated with job satisfaction.

Moreover, we also propose that burnout will be significantly and positively associated
with turnover intention. Most previous studies examine the direct relationship between
job burnout and turnover intention. In the present study, we propose that job burnout
will be related directly and indirectly to turnover intention, being mediated by job satis-
faction. This expectation is derived from the job demands and resources model (Demer-
outi et al., 2001) and findings in previous research that indicated that high levels of job
burnout were associated with higher levels of quitting intentions and lower levels of
career commitment (Laschinger & Fida, 2014; Reinardy, 2011).
Several studies have linked job burnout to turnover intention (Cook et al., 1993;
Laschinger & Fida, 2014; Reinardy, 2011). For example, Leiter and Maslach (2009)
found that burnout was positively associated with job turnover intention. In a recent
time-lagged analysis, Laschinger and Fida (2014) also found that burnout was related to
nurses’ job and career turnover intention. However, very few studies have explored
whether job burnout affects journalists’ turnover intention. In examining the relationship
between burnout and career commitment, Reinardy (2011) found that journalists who
expressed intentions to leave newspaper journalism had significantly higher rates of cyni-
cism and exhaustion. Jung and Kim (2012) also found that burnout was a significant pre-
dictor of newspaper firm employees’ organizational commitment and turnover intention.
Accordingly, we hypothesize the following:
H4: Job burnout will be positively correlated with turnover intention.

Furthermore, we also anticipate that job satisfaction will mediate the relationship
between job burnout and turnover intention. According to the job demands and resources
model (Demerouti et al., 2001), excessive job demands cause burnout, which leads to low
job satisfaction, which in turn affects turnover intention. Following the logic of the job
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION 159

demands and resources model, we predict that journalists who feel burned out tend to be
less satisfied with their jobs. We also predict that journalists who experience low satisfac-
tion with their jobs are more likely to express the intention to quit.
Job satisfaction has been consistently linked to turnover intentions. For example,
McKnight, Phillips, and Hardgrave (2009) found that job satisfaction was negatively
associated with turnover intention. In a study of law enforcement officers’ turnover inten-
tion, Allisey, Noblet, Lamontagne, and Houdmont (2014) also found that job satisfaction
was significantly and negatively related to turnover intention. Chang and Massey (2010)
reviewed previous studies and reported that job satisfaction was a significant predictor of
journalists’ organizational commitment and turnover intention. Therefore, the following
hypotheses are proposed:
H5: Job satisfaction will be negatively correlated with turnover intention.

H6: Job satisfaction will mediate the relationship between job burnout and turnover
intention.

The theoretical model

Finally, to further explore the relationships among workload, autonomy, burnout, job sat-
isfaction, and turnover intention, we developed a causal model. As Figure 1 shows, the
causal model starts with workload and news autonomy, which predict burnout, which pre-
dicts job satisfaction, which in turn predicts turnover intention. Our causal model is based
on the literature review we used to develop the six research hypotheses. This model
attempts to expand the scope of journalist burnout research by examining the theoretical
linkages among workload, news autonomy, exhaustion, cynicism, job satisfaction, and
turnover intention.

Research method
This study is based on a national survey of working reporters in Taiwan in 2014. In this
study, we defined reporters as those whose job is to gather, write and report the news for a

Emotional Job
Exhaustion Satisfaction

Workload and
News Autonomy

Turnover

Cynicism Intention

Figure 1. The proposed theoretical model.

160 H.-L. LIU AND V.-H. LO

news organization. This study used a multi-stage sampling plan. In the first stage, we com-
piled a list of Chinese-language daily newspapers, radio, television stations, wire services
and online news media in Taiwan. At the second stage, we drew a random sample of indi-
vidual newspapers, radio, television stations, wire services and online news media. In the
third stage, we distributed the questionnaires to the reporters working for those selected
media. It is difficult to draw a random sample of individual reporters because there is
no existing list of Taiwanese journalists. With the help of journalists working within
those selected media, we distributed the questionnaires to every third reporter in the
selected news organizations and asked them to fill out the questionnaires in their free
time. The survey began on October 10, 2014 and ended on December 31, 2014. Of the
1,480 questionnaires distributed, 1,099 valid questionnaires were returned for analysis.
The response rate was 74.3%. Of the sample, 74 (6.7%) were radio reporters, 439
(39.9%) were television reporters, 480 (43.7%) were newspaper reporters, and 106
(9.7%) were from the wire services and online media.
Of the 1,099 respondents, 59.9% were males and 40.1% were females. The average age
of the respondents was 36.92 (SD = 8.79, ranging from 20 to 61). A total of 96.4% indicated
they had received some level of college education. Specifically, 13.5% held a three-year
college degree, 84.6% held a bachelor’s degree, and 23.4% held a graduate degree. Their
average length of time working as a journalist was 11.27 years (SD = 7.93, ranging from
1 to 37). The average income of the respondents was $1,629 per month in U.S. dollars.

Measurement
Workload
Workload refers to the amount of work to be performed in a job. To assess the level of their
workload, respondents were asked to indicate how often they experienced the following
situations at work during the past few years: (1) received and sent more information at
work, (2) were required to write more stories, (3) had to take on additional duties, and
(4) were required work overtime. The response categories ranged from 1 (never) to 4
(often). Results of a principal component factor analysis showed that the items were
clearly grouped in one factor (eigenvalue = 2.33; explained variance = 58.19%). The four
items were averaged to create a composite measure of the level of workload (M = 3.38,
SD = .59, α = .74). The greater the score, the higher the workload.

News autonomy
News autonomy refers to the journalists’ autonomy in making news decisions (Weaver,
1998). It was measured with the following three items modified from previous studies
(Weaver et al., 2007): (1) ‘How much freedom do you usually have in selecting the
stories you work on?’ (2) ‘How much freedom do you usually have in deciding which
aspects of a story should be emphasized?’ (3) ‘How much freedom do you usually have
in your present job?’ The response categories ranged from 1 (almost no freedom) to 5
(almost complete freedom). Results of a principal component factor analysis showed
that the items were clearly grouped in one factor. The one factor solution explained
81.1% of the variance (eigenvalue = 2.43). Thus, the three items were averaged to form
an index of the level of news autonomy (M = 3.43; SD = .50; α = .88). The greater the
score, the higher the news autonomy.
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION 161

Job burnout
In order to measure job burnout, we used the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Survey
(MBI-GS) developed by Maslach et al. (1996). This 16-item scale is divided into three sep-
arate subscales: exhaustion, cynicism and professional efficacy. For the present study, only
the exhaustion and cynicism subscales were used because recent studies suggest that pro-
fessional efficacy is a component of work engagement, rather than job burnout (Laschin-
ger & Fida, 2014). Exhaustion and cynicism were measured with the following items:(1) ‘I
feel emotionally drained from my work,’ (2) ‘I feel used up at the end of the workday,’ (3) ‘I
feel tired when I get up in the morning and have to face another day on the job,’ (4)
‘Working all day is really a strain for me,’ (5) ‘I feel burned out from my work,’ (6) ‘I
have become less interested in my work since I started this job,’ (7) ‘I have become less
enthusiastic about my work,’ (8) ‘I just want to do my job and not be bothered,’ (9) ‘I
have become more cynical about whether my work contributes anything,’ (10) ‘I doubt
the significance of my work.’.
Principal component factor analysis of the two-subscale items with varimax rotation
led to a 2-factor solution, accounting for 70.22% of variance. The first factor consisted
of items 6–10 that reflected cynicism (eigenvalue = 3.70; explained variance = 37.0%).
The five items were combined to form a composite variable labeled as ‘cynicism’ (M =
2.58; SD = .70; α = .87). The second factor contained the first five items that reflected
emotional exhaustion (eigenvalue = 3.32; explained variance = 33.23%). A composite
measure of emotional exhaustion was created by averaging the five items (M = 2.95; SD
= .63; α = .89). Higher scores indicate greater emotional exhaustion and cynicism.

Job satisfaction
Following Beam (2006, p.175), job satisfaction is defined as ‘an overall affective orientation
on the part of individuals toward work roles that they are presently occupying.’ To
measure job satisfaction, respondents were asked to indicate their levels of job satisfaction
in a single item adopted from previous studies (Beam, 2006; Weaver et al., 2007): ‘All
things considered, how satisfied are you with your present job?’ The response categories
ranged from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied) (M = 3.46, SD = 1.09). The usefulness
of single-item of overall job satisfaction was supported by past research (Begley & Czajka,
1993). A greater score indicates a higher level of job satisfaction.

Turnover intention
A three-item measure adopted from previous studies (Begley & Czajka, 1993; Chang,
Chi, & Miao, 2006) was used to assess turnover intention. Respondents were asked to
indicate their agreement (5 = strongly agree, 1 = strongly disagree) with the following
statements reflecting their turnover intention: (1) I am planning to leave my organiz-
ation; (2) I often think about quitting my job; (3) As soon as I can find a better job,
I will quit my job. Results of a principal component factor analysis showed that the
items were clearly grouped in one factor. The one factor solution explained 77.54% of
the variance (eigenvalue = 2.33). Thus, the three items were averaged to form an
index of turnover intention (M = 2.92; SD = 1.17; α = .86). The greater the score, the
higher the turnover intention.
162 H.-L. LIU AND V.-H. LO

Results
The first hypothesis predicted that workload would be significantly related to job burnout.
To test it, two hierarchical regression analyses were performed in which gender, age, edu-
cation, income, and college major were entered first, followed by news autonomy and
workload. The dependent variables were exhaustion and cynicism. As Table 1 shows,
workload was the strongest predictor of exhaustion (β = .38, p < .001). The results also
show that workload was significantly and positively related to cynicism (β = .15,
p < .001). As expected, the heavier the workload, the higher the emotional exhaustion
and cynicism. H1 was supported.
H2 predicted that news autonomy would be a significant predictor of job burnout. To
test it, two hierarchical regression analyses were performed. As Table 1 shows, after con-
trolling for the effects of gender, age education, income and college major and workload,
news autonomy was the strongest predictor of cynicism (β = −.29, p < .001). In addition,
news autonomy was also a significant predictor of exhaustion (β = −.16, p < .001). As
expected, higher levels of news autonomy were significantly related to lower levels of
exhaustion and cynicism. H2 was supported.
H3 predicted that job burnout would be significantly related to job satisfaction. To test
this, a separate hierarchical regression analysis was performed in which gender, age, edu-
cation, income and college major were entered first, followed by news autonomy and
workload. The final block consisted of exhaustion and cynicism. The dependent variable
was job satisfaction. As shown in Table 2, after controlling for the effects of demographics,
news autonomy and workload, cynicism was the strongest predictor of job satisfaction
(β = −.36, p < .001). In addition, exhaustion was a significant predictor of job satisfaction
(β = −.21, p < .001). These findings indicate that respondents with higher levels of exhaus-
tion and cynicism had lower levels of job satisfaction. H3 was supported.
H4 predicted that job burnout would be positively related to turnover intention. To test
the hypothesis, another hierarchical regression analysis was performed. As Table 2 shows,

Table 1. Hierarchical regression analysis predicting exhaustion and cynicism.

Burnout
Independent variables Exhaustion Cynicism
Block 1: Demographics
Gender −.03 −.02
Age −.02 .11***
Education .00 .01
Income −.05 −.02
Major .02 .00
Adjusted R 2 .2% .1%
Block 2: Autonomy
News autonomy −.16*** −.29***
Incremental adjusted R 2 1.2% 6.9%
Block 3: Workload
Workload .38*** .15***
Incremental adjusted R 2 13.2% 2.1%
Total adjusted R 2 14.6% 9.1%
F value 26.11*** 15.88***
Notes: Beta weights are from final regression equation with all blocks of variables in the
model. N = 1,099. Variables recoded as follows: gender (1 = male, 0 = female); Major (1 =
journalism, 0 = others); News autonomy (1 = almost no freedom, 5 = almost complete
freedom); Workload (1 = never, 4 = often). Exhaustion and cynicism (1 = never, 4 = often).
***p < .001.
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION 163

Table 2. Hierarchical regression analysis predicting job satisfaction and

turnover intention.
Independent variables Job satisfaction Turnover intention
Block 1: Demographics
Gender −.05 .01
Age −.07* −.15***
Education .00 −.05
Income .01 −.01
Major .02 −.05
Adjusted R 2 0.5% 1.5%
Block 2: Autonomy
News autonomy .10*** −.12***
Incremental adjusted R 2 4.2% 6.5%
Block 3: Workload
Workload −.05 −.03
Incremental adjusted R 2 3.1% 0.4%
Block 4: Burnout
Exhaustion −.21*** .04
Cynicism −.36*** .37***
Incremental adjusted R 2 22.8% 20.7%
Block 5: Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction – −.17***
Incremental adjusted R 2 – 2.0%
Total adjusted R 2 30.6% 31.1%
F value 51.08*** 46.80***
Notes: Beta weights are from final regression equation with all blocks of variables in the
model. Dash indicates variable was not entered in the regression model. N = 1,099. Variables
recoded as follows: gender (1 = male, 0 = female); News autonomy (1 = almost no freedom,
5 = almost complete freedom); Workload (1 = never, 4 = often); Exhaustion and cynicism
(1 = never, 4 = often); Job satisfaction (1 = very dissatisfied, 5 = very satisfied); Turnover
intention (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). ***p < .001; *p < .05.

after controlling for the effects of gender, age education, income, college major, workload
and news autonomy, cynicism was the strongest predictor of turnover intention (β = .37,
p < .001). But exhaustion was not significantly related to turnover intention (β = .04,
p > .05). H4 was partially supported.
H5 predicted that job satisfaction would be negatively associated with intention to quit.
As Table 2 shows, after controlling for the effects of gender, age, education, income, college
major, workload, news autonomy, exhaustion and cynicism, job satisfaction was a signifi-
cant and negative predictor of turnover intention (β = −.17, p < .001). As expected,
respondents with higher levels of job satisfaction were less likely to express intentions
to quit their jobs. H5 was supported.
To test the proposed causal model, we implemented a path analysis using Amos 22.0.
The results of the analysis showed that the chi-square for the model was not significant,
X 2 = 3.33, df = 1, p > .05 (X 2/df ratio = 3.33), and the comparative fit index (CFI = .99),
the normal fit index (NFI = .99), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI = .97) and the root mean
square error of approximation (RMSEA = .04) indicate that the model fit was acceptable.
The model explained 15.3% of the variance in exhaustion, 8.6%% in cynicism, 30.0% in job
satisfaction, and 29.5% in turnover intention.
As shown in Figure 2, the path analysis shows that news autonomy had a significant
effect on exhaustion (β = −.17, p < .001), cynicism (β = −.26, p < .001), job satisfaction
(β = .08, p < .01) and turnover intention (β = −.15, p < .001). Workload also had a signifi-
cant effect on exhaustion (β = .38, p < .001), cynicism (β = .17, p < .001) and turnover
intention (β = −.06, p < .05). Exhaustion (β = −.23, p < .001) and cynicism (β = −.36,
164 H.-L. LIU AND V.-H. LO

-.06*

.38***
Work Load Exhaustion
.07
.17*** -.23***
-.17***
.14*** Job Satisfaction Turnover Intention
.08**
-.17*** -.36***
.33***
News Autonomy Cynicism
-.26**

-.15***

Figure 2. Path model of variables predicting turnover intention.

Note: *p < .05, **p < .01, ***p < .001.

p < .001) were significantly associated with job satisfaction, which had a significant effect
on turnover intention (β = −.17, p < .001). The path analysis affirms that news autonomy
was significantly and negatively related to exhaustion and cynicism, whereas workload was
significantly and positively associated with exhaustion and cynicism. It also demonstrates
that exhaustion and cynicism were significantly and negatively related to job satisfaction,
which was in trun negatively correlated with turnover intention. Taken together, the path
analysis provides additional evidence to support the first five hypotheses of the study.
H6 predicted that job satisfaction would mediate the relationship between job burnout
and turnover intention. To test the hypothesis, we employed a Sobel test because it per-
forms well for moderate to large effect size with a large sample (Preacher & Hayes,
2004). The mediator in our theoretical model was job satisfaction. The results of the
Sobel test showed that the z score for mediation path through job satisfaction was 8.44
(p < .001). Therefore, we generated evidence in support of the proposed model that job
satisfaction is a significant mediator in the relationship between exhaustion and turnover
intention.
Similarly, job satisfaction is a potential mediator in the relationship between cynicism
and turnover intention. The results of the Sobel test indicated that the mediation path
through job satisfaction had a z score of 5.81 (p < .001). Accordingly, job satisfaction
proved to be a significant mediator in the relationship between cynicism and turnover
intention. H6 was supported.

Discussion
This study aimed to expand the literature by developing an integrated model that articu-
lates the theoretical linkages among workload, news autonomy, burnout, job satisfaction
and turnover intention of Taiwanese reporters. The results of the study provide support
for the hypothesized model linking workload, autonomy, burnout, job satisfaction and
turnover intention. Consistent with the job demands-resources model (Demerouti et al.,
2001) and previous research in journalist burnout, the results of the study found that
workload was positively related to exhaustion and cynicism, whereas news autonomy
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION 165

was negatively related to exhaustion and cynicism. These findings indicate that workload
and news autonomy are important factors influencing the level of burnout among repor-
ters. A heavy workload depletes reporters’ mental and physical energy and contributes to
exhaustion and cynicism. On the other hand, news autonomy functions as a valuable job
resource that enhances reporters’ personal emotion and protects against burnout. These
findings thus contribute to the literature by highlighting the important role of workload
and news autonomy in predicting journalist burnout.
Another contribution of this study was to show that both exhaustion and cynicism were
significantly and negatively associated with job satisfaction. As expected, higher levels of
exhaustion and cynicism were associated with lower levels of job satisfaction. These find-
ings are consistent with previous studies that show that burnout among journalists is
related to job satisfaction (Jung & Kim, 2012). More importantly, findings show that cyni-
cism was correlated more strongly with job satisfaction than exhaustion. This particular
finding indicates cynicism tends to intensify job dissatisfaction and exerts a greater influ-
ence on reporters. As a component of burnout, cynicism represents indifference or cynical
attitudes towards work (Maslach et al., 1996). Thus, it is not surprising that cynicism has a
strong influence on job satisfaction. These are theoretically important findings because
they can help us better understand how different components of burnout are associated
with job satisfaction.
Perhaps the most important contribution of this study is in helping to show that job
satisfaction is an important factor mediating the relationship between job burnout and
turnover intentions. As expected, both exhaustion and cynicism were directly and nega-
tively correlated with job satisfaction. Also as expected, job satisfaction had a direct
effect on turnover intention. A surprising finding is that while cynicism was related to
turnover intention directly and indirectly, exhaustion only had an indirect effect on turn-
over intention through its effect on job satisfaction. These findings provide some new
insights into how job burnout is related to journalists’ turnover intention. First, these find-
ings indicate that job satisfaction acts as a mediator in the relationship between burnout
and turnover intention. Second, the results demonstrate that the two burnout dimensions,
exhaustion and cynicism, may have a differential effect for predicting turnover intention
or other withdrawal behaviors. These differential effects of the burnout dimensions on
turnover intention and withdrawal behavior hold promise for further study.
Finally, the findings of the study extend previous research by providing support for the
hypothesized model linking workload, autonomy, burnout, job satisfaction and turnover
intention. The results of the study suggest that workload and autonomy may significantly
affect burnout, which in turn has a negative influence on job satisfaction and turnover
intention. These findings shed some light on how workload and news autonomy influence
burnout and how burnout affects job satisfaction and subsequent turnover intention. On
the one hand, burnout was significantly affected by workload and news autonomy, but on
the other, it had a direct influence on job satisfaction and turnover intention.
One implication of these findings is that a heavy workload in a convergent environment
is too stressful for journalists and therefore contributes to job burnout. However, our study
demonstrates that news autonomy can reduce burnout by buffering the detrimental effects
of a heavy workload. It seems that reporters who have sufficient levels of news autonomy
can cope better with their daily workload. These results indicate that effective intervention
strategies aimed at reducing workload and increasing news autonomy are needed to
166 H.-L. LIU AND V.-H. LO

prevent or alleviate journalist burnout. The findings of the study also suggest that the news
media have to make significant improvements in the working conditions of their reporters
by reducing their workload, improving their job satisfaction and providing them with
more autonomy in order to retain seasoned journalists.
Despite these contributions, this study has some limitations. First, given the complexity
of working conditions and causes of burnout in the newsroom, other important factors
might influence job burnout of Taiwanese journalists. Thus, other facets of work
demands and resources, such as work stress, supervisor support, performance feedback
and social support from coworkers, need to be incorporated in future research. Second,
a series of studies have shown that burnout may affect job performance (Leiter et al.,
2014; Peeters, Junge, & Taris, 2014). It is plausible that workload and autonomy affect
burnout, which in turn affects job satisfaction, which in turn affects job performance.
Future research can explore the causal relationships among workload, news autonomy,
burnout, job satisfaction and job performance among journalists.
Although this study is based on a large-scale national survey, the non-random sample
prevents us from making sweeping generalizations. Therefore, some caution should be exer-
cised before generalizing the results of this study to the entire population of journalists in
Taiwan. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the fact that this study was conducted in
the context of Taiwan, which has its own culture and local media environment. For instance,
Taiwan has more 24-hour TV news channels per capita than any other Asian country. A
total of 64 cable companies and 115 satellite broadcasting program providers offered 299
channels including 15 channels that broadcast regular news programs. The number of
radio stations has also increased drastically since the ban on the establishment of new
radio stations ended in 1993. By 2015, Taiwan had 171 radio stations (Executive Yuan,
2016). Coupled with the rapid developments of new media, the competition among news
media in Taiwan is unparalleled. The changing media environment has led to changing
work conditions, and even journalists’ job satisfaction and professional commitment. There-
fore, it is likely that the highly competitive environment and worsening work conditions
make Taiwanese journalists differ from their counterparts in other countries regarding
their assessment of journalistic work and professional practices. For example, Weaver and
Willnat (2012) found that Taiwanese journalists were less satisfied with their jobs and had
less autonomy in their work than their colleagues in North America and Europe. Accord-
ingly, generalizing the results of this study beyond the context of Taiwan may be inappropri-
ate, even though the results are generally consistent with the job demands-resources model
and literature on journalist burnout. Future cross-national comparative research should seek
a more comprehensive understanding of how job demands and resources affect burnout,
job satisfaction and turnover intentions of journalists in different countries.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
This work was supported by National Science Council: [Grant Number MOST 103-2410-H-119-
002SS2].
 ASIAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNICATION 167

Notes on contributors
Huei-Ling Liu (Ph.D., National Chengchi University) is associate professor and chairperson of the
Graduate Institute of Arts Administration and Management at the Taipei National University of
the Arts in Taipei, Taiwan.
Ven-hwei Lo (Ph.D., University of Missouri-Columbia) is research professor in the School of Jour-
nalism and Communication at The Chinese University of Hong Kong.

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