HANDBOOK

OF
MEDICAL
PHYSICS

Graphics by:
Haseeb-ur-Rehman (LCPT)

Editor In-chief:
Rana Bilal Naeem (LCPT)
Preface
As this is our very first edition, we are happy to say this one is intended primarily
for the use of Physical therapy students, but may also be of interest to clinical Physical
therapists, especially those involved in teaching or wishing to update their knowledge.
Given that Physical therapy is increasingly becoming a subject of degree status and that
many Physical therapy colleges are being affiliated to universities and polytechnics, it
seemed logical in this edition to emphasis of the book towards those techniques of
specific interest to the physical therapist, together with the associated background
theory. The more basic Medical Physics and Electrical theory is updated and brought
together in the first chapter. We have divided this book into three sections, the first
contains Basic Medical Physics, and second sections include Applied Medical Physics and
third are preserved by Practical Section.

To bring the teaching of Physical therapy into line with Medical Physics as taught
in secondary schools, polytechnics and universities, there have been several changes of
terminology and approach is done here.

We are most grateful to all those who have helped us in the preparation of our very first
edition. Special thanks go to Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Asim as he is the one who gave us
the idea to compile whole notes of Medical Physics into a single hand book for the
convenience of students. As the syllabus of Medical Physics is scattered and
unfortunately, there is very limited resource available in the market which focuses
directly to the needs of the students.

In order to overcome this lacking we have prepared, “Handbook of Medical

Physics” to help them to have all of it at one place. So thank you sir for choosing us and
encourage us to make this happen till its completion.

Utmost care has been taken to avoid all kinds of mistakes, yet any suggestion, to
improve the work will be highly appreciated.

We dedicate this book to our institute

“LAHORE COLLEGE OF PHYSICAL THERAPY (LCPT)”

June 2013 HASEEB UR REHMAN

KOMAL TARIQ
M. BABAR IKRAM
SANA KHALID
RANA BILAL NAEEM
Acknowledgment
We would like to express our gratitude to the many people who saw us through
this book; to all those who provided support, talked things over, read, wrote, offered
comments, allowed us to quote their remarks and assisted in the editing, proofreading
and design.

We would like to thank Dr. Hafiz Muhammad Asim for enabling us to publish
this book. Above all we want to thank our families and friends, who supported and
encouraged us in spite of all the time it took us away from them. It was a long and
difficult journey for them.

Last and not least: We beg forgiveness of all those who have been with us over
the course of the years and whose names we have failed to mention."

Haseeb-ur-Rehman
M. Babar Ikram
Komal Tariq
Sana Khalid
Rana Bilal Naeem
 Table of Contents

SECTION I BASIC MEDICAL PHYSICS

1. ELECTRICTY AND MAGNETISM .................................................................................. 1

2. STATIC ELECTRICITY .................................................................................................. 5

3. CURRENT ELECTRICITY ............................................................................................ 19

4. ELECTROMAGNETISM ............................................................................................. 39

5. ELECTROMECHANICS .............................................................................................. 56

6. CLASSIFICATION OF CURRENTS ............................................................................... 59

7. MECHANICAL FORCES ............................................................................................. 76

8. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATIONS ........................................................................... 84

9. WAVES ................................................................................................................. 115

SECTION II APPLIED MEDICAL PHYSICS

10. ULTRASOUND ....................................................................................................... 133

11. ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES FOR THERAPY ........................................................... 145

12. SHORTWAVE DIATHERMY .................................................................................... 160

13. NERVE AND MUSCLE STIMULATIONS .................................................................... 176

14. PULSED SHORTWAVE DIATHERMY........................................................................ 196

15. DOSAGE AND SAFETY ........................................................................................... 202

16. SAFETY IN BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTS ................................................................ 214

17. IONIZING RADIATIONS.......................................................................................... 224

SECTION III PRACTICALS

PRACTICAL NO 1 ....................................................................................................... 229

PRACTICAL NO 2 ....................................................................................................... 230

PRACTICAL NO 3 ....................................................................................................... 231

PRACTICAL NO 4 ....................................................................................................... 232

PRACTICAL NO 5 ....................................................................................................... 234

PRACTICAL NO 6 ....................................................................................................... 235

PRACTICAL NO 7 ....................................................................................................... 236

PRACTICAL NO 8 ....................................................................................................... 239

SECTION 1

BASIC
MEDICAL
PHYSICS

Chapter No. 1
ELECTRICITY AND
MAGNETISM
Matter: Matter may be defined as ‘that which
occupies space.
Element: An element may be defined as a
basic substance which cannot be split into
simpler substances.
Compound: A compound is a substance
formed by the union of two or more elements.
There is a vast number of compounds, ranging
from the simple ones like sodium chloride to
the very complex materials which form some
organic substances.
Molecules: A molecule is the smallest
particle of any substance, element or
compound that can exist alone. For example, if
a grain of common salt were halved and the
process repeated again and again, a minute
particle would ultimately be reached which
could not be further divided and still retains its
properties. This would be a molecule of
sodium chloride, but as material is a
compound then molecule could be subdivided
into its constituent elements sodium and
chloride by chemical action. A molecule of a
compound must contain a minimum of two
atoms, s it cannot have less than two
constituents elements and there must be at
least one atom of each.
ATOM: An atom may be defined as the
smallest particle of the element that can take
part in a chemical reaction.
Structure of the Atom:
All atoms are built up from three basic types
of particles.
Protons: A proton is a particle with a very
small mass, having a diameter of less than 10ˉ3
cm, and bearing a positive electric charge.
Chapter 1 Electricity and Magnetism
Neutrons: A neutron has the same mass as a
proton but no electric charge.
Electrons: An electron a still smaller mass,
1/1850 that of proton, and bearing a negative
electric charge.
Arrangement of Particles:
The particles which form the atom are
arranged like a minute solar system. The
protons and neutrons are held together by a
very strong cohesive force to form the central
nucleus of the atom. This corresponds to the
sun of the solar system and is very dense,
containing practically all the mass of the atom
within a very small space. The electrons
revolve round the central nucleus at a very
high speed, in orbits which resemble the
pathways of the planets around the sun. They
are held in the atoms by the forces of attraction
exerted on them by the positively charged
central nucleus, and the arrangement of the
orbits follows a definite pattern, which is
considered below.
Fig. 1.1: A Helium Atom
Number of Particles: The number of
protons in an atom is very important as it
determines the element of which it is in atom.
This is known as the atomic number of the
element. Basically, total number of protons in
an atom is the atomic number of that element.
For example, hydrogen has one proton and its
atomic number is 1, helium has 2, lithium has
3, beryllium has 4 and so on to uranium which
has an atomic number of 92 (largest atom).
1
 Chapter 1 Electricity and Magnetism

In the smaller atoms, the number of neutrons is
often equal to number of protons, but the
larger atoms usually contain more neutrons
than protons. All atoms of particular element
do not necessarily contain the same number of
neutrons. The nucleus of hydrogen atom most
often consist of one proton alone, but it may
consist of one proton and one neutron, or of
one proton and two neutrons.
Isotopes: Atom of an element which contain
different numbers of neutrons are known as
isotopes of that atom.
Atomic Mass: The protons and neutrons
form practically a; the mass of the atom and
total number of protons and total number of
neutrons together gives the atomic mass of that
element.
The number of electrons in the atom normally
equals the number of protons, so the positive
and negative charges are equal and the atom is
electrically neutral. Electrons can, however, be
fairly easily displaced from or added to the
atom.
The second shell contains up to eight electrons
and again is completed before a third shell is
commenced. So the oxygen atom, with 8
electrons, has 2 in first shell and 6 in second
shell, while Neon which has 10 electrons, has
2 in first shell and 8 in the second shell which
is then complete. The plan is similar until there
are 8 electrons in the third shell, then become
more complex, though still following a
definite pattern.
The number in the center of each atom is the
atomic number while each of the surrounding
circles represents an electron shell.
The arrangement of electron shells is
important in determining the chemical
properties of the elements. The atoms of the
metals have one, two or three electrons in the
outer shells, lithium, sodium, and potassium,
each with only one, having particularly similar
properties. The halogens, fluorine, chlorine,
bromine and iodine all need one electron to
complete the outer shell and the inert gases
helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon have a
complete outer shell of electrons.

Ions: If the atom gains electrons, the number

of electrons exceeds that of protons and the
particle has a negative charge, while if
electrons are lost, the number of protons is
greater than that of electrons and the charge is
positive. Such charged particles are known as
ions.

Arrangement of Electron Orbits:

The arrangement of the orbits in which the

electrons circulate, follows a definite plan.
Several orbits may lie at the same distance
from the central nucleus and these orbits form
an “electron shell”, as they constitute a: zone
of negativeness” which it is difficult for other
electrons to penetrate. The first shell, lying
nearest to the central nucleus, contains up to
two electrons, and must be completed before
other shells are commenced. The single
electron of hydrogen atom is in this first shell,
while in all other atoms, first shell is complete. Fig. 1.2: Arrangement of Electron Shell

2

Theories of Electricity
Electron Theory:
The electron theory is based on the facts that
every object consist of a very large number of
atom, each of which normally has an equal
number of protons and electrons. The opposite
charges balance each other and the object is
electrically neutral. A generator of electricity
causes disturbance of the electrons and the
object either gains electrons, becoming
negatively charged, or lose an electrons,
becoming positively charged. In both cases the
electricity is at rest on the object, which is said
to have a static electric charge. If a connection
is made between two objects, one with a
negative and the other with a positive charge,
electrons pass from the former to the latter
until the charges are equalized. This flow of
electrons constitutes an electric current which,
according to the electron theory passes from
negative to positive. In the past it was usual to
trace currents from positive to negative and the
custom is still followed by some authorities.
This is in accordance with the one fluid theory.
One Fluid Theory:
This theory postulated that electricity was an
invisible and weightless fluid, present on an
objects but capable of being disturbed. If the
fluid was at the normal level the objects was
electrically neutral, but an increase in the
quantity of fluid gave rise to a positive charge,
a decrease to a negative charge. If a
connection was made between two oppositely
charged objects, fluid passed from the positive
charged object to that with a negative charge,
constituting an electric current. This theory has
now been superseded by the electron theory
but is worthy of consideration on that it
explains the diversity of custom in tracing
electric currents.
Chapter 1 Electricity and Magnetism
Conductors:
Conductors are elements whose atoms have
few electrons in their outer orbit. For example,
copper has a loosely held single electron in its
outer orbit which in a copper bar or wire may
be allowed to drift away from the parent atom.
It is such conducting electrons which facilitate
the passage of an electric current.
Insulators (Non-conductors):
Insulators are materials made of atoms in
which the electrons in the outer shell are
firmly held in their orbits and will not leave
the atom in order to conduct a current.
Conduction:
If one end of a solid metal rod is heated, the
energy added causes an increased vibration of
molecules. This vibration is transmitted to
adjacent molecules and in this way heat is
conducted along the bar from the area of high
temperature to areas of lower temperature.
Some materials are good conductors of heat,
e.g. metals, while others are not, e.g. wood and
some plastics.
Convection:
Convection takes place in a liquid or a gas (i.e.
in fluids). If one part of the fluid is heated, the
kinetic energy of the molecules in that part is
increased, they move further apart and this
part becomes less dense. Consequently it rises,
displacing the more dense fluid above, which
descends to take its place.
The currents so produced are called
convection currents. Two way migration of ion
is known as convection current.
3
 Chapter 1 Electricity and Magnetism

Fig. 1.3: When a beaker of water is heated from

below, a convection current is set up.

Displacement Currents:
When the plates of a condenser are charged
there is a momentary movement of electrons
within the atoms of the dielectric as molecular
distortion takes place. When the plates are
discharged the molecules return to their
original form and again there is a movement of
electrons within the atoms. This electron
movement is known as a displacement current
and occurs only in an insulator, where the
electrons are too strongly held by the central
nuclei for them to leave the atoms. Any
change in the charge on the plates of a
condenser is accompanied by a displacement
current in the dielectric.

4

Chapter No. 2
STATIC ELECTRICITY
Charging by conduction and induction
Charging by Friction:
The simplest way of producing a static electric
charge is by friction between two dissimilar
materials. If a glass rod is rubbed with a piece
of flannel it will subsequently attract small
pieces of paper, the power of attraction for
light objects being one of the properties of a
charged body To demonstrate charging by
friction the material chosen must be insulators.
These do not readily allow electrons to move
through them, so a charge produced on one
part of the body is retained in that area.
Conductors are materials which readily permit
the movement of electrons and so any charge
rapidly spreads throughout the objects and its
effects are less apparent. Similarly, the
materials must be dry, as water is a conductor
of electricity and if the object is damp the
charge will leaks away.
When different materials are rubbed together
electrons pass from one, which is left with a
positive charge, to the other, which acquires a
negative charge. The type of charge depends
on the ease with which electrons can be
displaced from the atoms of each materials and
those commonly used for these experiments
can be arranged in order according to the
charge that each will acquire. Of the following
the material nearer the head of the list gains a
positive charge:
Fur, Flannel, glass, silk, sealing wax.
Thus a glass rod rubbed with flannel becomes
negatively charged, the flannel being charged
positively, but if the glass is rubbed with silk it
becomes positively charged, the silk
negatively.
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
Other methods of producing electricity:
According to the law of conservation of
energy, energy cannot be created destroyed,
though it can be converted from one form to
another. Thus electricity must always be
produced from some other form of energy.
When it is produced by friction, mechanical
energy is converted into electrical energy.
Electricity can also be produced
1. In cells - by chemical action
2. In dynamo - by electromagnetic induction
3. In a thermocouple - from heat
4. In photoelectric cell-from radiant energy
But these methods are more commonly
employed for the production of an electric
current than a static charge.
Characteristics of Charged body:
Distribution of the charge: The electric
charge is always held on the surface of the
object. The charged body may be regarded as
striving continually to regain its neutral state,
and it is from the surface that excess electrons
can be lost. Similarly, if the charge is positive
it is the surface atoms that are deficient in
electrons, as it is these atoms which can most
easily gain more electrons. The charge tends to
concentrate where the curvature of the surface
is greatest. It spreads evenly over a sphere but
concentration at the edges and corners of a flat
plate.
The Gold Leaf Electroscope:
This is an instrument for detecting and
measuring static electricity or voltage.
A metal disc is connected to a narrow metal
plate and a thin piece of gold leaf is fixed to
the plate. The whole of this part of the
electroscope is insulated from the body of the
instrument. A glass front prevents air draughts
but allows you to watch the behavior of the
leaf.
5

Fig. 2.1: Go ld leaf electroscope
When a charge is put on the disc at the top it
spreads down to the plate and leaf. This means
that both the leaf and plate will have the same
charge. Similar charges repel each other and
so the leaf rises away from the plate - the
bigger the charge the more the leaf rises.
The leaf can be made to fall again by touching
the disc - you have earthed the electroscope.
An earth terminal prevents the case from
becoming live. The electroscope can be
charged in two ways:
(a) By contact - a charged rod is touched on
the surface of the disc and some of the charge
is transferred to the electroscope. This is not a
very effective method of charging the
electroscope.
(b) By induction - a charged rod is brought up
to the disc and then the electroscope is earthed,
the rod is then removed.
The two methods give the gold leaf opposite
charges.
The following diagrams show you how the
charges spread over the plate and gold leaf in
different conditions.
Fig. 2.2: Charging by conduction
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
Fig. 2.3: Charging by induction
Charging by conduction involves the
contact of a charged object to a neutral object.
Suppose that a positively charged aluminum
plate is touched to a neutral metal sphere. The
neutral metal sphere becomes charged as the
result of being contacted by the charged
aluminum plate. Or suppose that a negatively
charged metal sphere is touched to the top
plate of a neutral needle electroscope. The
neutral electroscope becomes charged as the
result of being contacted by the metal sphere.
And finally, suppose that an uncharged
physics student stands on an insulating
platform and touches a negatively charged
Van de Graaff generator. The neutral physics
student becomes charged as the result of
contact with the Van de Graaff generator.
Each of these examples involves contact
between a charged object and a neutral object.
In contrast to induction, where the charged
object is brought near but never contacted to
the object being charged, conduction charging
involves making the physical connection of
the charged object to the neutral object.
Because charging by conduction involves
contact, it is often called charging by contact.
Charging by Conduction Using a
Negatively Charged Object:
To explain the process of charging by contact,
we will first consider the case of using a
negatively charged metal sphere to charge a
neutral needle electroscope. Understanding the
process demands that like charges repel and
have an intense desire to reduce their
repulsions by spreading about as far as
possible. A negatively charged metal sphere
has an excess of electrons; those electrons find
6

each other repulsive and distance themselves
from each other as far as possible. The
perimeter the sphere is the extreme to which
they can go. If there was ever a conducting
pathway to a more spacious piece of real
estate, one could be sure that the electrons
would be on that pathway to the greener grass
beyond. In human terms, electrons living in
the same home despise each other and are
always seeking a home of their own or at least
a home with more rooms.
Given this understanding of electron-electron
repulsions, it is not difficult to predict what
excess electrons on the metal sphere would be
inclined to do if the sphere were touched to the
neutral electroscope. Once the contact of the
sphere to the electroscope is made, a countless
number of excess electrons from the sphere
move onto the electroscope and spread about
the sphere-electroscope system. In general, the
object that offers the most space in which to
"hang out" will be the object that houses the
greatest number of excess electrons. When the
process of charging by conduction is complete,
the electroscope acquires an excess negative
charge due to the movement of electrons onto
it from the metal sphere. The metal sphere is
still charged negatively, only it has less excess
negative charge than it had prior to the
conduction charging process.
Fig. 2.4: Charging a neutral object by conduction
Charging by Conduction Using a
Positively Charged Object:
The previous example of charging by
conduction involved touching a negatively
charged object to a neutral object. Upon
contact, electrons moved from the negatively
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
charged object onto the neutral object. When
finished, both objects were negatively charged.
But what happens if a positively charged
object is touched to a neutral object? To
investigate this question, we consider the case
of a positively charged aluminum plate being
used to charge a neutral metal sphere by the
process of conduction.
The diagram below depicts the use of a
positively charged aluminum plate being
touched to a neutral metal sphere. A positively
charged aluminum plate has an excess of
protons. When looked at from an electron
perspective, a positive ly charged aluminum
plate has a shortage of electrons. In human
terms, we could say that each excess proton is
rather discontented. It is not satisfied until it
has found a negatively charged electron with
which to co-habitat. However, since a proton
is tightly bound in the nucleus of an atom, it is
incapable of leaving an atom in search of that
longed-for electron. It can however attract a
mobile electron towards itself. And if a
conducting pathway is made between a
collection of electrons and an excess proton,
one can be certain that there is likely an
electron that would be willing to take the
pathway. So when the positively charged
aluminum plate is touched to the neutral metal
sphere, countless electrons on the metal sphere
migrate towards the aluminum plate. There is
a mass migration of electrons until the positive
charge on the aluminum plate-metal sphere
system becomes redistributed. Having lost
electrons to the positively charged aluminum
plate, there is a shortage of electrons on the
sphere and an overall positive charge. The
aluminum plate is still charged positively; only
it now has less excess positive charge than it
had before the charging process began.
7

Fig. 2.5: Charging a neutral object by conduction
Law of Conservation of Charge:
Charging by friction and charging by
induction - the law of conservation of charge
was illustrated. The law of conservation of
charge states that charge is always conserved.
When all objects involved are considered prior
to and after a given process, we notice that the
total amount of charge among the objects is
the same before the process starts as it is after
the process ends. The same conservation law
is observed during the charging by conduction
process. If a negatively charged metal sphere
is used to charge a neutral electroscope, the
overall charge before the process begins is the
same as the overall charge when the process
ends. So if before the charging process begins,
the metal sphere has 1000 units of negative
charge and the electroscope is neutral, the
overall charge of the two objects in the system
is -1000 units. Perhaps during the charging
process, 600 units of negative charge moved
from the metal sphere to the electroscope.
When the process is complete, the
electroscope would have 600 units of negative
charge and the metal sphere would have 400
units of negative charge (the original 1000
units minus the 600 units it transferred to the
electroscope). The overall charge of the two
objects in the system is still -1000 units. The
overall charge before the process began is the
same as the overall charge when the process is
completed. Charge is neither created nor
destroyed; it is simply transferred from one
object to another object in the form of
electrons.
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
Fig. 2.6: Insulation
Conduction Charging Requires a
Conductor:
In all the above examples, the charging by
conduction process involved the touching of
two conductors. Does contact charging have to
occur through the contact of two conductors?
Can an insulator conduct a charge to another
object upon touching? And can an insulator be
charged by conduction? A complete discussion
of these questions can get messy and quite
often leads to a splitting of hairs over the
definition of conduction and the distinction
between conductors and insulators. The belief
is taken here that only a conductor can conduct
charge to another conductor. The process of
noticeably charging an object by contact
involves the two contacting objects
momentarily sharing the net excess charge.
The excess charge is simply given a larger
area over which to spread in order to reduce
the total amount of repulsive forces between
them. This process demands that the objects be
conductors in order for electrons to move
about and redistribute themselves. An
insulator hinders such a movement of
electrons between touching objects and about
the surfaces of the objects. This is observed if
an aluminum pie plate is placed upon a
charged foam plate. When the neutral
aluminum plate is placed upon the charged
foam plate, the foam plate does not conduct its
charge to the aluminum. Despite the fact that
the two surfaces were in contact, charging by
contact or conduction did not occur. (Or at
8

least whatever charge transfer might have
occurred was not noticeable by the customary
means of using an electroscope, using a charge
testing bulb or testing for its repulsion with a
like-charged object.)
Many might quickly suggest that they have
used a charged insulator to charge a neutral
electroscope (or some other object) by contact.
In fact, a negatively charged plastic golf tube
can used to charge an electroscope. The plastic
tube is touched to the top plate of the
electroscope. On most occasions, the plastic
tube is even rubbed or rolled across the plate
of the electroscope? Wouldn't this be regarded
as charging by conduction? No. Not really. In
this case, it is more than likely that the
charging occurred by some process other than
conduction. There was not a sharing of charge
between the plastic tube and the metal parts of
the electroscope. Of course, once some excess
charge is acquired by the electroscope, that
excess charge distributes itself about the
surface of the electroscope. Yet the charge is
not uniformly shared between the two objects.
The protons and electrons within both the
plastic golf tube and the electroscope are not
acting together to share excess charge and
reduce the total amount of repulsive forces.
The charging of an electroscope by contact
with a negatively charged golf tube (or any
charged insulating object) would best be
described as charging by lightning. Rather
than being a process in which the two objects
act together to share the excess charge, the
process could best be described as the
successful effort of electrons to burst through
the space (air) between objects. The presence
of a negatively charged plastic tube is capable
of ionizing the air surrounding the tube and
allowing excess electrons on the plastic tube to
be conducted through the air to the
electroscope. This transfer of charge can
happen with or without touching. In fact, on a
dry winter day the process of charging the
metal electroscope with the charged insulator
often occurs while the insulator is some
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
distance away. The dry air is more easily
ionized and a greater quantity of electrons is
capable of bursting through the space between
the two objects. On such occasions, a
crackling sound is often heard and a flash of
light is seen if the room is darkened. This
phenomenon, occurring from several
centimeters away, certainly does not fit the
description of contact charging.
A charged insulating object is certainly
capable of transferring its charge to another
object. The result of the charge transfer will be
the same as the result of charging by
conduction. Both objects will have the same
type of charge and the flow of electrons is in
the same direction. However, the process and
the underlying explanations are considerably
different. In the case of charging an object
with a charged insulator, the contact is not
essential. Contacting the object simply reduces
the spatial separation between touching atoms
and allows charge to arc and spark its way
between objects. Rubbing or rolling the
insulating object across the conductor's surface
facilitates the charging process by bringing a
greater number of atoms on the insulator in
close proximity to the conductor that is
receiving the charge. The two materials do not
make any effort to share charge nor to act as a
single object (with a uniform electric
potential) in an effort to reduce repulsive
affects.
Is this distinction between charging by
conduction and charging by lightning a
splitting of hairs? Perhaps. For certain, each
process involves a transfer of charge from one
object to another object, yielding the same
result - two like-charged object. Yet,
distinguishing between the two forms of
charging is more consistent with the
customary view that insulators are not
conductors of charge. It also serves to explain
why some insulators clearly do not always
transfer their charge upon contact.
9

Fig. 2.7: Charging by contact and lightening
Capacitors (Condenser):
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is
a passive two-terminal electrical component
used to store energy in an electric field. The
forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but
all contain at least two electrical conductors
separated by a dielectric (insulator); for
example, one common construction consists of
metal foils separated by a thin layer of
insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as
parts of electrical circuits in many common
electrical devices.
When there is a potential difference (voltage)
across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive
charge to collect on one plate and negative
charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in
the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value,
capacitance, measured in farads. This is the
ratio of the electric charge on each conductor
to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a
narrow separation between large areas of
conductor; hence capacitor conductors are
often called plates, referring to an early means
of construction. In practice, the dielectric
between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current and also has an electric field
strength limit, resulting in a breakdown
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
voltage, while the conductors and leads
introduce an undesired inductance and
resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic
circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass, in filter
networks, for smoothing the output of power
supplies, in the resonant circuits that tune
radios to particular frequencies, in electric
power transmission systems for stabilizing
voltage and power flow, and for many other
purposes.
Construction of Capacitor:
The parallel plate capacitor is the simplest
form of capacitor. It can be constructed using
two metal or metalized foil plates at a distance
parallel to each other, with its capacitance
value in Farads, being fixed by the surface
area of the conductive plates and the distance
of separation between them. Altering any two
of these values alters the value of its
capacitance and this forms the basis of
operation of the variable capacitors.
Also, because capacitors store the energy of
the electrons in the form of an electrical
charge on the plates the larger the plates
and/or smaller their separation the greater will
be the charge that the capacitor holds for any
given voltage across its plates. In other words,
larger plates, smaller distance, more
capacitance.
10

By applying a voltage to a capacitor and
measuring the charge on the plates, the ratio of
the charge Q to the voltage V will give the
capacitance value of the capacitor and is
therefore given as: C = Q/V this equation can
also be re-arranged to give the more familiar
formula for the quantity of charge on the
plates as: Q = C x V
Although we have said that the charge is
stored on the plates of a capacitor, it is more
correct to say that the energy within the charge
is stored in an "electrostatic field" between the
two plates. When an electric current flows into
the capacitor, charging it up, the electrostatic
field becomes stronger as it stores more
energy. Likewise, as the current flows out of
the capacitor, discharging it, the potential
difference between the two plates decreases
and the electrostatic field decreases as the
energy moves out of the plates.
The property of a capacitor to store charge on
its plates in the form of an electrostatic field is
called the Capacitance of the capacitor. Not
only that, but capacitance is also the property
of a capacitor which resists the change of
voltage across it.
Units:
Capacity of a capacitor like that of conductor
is measured in Farads. One farad is the
capacity of a capacitor which is charged to a
potential difference of one volt by one
coulomb of electricity. The practical unit is
micro-farad.
Types of Capacitor:
There are a very large variety of different
types of capacitor available in the market place
and each one has its own set of characteristics
and applications, from very small delicate
trimming capacitors up to large power metal-
can type capacitors used in high voltage power
correction and smoothing circuits. The
comparison between the different types of
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
capacitor is generally made with regards to the
dielectric used between the plates. Like
resistors, there are also variable types of
capacitors which allow us to vary their
capacitance value for use in radio or
"frequency tuning" type circuits.
Commercial types of capacitor are made from
metallic foil interlaced with thin sheets of
either paraffin-impregnated paper or Mylar as
the dielectric material. Some capacitors look
like tubes, this is because the metal foil plates
are rolled up into a cylinder to form a small
package with the insulating dielectric material
sandwiched in between them. Small capacitors
are often constructed from ceramic materials
and then dipped into an epoxy resin to seal
them. Either way, capacitors play an important
part in electronic circuits so here are a few of
the more "common" types of capacitor
available.
Dielectric Capacitor:
Dielectric Capacitors are usually of the
variable type were a continuous variation of
capacitance is required for tuning transmitters,
receivers and transistor radios. Variable
dielectric capacitors are multi-plate air-spaced
types that have a set of fixed plates (the stator
vanes) and a set of movable plates (the rotor
vanes) which move in between the fixed
plates. The position of the moving plates with
respect to the fixed plates determines the
overall capacitance value. The capacitance is
generally at maximum when the two sets of
plates are fully meshed together. High voltage
type tuning capacitors have relatively large
spacing or air-gaps between the plates with
breakdown voltages reaching many thousands
of volts.
Fig. 2.8: Variable and trimmer capacitor symbols.
11
 Chapter 2 Static Electricity

As well as the continuously variable types,
preset type variable capacitors are also
available called Trimmers. These are generally
small devices that can be adjusted or "pre-set"
to a particular capacitance value with the aid
of a small screwdriver and are available in
very small capacitances of 500pF or less and
are non-polarized.
well under conditions of high temperature,
have smaller tolerances, a very long service
life and high reliability. Examples of film
capacitors are the rectangular metalized film
and cylindrical film & foil types as shown
below.

Film Capacitor:

Film Capacitors are the most commonly

available of all types of capacitors, consisting
of a relatively large family of capacitors with
the difference being in their dielectric
properties. These include polyester (Mylar),
polystyrene, polypropylene, polycarbonate,
metallized paper, Teflon etc. Film type
Fig. 2.9: Radial lead type
capacitors are available in capacitance ranges
from as small as 5pF to as large as 100uF
depending upon the actual type of capacitor
and its voltage rating. Film capacitors also
come in an assortment of shapes and case
styles which include:

 Wrap & Fill (Oval & Round) - where the

capacitor is wrapped in a tight plastic tape
and have the ends filled with epoxy to seal
them.
Fig. 2.10: A xial Lead Type
 Epoxy Case (Rectangular & Round) -
where the capacitor is encased in a molded The film and foil types of capacitors are made
plastic shell which is then filled with from long thin strips of thin metal foil with the
epoxy. dielectric material sandwiched together which
 Metal Hermetically Sealed (Rectangular & are wound into a tight roll and then sealed in
Round) - where the capacitor is encased in paper or metal tubes.
a metal tube or can and again sealed with
epoxy. Film Capacitor:

With all the above case styles available in both
Axial and Radial Leads.
Film Capacitors which use polystyrene,
polycarbonate or Teflon as their dielectrics are
sometimes called "Plastic capacitors". The
construction of plastic film capacitors is
similar to that for paper film capacitors but use
a plastic film instead of paper. The main
advantage of plastic film capacitors compared
to impregnated-paper types is that they operate
These film types require a much thicker
dielectric film to reduce the risk of tears or
punctures in the film, and is therefore more
suited to lower capacitance values and larger
case sizes.
Metalized foil capacitors have the conductive
film metalized sprayed directly onto each side
of the dielectric which gives the capacitor self-
healing properties and can therefore use much
thinner dielectric films. This allows for higher

12

capacitance values and smaller case sizes for a
given capacitance. Film and foil capacitors are
generally used for higher power and more
precise applications.
Fig. 2.11: Film Capacitor
Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they
are generally called are made by coating two
sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with
silver and are then stacked together to make a
capacitor. For very low capacitance values a
single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used.
Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric
constant (High-K) and are available so that
relatively high capacitances can be obtained in
a small physical size.
Ceramic Capacitor:
They exhibit large non-linear changes in
capacitance against temperature and as a result
are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors
as they are also non-polarized devices.
Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a
few Pico-farads to one or two microfarads but
their voltage ratings are generally quite low.
Fig. 2.12: Ceramic Capacitor
Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a
3-digit code printed onto their body to identify
their capacitance value in Pico-farads.
Generally the first two digits indicate the
capacitors value and the third digit indicates
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
the number of zero's to be added. For example,
a ceramic disc capacitor with the markings 103
would indicate 10 and 3 zero's in Pico-farads
which is equivalent to 10,000 pF or 10nF.
Likewise, the digits 104 would indicate 10 and
4 zero's in Pico-farads which is equivalent to
100,000 pF or 100nF and so on. Then on the
image of a ceramic capacitor above the
numbers 154 indicate 15 and 4 zero's in Pico-
farads which is equivalent to 150,000 pF or
150nF. Letter codes are sometimes used to
indicate their tolerance value such as: J = 5%,
K = 10% or M = 20% etc.
Electrolytic Capacitors:
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used
when very large capacitance values are
required. Here instead of using a very thin
metallic film layer for one of the electrodes, a
semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of
a jelly or paste is used which serves as the
second electrode (usually the cathode). The
dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is
grown electro-chemically in production with
the thickness of the film being less than ten
microns. This insulating layer is so thin that it
is possible to make capacitors with a large
value of capacitance for a small physical size
as the distance between the plates, is very
small.
Fig.2.13: Electro lytic Capacitor
The majority of electrolytic types of capacitors
are Polarized, that is the DC voltage applied to
the capacitor terminals must be of the correct
polarity, i.e. positive to the positive terminal
and negative to the negative terminal as an
incorrect polarization will break down the
insulating oxide layer and permanent damage
13

may result. All polarized electrolytic
capacitors have their polarity clearly marked
with a negative sign to indicate the negative
terminal and this polarity must be followed.
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in
DC power supply circuits due to their large
capacitances and small size to help reduce the
ripple voltage or for coupling and decoupling
applications. One main disadvantage of
electrolytic capacitors is their relatively low
voltage rating and due to the polarization of
electrolytic capacitors, it follows then that they
must not be used on AC supplies. Electrolytic
generally come in two basic forms; Aluminum
Electrolytic Capacitors and Tantalum
Electrolytic Capacitors.
Types of Electrolytic Capacitor:
1) Aluminum Electrolytic Capacitors:
There are basically two types of Aluminum
Electrolytic Capacitor,
a) The plain foil type
b) The etched foil type
The thickness of the aluminum oxide film and
high breakdown voltage give these capacitors
very high capacitance values for their size.
The foil plates of the capacitor are anodized
with a DC current. This anodizing process sets
up the polarity of the plate material and
determines which side of the plate is positive
and which side is negative.
The etched foil type differs from the plain foil
type in that the aluminum oxide on the anode
and cathode foils has been chemically etched
to increase its surface area and permittivity.
This gives a smaller sized capacitor than a
plain foil type of equivalent value but has the
disadvantage of not being able to withstand
high DC currents compared to the plain type.
Also their tolerance range is quite large at up
to 20%. Typical values of capacitance for an
aluminum electrolytic capacitor range from
1uF up to 47,000uF.
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
Etched foil electrolytic are best used in
coupling, DC blocking and by-pass circuits
while plain foil types are better suited as
smoothing capacitors in power supplies.
But aluminum electrolytic are "polarized"
devices so reversing the applied voltage on the
leads will cause the insulating layer within the
capacitor to become destroyed along with the
capacitor. However, the electrolyte used
within the capacitor helps heal a damaged
plate if the damage is small.
Since the electrolyte has the properties to self-
heal a damaged plate, it also has the ability to
re-anodize the foil plate. As the anodizing
process can be reversed, the electrolyte has the
ability to remove the oxide coating from the
foil as would happen if the capacitor was
connected with a reverse polarity. Since the
electrolyte has the ability to conduct
electricity, if the aluminum oxide layer was
removed or destroyed, the capacitor would
allow current to pass from one plate to the
other destroying the capacitor, "so be aware".
Fig 2.14: Aluminum electrolytic capacitor
2. Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors:
Tantalum Electrolytic Capacitors and
Tantalum Beads, are available in both wet
(foil) and dry (solid) electrolytic types with the
dry or solid tantalum being the most common.
Solid tantalum capacitors use manganese
dioxide as their second terminal and are
physically smaller than the equivalent
aluminum capacitors. The dielectric properties
of tantalum oxide is also much better than
14

those of aluminum oxide giving a lower i.
leakage currents and better capacitance
stability which makes them suitable for use in
blocking, by-passing, decoupling, filtering and ii.
timing applications.
iii.
Fig. 2.15: Alu minu m and Tantalu m electrolytic
capacitors
Also, Tantalum Capacitors although polarized,
can tolerate being connected to a reverse
voltage much more easily than the aluminum
types but are rated at much lower working
voltages.
Solid tantalum capacitors are usually used in
circuits where the AC voltage is small
compared to the DC voltage. However, some
tantalum capacitor types contain two
capacitors in-one, connected negative-to-
negative to form a "non-polarized" capacitor
for use in low voltage AC circuits as a non-
polarized device. Generally, the positive lead
is identified on the capacitor body by a
polarity mark, with the body of a tantalum
bead capacitor being an oval geometrical
shape. Typical values of capacitance range
from 47nF to 470uF.
Drawbacks of Electrolytic capacitors:
Electrolytic are widely used capacitors due to
their low cost and small size but there are three
easy ways to destroy an electrolytic capacitor:
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
Over-voltage - excessive voltage will
cause current to leak through the dielectric
resulting in a short circuit condition.
Reversed Polarity - reverse voltage will
cause self-destruction of the oxide layer
and failure.
Over Temperature - excessive heat dries
out the electrolytic and shortens the life of
an electrolytic capacitor.
Series and parallel combinations of
capacitors:
The properties of capacitors in series and
parallel combination are given below
Series combination of capacitor:
1. In series combination the distance between
the plates increases, so the total
capacitance is reduced when the
capacitors are connected in series. The net
capacitance is less than the lowest
capacitance present in the series circuit.
The results are exactly the same as the
resistances in parallel.
CT = 1/C1 +1/C2 +1/C3 ……..1/Cn
If the capacitors of 1 microfarad each are
connected in series, the net capacitance offered
by the combination of the two capacitors is:
μF
So the net value is just half of an individual
capacitor. Capacitors are used in series to
provide a higher voltage breakdown rating for
the combination.
When electrolytic capacitors are to be
connected in series, connect positive to
negative exactly as when connecting batteries
in series.
2. In series capacitors, the working voltage
of each capacitor is added. This series
connection provides a reduction in
capacitance but an increase in working
voltage:
15

The net value of this combination is: -
But the working voltage becomes 700V.
Parallel Combination of Capacitors:
3. When capacitors are connected in parallel
their Capacitance is added up. The reason
is that the capacity is increased due to
larger plate surface area. The formula for
parallel capacitor is same as the
resistance in series.
If 5, 10 and 15 microfarad capacitors are
connected in parallel (Fig 2.16), the
combination would provide a net capacitance
of 30 microfarad.
Fig. 2.16: Capacitors connected in parallel
When electrolytic capacitors are connected in
parallel, check polarity connect positive to
positive and negative to negative.
The charge and discharge
capacitor:
It is important to study what happens while a
capacitor is charging and discharging. It is the
ability to control and predict the rate at which
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
a capacitor charges and discharges that makes
capacitors really useful in electronic timing
circuits.
When a voltage is placed across the capacitor
the potential cannot rise to the applied value
instantaneously. As the charge on the
terminals builds up to its final value it tends to
repel the addition of further charge.
μF
The rate at which a capacitor can be charged
or discharged depends on:
(a) The capacitance of the capacitor and
(b) The resistance of the circuit through which
it is being charged or is discharging.
This fact makes the capacitor a very useful if
not vital component in the timing circuits of
many devices from clocks to computers.
In the section headed Capacitors 1 we
compared a charged capacitor to a bucket with
water in it. Now, if a hole is made in the
bottom of the bucket the water will run out.
Similarly, if the capacitor plates are connected
together via an external resistor, electrons will
flow round the circuit, neutralize some of the
charge on the other plate and reduce the
potential difference across the plates. The
same ideas also apply to charging the
capacitor.
During charging, electrons flow from the
negative terminal of the power supply to one
plate of the capacitor and from the other plate
to the positive terminal of the power supply.
When the switch is closed, and charging starts,
the rate of flow of charge is large (i.e. a big
current) and this decreases as time goes by and
the plates become more charged so "resisting"
any further charging. You should realize that
of a the addition of a resistor in the circuit in series
with the capacitor ONLY affects the TIME it
takes for the capacitor to become fully charge
and NOT the EVENTUAL POTENTIAL
DIFFERENCE ACROSS IT – this is always
16

the same and equal to the potential difference
across the supply.
Fig. 2.17.
Those of you who have a flash lamp built into
your camera will know that it takes a few
seconds to charge - this is because the energy
for the flash is being transferred to, and stored
in, the capacitor inside the flash unit and this
takes time to become fully charged.
If we consider the example of a capacitor
connected to an indicator lamp you should
realize that if a capacitor was used to light it
then the lamp would get slowly dimmer as the
capacitor discharges as the potential difference
across it falls and the current flowing gets less.
Fig.2.18 (a): Small resistance- rapid charge and
discharge
Fig.2.18 (b): Large resistance- slow charge and
discharge
Charging of Capacitors:
As soon as the switch is closed in position 1,
the battery is connected across the capacitor,
current flows and the potential difference
across the capacitor begins to rise but, as more
and more charge builds up on the capacitor
Chapter 2 Static Electricity
plates, the current and the rate of rise of
potential difference both falls. (Figure 2.19 (a).
Finally no further current will flow when the
p.d. across the capacitor equals that of the
supply voltage Vo.
The capacitor is then fully charged.
Fig.2.19 (a): Charging of a capacitor
Discharging of Capacitors:
As soon as the switch is put in position 2, a
'large' current starts to flow and the potential
difference across the capacitor drops. (Figure
2.19 (b). As charge flows from one plate to the
other through the resistor the charge is
neutralized and so the current falls and the rate
of decrease of potential difference also falls.
Eventually the charge on the plates is zero and
the current and potential differences are also
zero - the capacitor is fully discharged. Note
that the value of the resistor does not affect the
final potential difference across the capacitor –
only the time that it takes to reach that value.
The bigger the resistor the longer the time
taken.
Fig. 2.19 (b): Discharging of a capacitor
17
 Chapter 2 Static Electricity

Oscillating discharge of Capacitors:

An oscillating current is produced by

discharging a capacitor to an inductance of
low ohmic resistance. The capacitor must be
charged i.e. energy is supplied to the circuit,
the static charge on the capacitor representing
potential energy the capacitors then discharges
through the circuit and as is does so the current
sets up a self induced EMF in the inductance.
This EMF retard the rise of current and
prolongs its flow when it is tending to fall, the
later effect corresponding to the momentum of
the weight in that it continues the movement
after the neutral position has been reached.
The current represents the kinetic energy. The
self induced EMF which prolongs the flow of
current recharges the capacitors with the
reverse polarity to its original charge and the
energy is once more potential. The capacitors
then discharge again giving the flow of current
in the reverse direction to the previous one and
the series of events is repeated.

18

Chapter No. 3
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Resistance:
A pathway through which electrons can move
is known as circuit and the conductor of which
it is made offers some impedance to the
movement of electrons. The amount of this
resistance depends on
1. The material of the conductors
2. Length of the pathway
3. Cross sectional area of the conductor
4. Temperature
The impedance to electron flow which is
determined by the material, physical
dimensions and temperature of the conductors
is termed the ohmic resistance. Provided that
the resistance does not vary, the ohmic
resistance is a constant factor of any
conductor.
Units:
“The unit of the resistance is Ohm, which is
the resistance offered by the column of
mercury 106.3 cm long and one square
millimeter in cross sectional area at 0 °C.”
Or
“The resistance offered by a 50 yards of
copper wire one square millimeter in cross
sectional area at normal temperature and
pressure.”
In addition to the ohmic resistance the flow of
current in a circuit is impeded by inductive
reactance and capacitive reactance.
Simple Circuits with Resistors:
Perhaps the simplest kind of circuit which can
be constructed comprises a battery (a source of
electrical energy) and a single electrical
component such as a resistor or a torch globe.
Chapter 3 Current Electricity
First consider the simple circuit arrangement
shown in figure 3.1.
On the left is a small lamp (torch globe)
connected by means of wires to a dry cell
(battery). On the right is the circuit diagram of
the arrangement: note the circuit symbols used
for the lamp and dry cell. When connected this
way current will flow from one terminal of the
battery, through the lamp and back to the
opposite terminal. It is common convention to
say that current flows from the positive
terminal of the battery to the negative
terminal; although this is the opposite
direction to the flow of electrons. The
difference between reality and convention is
not important as it has no effect on the
magnitudes of currents and voltages in a
circuit.
Under normal circumstances the flow of
current through the lamp will cause it to glow
– the normal purpose of such a circuit. If a
break occurs in the wire for example, or the
wire is not secured to the battery, current will
not flow and we have an open circuit. If the
wire connected to one terminal of the lamp
comes loose and touches the other wire,
current can flow directly through the wires and
bypass the lamp - this condition is known as a
short circuit. The switch on a torch is just a
means of introducing an open circuit condition
at will: preventing the flow of current and thus
conserving the electrical energy stored in the
battery.
Going one step further than the circuit shown
in figure 3.1 we may add a resistor to produce
the circuits shown in figure 3.2. Note the
circuit symbol (zig-zag line) for a resistor.
Figure 3.1 shows the resistor in series with the
lamp, i.e. the resistor and lamp are connected
end to end so that current must flow through
both the lamp and the resistor. In fig. 3.3 the
resistor is connected in parallel with the lamp
so that some current can flow through the
lamp and some through the resistor. The
19
 Chapter 3 Current Electricity

resistor is thus allowing part of the current to

bypass the lamp and return to the opposite
terminal of the battery.

Resistors in Series:

Two or more resistors may be connected in

series or in parallel. When the resistors are
connected in series as in figure 3.2, the current
must pass through each resistance in turn and
the total resistance offered by the circuit is
Fig. 3.2: Resistors in series connected in series
equal to the sum of the individual resistances.
In general for a circuit having n resistors
connected in series the total resistance of the Resistors in Parallel:
circuit, R, is equal to the sum of the individual
resistances i.e.

R = R1 + R2 + R3........ + Rn … (3.1)

Fig. 3.3: Resistor in parallel

When a number of resistors are connected in

Fig. 3.1: Simp le circu its. (a) a series arrangement
As mentioned previously, the current flowing
is a measure of the rate of flow of charges
around the circuit and is measured in amperes,
or amps for short. Since there can be no
accumulation of charges within a resistor the
current flowing into a certain resistor is equal
to the current flowing out. Thus the same
current must flow through each resistor when
they are connected in series. Although the
current in each resistor is the same, the
potential difference across each resistor in a
series circuit is, in general, different. The sum
of the potential differences across the resistors
is equal to the potential difference generated
by the battery (the battery voltage).
parallel as in figure 3.4 the current flowing in
each resistor may be different. In this case the
total resistance of the circuit, R, is given by the
equation
Or more generally, where there are n resistors
in parallel in a circuit
( .2)
Although the current in each resistor may be
quite different, the voltage or potential
difference across each resistor is the same and
is equal to the battery voltage. This must be so
since the ends of each resistor are connected
directly to the terminals of the battery. The

20

largest amount of current will flow through the
smallest resistance when resistors are
Fig. 3.4: Resistors in parallel connected in parallel.
Ohm’s Law:
The relationship between EMF and intensity
of current is stated in ohm’s law, but may be
more simply expressed as:
“The intensity of an electric current varies
directly with EMF and inversely with the
resistance of the conductor.”
Ohm’s law is expressed by the formula
… (3.3)
Where
I = intensity of current measured in amperes
E = EMF measured in volts
R = Resistance measured in ohms
The formula can also be written:
E = IR or
Thus if two of the factors known, the third can
be calculated. As there is definite relationship
between EMF, resistance and intensity of
current and the units of resistance and intensity
of current have been defined, the definition of
the volts based on the other two factors.
Example 1: If, in figure 3.5, R1 is 50 ohms, R2
is 100 ohms and R3 is 150 ohms then the total
resistance R is
Chapter 3 Current Electricity
Fig 3.5: Different resistances in series
R = 50 + 100 + 150 = 300 ohms
If these are connected to a 10 volt battery the
current flow will be:
I =V/R = 10/300 = 0.033 amps or
33milliamps.
Here we have calculated the total current
drawn from the battery which is equal to the
current flowing through each resistor. The
battery gives a total potential difference of 10
volts across the combination of resistors. If we
wish to calculate the potential difference
across each individual resistor we again use
equation 1.3 but apply the equation to each
resistor in turn. For example, for the 50 ohm
resistor we know that
I = 0.033 amps and R = 50 ohms
So
I = V/R
Becomes
V/R= 0.033
And hence
V = 50 x 0.033 = 1.7 volts.
For the 100 ohm resistor
V = 100 x 0.033 = 3.3 volts
And for the 150 ohm resistor
V = 150 x 0.033 = 5.0 volts.
21

The total potential difference across the
combination of resistors is
V = 1.7 + 3.3 + 5.0 = 10 volts as expected.
Example 2: Now consider the same three
resistors as in the previous example connected
in parallel to a 10 volt battery as in figure 3.4.
The total resistance, R, is now given by
So
The total current is
To calculate the current in each individual
resistor we use the fact that the potential
difference across each resistor is the full 10
volts. Then for the 50 ohm resistor we have
For the 100 ohm resistor
And for the 150 ohm resistor
So the total current drawn from the battery is
I = 0.20 + 0.10 + 0.07 = 0.37 amps as
calculated previously.
Chapter 3 Current Electricity
The calculations are made relatively simple by
remembering that when resistors are connected
in series the current through each is the same
and when resistors are connected in parallel
the potential difference across each is the
same.
Powe r Dissipation in Resistors:
When electric current flows through a
conductor, whether the conductor is a resistor,
copper wire, the filament of a light bulb or
whatever, and electrical energy is converted to
heat energy in the conductor. An extreme
example of this is seen with a lamp – the heat
generated is so great that the filament wire
glows brightly. The same heating effect takes
place, though to a lesser extent, in a resistor
and clearly there will be a limit to how much
heat a resistor can generate per second before
it starts glowing and disintegrates or melts.
The maximum rate at which a resistor can
safely dissipate electrical energy is called the
power rating of the resistor and this depends
on the size and physical construction.
The actual rate of dissipation of electrical
energy at any particular time is the power
dissipated. This depends on both the current
flowing through the resistor and the potential
difference across it. The power (in watts) is
equal to the product of current (in amps) and
potential difference (in volts).
If we denote power by the symbol P the
relationship may be written
P = V.I .... (3.4)
This formula can be usefully used with Ohm's
law to calculate the maximum values for
voltage or current for a particular resistor of
known resistance and power rating.
Alternatively if we know any two of the values
of V, I or R for a given resistor, we can
calculate the power dissipated in the resistor
22
 Chapter 3 Current Electricity

using equation 3.4 or the two expressions parallel combination of R2 and R3 so equation
obtained by solving equations 3.3 and 3.4. 3.1 applies.
These are:
To calculate voltages and currents in this
.... (3.5) circuit it is important to visualize current
flowing from the positive terminal of the
battery, through R1 and then through the
Where we have eliminated I in solving the two
combination of R2 and R3 . The current flowing
expressions and
through R1 splits. Some goes through R2 and
some through R3 . The current though R2 plus
P = I2 .R .... (3.6)
the current through R3 must equal that through
R1 since the moving charges cannot disappear
Where we have eliminated V.
nor can new ones appear.
With these three alternative formulae for
Another important idea is that current (charge)
calculating power we would choose the
flows around the circuit, losing electrical
equation which gives the required answer with
potential energy in the process. Some energy
a minimum of calculations.
is lost as charges flow through R1 . The
remainder is lost as charges flow either
Consider the three resistors connected in series
through R2 or R3 . The potential difference
as in example 1 previously. If we wish to
across R2 is one-and-the-same as the potential
calculate the power dissipated in each resistor
difference across R3 . The potential difference
we would first calculate the current (which is
across R1 plus that across the R2 /R3
the same for each resistor) and then use
combination must equal the battery voltage.
equation 3.6. In example 2 previously the
resistors are in parallel and the potential
Example 3: If we have a resistor combination
difference is the same for each resistor.
like that shown in figure 3.7, with the
Equation 3.5 is thus the choice for power
resistance values and battery voltage are as
calculation.
shown alongside:

Resistors in Series and Parallel

Combination:

Fig. 3.7: Different Resistances in series and parallel

combination
Figure 3.6 shows one possible series/parallel
combination. (I) what is the current through each of the
resistors?
To calculate the total resistance in this circuit
we would first need to calculate the resistance Answer: First calculate the total resistance.
of R2 and R3 in parallel using equation. The For the parallel combination,
total resistance is obtained by adding this to
R1 . This is because R1 is in series with the Ω

23
 Chapter 3 Current Electricity

The total resistance is thus 67 + 50 = 117 Ω difference, current or resistance. Using

The battery voltage is 10 V so the total current equation 1.4 we have P = V.I = 5.7 x 0.057 =
is 0.33 W.

Different types of currents:

All of this current flows through the 50 Ω

resistor so the current through it is 0.085 A or
85 mA.

The potential difference across the 50 Ω

resistor is V = I.R = 0.085 x 50 = 4.3 V, which
answers question iii above.

The potential difference across the 100 Ω/200

Ω parallel combination is 10 - 4.3 = 5.7 V.

The current through the 100 Ω resistor is

I = V/R = 5.7/100 = 0.057 A

The current through the 200 Ω resistor is

I =V/R= 5.7/200 = 0.029 A

(ii) do the currents calculated add-up i.e. is the

current through the 50 Ω resistor equal to the
total current through the 100 Ω and 200 Ω
combination?
Answer: The total current through the 100
Ω/200 Ω parallel combination is 0.057 + 0.029
= 0.086 A which (allowing for rounding errors
as we have used two-figure accuracy) agrees
with the value calculated for the 50 Ω resistor.
(iii) What is the potential difference across the
50 Ω resistor?
For answer see above.
(iv) What is the power dissipated in the 100 Ω
resistor?
Answer: The power dissipated in the 100 Ω
resistor can be calculated using either equation
3.4 or 3.5 or 3.6 as we know the potential
Cells and Batteries:
Volta was the inventor of the voltaic pile, the
first electrical battery. In common usage, the
word "battery" has come to include a single
Galvanic cell, but a battery properly consists
of multiple cells.
Types:
Primary cells: is a cell or battery in which the
electrochemical reaction is irreversible so that
they are non-rechargeable.
Secondary cells: is a cell or battery in which
electrochemical reaction is reversible so that
they are rechargeable.
Simple voltaic cell:
A Galvanic cell, or Simple Voltaic cell,
named after Luigi Galvani, or Alessandro

24
 Chapter 3 Current Electricity

Volta respectively, is an electrochemical cell
that derives electrical energy from chemical
reactions taking place within the cell. It
generally consists of two different metals
connected by a salt bridge, or individual half-
cells separated by a porous membrane.
source of electrical power. By their nature they
produce direct current. For example, a lead-
acid battery contains a number of galvanic
cells. The two electrodes are effectively lead
and lead oxide.

Construction:
A Galvanic cell consists of two half-cells. In
its simplest form, each half cell consists of a
metal and a solution of a salt of the metal. The
salt solution contains a cation of the metal and
an anion to balance the charge on the cation.
For the Daniel cell, depicted in the figure, the
two metals are zinc and copper and the two
salts are sulfates of the respective metal.
Lechlanche Cell:
The Lechlanche cell is a battery invented and
patented by Georges Lechlanche in 1866.
The battery contained a conducting solution
(electrolyte) of ammonium chloride, a cathode
(positive terminal) of carbon, a depolarizer of
manganese dioxide, and an anode (negative
terminal) of zinc.

Che mical reactions:

In essence the half-cell contains the metal in

two oxidation states and the chemical reaction
in the half-cell is an oxidation-reduction
(redox) reaction. Zinc is the oxidized metal so
when a device is connected to the electrodes,
the electrochemical reaction is

Zn + Cu2 + → Zn2+ + Cu

The zinc electrode is dissolved and copper is

deposited on the copper electrode (as copper
ions become reduced to copper metal). By
definition, the cathode is the electrode where
reduction (gain of electrons) takes place, so
Fig. 3.8: illustration of a Lechlanche cell
the copper electrode is the cathode. The
cathode attracts cations, so has a negative The chemistry of this cell was later
charge when current is discharging. In this successfully adapted to manufacture of dry
case, copper is the cathode and zinc the anode. cells.
The voltage of the Galvanic cell is the sum of
the voltages of the two half-cells. It is Uses:
measured by connecting a voltmeter to the two
The electromotive force (emf) produced by a
electrodes. When a device such as an electric
Lechlanche cell is 1.4 volts, with a resistance
motor is attached to the electrodes, a current
of several ohms where a porous pot is used. It
flows and redox reactions occur in both half-
saw extensive usage in telegraphy, signaling,
cells. This will continue until the concentration
electric bells and similar applications where
of the cations that are being reduced goes to
intermittent current was required and it was
zero. Galvanic cells are typically used as a

25
 Chapter 3 Current Electricity

desirable that a battery should require little Dry Cell Battery:

maintenance.
A dry-cell battery uses an immobilized
The Lechlanche battery (or wet cell as it was electrolyte that minimizes moisture and allows
referred to) was the forerunner of the modern for superior portability.
zinc-carbon battery (a dry cell). The addition
of zinc chloride to the electrolyte paste raised
the EMF 1.5 volts. Later developments
dispensed with the ammonium chloride
completely, giving a cell that could endure
more sustained discharge without its internal
resistance rising as quickly (the zinc chloride
cell).

Wet Lechlanche cell:

The Lechlanche Cell is a primary electrical

cell generating an EMF of 1.5 volts. The
Lechlanche Cell consists of a carbon rod
positive electrode surrounded by an intimate
mixture of carbon and manganese dioxide, the
depolarizer, contained within a porous pot; an Fig. 3.10: A Dry Cell
electrolyte of an aqueous solution of
ammonium chloride, and a zinc rod negative A zinc casing acts as the anode, surrounding a
electrode. The Lechlanche Cell was functional carbon rod, which acts as a cathode. Between
at low currents, but if a large current was them, the electrolyte paste works as the
drawn hydrogen evolved and tended to cover battery.
the carbon electrode, none-the-less the
A battery contains electrochemical cells that
Lechlanche Cell was the fore runner of can store chemical energy to be converted to
modern zinc carbon batteries.
electrical energy.

A dry-cell battery is a subtype of battery. It

stores energy in an immobilized electrolyte
paste, which minimizes the need for water. A
low-water requirement maximizes portability.

Common examples of dry-cell batteries

include zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline
batteries.

The overall reaction of energy storage can be

represented through balanced chemical
equations.

Cathode:
Fig. 3.9: Wet Lechlanche Cell
The electrode of an electrochemical cell at
which reduction occurs

26

Anode:
The electrode of an electrochemical cell at
which oxidation occurs.
Electrolyte:
A substance that, in solution or when molten,
ionizes and conducts electricity
A Zinc-Carbon Dry-Cell Batte ry:
Fig. 3.11: A Zinc-Carbon Dry -Cell Battery
An illustration of a zinc-carbon dry cell. In it,
a zinc casing acts as the anode, surrounding a
carbon rod, which acts as a cathode. Between
them, the electrolyte paste works as the
battery.
In electricity, a battery is a device consisting
of one or more electrochemical cells that
convert stored chemical energy into electrical
energy. The dry cell is one of many general
types of electrochemical cells.
A dry cell has the electrolyte immobilized as a
paste, with only enough moisture in it to allow
current to flow. Unlike a wet cell, a dry cell
can operate in any orientation without spilling,
as it contains no free liquid. This versatility
makes it suitable for portable equipment. By
comparison, the first wet-cell batteries were
typically fragile glass containers with lead
rods hanging from an open top. They therefore
needed careful handling to avoid spillage. The
development of the dry-cell battery allowed
Chapter 3 Current Electricity
for a major advance in battery safety and
portability.
A common dry-cell battery is the zinc-carbon
battery, which uses a cell that is sometimes
called the dry Lechlanche cell. The cell is
made up of an outer zinc container, which acts
as the anode. The cathode is a central carbon
rod, surrounded by a mixture of carbon and
manganese (IV) oxide (MnO2). The
electrolyte is a paste of ammonium chloride
(NH4Cl). A fibrous fabric separates the two
electrodes, and a brass pin in the center of the
cell conducts electricity to the outside circuit.
Below is an illustration of a zinc-carbon
battery.
Another example of a dry-cell battery is the
alkaline battery. Alkaline batteries are almost
the same as zinc-carbon batteries, except that
the electrolyte used is potassium hydroxide
(KOH) rather than ammonium chloride. In
some more modern types of so-called "high-
power" batteries (with much lower capacity
than standard alkaline batteries), the
ammonium chloride is replaced by zinc
chloride.
Cells in Series and in Parallel:
When cells are used as a source of EMF a
number are commonly connected together to
form a battery. There are two ways in which
the cells may be connected, in series or in
parallel with each other.
Cells in Series:
When cells are connected in series with each
other the positive terminal of the first cell is
connected to the negative terminal of the
second, the positive terminal of the second to
the negative of the third, and so on. The
external circuit is taken from the negative
terminal of the first cell and the positive
terminal of the last one. In this way all the
currents passes through each cell. Therefore,
the EMF of the battery is the sum of the EMFs
of the individual cells, and the internal
27
 Chapter 3 Current Electricity

resistance of the battery is the sum of internal
resistance of the individual cell. If there are ten
cell, each with an EMF of 1.5 volts and
internal resistance of one ohm, the EMF of the
battery is 15 volts and the internal resistance
ten ohms.
in parallel with each other in order to keep the
internal resistance as low as possible.
Connection of cells in parallel has additional
advantage that they last longer than if a single
cell is used.
In Parallel

Cells in Parallel:

When cells are connected in parallel with each

other, the positive terminals of the cells are
connected together and to one end of the
external circuit, the negative terminals
together and to the other end of the external
circuit. The current passes through the external
circuit from the common point where the
negative terminals are connected to the
common point of junction of the positive In Series
terminals. With this arrangement of the
currents is divided between the cells. And each Fig. 3.12: Cell in parallel and series
portion passes through one cell only.
Therefore, the EMF f the battery is the same as
Thermal Effects of an Electric
that of single cell. The internal resistance of Current:
the battery is, however, reduced to less than
that of one cell, as when resistances are When electrical energy is converted into some
other form of energy, physical effects are
connected in parallel with each other. If the
produced. These include the thermal,
cells all have the same internal resistance, the
resistance of the battery is that of on cell chemical, and magnetic effects.
divided by the number of cells. Thus with a When a current is passed through a conductor,
battery of 10 cells, each with an EMF of 1.5 part of the electrical energy is converted into
volts and internal resistance one ohm, the heat, and Joule’s law states that:
EMF of the battery is 1.5 volts and the internal
resistance is 0.1 ohm. “The amount of heat produced in a
conductor is proportional to the square of
The choice of method of connecting the cells the intensity of current, the resistance and
depends on the resistance of the external the time for which the current flows .”
circuit. If the resistance is high, a large EMF is
necessarily to produce an appreciable intensity As the electrical energy is converted into heat,
of the current, and the cells are connected in work is done and the amount of heat produced
series with each other to provide this. There is depends on the amount of work done. This
consequent increase in the internal resistance, depends on the power, or rate of doing work
but this is usually small compared with the and on the time for which the power is
resistance of the circuit as a whole. If the exercised. Thus:
external resistance is low a small EMf
adequate to produce an appreciable intensity Work done = watts x time
of current, provided that the cells themselves = E x I x t joules
do not add too much to the total resistance of
circuit. Consequently, the cells are connected

28

Where
E = EMF measured in volts
I = Intensity of current measured in amperes
t = Time measured in seconds
By Ohm’s Law, E = I.R.
So work done = I x R x I x t
= I2 Rt joules
One calorie of heat is produced by 4.2 joules
of work.
2
So heat generated = I Rt calories
4.2
Joule’s law can be applied to ascertain the heat
produced in different parts of a circuit. When
resistances are wired in series with each other
the intensity of current and the time for which
it flows are the same for all parts of the circuit.
Therefore, the amount of heat generated in
each part depends on resistance, with which it
varies directly. So, more heat is produced in a
high resistance than in a low one.
E.g. two resistances wired in series with each
other.
r1 = 10 ohms
r2 = 20 ohms
An EMF of 90 volts is applied.
Total resistance = 10 + 20 = 30 ohms
Intensity of current throughout the circuit:
I = E/R = 90/30 = 3 amperes
Heat produced in r1 =
= = calories
Heat produced in r2 =
= = calories
Thus more heat is generated in r2 than in r1 .
Chapter 3 Current Electricity
When resistances are wired in parallel with
each other the intensity of current in each is
inversely proportional to the resistance. The
time is the same for all parts of the circuit, but
where the resistance is high the intensity of
current is low and vice versa. The heat is
produced is proportional to the resistance, but
to the square of the intensity of current.
Therefore, the intensity of current has more
effects on the heat production than has the
resistance, and more heat is generated in a low
than in a high resistance.
E.g. two resistances are wired in parallel with
each other.
r1 = 10 ohms
r2 = 20 ohms
An EMF of 100 volts is applied.
Intensity of current throughout the circuit:
1 = E/r1 = 100/10 = 10 amperes
2 = E/r2 = 100/20 = 5 amperes
Heat produced in r1 =
= = calories
Heat produced in r2 =
= = calories
Thus more heat is generated in r1 than in r2 .
Electrolysis:
Electrolysis, a process of decomposing a
solution or a molten compound by passing an
electric current through it.
Electrolysis is used in refining gold, silver,
copper, and tin, and for obtaining aluminum,
sodium, magnesium, and other metals from
their ores. Electroplating is the use of
electrolysis to coat a metallic object with a
thin layer of another metal. Anodizing is the
use of electrolysis to coat a metallic object
29
 Chapter 3 Current Electricity

with a thin layer of oxide for protection proportional to the amount of current passed
against corrosion and wear. through the solution.

Electrolysis is also used for the production of 2. The amount of a substance that is deposited
oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, caustic soda, and is proportional to its equivalent weight (its
other substances. atomic weight divided by its valence).

Electrolysis is carried out in an electrolytic

Electrolytic burns:
cell. In the cell, the electrolytic solution or
molten electrolyte is in contact with two solid
The human body is to be regarded as a sac
conductors called electrodes. A simple
containing fluids which hold a great variety of
example of electrolysis is the decomposition
salts in solution Sodium and potassium are
of a solution of hydrogen chloride and water,
present in great quantity. Let us suppose
yielding hydrogen gas at one electrode and
sodium chloride to be the chief of these natural
chlorine gas at the other. When the product of
salts of the body. As the constant current
decomposition is a metal, it is either deposited
passes through the tissues, it splits up the
as a coating on one of the electrodes or
sodium chloride into sodium ions and chlorine
precipitated as sludge.
ions. The sodium ions are attracted to the
cathode; here they are liberated on the surface
The electrodes are connected to opposite poles
of the body. If, at this place, there is sufficient
of a battery. The electrode connected to the
moisture present, a well-soaked pad or a water
positive pole is called the anode and the
bath, the sodium ions will leave the skin
electrode connected to the negative pole is the
without harming it, and become dissolved in
cathode.
the water with which they unite.
If, on the contrary, there is insufficient water
Substances that undergo electrolysis are either
present, this metal is deposited in the tissues,
solutions of electrolytes or electrolytes that
and being of a very caustic nature, it produces
have been melted. When dissolved or molten,
as severe a burn as phosphorus or nitric acid.
electrolytes separate into ions, atoms or groups
These burns occur more frequently at places
of atoms that bear an electrical charge from
where the current is especially concentrated,
having lost or gained one or more electrons.
because more ions are directed to such spots.
They naturally occur where bare metal touches
During electrolysis, ions with a positive
the skin, because at such a place there is great
electrical charge move toward the cathode,
concentration of current. They do not occur
where they take up electrons; ions with a
when the electric bath is used, unless the metal
negative charge move toward the anode, where
electrode remains in contact with the skin for
they give up electrons. This transfer of
any length of time. Electric burns cause a
electrons causes chemical changes to take
destruction and devitalization of the tissues to
place at each electrode.
a very considerable depth; they are therefore
slow in healing, they readily become septic,
Much of the original research on electrolysis
and very often they leave large and unsightly
was done by an English physicist and chemist,
scars. Thus, their prevention of is the greatest
Michael Faraday, who published his results in
importance.
1833. Faraday's laws of electrolysis state:

1. The amount of chemical change that takes

place in a solution during electrolysis is

30

Treatment:
When a burn has unfortunately been produced,
the greatest care must be taken to keep the part
aseptic. The damaged tissues are particularly
liable to the attacks of micro-organisms, and,
if once infected, the tissues have the greatest
difficulty in resisting the further invasion of
the microbes.
When first the burn is observed, the skin
around must be carefully cleansed with a weak
antiseptic, such as 1 in 40 carbolic lotion. The
wound is then to be dressed and kept covered.
A dry dressing is unsatisfactory, as it sticks to
open surface, and tears off the newly forming
epithelium every time it is changed.
A frequently renewed carbolic compress acts
very satisfactorily. An antiseptic ointment,
such as boracic, eucalyptus, or resin ointment,
may be used. If the part unfortunately becomes
septic in spite of care, ointments are contra-
indicated, and four- hourly boracic
fomentations must be used until the part is
again quite clean.
Even a small electrolytic burn takes weeks to
heal with the most careful attention. If it has
been deep, it leaves a scar. Every precaution
must be taken to avoid this most unfortunate
occurrence.
Thermionic Emission:
Thermionic emission is the heat-induced flow
of charge carriers from a surface or over a
potential-energy barrier. This occurs because
the thermal energy given to the carrier
overcomes the binding potential, also known
as work function of the metal. The charge
carriers can be electrons or ions, and in older
literature are sometimes referred to as
"thermions". After emission, a charge will
initially be left behind in the emitting region
that is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign
to the total charge emitted. But if the emitter is
connected to a battery, then this charge left
behind will be neutralized by charge supplied
by the battery, as the emitted charge carriers
move away from the emitter, and finally the
Chapter 3 Current Electricity
emitter will be in the same state as it was
before emission. The thermionic emission of
electrons is also known as thermal electron
emission.
The classical example of thermionic emission
is the emission of electrons from a hot
cathode, into a vacuum (also known as the
Edison effect) in a vacuum tube. The hot
cathode can be a metal filament, a coated
metal filament, or a separate structure of metal
or carbides or borides of transition metals.
Vacuum emission from metals tends to
become significant only for temperatures over
1000 K. The science dealing w ith this
phenomenon has been known as thermionics,
but this name seems to be gradually falling
into disuse.
The term "thermionic emission" is now also
used to refer to any thermally-excited charge
emission process, even when the charge is
emitted from one solid-state region into
another. This process is crucially important in
the operation of a variety of electronic devices
and can be used for electricity generation (e.g.,
thermionic converter, electrodynamic tether)
or cooling. The magnitude of the charge flow
increases dramatically with increasing
temperature.
Electronic Tubes:
In electronics, a vacuum tube, electron tube (in
North America), thermionic valve, tube, or
valve is a device controlling electric current
through a vacuum in a sealed container. The
container is often thin transparent glass in a
roughly cylindrical shape. The simplest
vacuum tube, the diode, is essentially an
incandescent light bulb with an added
electrode inside. When the bulb's filament is
heated white-hot, electrons are "boiled" off its
surface and into the vacuum inside the bulb. If
the electrode -- called a "plate" or "anode" -- is
made more positive than the hot filament, a
direct current flows through the vacuum to the
electrode (a demonstration of the Edison
effect). As the current only flows in one
31

direction, it makes it possible to convert an
alternating current applied to the filament to
direct current.
The introduction of a third electrode, a grid
between the filament and the plate, yields
another function. A voltage applied to the grid
controls the current flowing from the filament
to the plate. Thus, it allows the device to be
used as an electronic amplifier.
Fig. 3.13: Structure of a vacuum tube diode. The
filament may be bare, or mo re co mmonly (as
shown here), embedded within and insulated fro m
an enclosing cathode
Vacuum tubes are thus used for rectification,
amplification, switching, or similar processing
or creation of electrical signals.
The vast majority of modern day tubes consist
of a sealed container with a vacuum inside,
and essentially rely on thermionic emission of
electrons from a hot filament or a cathode
heated by the filament. Some exceptions to
this are dealt with in the section about gas-
filled tubes below.
Vacuum tubes were critical to the
development of electronic technology, which
drove the expansion and commercialization of
radio broadcasting, television, radar, sound
reinforcement, sound recording and
reproduction, large telephone networks, analog
and digital computers, and industrial process
control. Although some applications had
Chapter 3 Current Electricity
counterparts using earlier technologies such as
the spark gap transmitter or mechanical
computers, it was the invention of the vacuum
tube with three electrodes (called a triode) and
its capability of electronic amplification that
made these technologies widespread and
practical.
In most applications, solid-state devices such
as transistors and other semiconductor devices
have replaced tubes. Solid-state devices last
longer and are smaller, more efficient, more
reliable, and cheaper than tubes. Tubes can be
fragile, sometimes generate significant
unwanted heat, and can take many seconds—
many minutes in critical applications—after
powering on to warm to a temperature where
they perform within operational tolerance.
However, tubes still find uses where solid-
state devices have not been developed, are
impractical, or where a tube has superior
performance, as with some devices in
professional audio and high-power radio
transmitters. Tubes are still produced for such
applications.
Tubes are less likely than semiconductor
devices to be destroyed by the electromagnetic
pulse produced by nuclear explosions and
geomagnetic storms produced by giant solar
flares.
Fig. 3.14: Modern vacuum tubes, mostly min iature
style
Diodes:
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal
electronic component with an asymmetric
transfer characteristic, with low (ideally zero)
resistance to current flow in one direction, and
high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A
32

semiconductor diode, the most common type
today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor
material with a p–n junction connected to two
electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode is a
vacuum tube with two electrodes, a plate
(anode) and a heated cathode.
Fig 3.15: Close-up view of a silicon diode. The
anode is at the right side; the cathode is at the left
side (where it is marked with a black band). A
square silicon crystal can be seen between the two
leads.
The most common function of a diode is to
allow an electric current to pass in one
direction (called the diode's forward direction),
while blocking current in the opposite
direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the
diode can be viewed as an electronic version
of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior
is called rectification, and is used to convert
alternating current to direct current, including
extraction of modulation from radio signals in
radio receivers—these diodes are forms of
rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated
behavior than this simple on–off action.
Semiconductor diodes begin conducting
electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or
cut-in voltage is present in the forward
direction (a state in which the diode is said to
be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a
forward-biased diode varies only a little with
the current, and is a function of temperature;
this effect can be used as a temperature sensor
or voltage reference.
Chapter 3 Current Electricity
Semiconductor diodes' nonlinear current–
voltage characteristic can be tailored by
varying the semiconductor materials and
doping, introducing impurities into the
materials. These are exploited in special-
purpose diodes that perform many different
functions.
For example, diodes are used to:
 Regulate voltage (Zener diodes),
 To protect circuits from high voltage
surges (avalanche diodes),
 To electronically tune radio and TV
receivers (varactor diodes),
 To generate radio frequency oscillations
(tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT
diodes),
 And to produce light (light emitting
diodes).
Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance,
which makes them useful in some types of
circuits.
Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic
devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying
abilities was made by German physicist
Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first
semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker
diodes, developed around 1906, were made of
mineral crystals such as galena. Today most
diodes are made of silicon, but other
semiconductors such as germanium are
sometimes used.
Symbol:
Fig. 3.16: Typical diode packages in same
align ment as diode symbol. Thin bar depicts the
cathode.
33
 Chapter 3 Current Electricity

Types of Diodes: 2) Schottky diode:

1. Point-contact diodes: Another type of junction diode, the Schottky

diode, is formed from a metal–semiconductor
A point-contact diode works the same as the junction rather than a p–n junction, which
junction diodes described below, but their reduces capacitance and increases switching
construction is simpler. A block of n-type speed.
semiconductor is built, and a conducting
sharp-point contact made with some group-3 Triode:
metal is placed in contact with the
semiconductor. Some metal migrates into the A triode is an electronic amplification tube
semiconductor to make a small region of p- having three active electrodes. The term most
type semiconductor near the contact. The long- commonly applies to glass vacuum tube (or
popular 1N34 germanium version is still used valve in British English) with three elements:
in radio receivers as a detector and
a) The filament or cathode,
occasionally in specialized analog electronics.
b) The grid,
c) And the plate or anode.
2. Junction diodes:
The triode vacuum tube was the first electronic
Most diodes today are silicon junction diodes.
amplification device, which propelled the
A junction is formed between the p and n
electronics age forward, by enabling amplified
regions which is also called a depletion region.
radio technology and long-distance telephony.
1) p–n junction diode: Triodes were widely used in consumer
electronics until the 1950s, when transistors
A p–n junction diode is made of a crystal of replaced them. Today their main remaining
semiconductor. Impurities are added to it to use is for high power Radio Frequency (RF)
create a region on one side that contains amplifiers in radio transmitters and industrial
negative charge carriers (electrons), called n- RF heating devices. The word is derived from
type semiconductor, and a region on the other the Greek tríodos, from tri- (three) and hodós
side that contains positive charge carriers (road, way), originally meaning the place
(holes), called p-type semiconductor. When where three roads meet.
two materials i.e. n-type and p-type are
attached together, a momentary flow of
electrons occur from n to p side resulting in a
third region where no charge carriers are
present. It is called Depletion region due to the
absence of charge carriers (electrons and holes
in this case). The diode's terminals are
attached to each of these regions. The
boundary between these two regions, called a
p–n junction, is where the action of the diode
takes place. The crystal allows electrons to
flow from the N-type side (called the cathode)
to the P-type side (called the anode), but not in
the opposite direction.
Fig. 3.17: Structure of a modern vacuum tube
triode

34

Electronic Components and
Circuits:
Though the use of electricity in a medical
context is no recent development. The last
several decades have seen an unparalleled
growth in electronic technology and its
application in medicine. Sophisticated
electronic apparatus is now as commonplace
in the hospital and clinical setting as it
previously was in the research laboratory. It is
evident that all health professionals must
become more and more accustomed to the use
of electronic instrumentation and its proper
place in the practice of their profession. The
physiotherapist makes use of such apparatus
for a variety of diagnostic procedures and
treatments, collectively described by the terms
electrodiagnosis and electrotherapy.
The aim here is to provide a physical basis for
electrodiagnosis and electrotherapy. We begin
by discussing the 'nuts and bolts' of electronic
apparatus, the basic components which go to
make up an electronic circuit.
Electronic circuits and electronic components
owe their existence to the fact that the
everyday materials with which we are familiar
have quite dissimilar electrical properties. The
vast majority of materials can be readily
categorized as belonging to one of two groups:
either conductors or insulators. First let us
consider conductors and insulators and some
additional concepts which are fundamental to
an understanding of electricity.
Some Fundamentals:
Conductors are familiar to us in everyday life:
the filament of a light bulb, the copper wire
connected to car batteries and copper wire in
the cables leading to most electrical appliances
are a few examples. If we picture atoms as
consisting of a positively charged nucleus
together with electron 'shells' surrounding the
Chapter 3 Current Electricity
nucleus then the atoms of conductors have a
characteristic feature.
Good conductors (iron, copper and other
metals are examples) share the common
feature that the outermost electrons of the
atoms are only loosely bound to the nucleus.
For this reason they can readily transmit
electrons. A good way to picture this is to
potential difference and voltage are used
interchangeably.
It is important to clearly understand the
difference between voltage and current. Using
the analogy with water in pipes we can liken
voltage to the water pressure and current to the
volume rate of flow of water. If we connect a
piece of material between the terminals of a
battery the amount of current flow will depend
on the battery voltage and the resistance to
current flow which the material offers. Good
conductors offer little resistance to current
flow while insulators offer substantial
resistance. The Sl unit of resistance is the ohm
(abbreviated ). We say something has a
resistance of one ohm when a potential
difference of one volt produces a current of
one amp through it. A good conductor such as
a meter length of household mains wire would
have a resistance measured in milliohms while
a good insulator, a block of ceramic, would
have a resistance of several thousand mega
ohms. Resistance values used in electronic
circuits are typically measured in ohms ( ),
kilohms (k ) or megohms (M ).
1k = 103 = 1000
1M = 106 = 1000000
Components:
An electronic device such as a radio, TV set
or CD player can be very complex but the
complexity lies in the arrangement and total
number of components. When we examine a
typical circuit we find only a few different
kinds of components.
35

1. Resistors:
Resistors are the most common circuit
components: they come in a variety of shapes
and sizes and usually have their values coded
in the form of three or four colored stripes on
the body. High power resistors are larger and
usually have the resistance and power rating
stamped on the body. Rheostats and
potentiometers are variable resistors having
two or three terminals respectively.
Fig. 3.18: Resistor and potentiometer
2. Capacitors:
Capacitors come in a greater range of sizes
and shapes than resistors but can readily be
distinguished with a little practice.
Fig. 3.19: Fixed value capacitor
They consist of two metal plates (usually
aluminum) and an insulator. The insulator may
be air (in the case of variable capacitors), mica
or a plastic film. The different kinds of
capacitor are named after the insulator used,
thus we have mica capacitors, polyester
capacitors, ceramic capacitors and so on.
Typical examples of fixed value capacitors are
shown, together with a variable capacitor such
Chapter 3 Current Electricity
as might be used in the tuning section of a
radio.
Fig. 3.20: A variable capacitor
For typical values of capacitance large areas of
metal are involved and it is convenient to save
space by making the plates of thin aluminum
foil and rolling them into a cylinder. Thus a
tubular capacitor has the internal construction
shown.
Fig.3.21: A Tubular Capacitor
Units:
The unit of capacitance is the farad (F) but the
values found
In typical circuits are measured in microfarads
(μF), nanofarads (nF) or Pico farads (pF).
1 μF = F = 10-6 F
1 nF = μF = 10-9 F
1 pF = F = 10-12 F
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized; that is,
they have definite positive and negative
terminals and can only be connected one way
around in a circuit. Ordinary capacitors (mica,
polyester, etc.) are non-polarized and can be
connected either way around.
36
 Chapter 3 Current Electricity

3. Inductors and transformers: reproduction of music to name a few of the

more obvious applications.
An inductor is simply a coil of wire: the wire
may be wound on various kinds of core, Today valves are seldom used except for
depending on the specific role for which it is special applications: they are bulky and
intended. An example is shown. inefficient and have largely been superseded
by transistors, their semiconductor
equivalents.

The transistor performs much the same job as

a valve but is physically much smaller.

Fig. 3.22: An inductor

Most electronic equipment today uses
Integrated Circuits (IC's), small devices having
8 or more pins and which contain complete
circuits having many transistors, diodes,
resistors and capacitors fabricated directly in a
single package. The pins are used for access to
various points in the circuit so that the
designer can tailor the circuit to specific
requirements by connection to external
components. Integrated circuits have permitted
a further reduction in the physical size of
Fig. 3.23: A transformer complex circuits comparable to the reduction
that was achieved by the replacement of valve
Unit: circuitry with transistors. The pocket
The unit of inductance is the henry (H). You calculator, desktop computer and space
will also see the terms millihenry (mH) satellites have all been made possible by the
And microhenry (μH) used frequently. miniaturization permitted with integrated
circuits.
1 mH = 10-3 H

1 μH = = 10-6 H

When two inductors are wound on the same

core in close proximity or overlapping we
have a transformer.

4. Valves, Transistors and Diodes

Valves, Transistors and Diodes are the

'workhorses' of any electronic circuit, the
devices which have permitted the development
of long distance voice communication, radio
and television, computers and space
exploration, guided missiles and the
Fig. 3.24: Valves, transistors, and integrated circuits

37
 Chapter 3 Current Electricity

Circuits: used almost exclusively by manufacturers.

When integrated circuits are used rather than
The electronic components we have met so far transistors a further reduction in size is
are typically found with a complex maze of achieved. The printed circuit boards can be
interconnections between them. The particular made smaller as the I.C.'s themselves are small
way in which they are connected defines a and relatively few external components are
circuit and the form that the circuit takes will required.
depend on the job it is designed to do. If we
consider, for example, a radio, the job it has to
perform is exceedingly complex. It must pick
up radio transmissions, convert the radio
waves to electrical signals, amplify them and
convert them to audible sound waves. Not
only that but it must also be capable of
selecting a particular frequency of radio wave
(the one from the radio station you wish to
tune-in on) and ignoring the remainder.
Needless to say, the circuitry required to
perform these tasks is very complex.

The earliest circuits, those found for example

in a valve radio receiver, were made up of a
large number of bulky components - the
transformer, valves, etc., and the circuit
interconnections reflected this bulkiness.
Large components such as the transformer
were bolted to a metal frame or chassis along
with sockets for the valves, and the circuit was
built-up by interconnecting with smaller
components (resistors and capacitors) and
lengths of wire. With the advent of the
transistor and the consequent trend to
miniaturization which this permitted, it was
found to be more convenient and simpler to
replace most of the wiring with copper strips
firmly attached to an insulating board having
holes drilled in appropriate places. All of the
miniature components (transistors, resistors,
and capacitors) could then be mounted on the
board and soldered to the copper conductors.
Only a limited number of bulky components
(transformer, volume control and speaker in a
mains-powered radio) need then to be
mounted on a chassis or casing.

Circuits assembled on these printed circuit

boards can be rapidly mass produced and
easily put together. Consequently they are

38
 Chapter 4 Electromagnetism

Chapter No. 4

ELECTROMAGNETISM

Magnet:
Magnet has always been a thing of awe use
and attraction for humans. According to
history, the uses of magnets were discovered Fig. 4.2: Lodestone
by the ancient Greeks during the period of
Greek Civilization. 3. Artificial magnets :
“A substance has power of attraction for
The magnets which are made artificially are
certain materials and the tendency, when
called artificial magnets. it can be classified
free to rotate, to come to rest pointing in a
into:
north–south direction”
a). Permanent magnets:
Types of magnet:
1. Natural magnets. They are magnets retain their magnetism for a
2. Original magnets. long time is called permanent magnet. There
3. Artificial magnets. are typically four categories of permanent
a) Permanent Magnet magnets: neodymium iron boron, samarium
b) Temporary magnets. cobalt, alnico, nickel, and ceramic or ferrite
c) Electro magnets. magnets.

1. Natural magnets:

The type of iron with magnetic properties is

found in certain parts of the world and this
form a natural magnet.

Fig. 4.3: Permanent Magnet

Fig. 4.1: Natural Magnet

b). Temporary magnets:
2. Original magnets:
The magnets which retain their magnetism for
The original magnets, known as lodestones, a short time are called temporary magnets.
were of this material. They are materials magnets that perform like
permanent magnets when in the presence of a
magnetic field, but lose magnetism when not
in a magnetic field. e.g soft iron.

39

c). Electromagnets:
They are wound coils of wire that function as
magnets when an electrical current is passed
through. By adjusting the strength and
direction of the current, the strength of the
magnet is also altered
Fig. 4.4: Electro magnet
Molecular theory of magnetis m:
If we break a magnet into two parts each part
become a magnet with a north pole at one end
and a south pole at the other end. If we break it
further, we observe the same behavior. This
will continue even if we break the magnet to
its molecular level. . commonly abbreviated to North Pole, while
Each molecule of a magnetic substance is an
independent magnet irrespective of whether
the substance is magnetized or not. These tiny
magnets are called molecular magnets.
In an un magnetized state (fig(a)), the
molecular magnets are in different orientation.
Therefore the net magnetic effect is zero. In
the magnetized state (fig(b)), these molecular
magnets are arranged in an order. All the south
poles are aligned in one direction, and the
north poles in the other direction. Therefore a
strong magnetic field is created.
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
Fig. 4.5 (a) un
magnetized
Fig. 4.5 (b)
magnetized state
In general, perfect alignment of all the
magnets in the entire magnet is difficult to
obtain. When this condition is obtained it is
called the point of saturation and
magnetizing the magnet further cannot
increase the strength of the magnet. These
postulates are known as Ewings molecular
theory named after the scientist who proposed
them.
Properties of a magnet:
Setting in north-south direction:
When a magnet is free to rotate it comes to
rest with one end pointing towards the
magnetic north pole of earth, the other to the
earth’s magnetic South Pole. The end that
points north is termed the north seeking pole,
that which points south is called south seeking
or south pole. This property of a magnet is
utilized in a compass, the compass needle
being a small magnet.
Behavior of like and unlike poles:
Like magnetic poles repel each other and
unlike magnetic poles attract each other. If a
north pole of a bar magnet is brought needle,
the later moves away from the magnet, but if
the south pole of the magnet approaches the
north pole of the compass needle this end of
the needle swings towards the magnet. The
behavior of like and unlike poles is responsible
for a magnet setting in a north south direction.
The earth is gigantic magnet and its magnetic
north pole has the same magnetic property as
the south-seeking pole of magnet, thus it
attracts the north seeking pole of magnet.
40

Transmission of properties:
A magnet can produce magnetic properties in
a piece of magnetize able material by contact
and by induction.
Magnetism by contact:
One method of magnetization by contact is to
stroke a piece of iron or steel with one pole of
a bar magnet. The same pole is used
throughout and the strokes are always carried
in the same direction. The end of the piece of
material at which the stroke commences
assumes the same magnetic polarity as the
pole with which it is stroked, the end where
the stroke finishes the opposite polarity. This
is in accordance with the molecular theory of
magnetism, as if the north pole of a magnet is
used it attracts the south poles of the molecular
magnets of the iron or steel and draws them
towards the point where it travels the bar.
Fig. 4.6: Magnetism by contact
Magnetic induction:
Induction has previously been defined as the
production of magnetic or electrical properties
in one object by another without contact
between them, so magnetic induction is the
production of magnetic properties in an object
by a magnet, without contact. If a piece of
magnetize able material is placed close to, but
not in contact with, one pole of a magnet, it is
found to assume magnetic properties; e.g. a
piece of soft iron held close to a magnet will
attract iron findings. The magnetic poles
attracts to unlike and repels the like poles of
the molecular magnets of soft iron, if it is
south magnetic pole that approaches the iron,
it attracts the north and repels the south poles
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
of the molecular magnets, so setting up a north
pole at the adjacent end and a south pole at the
far end of the piece of iron.
Attraction for objects of magnetizes able
material:
A magnet has a property of attracting objects
of magnetize able material, and this is due to
magnetic induction. If a piece of a suitable
material is placed near to the magnetic pole
the opposite magnetic polarity is induced in its
adjacent end, the unlike magnetic poles attract
each other and the object moves towards the
magnet.
Magnetic field:
The area around the magnet in which the
magnetic forces are apparent is known as the
magnetic field. The forces act along the
definite lines, the magnetic lines of force,
which are the lines along which a free north
pole would travel if it were able to move in
magnetic field. The properties of the magnetic
lines of force are that they:
Travel away from the north and toward the
south.
Tend to take the shortest pathway between two
points, and so to travel in straight lines.
Tend to repel each other as this would be the
behavior of two north poles. This may be in
opposition to the preceding tendency, and the
balance between the two helps to determine
the distribution of the magnetic field.
Travel more easily through some materials
than the others. The lines of force travel most
easily through some materials and the
presence of such a material in magnetic field
causes concentration of the lines of force.
The magnetic lines of force can be plotted by
placing over a magnet a piece of cardboard on
which iron filling arrange themselves along
the magnetic lines of force.
41
 Chapter 4 Electromagnetism

at right angles to it. If looking along the wire

in direction of the electron flow, i.e. from
negative to positive, the lines of force are
considered to move round the wire in a anti
clock wise direction. If the wire is viewed
from the other end, i.e. positive to negative,
the movement will be clock wise.

Fig. 4.7: Lines of force round a bar magnet.

Fig. 4.9: lines of forces round a wire carrying a

current.

Fig. 4.8: lines of force between opposite pole

Magnetic effects of an electric current:

The effect which applies a force over magnetic

materials, beam of charges, electrical current
Fig. 4.10: A. looking fro m negative towads
or on other magnet is called Magnetic effect. positive; B. looking fro mpositive towards negative.

Magnetic field around a straight wire: Magnetic field around a coil of wire:
An electric current sets up a magnetic field When current is passed through a coil of a
around the conductor through which it is wire magnetic lines of force are setup round
passing. This can be demonstrated by holding each turn of wire and their combined effects
a wire carrying a current over and parallel to a forms a magnetic field around the whole coil.
compass needle, for as the current flows the Figure1 shows a coil of a wire through which
needle in deflected to one side, indicating the the current is passing.
presence of magnetic forces. The magnetic
lines of force around a wire carrying a current
can be plotted by passing the length of wire
through a piece of card board on which iron
filling are scattered. When a current is passed,
and the card board tapped gently, the iron
filling arrange themselves along the magnetic
lines of force, which are found to form
concentric circles around the wire, in a plane

42

Fig. 4.11: Magnetic field of wired around a coil
Fig. 4.12: Magnetic field of wired around a coil
Above figure shows the coil cut along the line
SN, the lower half is being seen from above.
The lower turns of wire in the second diagram
are viewed so that the observer is looking
towards the positive, so the direction of the
lines of force is anti clock wise. The lines of
force are clouded together in the centre of the
coil, but spread out at the sides and ends,
emerging from one end, which forms the
North Pole, and returning to the other, which
is the South Pole. Thus the magnetic poles lie
at the end of the coil and magnetic polarity of
each depends on:
1. The direction of current flow:
reversal of the current reverses the
direction of magnetic lines of
force.
2. The direction in which is coil is
wound. This can be worked out
when a coil wound the opposite
direction to that.
There are various rules for determining the
magnetic polarity of a coil, a simple one being
ampere’s rule. Imagine a man swimming with
the electron flow (negative to positive) and
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
facing the center of the coil, the North Pole is
on his right.
Many of the rules for determining magnetic
polarity assume the current flow to be from
positive to negative. This must always be
considered when using the rule, as tracing the
current incorrectly for the particular rule gives
the wrong magnetic polarity.
Electromagnets:
An electromagnet consists of a coil of wire
wound on soft iron bar. When a current passes
through the coil a magnetic field is setup and
the soft iron core is magnetized by induction,
so that its field is added to that produced by
the current. Thus a strong magnetic field is
formed, which can be turned on and off as
required by starting and stopping the current
flow. Soft iron is chosen for the core because
it is easily magnetized and demagnetized.
Moving Iron ammeter:
Moving iron ammeters use a piece of iron
which moves when acted upon by the
electromagnetic force of a fixed coil of wire.
This type of meter responds to both direct and
alternating currents (as opposed to the moving
coil ammeter, which works on direct current
only). The iron element consists of a moving
van attached to a pointer, and a fixed vane,
surrounded by a coil. As alternating or direct
current flows through the coil and induces a
magnetic field in both vanes, the vanes repel
each other and the moving vane deflects
against the restoring force provided by fine
helical springs. The non-linear scale of these
meters makes them unpopular.
43

Fig. 4.13: Moving iron type meter.
Hot wire type and Thermocouple
ammeter:
Hot-wire and thermocouple meter movements
both use the heating effect of current flowing
through a resistance to cause meter deflection.
Each uses this effect in a different manner.
Since their operation depends only on the
heating effect of current flow, they may be
used to measure both direct current and
alternating current of any frequency on a
single scale. The hot-wire meter movement
deflection depends on the expansion of a high-
resistance wire caused by the heating effect of
the wire itself as current flows through it. A
resistance wire is stretched taut between the
two meter terminals, with a thread attached at
a right angle to the center of the wire. A spring
connected to the opposite end of the thread
exerts a constant tension on the resistance
wire. Current flow heats the wire, causing it to
expand. This motion is transferred to the meter
pointer through the thread and a pivot.
Fig. 4.14: Thermocouple type meter
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
Electromagnetic Induction:
Electromagnetic Induction was first
demonstrated by Michal Faraday in 1831 and
is the means by which electricity is produced
from magnetism. The discovery was of
considerable importance, was until that time
the only known methods of producing
electricity were be friction and by chemical
action, neither of which is suitable for the
large scale production necessary for its
extensive use.
Production of EMF:
Electromagnetic Induction is the production of
EMF in a conductor by interaction between the
conductor and magnetic lines of force.
Induction has previously been defined as the
production of electrical and magnetic
properties in one object by another without
contact between them, electrostatic and
magnetic induction being examples.
Electromagnetic Induction is the production of
electrical and magnetic properties in one
object, which must be a conductor of
electricity, by the magnetic lines of force
surrounding another object. The two objects
do not come in contact with each other, as it is
only when magnetic lines of force cut across
the conductor, or the conductor across the
lines of force, that the EMF is produced. Thus
the essential for the electromagnetic induction
are:
 A conductor
 Magnetic lines of force
 Movement of one of these relative to
other
If the conductor forms part of closed circuit a
current flows when the EMF is induced.
The production of an EMF by electromagnetic
induction can be illustrated by three simple
experiments, which were originally carried out
by Michael Faraday:
44

Experiment No. 1:
A coil of wire is connected to miliammete to
form a close circuit. A bar magnet is thrust in
to the coil, allowed to remain stationary for a
moment and then withdrawn. Deflection of the
needle of the meter is observed when the
magnet is entering and leaving the coil, but
when magnet is stationary the needle returns to
zero. The coil of the wire is conductor and the
bar magnet provides the magnetic lines of
forces. When the magnet is moved relative to
the coil the circuit, causing deflection of the
meter. When the magnet is stationary there is
no movement of the lines of forces relative to
the coil and no EMF is induced. Movement of
the coil of wire over the stationary magnet
produces the same results as when the coil is
moved it cuts the magnetic line of forces.
Fig. 4.15: Experiments illustrate electromagnetic
induction
Experime nt No 2:
The preceding experiment is repeated using an
electromagnetic instead of a bar magnet. A
direct current pass through the electromagnet
and sets up a magnetic lines of force which, as
the electromagnet is moved in an out of the
coil, cut the turns of wire and induce EMFs in
them. As in the preceding experiment,
deflection of the needle of the meter is
observed only when the electromagnet or the
coil is moved.
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
Experiment No 3:
The same apparatus is used as for the
preceding experiment, but eh electromagnet,
which is known as the primary coil, remains
stationary within the coil connected to the
meter. The latter is known as the secondary
coil. An interrupted D.C. is passed through the
electromagnet and deflection of the needle of
the meter is observed when this current
increases or decreases in intensity, but not
when it is flowing at constant strength. When
the current in the electromagnet increases in
intensity magnetic lines of force spread out
around the coil, cutting the secondary coil and
inducing an EMF in it. When the current in the
primary coil is of constant intensity the
magnetic field remains steady, so the lines of
force are not cutting across the secondary coil
and no EMF is produced. When the current in
the electromagnet decreases in intensity the
magnetic field collapses and the lines of force
again cut the secondary coil, inducing an EMF
in it.
Thus the conductor in which the EMF is
induced is usually a coil of wire while the
magnetic lines of force may be supplied either
by a permanent magnet or by an
electromagnet. Movement of one of these
relative to the other may be provided by
moving the magnet relative to the conductor,
or the conductor relative to the magnet, or,
when and electromagnet is used, by varying
the intensity of the current that is passing
though the electromagnet.
Direction of the induced EMF:
In the first and second of the experiment
described above the milliammeter needle
swings in one direction when the magnet
enters the coil, the other way when it is
withdrawn. In the third experiment the needle
swings one way when the primary current is
increasing in intensity, the other way when it
is decreasing. The direction of the deflection
of the needle depends on the direction of the
induced current, so it is apparent that there is
45

some connection between the direction of the
induced EMF and that of the movement which
produced it.
Fig. 4.16: showing magnetic polarity resulting
from induced currents.
Lenz’s Law:
It states that the direction of the induced EMF
is such that it tends to oppose the force
producing it. When the north pole of the bar
magnet approaches a coil of wire, the direction
of the induced EMF is such that the current it
produce sets up a magnetic field with the north
pole at the end of the coil to which the north
pole of the magnet is approaching, like
magnetic poles repel each other, so the
approach of the magnet is opposed. When the
magnet is withdrawn the direction of the
current is such that a south pole is set up at the
end of the coil from which the north pole of
the magnet is removed, attracting the magnet
and so opposing the movement.
See figure above
Using the primary and secondary coil with a
varying current flowing in the primary, when
the current in the primary coil is rising in
intensity the EMF induced in the secondary
coil is in the opposite direction to that applied
to the primary, so tending to produce a current
I the opposite direction to the primary current.
When the primary current is falling in intensity
the EMF induced in the secondary coil is in
the same direction as that applied to the
primary, so tending to produce a current in the
same direction as that which was flowing in
the primary.
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
Faraday’s Law:
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction
states that the strength of the induced EMF is
proportional to the rate of change of the
magnetic field.
When moving a bar magnet relative to a coil
of wire, as in the first experiment, the
deflection of the milli-ammeter needle is
increased if the magnet is moved more quickly
or if a stronger magnet is used. That latter
increase the number of lines of force which cut
the coil in a given time, so in both cases the
rate of change of the magnetic field is
increases and a greater EMF induced. When
using primary and secondary coils, the rate of
change of the magnetic field depends on the
rate at which the primary current varies in
intensity. The more rapid in variation in the
intensity of this current the greater is the
induced EMF.
The strength of the induced EMF is
proportional to the inductance of the conductor
in which it is produced. Inductance is the
ability of the conductor to have any an EMF
induced in it. It depends primarily on the
number of turns of wire present I the coil, but
also on the proximity of the turns of wire to
each other and whether or not there is an iron
core present to concentrate the magnetic field.
Inductance is a constant factor for any
particular conductor and is measured in
Henries.
Henry:
Henry is the inductance of a conductor in
which an EMF of one volt is induced by a
current varying at the rate of one ampere per
second.
In all three experiments described a greater
deflection of the needle of the meter is
observed if the number of turns of wire in the
secondary coil is increased, provided that the
rate of change of magnetic field remains
constant.
46

Mutual induction:
When an EMF is induced in one conductor by
the magnetic field set up by a varying current
flowing in another conductor the process is
known as mutual induction. The third
experiment is an example of mutual induction.
Self induction:
When a current flows through a coil of wire it
sets up magnetic lines of force around each
turn of wire. If the current varies in intensity
these lines of force spread out and collapse as
the current intensity increases and decreases.
The moving lines of force cut across turns of
wire adjacent to the one from which they are
setup and induce EMFs in them. Thus a
varying current flowing in conductor induces
an EMF in same conductor, the process being
known as self induction. The effects of the self
induced EMF can be determined by applying
the laws of electromagnetic induction.
Fig. 4.17: Effects of self induction
The direction of the induce EMF like that
induced in the secondary coil, is a accordance
with lenz’s law. Thus when the applied current
is rising in intensity the induced EMF is the
intensity of current and makes it more gradual.
When the applied current is falling in intensity
of current and makes it more gradual, when
the applied current is falling in intensity the
induce EMF is in the same direction as the
applied EMF. This ‘forward’ EMF prolongs
the flow of current and makes the fall more
gradual. The continuous line indicates the
EMF applied the dotted line the current which
is obtained.
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
As with the mutual induction, the strength of
the induced EMF is proportion to the
inductance of conductor and to the rate of
change of magnetic field, the later depend on
the rate of change of the current flowing in the
conductor. The greater the rate of change of
this current the greater is the speed at which
the magnetic lines of force cut neighboring
turns of the coil, and so the greater the EMF
induced. For this reason high frequency
currents, which alternate at the rate of one
million times a second or more, Setup a
greater self induced EMF than the alternating
main current, which only alternate fifty times
per second, while the constant direct current
only produces a self induced EMF when it
switched on and off.
Inductive reactance:
The impedance, resulting from the self
induced EMF, is known as inductive
reactance. The amount of reactance is depends
on the strength of the self induced EMF which
is determined by:
1. The inductance of the conductor with
which it varies directly.
2. The rate of change of intensity of the
current flowing in the conductor. The
greater the rate of change the greater is
the self induced EMF.
Thus there is no inductive reactance with a
constant D.C., but it is present whenever the
current varies in intensity, and increases as the
frequency increases.
Eddy currents: (also called Foucault
currents)
Any conductor lying with in a varying
magnetic field has an EMF induced in it. If a
conductor consists of solid piece of material
the EMF gives rise to circular currents at right
angles to the magnetic lines of force. The
currents are greatest near the surface of
conductor and are known as eddy currents.
47
 Chapter 4 Electromagnetism

Eddy current techniques are commonly used

for
1. The nondestructive
examination (NDE)
2. Condition monitoring of a large
variety of metallic structures,
including
 Heat exchanger tubes,
 Aircraft fuselage,
 Aircraft structural components.

Side effects:

Eddy currents are the root cause of the skin

effect in conductors carrying AC current.
Similarly in magnetic materials of finite
conductivity eddy currents cause the
confinement of the majority of the magnetic
fields to only a couple skin depths of the
surface of the material. This effect limits
the flux
linkage in inductors and transformers having
magnetic cores

The transformer:
A transformer is a device used to raise or
lower the voltage in a circuit without an
Fig. 4.18: Eddy Current
Appreciable energy loss. A simple transformer
Uses of eddy curre nts: is shown in Figure. It consists of two wire
coils around a common iron core.
 Repulsive effects and levitation
 Attractive effects: geometry the
overall force of eddy currents can be
attractive
 Identification of metals: In coin
operated vending machines, eddy
currents are used to detect counterfeit
coins, or slugs.
 Vibration and position Sensing:
currents are used in certain types Fig. 4.19: Transformer
of proximity sensors to observe the
vibration and position of rotating The coil used for the input power is called the
shafts within their bearings. primary coil, and the other one is denoted as
secondary coil. Either coil of a transformer can
be used as the primary or secondary coil.
Structural testing: An alternating current in the primary coil
creates a varying magnetic field in the

48

transformer’s core. This varying magnetic
field gives place to a varying magnetic flux
through the secondary coil, inducing an
alternating EMF or voltage in the secondary
coil. The presence of the iron core increases
the magnetic field due to the electric current
passing through the first coil and also let all
the magnetic field lines pass through both
coils.
Static transformer:
Static transformer is based on the principles
electromagnetic induction and is use to alter
the voltage of an alternating current and render
to current earth free.
Fig. 4.20: Static Transformer
Construction of the transformer:
The transformer consists of two coils of
isolated wires, the primary and secondary
coils, wound on laminated soft iron frame. The
coils are completely insulated from each other
and one usually contains more turn of wire
than the other. The frame is often rectangular
in shape and coils may be wound on opposite
bars of the frame or one on top of the other on
a central bar.
Working of the transforme r:
An alternating current is passed through the
primary coil and sets up a varying magnetic
field which cuts the secondary coil and
induces an EMF in it. It is essential that the
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
primary current varies in intensity; otherwise
there is no movement of magnetic field
relative to conductor and no EMF induced in
the secondary coil. There is no electrical
connection between the primary and secondary
coils, the energy being transmitted from one to
another by electromagnetic induction. The
core serves to concentrate the magnetic field.
It is made of soft iron because this material is
easily magnetized and demagnetized. It is
laminated to prevent the eddy currents.
Functions of the transformers:
The two principle functions of transformer are:
1. To render the current earth free:
The electricity supplied from the main is an
earth current. The current is produced in a
power station by dynamo and is distributed to
consumer by two cables, the live and neutral
wires. One of the output terminals of the
source of supply is connected to earth and the
distribution cable which is taken from this
terminal is connected to earth at intervals
along its course. This is the neutral wire N
(shown in figure) and it is always at zero
potential. The live wire L (shown in figure) is
taken from the other output terminal of the
supply. It is insulated from earth and is
electrically charged. When current is required,
a circuit is completed between the two cables
and so between the two supply terminals A
(shown in figure). If however, a connection is
in advertently made between the live cable and
earth B (shown in figure). This also completes
a circuit between the output terminals, the
earth forming part of conducting pathway.
Any connection between the live wire and
earth completes a circuit through which
current flows. Current in this circuit is shown
in figure. Should some person form part of this
circuit he would receive an earth shock.
49

Fig 4.21: earthed and earth free current
The danger of shock reduces by the use of
static transformer. The main current is passed
through the primary coil and induces an EMF
inn secondary coil. So long as there is no
electrical connection between the primary and
the secondary coils, the later has no
connection to earth. Thus if a connection is
inadvertently made between the secondary
circuit and earth it does not complete a circuit,
no current passes to earth and there is no
danger of earth shock. The earth does not form
any part of the conducting pathway of the
secondary current, which is said to be earth-
free. The transformer renders the current earth-
free only so long as there is no electrical
connection between the primary and secondary
coils. Should the insulation between the coils
break down the secondary circuit would be
connected to earth and there would be a
danger of earth shock. For this reason all
transformers supplying current for the
treatment of patients must be constructed in a
way which makes such an occurrence
impossible.
2. To alter the voltage of an
alternating current:
The EMF induced in the secondary coil is
proportional to the number of turns of wire in
this coil.
Step-up transforme r:
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
If there are more turns of wire in the secondary
is greater than that applied to the primary. This
is known as a step-up transformer.
e.g. if there are twice as many turns of wire in
the secondary as in the primary coil and an
EMF of 100 volts is applied to the primary,
200 volts will be induced in the secondary.
Step-down transforme r:
If there are fewer turns of wire in the
secondary than in the primary coil the EMF
induced in the secondary is less than that
applied to the primary, and the device is
known as step-down transformer.
e.g. if the primary has four times as many
turns of wire as the secondary and an EMF of
too volts is applied to the primary, 25 volts
will be induced in the secondary coil.
Fig. 4.22 Step-up and step-down transformer
Even ratio transformer:
If there are the same number of turns of wire
in both coils the EMF induced in the
secondary is the same as that applied to the
primary. This is known as an even-ratio
transformer, and its sole function is to render
the current earth-free.
It is impossible to obtain from the secondary
circuit a greater amount of electric power, i.e.
a greater number of watts, than is supplied to
50

the primary circuit. An increase in the EMF is
accompanied by a corresponding decrease in
the intensity of current available, intensity of
current. If an EMF induced in it will be 1000
volts, but as 1000 watts is the maximum power
available the intensity of the current in the
secondary circuit cannot exceed 1 ampere. If,
however, the secondary coil has one-tenth then
number of turns of wire of the primary, the
EMF is reduced to 10 volts and the maximum
intensity of current available increased to 100
amperes. Actually the intensity of current that
can be obtained is rather less than that given
above, as there is some loss of energy in the
transformer.
The above figures represent the maximum
intensity of current that can be obtained.
Provide that it does not exceed this amount;
the actual intensity depends on the EMF and
the resistance of the circuit. For example, if
1000 watts ar available and the EMF is 100
volts, the maximum current is 10 amperes. If
the resistance of the external circuits is 50
ohms, then by Ohm’s law:
This is less than the maximum available and a
current of 2 amperes flows in the external
circuit. If, however, the resistance of the
external circuit is 5 ohms, then by Ohm’s law:
The maximum current available is, however,
only 10 amperes so a current of 10 amperes
flows in external circuit.
When the resistance of the external circuit is
high it is an advantage to step up the voltage,
as a large EMF is necessary to produce an
appreciable current. The intensity of the
current in the high resistance will in any case
be low, so it is unimportant and that the
maximum that is available is reduced. When
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
the external circuit has a low resistance it is an
advantage to step down the voltage. A small
EMF is adequate to produce an appreciable
current and it is desirable that a large intensity
of current should be available if it is required.
Nature of the secondary current:
The type of current induced in the secondary
coil can be deduced by the application of
Lenz’s and Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. Graphs of the primary current and
secondary EMF are shown in figure.
Fig. 4.23: primary current and secondary EMF in a
transformer.
When the primary current is rising in intensity,
the E<C induced in the secondary coils is in
the opposite direction to that applied to the
primary (AB and CD), while when the primary
current is falling is intensity the EMF induced
in the secondary coil is in the same direction
as that applied, to the primary (BC and DE).
The intensity of the primary current rises at
first quickly then more slowly, so the magnetic
field increases at first quickly, then more
slowly. Therefore the EMF induced in the
secondary is at first strong but becomes
weaker (AB and CD). When the primary
current is at its maximum, here is an instant
when the current intensity, and so the
magnetic field, is not changing, and so the
EMF in the secondary coil is at zero (B and
D). When the intensity of the primary current
falls, it does so at first slowly, and then more
51

quickly, so the secondary EMF is at first weak
getting stronger (BC and DE). The graph
shows that the secondary current is similar to
that in the primary coil, but a quarter of a cycle
behind it.
Variable transformers
Tapings may be provided so that either the
primary or secondary coil can be varied in
length. By varying the number of turns of wire
in the primary coil it is possible to use the
same piece of apparatus on supplies of
different voltages.
Fig. 4.24: Variable Transformer
The higher the voltage of the supply the ore
turns of wire are included in the primary coil,
and the EMF induced in the secondary is kept
constant. This device is included in many
modern piece of apparatus, and care should be
taken to see that the control is in the right
position for the supply used. Connection to a
200 volt supply with selector switch on 100
volts would result in the passage of a current
of considerable intensity as only a small part
of coil is included, and this would probably
burn out a transformer windings.
Variation in the length of one of the cols may
also provide a way of controlling the power
supplied to the apparatus. One method of
increasing the output of a short wave
diarthermic machine is by reducing the
number of turns of wire included in the
primary coil of the transfer. When this is done
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
the ratio of turns of wire in the secondary coil
to that in the primary is increased and so the
EMF induced in the secondary is increased.
Tapings may be taking from different points
on the secondary coil to supply different
voltages to separate circuits in the same piece
of apparatus, or on transformer may have
several secondary coils. This occurs in many
of the circuits in which valves are uses.
Autotransformer:
The autotransformer consists of a single coil of
insulated wire would over a laminated iron
core.
Fig. 4.25: Auto Transformer
It is tapped at two points (C and D). When
used as a step-up transfer the coil between C
and D acts as the primary and the whole coil
as the secondary. For a step-down transformer
the whole coil is the primary, and the part
between C and D the secondary. The EMF and
current output of the secondary depends, as in
other transformer, on the relative number of
turns of wire in the part between C and D and
the whole coil. The autotransformer has
certain disadvantage. It can only be used for a
small step up or down in voltage and it does
not made the current in the secondary earth-
free.
The choke coil:
A choke coil is included in a circuit in or to
produce a self-induced EMF.
Low frequency choke coil:
52

This consists of many turns of insulated wire
would on a laminated soft iron frame, usually
on the central bar of a rectangular frame.
When the current which is varying in intensity
is passed through the coil, magnetic lines of
force are set up which cut the turns of wire and
induce EMFs in them. There are many turns so
wire so the coil has a considerable inductance
and the self induced EMF is large. The core
serves to concentrate the magnetic field; it is
made of soft iron so that it is easily
magnetized and demagnetized and is
laminated to prevent eddy currents.
Fig. 4.26: Choke co il.
High frequency choke coil:
A high frequency current varies very rapidly
in intensity so tends to produce a considerable
self-induced EMF. Consequently it is
unnecessary to have a great many turns of wire
in the high frequency choke coil, or to wind
them on a soft iron core. The coil usually
consist of several turns of insulated wire
would on a bobbin of some non-conducting
material.
Uses of the choke coil:
The self-induced EMF which is set up when a
varying current is passed though a choke coil
retard the rays of current to maximum and
prolongs the current flow when the intensity of
current, which is one of the purposes for which
a choke coil is used.
When a high-frequency current passed though
a choke coil the inductive reactance is
considerable, so the coil may be offered to
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
impede the flow of such a current. The
impedance offered to a low frequency or direct
current is considerably less than to high
frequency current, and a choke coil may be
included in a circuit to prevent the flow of
high frequency current, but at the same time
allow the passage of one of the lower
frequency.
Electrical generators (dynamo):
A machine or device that is used to convert
mechanical energy, such as that provided by
the combustion of fuel or by wind or water,
into electricity
Construction:
Mechanical components:
Rotor:
The rotor is the non-stationary part of a rotary
electric generator, which rotates because the
wires and magnetic field of the motor are
arranged so that a torque is developed about
the rotor's axis.
Stator:
The stator is the stationary part of electric
generator. The stator may act as the field
magnet, interacting with the armature to create
motion. The stator may be either a permanent
magnet or an electromagnet. Where the stator
is an electromagnet, the coil which energizes it
is known as the field coil or field winding.
Fig.4.27: Parts of motor.
Electrical components:
53

Armature:
This is the electrical part of rotor and rotates
along with it. It is wounded with coils that
carry current. In a generator, when the rotor is
rotated with any type of mechanical energy
like water power, a steam engine etc. armature
also rotates and results in change in the
magnetic field produced by the stator and an
electric current is induced in the coils of
armature.
Fig. 4.28: Armature and conductor coils
Field:
The role of the "field" component is simply to
create a magnetic field (magnetic flux) for the
armature to interact with, so this component
can comprise either permanent magnets, or
electromagnets formed by a conducting coil.
Alternating current generator:
Construction:
The construction is same as above except a
few differences
Armature :
It is a rectangular coil of large number of turns
of wire wound on laminated soft-iron core of
high permeability and low hysteresis loss and
eddy current loss.
Slip rings:
Chapter 4 Electromagnetism
The ends of the coil are joined to two separate
copper rings fixed on the axle (S1 & S2).
Carbon brus hes:
Two carbon brushes remain pressed against
each of the rings which form the terminals of
the external circuit.
Fig. 4.29: Alternating Current Generator
Working:
The turning of a coil in a magnetic field
produces motional EMF in both sides of the
coil which add. Since the component of the
velocity perpendicular to the magnetic field
changes sinusoidally with the rotation, the
generated voltage is sinusoidal or AC. This
process can be described in terms of Faraday's
law when you see that the rotation of the coil
continually changes the magnetic flux through
the coil and therefore generates a voltage.
Direct current generator:
Construction:
Is same as above page no….with few
exception
Commutator:
Direct current dynamos require a Commutator
on the rotating shaft to convert the alternating
current produced by the armature to direct
current. The Commutator is split into two
segments. Both of these segments are insulated
54
 Chapter 4 Electromagnetism

so no electricity is actually transmitted directly

from one part of the Commutator to the other.
The loop of wire that rotates is connected to
both ends of the Commutator at each end.

Carbon brus hes:

There are also two brushes made of carbon

connected to the Commutator. These carbon
brushes each have a very specific purpose--
one brush is responsible for pushing the
electrical current out of the generator to
whatever devices are being powered, and the
other brush pulls electrical current into the
generator.

Working:

As the Commutator are splited so whenever

the currents tries to become sinusoidal the
space in the two Commutator breaks the
rhythm and a new cycle starts so current
remain direct but pulsatile.

Fig. 4.30: Direct Cu rrent Generator.

55

Chapter No. 5
ELECTRO-MECHANICS
The process of clipping a signal or waveform
such that either the positive or negative portion
of it is completely eliminated. This technique
can be used to convert alternating into direct
current, for instance to produce control
voltages for use in a sound synthesizer.
Rectification of alternating currents:
Rectification is the conversion of alternating
currents into direct currents and the two types
of rectifier used in electro-medical apparatus
or the diode valve and the metal rectifier
Half wave rectification:
If one valve or metal rectifier is included in a
circuit, as in figure Current can pass in one
direction only and the flow is blocked during
alternate half cycles of alternating current.
This is shown in figure. Where the continuous
line represents the current which flows, the
dotted line the reverse waves which are
obliterated. The resulting current is
unidirectional, but pulsating and interruptive
and the process by which it is obtained is
termed half wave rectification.
Fig.5.1: Half wave rectification
Chapter 5 Electro-Mechanics
Full wave rectification:
The use of two or more rectifiers the direction
of the current may be reversed during alternate
half cycle of A.C. figure shows the resulting
current, which is represented by the
continuous line. The dotted line shows the
alternate half cycles before reversal. The
current obtained is unidirectional and pulsating
but not interrupted and the process by which it
is obtained is termed as full wave rectification.
Fig .5.2: Full wave rectificat ion
Smoothing circuit:
The current obtained from the rectifying
circuit is unidirectional but varies considerably
in intensity. In order to eliminate these
variations and render the currents suitable for
application to patient a smoothing circuit is
used. This consists of one or two condensers
wired in parallel to the output circuit and the
choke coil in series with this circuit.
When the EMF of the rectified current rises,
current flows in the external circuit and at the
same time the condensers are charged. When
the EMF poles the intensity of the current in
the output circuit falls, but the condensers
discharge round the circuit and augments the
current flow so that the intensity does not fall
to zero. Thus the variations in the intensity of
current are reduced. The condensers have a
large capacity so that they offer little
impedance to the charging current and hold a
considerable quantity of electricity to
discharge around the circuit. As the current
varies in intensity a self induced EMF is set up
in a choke coil. When the intensity of current
is raising the self induced EMF opposes the
applied EMF and retards the rise of current.
When the intensity of current is falling the self
induced EMF is in the same direction as the
applied EMF and prolongs the current flow.
These effects further reduce the variation in
the intensity of current.
56

The current obtained from the smoothing
circuit varies lightly in intensity but is suitable
for use for constant D.C treatments.
Metal rectifiers:
A metal rectifier works on the same principle
as semiconductor diode, and one type consists
of aa copper disc coated on one surface with
copper oxide. Copper oxide is p-type
semiconductor and copper, being a metal, as
free electrons, so acts like an n-type
semiconductor. Thus when the two materials
are in contact a p .d. a set up at their junction.
When the rectifier is connected into a circuit
with copper negative relative to the copper
oxide, current passes much more easily than
when the polarity is reversed. In the latter case
no current flows until EMF exceeds 8 volts. A
series of discs can be used to rectify larger
voltages, but must be separated from each
other for suitable material; otherwise the p.d.s
developed at the contacts would cancel each
other out.
Fig. 5.3: Metal rectifier
In the symbol for the rectifier illustrated in
figure the arrow head represents the copper,
i.e. it shows the direction of electron flow.
Selenium rectifiers are also used. Selenium is
the p-type semiconductor and a till alloy in
contact with it acts as the n-type. The
rectifying units are separated by appropriate
materials each will rectify up to 18 volts.
Metronome Inte rrupter:
The simple metronome has been adapted for
use in electrical treatments as follows:
Across the base of the pendulum there is
attached a metal cross-piece, carrying foot-
pieces which dip into metal cups filled with
mercury. To each cup is attached a binding
Chapter 5 Electro-Mechanics
screw. The metronome is connected in series
with the patient in the following manner. One
wire from the battery is attached to one of the
outside cups; the middle cup is attached to the
patient, who in turn is attached to the battery.
The third cup is not used. When the
metronome is wound up, the pendulum swings
from side to side, regularly carrying the cross-
piece up and down. One of the attached foot-
pieces is constantly being withdrawn from and
re-introduced into its corresponding cup of
mercury, thus rhythmically making and
breaking the current. The rate of the
interruptions can be varied by means of the
sliding weight on the pendulum. The
clockwork interrupter is a piece of apparatus
by means of which the current is made to
gradually rise from zero to a maximum and as
gradually to fall back to zero, thus obviating
sudden makes and breaks. It consists of
clockwork which operates a metal arm in an
up-and-down direction. Attached to this
horizontal arm is a vertical platinum wire
dipping into a cup of water. As the mechanism
works, this wire alternately rises and sinks.
The current passes from the wire, through the
water, to the cup, and thence through the rest
of the circuit. The resistance varies with the
depth of the wire in the water, and the current
varies with the resistance. Thus the patient is
receiving a current of regularly varying
intensity.
Fig. 5.4: Metronome interrupter
57
 Chapter 5 Electro-Mechanics

Vibration: b) Mono stable multi vibratos:

Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon That provide a single output pulse (they
whereby oscillations occur about have one stable state and are thus
an equilibrium point. The oscillations may sometimes also referred to as ‘one shot )
be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum
or random such as the movement of a tire on a
gravel road.
Vibration is occasionally "desirable". For
example the motion of a tuning fork,
the reed in a woodwind
instrument or harmonica, or mobile phones or
the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable
vibration, necessary for the correct functioning
of the various devices.
Multi vibrators:
Fig. 5.6: Mono stable multiv iberator
There are many occasions when we require a
square wave output multi liberators are a c) Bi stable vibratos:
family of oscillator circuits that produce
That has two stable states and required a
output wave forms consisting of one or more
trigger pulse or control to signal to change
rectangular pulses. The term multi vibrators
from one state to another.
simply originates from the fact that this type of
waveform is rich in harmonics ( i.e. “multiple
vibrations” )

Multi liberators use regenerative (i.e. positive)

feed back; the active devices present within
the oscillator circuit being operated as
switches, being alternatively cut off and driven
into saturation.

The principle types of multi vibratos are:

a) A stable multi vibratos:

That provides a continuous train of pulses

(these are sometimes also referred to as Fig. 5.7: Bistable mu ltiviberator
free-running multi vibratos)

Fig. 5.5: A stable mult iviberator.

58

Chapter No. 6
CLASSIFICATION OF
CURRENTS
1. LOW FREQUENCY
CURRENTS:
Electrical Stimulation of Nerve and
Muscle:
 Impulses less than 10 ms are faradic type
and use to stimulate the normal innervated
muscles.
 Impulses more than 10ms are interrupted
direct current. And use for the stimulation
of de-innervated muscles.
Faradic Type Current:
The term faradism was originally used to
signify the type of current produced by a
faradic coil which is a type of induction coil. it
is an alternating current. Physiological effects
are as of original faradic current. But it differs
from original faradic current in wave form.
Each cycle consisting of 2 unequal phases:
1st of low intensity and long duration.
2nd of high intensity and short duration. 50 Hz
frequency and 1ms.
 Short duration interrupted direct current.
 Pulse duration: 0.1 - 1 ms
 Frequency: 50 -100 Hz
Modified Faradic Currents:
Always surged for the purpose of treatment to
produce a near to normal tetanic like
contraction and relaxation of muscle.
 Intensity of successive impulse increases
gradually, each impulse reaching a peak
value of greater than the preceding 1, then
Chapter 6 Classification of Currents
falls either suddenly or gradual.
 In original faradic current was surged by
hand but in modern faradic stimulators
electronic device is used.
 Circuit can be modified to give surges of
various durations.
Various forms of Surges:
 Trapezoidal
 Triangular
 Saw tooth impulse
Electrical Activity of Nerves:
Nerve Transmission:
Owing to the difference in concentration of
ions inside and outside the plasma membranes
there is a difference of potential (PD) between
the inside and outside of the nerve
Polarized Stage:
The resting nerve is positive outside and
negative inside and the plasma membrane is
not permeable to sodium ions and described as
polarized stage of the membrane.
When a nerve is stimulated the stimulus causes
a fall in the PD across the membrane. When
this fall reaches a certain critical level it causes
an alteration in the permeability of membrane
to sodium ions. This results in alteration in the
concentration of ions inside and outside and a
further a fall in PD until a reversal of polarity
occurs: the membrane is now positive inside
and negative outside , immediately after the
activity the sodium ions are pumped out again
and that part of the nerve returns to its resting
state. The difference between the active and
resting part of the nerve causes local electron
flow between the active and adjacent part of
the nerve. The current flows through the
membrane in the opposite direction to the PD
across the fibers. The fiber acts as a resistance
with the current so that the current flow lowers
the PD, thus making the membrane permeable
59

to the sodium ions, which reverse the PD as
before. These changes are then propagated
along the length of nerve fibers, this wave of
change of polarized state constitutes the
passage of impulse along the nerve.
Electrical Stimulation of Nerves:
Accommodation:
When a constant current flows, the nerve
adapts itself by a mechanism not fully
understood to alter the condition. This effect is
known as accommodation.
Effects of Nerve stimulation:
In cellular organs the nerve moves in one
direction but in nerve fibers it moves in both
directions.
Effects of frequency on stimulation:
Increasing the frequency of the stimuli
shortens the periods of relaxation until at
frequencies exceeding 20 Hz there is not time
for complete relaxation between the
contractions so that the partial tetany results.
Further increase in the frequency reduces the
amount of relaxation still further until at
frequency of 60 Hz, there is no perceptible
relaxation and the contraction is fully tetanic.
Strength of Contraction:
This depends on the number of motor units
activated which in turn depends on the
intensity of current applied and the rate of
change of current.
if the intensity of current rises suddenly there
is no time for accommodation to take place
and a muscle contraction results. If the current
rises more slowly, as with the trapezoidal,
triangular and saw tooth impulses there is
some accommodation and a greater intensity
of current is needed to produce a contraction.
Chapter 6 Classification of Currents
Physiological Effects of Faradic
Currents:
The tissues of the body are capable of
transmitting an electric current because the
tissue fluid contains ions and so are
conductors. It consists of a 2 way migration of
ions and conductivity of different tissues
varies according to the amount of fluid that
they contain. Muscles has a good blood supply
and thus are good conductors while fat is a bad
conductor. Current tends to travel through
those tissues which have a low resistance.
Although, it is not always that possible for it to
avoid the high resistance layers.
The epidermis has a high resistance; 1000 ohm
or more, as it contains little fluid and the
superficial layers do not readily absorbed
moisture.
 Stimulation of sensory nerves.
 Stimulation of the motor nerves.
 Effects on muscle contraction.
 Stimulation of de-innervated muscles.
Techniques of treatment with faradic
Type Current:
 Preparation of apparatus.
 Preparation of patients.
 Stimulation of the motor points.
Galvanic Current (D.C):
Definition and Explanation:
Direct current (DC) is the unidirectional flow
of electric charge.
Fig. 6.1: Galvanic Current
60
 Chapter 6 Classification of Currents

Direct current is produced by sources such as
batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and
commutator-type electric machines of the
dynamo type. Direct current may flow in a
conductor such as a wire, but can also flow
through semiconductors, insulators, or even
through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams.
The electric current flows in a constant
direction, distinguishing it from alternating
current (AC). A term formerly used for direct
current was galvanic current.
Increasing range of motion and The
Prevention or Retardation of muscle
Disuse Atrophy.
 Galvanic stimulation is a method of
applying high voltage, but overall low
amperage, direct current to alleviate pain,
stimulate blood flow, and promote wound
healing

The abbreviations AC and DC are often used

to mean simply alternating and direct, as when
they modify current or voltage.

Source:
Fig. 6.2: Negative versus Positive pole galvanic
Direct current may be obtained from an
current
alternating current supply by use of a current-
switching arrangement called a rectifier, which Galvanometer:
contains electronic elements (usually) or
electromechanical elements (historically) that Definition:
allow current to flow only in one direction.
Direct current may be made into alternating A galvanometer is a type of sensitive ammeter:
current with an inverter or a motor-generator an instrument for detecting electric current.
set. It is an analog electromechanical actuator that
produces a rotary deflection of some type of
Uses in daily life: pointer in response to electric current flowing
through its coil in a magnetic field.
Direct current is used to charge batteries, and
in nearly all electronic systems, as the power
supply. Very large quantities of direct-current
power are used in production of aluminum and
other electrochemical processes. Direct current
is used for some railway propulsion, especially
in urban areas. High-voltage direct current is
used to transmit large amounts of power from
remote generation sites or to interconnect
alternating current power grids.

Uses in human body:

Fig. 6.3: Galvanometer
 Acute and chronic pain, back and cervical
muscular and disc syndromes, RSD, Explanation:
arthritis, shoulder syndromes,
neuropathies, and many other painful Galvanometers were the first instruments used
conditions e.g. TENS. to detect and measure electric currents.
Sensitive galvanometers were used to detect
 EMS is uses for Maintaining and signals from long submarine cables, and were

61

used to discover the electrical activity of the
heart and brain. Some galvanometers used a
solid pointer on a scale to show measurements,
other very sensitive types used a tiny mirror
and a beam of light to provide mechanical
amplification of tiny signals. Initially a
laboratory instrument relying on the Earth's
own magnetic field to provide restoring force
for the pointer, galvanometers were developed
into compact, rugged, sensitive portable
instruments that were essential to the
development of electrotechnology.
Uses:
 Its used to detect and measure electric
current.
 Galvanic stimulation is a method of
applying high voltage, but overall low
amperage, direct current to alleviate pain,
stimulate blood flow, and promote wound
healing.
Interrupted Direct Current IDC:
The term interrupted direct current (IDC) is
used to describe continuous unidirectional
current when it is interrupted to give pulses or
phases of any duration, shape, or frequency.
Interrupted direct current is commonly
described the currents of long duration (1ms or
more).
Fig. 6.4: Graph of Galvanic Current
Types:
There are two types of long duration
interrupted direct current:
1- Rectangular wave pulses.
2- Accommodation pulses.
Chapter 6 Classification of Currents
Rectangular wave pulse:
Rectangular wave pulses: pulses of any
duration between 1 and 600msec separated by
pulse interval of any duration from 1 to many
seconds. Used to stimulate sensory and motor
nerves but it is unique in stimulation of de-
innervated muscles.
Fig. 6.5: Rectangular wave pulse
Accommodation Pulses:
It has many types like triangular, trapezoidal,
and saw-tooth. The pulse duration ranged from
300 to 1000 ms. These pulses are used for
stimulation of de-innervated muscle.
Fig. 6.6: Accommodation Pulses.
Diadynamic Currents:
It is basically a variation of sinusoidal
currents.
Sinusoidal currents are alternating low
frequency currents, having
A frequency of 50 Hz and pulse duration of 10
ms, providing 100 stimuli/sec.
Types of Diadynamic Currents:
There are five different currents available for
diadynamic therapy.
62

1. DF (Fixed di-phase):
Full-wave rectified alternating current, with a
frequency of 50 Hz.
2. MF (Fixed mono-phase):
Half-wave rectified alternating current, with a
frequency of 50 Hz.
3. CP (Short periods):
10-sec MF 5-sec DF 10 sec MF
Equal phases of DF and MF, alternating
without interval pauses.
4. LP (Long periods):
10-sec MF 5-sec DF 10-sec MF.
It includes 10-sec phase of MF, followed by 5
sec phase of DF, in which peak intensity is
varied with a frequency to rise and then fall.
5. RS (Syncopal Rhythm):
It comprises 1-sec phase of MF, followed by a
1-sec rest phase.
Physiological effects:
The main effect is pain relief through:
 Pain masking (increase of the
stimulation threshold):By DF current,
stimulation of the sensory nerves may not
always cause excitation but it can be
modified.
 Vasodilatation and Hyperemia: Due to
Chapter 6 Classification of Currents
release of histamine in the tissues. The
same can occur in deeper structures by
reflex activity.
 Muscle Fibers stimulation: Diadynamic
current stimulates the muscle fibers,
causing muscle contraction. CP and LP
currents stimulate increase blood flow to
the muscle and reduce edema.
 Stimulation of vibration sense: This
leads to central masking of pain sensation.
Dosage:
Intensity: It should be increased gradually
until definite vibration or prickling sensation
occurs.
Duration: Not more than 12 minutes; each
type for 3 minutes.
Frequency: Daily or every other day for 12
sessions
Effects:
 DF (Fixed Di-phase): It is used for the
initial treatment and before application of
other currents. The patient feels a
prickling sensation, which subsides after a
short time.
 MF (Fixed Mono Phase): The patient
feels a strong vibration for longer time
than the sensation of DF. It is used for
treatment of pain without muscle spasm.
 CP (short periods): In DF phase, there
are fine tremors in MF phase (strong and
constant vibration).
There are rhythmic contractions, being used
for treatment of traumatic pain.
 LP (Long Periods): It has a long-lasting
analgesic effect. It is used with
combination of CP in treatment of
neuralgia.
 RS (Syncopal Rhythm):It can be used for
faradic stimulation of the muscle It can
63
 Chapter 6 Classification of Currents

also be used as a test for motor nerve  Low TENS

excitability.
High TENS:
TENS:
a. Frequency between 100 and 150 Hz.
Also known as transcutaneous nerve b. Pulse width between 100 and 500ms.
stimulation. c. Intensity between 12 ms 30 mA.

Definition: High TENS currents cause tetanic muscle

“The application of the pulsed rectangular
wave current via surface electrodes on the
patient’s skin"
Parameters:
TENS has following parameters within which
a particular unit operates is required by
therapist
contraction which can be reduced by reducing
intensity. In this way stimulation will cause
impulses to be carried along large diameter
afferent nerves, and this can produce
presynaptic inhibition of transmission of
nociceptive A and C fibers at the substantia
gelatinosa of the pain gate.
Low TENS:

 pulse shape a. Frequency between 1-5 Hz.

b. pulse width between 100-150 ms.
 pulse width
c. Intensity may be higher than 30 mA.
 frequency
 intensity Low TENS gives sharp almost nociceptive
stimulation and possibly a muscle twitch. As
Pulse shape:
the nociceptive stimulus is carried towards the
It is usually rectangular. cerebrum, its passage through mid-brain cause
the PAG (periaquiductal area of gray matter)
Pulse width: and raphe nucleus resulting opiate like
substances release. The release of enkaphlins
It is measured in microseconds (ms) and fixed and beta endorphins block the forward
at 100ms or 200ms.it ranges from 50ms to transmission in pain circuits.
300ms.
Application:
Frequency:
The device is consist of two parts. One is
It can be as low as 2 Hz or as high as 600 Hz. battery and other are conductive rubber
But a frequency of 150 Hz is commonly used. electrodes. Conductive rubber electrodes are
covered by gel and placed on skin in order to
Intensity:
gain good skin contact. The electrodes are
It can be vary from 0 to 600 mA. The wide bandage on to the patient or fixes by adhesive
range of variation in pulse width, frequency tape. The wires are connecting to the
and intensity gives great flexibility in electrodes.
treatments of patients with chronic pain
Electrodes can be placed over:
syndromes.
a) Acupuncture points, motor points or
Types of TENS trigger points.
 High TENS b) Area of greatest intensity of pain.
c) Appropriate dermatome or spinal segment.

64

d) Appropriate peripheral nerve.
Treatment:
 The patient may have a single daily
treatment session of up to 40mins
duration.
 The patient may stay connected to the
portable TENS.
Dangers:
Continuous application of TENS may produce
the electrolyte reaction under the electrodes
resulting in burns.
Uses:
TENS is useful method of reducing or
removing pain in chronic syndromes.
IONTOPHORESIS:
"The techniques in which medically useful
ions are driven through patients skin into the
tissues is known as iontophoresis."
Principal and techniques:
The basic principal is to place the ion under an
electrode with the same charge; e.g. negative
ions are applied under the cathode. This
electrode is known as "active electrode" the
direct current is then applied and the ions are
electrically propelled into the patient's skin.
Although direct current is seldom used now a
days. The use of tap water for the treatment of
hyperhidrosis produces no side effects but the
ions in it may not inhibit the sweating
sufficiently. Therefore use anicholinergic
compounds in distilled water are
recommended. The introduction of
GLYCOPYRONIUM BROMIDE under the
anode has been show long lasting effects
(Morgan 1980) the hands and feet are effected
commonly and require treatment but no
attempt should be made to treat hands and feet
on same day and there should be an interval of
several days between the treatments.
Chapter 6 Classification of Currents
Apparatus:
The apparatus required is:
a. A source of direct current of low voltage
and low amperage.
b. A shallow plastic tray for the anode.
c. A foot or arm bath for cathode.
d. Two large electrodes and leads.
e. Two large lint pads to cover the
electrodes.
f. Solution of anticholinergic compounds.
g. Distilled water.
Application:
The machine should be tested prior to use.
Leads are attached to the terminals and held
with free ends, not touching in a bowl of tap
water control should be turned up and the
needle of the millimeter should be watched to
ensure the regulation of current.
The physiotherapist should test the current on
herself as faradic type current.
Method of treatment:
Hands:
The shallow plastic tray is placed on an arm
bath table and the patient sits alongside. The
active electrode (anode) placed in the plastic
tray and is covered by one of the lint pad. Pads
should be at least of eight layers thick so, that
they make the good contact with the tissues
and with the electrode and are able to absorb
any chemicals which might form during the
treatment.
The tray also contains enough of a 0.05 per
cent solution of the anticholinergic compound,
glycopyrronium bromide in distilled water to
cover the palm well. The hand is placed in the
tray and the electrode connected to the positive
terminal of the treatment unit.
One of the patient's feet is placed in few cm of
warm water in the foot bath, on the lint pad
covering the electrode which connected to the
negative terminal. The current is now switched
65
 Chapter 6 Classification of Currents

on and slowly increased to the desire amount  Russian current

for the desired.
The glycopyrronium becomes the positive ion
when the salt is dissolved in distilled water so,
the patient having completed the circuit, the
positive ions will be repelled by anode and
attracted to the cathode.
Feet:
For the treatment of the feet treatment will be
reversed by shallow tray with the anode on the
floor and the arm bath with the cathode, for
the arm to complete the circuit.
Dosage:
For an average adult 12 mA for 12 minutes
and half of this for the children.
Some need the interval of on month or less.
And some need after the 4-6 weeks of interval
between the treatments.
High frequency currents are augmented to
produce low frequency currents effects.
Interferential Current:
Interferential therapy is a form of electrical
treatment in which two medium frequency
currents are used to produce a low frequency
effects.
The main problem associated with the direct
application of faradic or sinusoidal currents to
patients is the very high skin impedance
(apparent resistance) encountered by such low
frequency currents (50-100 Hz).
Medium frequency currents of around 4000
Hz, while able to stimulate motor and sensory
nerves, encounter much lower skin impedance.
Impedance is inversely proportional to
frequency: the applicable formula is:

Precautions: Z=1/2πfC

1. Skin abrasions. Where Z = impedance in ohms

2. Remove the patient's rings.
F =frequency in hertz
3. Warn patient to remain still during
treatment. C =capacitance of skin in microfarads.
4. Ensure correct thickness of pads.
The resistance of the skin at 50 Hz is in the
Side effects: region of 3200 ohms whereas with a frequency
of 4000 Hz skin resistance is 40 ohms.
Anticholinergic have atropine like actions;
patients may therefore experience:

1. Drying of mouth and throat.

2. Restricted general body sweating as it
regulates the body temperature.

2. MEDIUM FREQUENCY
CURRENTS:

It ranges from 1000 to 10,000 Hz.

It includes: Fig. 6.7: Interferential

 Interferential current

66

Principle:
The principle upon which interference effect
where two medium frequency currents cross in
the patient’s tissues. One of the currents is
kept at a constant frequency of 4000 Hz and
the other can be varied between 3900 and
4000 Hz. An interference effect at a “BEAT
FREQUENCY” equal to the difference in
frequency between the two currents cross. For
example:
Circuit A 4000 Hz (Medium frequency)
Circuit B 3900 Hz
Beat Frequency 100 Hz (low frequency)
By varying the frequency of the second circuit
relative to the constant frequency of the first, it
is possible to produce a range of beat
frequencies deep in the patient’s tissues. For
example, if circuit A carried a current with a
frequency of 4000Hz and Circuit B one of
3980 Hz then the beat frequency will be 20
Hz.
On some units, the frequency of the two
circuits is such that a beat frequency of 150 Hz
can be produced, and some would claim that
this frequency is very useful in pain
modulation.
Current is controlled by the therapist and is
equal to the sum of the two separate currents.
Advantage:
One of the major advantages claimed for
interferential therapy is that the effects are
products in the tissues where they are required,
without unnecessary and uncomfortable skin
stimulation.
Physiological effects of interference
currents:
Relief of pain:
Pain may be relieved very effectively using
interferential therapy and a number of
Chapter 6 Classification of Currents
mechanisms described in the section may be
involved. The increase in local circulation
which may be produced by either the local
pumping effect of stimulated muscles or the
effect on autonomic nerves and therefore
blood vessels, may help remove chemicals
from the area which are stimulating
nociceptors.
Short duration pulses at a frequency of 100 Hz
may stimulate large diameter nerve fibers
which will have an effect on the pain gate in
the posterior horn, and inhibit transmission of
small diameter nociceptive traffic. A
frequency of 80- 100 Hz rhythmic is usually
chosen for this effect, as the problem of
accommodation is reduced.
In order to selectively activate the descending
pain suppression system, a frequency of 15 Hz
is required and the stimulation of small
diameter fibers produced will e4ventually
cause the release of endogenous opiates
(enkephalin and endorphin) at a spinal level.
A physiological blocking of nerve
transmission is also postulated as a mechanism
of pain modulation produced by interferential.
Motor Stimulation:
Normal innervated muscles will be made to
contract if interferential frequencies between 1
and 100 Hz are used.
At low frequencies a twitch is produced,
between 5 and 20 Hz a partial tetany and from
30 to 100 Hz a tetanic contraction.
A complete range of all these types of muscle
contraction can be seen when a rhythmical
frequency of 1- 100 Hz is used.
Muscle contraction is produced with little
sensory stimulation, and can be of deeply
placed muscles, e.g. pelvic floor. Patient is
unable to voluntarily contract with the current
(unlike faradism).
67
 Chapter 6 Classification of Currents

Absorption of exudates:  Patients who have epilepsy, advanced

This is accelerated by a frequency of 1- 10 Hz
rhythmical pumping action is produced by
muscle contraction, and there is possibly an
effect on the autonomic nerves which can
affect the diameter of blood vessels and
therefore the circulation. Both of these factors
will help absorb exudates and reduce swelling.
Application:
Application over the trunk or pelvis during
pregnancy (though this MAY be modified in
time in line with the TENS advice.
At the present time, it is suggested that it is
best avoided in these regions)
 Active or suspected malignancy except in
hospice/palliative/terminal care
 The eyes
 The anterior aspect of the neck
 The carotid sinuses
 Dermatological conditions e.g.
dermatitis, broken skin
 Danger of hemorrhage or current tissue
bleeding (e.g. recent soft tissue injury)
 Avoid active epiphyseal regions in
children
 Transthoracic electrode application is
considered to be ‘risky’ by many
authorities
cardiovascular conditions or cardiac
arrhythmias should be treated at the
discretion of the physiotherapist in
consultation with the appropriate medical
practitioner
 Treatment which involves placement of
electrodes over the anterior chest wall
Russian Current:
Russian Electrical Stimulation
The Russian protocol is a modality of
electrical stimulation that has been employed
for muscle strengthening. It was originally
developed for strengthening of Russian
Olympic athletes by Yadou Kots. This type of
electrical stimulation is a medium frequency
polyphasic AC waveform with burst
modulations. There are typically 50 bursts per
second with 50 pulses per burst. The
application is 10 seconds on, 50 seconds off,
for a duration of 10 minutes. The intensity is
adjusted to elicit a tetanic contraction and is
usually uncomfortable to the patient. There
are several studies to indicate that this protocol
may have some benefit in muscle
strengthening. However, there are studies
which also indicate that adjustments can be
made to the original work of Kots which may
be more appropriate and comfortable.

Precautions:

 Care should be taken to maintain the

suction at a level below that which causes
damage discomfort to the patient
 If there is abnormal skin sensation,
electrodes should be positioned in a site
other than this area to ensure effective
stimulation.
 Patients who have (marked) abnormal
circulation
 For patients who have febrile conditions,
the outcome of the first treatment should
be monitored
Fig. 6.8: Russian electrical stimulator

68
 Chapter 6 Classification of Currents

As the pulse frequency increases, the pulse AC medium frequency 2500Hz.

duration decreases.
Primary purpose is for muscle rehab or re
There are two basic waveforms: a sine wave education.
and a square wave cycle with a fixed intra
pulse interval. Physiological Effects:

The sine wave is produced in a burst mode that  Muscle strengthening and re education
has a 50 percent duty cycle.  Decrease edema
 Increase blood flow
According to strength duration curve data, to  Reduces muscle spasm
obtain the same stimulation effect as the
duration of the stimulus decreases, the This would make the muscle respond with a
intensity must be increased. twitch rather than a gradually increasing
mechanical contraction.
The intensity associated with this duration of
current could be considered as painful. Gradually increasing the number of bursts
interrupts the mechanical relaxation cycle of
To make this intensity of current tolerable, it is the muscle and causes more shortening to take
generated in 50 burst per second envelopes place.
with an interburst interval of 10 m-sec. this
slightly reduces the total current but allows
enough of a peak current intensity to stimulate
muscle very well. 3. HIGH FREQUENCY
The other factor affecting patient comfort is
CURRENTS:
the effect that frequency will have on the
Production by:
impedance of the tissue.

Higher frequency currents reduce the

resistance to the current flow, again making
this type of waveform comfortable enough that
the patient may tolerate higher intensities.
As the intensity increases, more motor nerves
are stimulated, increasing the magnitude of the
contraction.
Because it is a fast oscillating AC current, as
soon as the nerve repolarizes it is stimulated
again, producing a current that will maximally
summate muscle contraction.
The frequency (burst per second) is also a
variable that can be controlled. This would
make the muscle respond with a twitch rather
than a gradually increasing mechanical
contraction. Gradually increasing the number
of burst interrupts the mechanical relaxation
cycle of the muscle and causes more
shortening to take place.
i) Spark Gaps:
A simple spark gap consists of
two conducting electrodes separated by a gap
immersed within a gas (typically air). When a
sufficiently high voltage is applied,
a spark will bridge the gap, ionizing the gas
and drastically reducing its electrical
resistance. An electric current then flows until
the path of ionized gas is broken or the current
is reduced below a minimum value called the
'holding current'. This usually occurs when
the voltage across the gap drops sufficiently,
but the process may also be assisted by
cooling the spark channel or by physically
separating the electrodes. This breaks the
conductive filament of ionized gas, allowing
the capacitor to recharge, and permitting the
recharging/discharging cycle to repeat. The
action of ionizing the gas is quite sudden and
violent (disruptive), and it creates a

69
 Chapter 6 Classification of Currents

sharp sound (ranging from a snap for a spark
plug, to a loud bang for a wider gap). The
spark gap also liberates light and heat.
Fig. 6.9: A typical spark transmitter circuit.
Capacitor - C1 and C2; Resistor - R; Inductor - L.
Operation:
The function of the spark gap is to present a
high resistance to the circuit initially to allow
the C1 capacitor to charge. When the
breakdown voltage of the gap is reached, it
then presents a low resistance to the circuit
causing the C1 capacitor to discharge. The
discharge through the conducting spark takes
the form of a damped oscillation, at a
frequency determined by the resonant
frequency of the C2 and L tank LC circuit.
relationship between anode voltage and anode
current.
The high working voltage makes them well
suited for radio transmitters and valves remain
in use today for very high power short wave
radio transmitters, where solid state techniques
would require many devices in parallel, and
very high DC supply currents. High power
solid state transmitters also require complex
combining and tuning networks, whereas a
valve based transmitter would use a single
relatively simple tuned network. Thus while
solid state high power short wave transmitters
are technically possible, economic
considerations still favor valves above 3 MHz
and 10,000 watts. Amateurs also use valve
amplifiers in the 500-1500 watt range mainly
for economic reasons.

The spark transmitter is very simple in

operation, but it presented significant technical
problems mostly due to very large induced
EMF when the spark struck, which caused
breakdown of the insulation in the
primary transformer. To overcome this
construction of even low-power sets was very
solid. The damped wave output was very
wasteful of bandwidth, and this limited the
Fig. 6.10: Valves Operations
number of stations that could communicate
effectively without interfering with each other. Circuit advantages of valves

ii) Valves: Very linear (especially triodes) making it

Valves are high voltage/low current devices in
comparison with transistors. Tetrode and
pentode valves have very flat anode current vs.
anode voltage indicating high anode
output impedances. Triodes show a stronger
viable to use them in low distortion linear
circuits with little or no negative feedback
High input impedance, comparable to that of
FETs, higher than in bipolar transistors, which
is beneficial in certain signal amplification
applications.

70

Valves are high voltage devices, inherently
suitable for higher voltage circuits than most
semiconductors.
Valves can be constructed on a scale that can
dissipate large amounts of heat, with very high
power models designed for water or vapor
cooling. For this reason valves remained the
only viable technology for very high power,
and especially high power/high voltage
applications such as Radio & TV transmitters
long into the age when transistors had
displaced valves in most other applications.
However today these also are increasingly
obsolete.
Lower investment cost in applications like RF
amplifiers above the kilowatt power
range Also, large, high value power valves can
to some extent be remanufactured to extend
residual life.
Electrically very robust, they can tolerate
overloads which would destroy bipolar
transistor systems in milliseconds (of
particular significance in military and other
"strategically important" systems).
Indefinite shelf life. Even 60 year old tubes
can be perfectly functional, and many types
are available for purchase as "new-old-stock".
Thus, despite known reliability issues (see
below), it is still perfectly possible to run most
very old vacuum tube equipment.
Comparative ease of replacement. Being
known to be subject to a number of common
failure modes, most tubes were designed and
installed as plug-in devices, not soldered into a
circuit. A failed tube can simply be unplugged
and replaced by a user, while the failure of a
soldered-in semiconductor may imply damage
beyond economic repair for a whole product or
subassembly.
Disadvantages of valves Cost:
For most applications, tubes require both
greater initial outlay and running expense per
amplification stage, requiring more attentive
Chapter 6 Classification of Currents
budgeting of the number of stages for a given
application compared to semiconductors.
Short operational life:
In the most common applications, valves have
a working life of just a few thousand hours,
much shorter than solid state parts. This is due
various commonplace failure mechanisms:
cathode depletion, open or shorts circuits -
notably of the heater and grid structures,
cathode poisoning, and physical breakage of
the glass envelope. Heater failure most often
happens due to the mechanical stress of a cold
start. Only, in certain always-on professional
application such as specialized computing and
undersea cables, specially designed valves in
carefully designed circuits and well cooled
environments reached operational lives of tens
or hundreds of thousands of hours.
Heater supplies are required for the cathodes.
Beside the investment cost, the share of the
power budget that goes into heating the
cathode without contributing to output can
range from few percent points of anode
dissipation ( in high power applications at full
output), to broadly comparable to anode
dissipation in small signal applications.
Large circuit temperature swings in on/off
cycles. Massive stray heat from cathode
heaters in common low power tubes means
that adjoining circuits experience changes in
temperature that can exceed 100°C / 200°F.
This requires heat resistant components. In RF
applications this also means that all frequency-
determining components may have to heat to
thermal equilibrium before frequency stability
is reached. While at AM broadcast (medium
wave) receivers and in loosely-tuned TV sets
this was not a problem, in typical radio
receivers and transmitters with free-running
oscillators at HF frequencies this thermal
stabilization required about one hour. On the
other hand, miniature ultra-low power direct-
heated valves do not produce much heat in
absolute terms, cause more modest
71

temperature swings, and allow equipment that
contains few of them to stabilize sooner.
No "instant on" from a cold start. Valve
cathodes need to heat to a glow to start
conducting. In indirect-heating cathodes this
could take up to 20 seconds. Apart from
temperature-related instability, this meant that
valves would not work instantly when
powered. This led to development of always-
on preheating systems for vacuum tube
appliances that shortened the wait and may
have reduced valve failures from thermal
shock, but at the price of a continuous power
drain, and an increased fire hazard. On the
other hand, very small, ultra low power direct-
heated valves turn on in tens of a second from
a cold start.
Anodes may require dangerously high
voltages.
High impedance / low current output
unsuitable for direct drive of many real world
loads, notably various forms of electric motor
Compared to transistors, valves have the
disadvantage of being available in a single
polarity only. In most processes transistors are
available in complementary polarities (e.g.,
NPN/PNP), making possible many circuit
configurations that cannot be realized with
valves.
iii) Transistors:
A transistor is a semiconductor device used
to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed
of semiconductor material with at least three
terminals for connection to an external circuit.
A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals changes the current
through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be higher than
the controlling (input) power, a transistor
can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors
are packaged individually, but many more are
found embedded in integrated circuits.
Chapter 6 Classification of Currents
The transistor is the fundamental building
block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems.
Following its development in the early 1950s,
the transistor revolutionized the field of
electronics, and paved the way for smaller and
cheaper radios, calculators, and computers,
among other things
Simplified Operations:
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes
from its ability to use a small signal applied
between one pair of its terminals to control a
much larger signal at another pair of terminals.
This property is called gain. A transistor can
control its output in proportion to the input
signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier.
Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn
current on or off in a circuit as an electrically
controlled switch, where the amount of current
is determined by other circuit elements.
There are two types of transistors, which have
slight differences in how they are used in a
circuit.
A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled
 base
 collector
 Emitter
A small current at the base terminal (that is,
flowing between the base and the emitter) can
control or switch a much larger current
between the collector and emitter terminals.
For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are
labeled
 gate
 source
 drain
A voltage at the gate can control a current
between source and drain.
The image represents a typical bipolar
transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow
72

between emitter and collector terminals
depending on the current in the base. Because
internally the base and emitter connections
behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage
drop develops between base and emitter while
the base current exists. The amount of this
voltage depends on the material the transistor
is made from, and is referred to as VBE.
Fig. 6.11: A simple circuit diagram to show the
labels of an n–p–n bipolar transistor.
Advantages:
The key advantages that have allowed
transistors to replace their vacuum tube
predecessors in most applications are
 No power consumption by a cathode
heater.
 Small size and minimal weight, allowing
the development of miniaturized electronic
devices.
 Low operating voltages compatible with
batteries of only a few cells.
 No warm-up period for cathode heaters
required after power application.
 Lower power dissipation and generally
greater energy efficiency.
 Higher reliability and greater physical
ruggedness.
 Extremely long life. Some transistorized
devices have been in service for more than
50 years.
Chapter 6 Classification of Currents
 Complementary devices available,
facilitating the design of complementary-
symmetry circuits, something not possible
with vacuum tubes.
 Insensitivity to mechanical shock and
vibration, thus avoiding the problem
of microphonics in audio applications.
Limitations
 High-power,high-frequency operation,
such as that used in over-the-air television
broadcasting, is better achieved in vacuum
tubes due to improved electron mobility in
a vacuum.
 Solid-state devices are more vulnerable
to Electrostatic discharge in handling and
operation
 A vacuum tube momentarily overloaded
will just get a little hotter; solid-state
devices have less mass to absorb the heat
due to overloads, in proportion to their
rating
 Sensitivity to radiation and cosmic rays
(special radiation hardened chips are used
for spacecraft devices).
 Vacuum tubes create a distortion, the so-
called tube sound that some people find to
be more tolerable to the ear.
SHORTWAVE DIATHERMY AND
MICRO WAVE:
In the natural sciences, the term diathermy
[di´ah-ther″me] means "electrically induced
heat" the use of high-frequency
electromagnetic currents as a form of physical
or occupational therapy and in surgical
procedures. The term diathermy is derived
from the Greek words dia and therma, and
literally means “heating through.” adj., adj
diather´mal, diather´mic.
It is commonly used for muscle relaxation. It
is also a method of heating tissue
electromagnetically or ultrasonically for
therapeutic purposes in medicine. Diathermy
is used in physical therapy and occupational
therapy to deliver moderate heat directly to
73

pathologic lesions in the deeper tissues of the
body.
Diathermy, whether achieved using short-
wave radio frequency (range 1–100 MHz) or
microwave energy (range 434–915 MHz),
exerts physical effects and elicits a spectrum
of physiological responses, the two methods
differing mainly for their penetration
capability.
Surgically, the extreme heat that can be
produced by diathermy may be used to destroy
neoplasms, warts, and infected tissues, and to
cauterize blood vessels to prevent excessive
bleeding. The technique is particularly
valuable in neurosurgery and surgery of the
eye.
Fig. 6.12: Short wave diathermy
Physical therapy uses:
The three forms of diathermy employed by
physical and occupational therapists
are ultrasound, short wave and microwave.
The application of moderate heat by diathermy
increases blood flow and speeds up
metabolism and the rate of ion diffusion across
cellular membranes. The fibrous tissues in
tendons, joint capsules, and scars are more
easily stretched when subjected to heat, thus
facilitating the relief of stiffness of joints and
promoting relaxation of the muscles and
decrease of muscle spasms.
Chapter 6 Classification of Currents
Short wave Diathermy:
Short wave diathermy machines utilize two
condenser plates that are placed on either side
of the body part to be treated. Another mode
of application is by induction coils that are
pliable and can be molded to fit the part of the
body under treatment. As the high-frequency
waves travel through the body tissues between
the condensers or the coils, they are converted
into heat. The degree of heat and depth of
penetration depend in part on the absorptive
and resistance properties of the tissues that the
waves encounter.
The frequencies allowed for short wave
diathermy in the United States is controlled by
the Federal Communications Commission.
The frequencies assigned for short wave
diathermy operations are 13.66, 27.33, and
40.98 megahertz. Most commercial machines
operate at a frequency of 27.33 megahertz, a
wavelength of approximately 11 meters.
Short wave diathermy usually is prescribed for
treatment of deep muscles and joints that are
covered with a heavy soft-tissue mass, for
example, the hip. In some instances short wave
diathermy may be applied to localize deep
inflammatory processes, as in pelvic
inflammatory disease.
Microwave Diathermy:
Microwave diathermy uses radar waves, which
are of higher frequency and shorter
wavelength than radio waves. Most, if not all,
of the therapeutic effects of microwave
therapy are related to the conversion of energy
into heat and its distribution throughout the
body tissues. This mode of diathermy is
considered to be the easiest to use, but the
microwaves have a relatively poor depth of
penetration.
Microwaves cannot be used in high dosage on
edematous tissue, over wet dressings, or near
metallic implants in the body because of the
danger of local burns. Microwaves and short
74
 Chapter 6 Classification of Currents

waves cannot be used on or near persons with
implanted electronic cardiac pacemakers.
Hyperthermia induced by microwave
diathermy raises the temperature of deep
tissues from 41°C to 45°C using
electromagnetic power. The biological
mechanism that regulates the relationship
between the thermal dose and the healing
process of soft tissues with low or high water
content or with low or high blood perfusion is
still under study. Microwave diathermy
treatment at 434 and 915 MHz can be effective
in the short-term management of
musculoskeletal injuries.
Hyperthermia is safe if the temperature is kept
under 45°C. The absolute temperature is,
however, not sufficient to predict the damage
that it may produce.
Microwave diathermy-induced hyperthermia
produced short-term pain relief in established
supraspinatus tendinopathy.
physical medicine and sports traumatology. Its
use has been successfully extended to physical
medicine and sports traumatology in Central
and Southern Europe.
Diathermy risks
As with all forms of heat applications, care
must be taken to avoid burns during diathermy
treatments, especially to patients with
decreased sensitivity to heat and cold. With
electrocautery there have been reported cases
of flash fires in the operating theatre related to
heat generation meeting chemical flash points,
especially in the presence of increased oxygen
concentrations associated with anesthetic.
Concerns have also been raised regarding the
toxicity of surgical smoke produced by
electrocautery. This has been shown to contain
chemicals which may cause harm by
inhalation by the patients, surgeon or operating
theatre staff.

The physical characteristics of most of the

devices used clinically to heat tissues have
been proved to be inefficient to reach the
necessary therapeutic heating patterns in the
range of depth of the damage tissue. The
preliminary studies performed with new
microwave devices working at 434 MHz have
demonstrated encouraging results.
Nevertheless, adequately designed
prospective-controlled clinical studies need to
be completed to confirm the therapeutic
effectiveness of hyperthermia with large
number of patients, longer-term follow-up and
mixed populations.

Microwave diathermy is used in the

management of superficial tumors with
conventional radiotherapy and chemotherapy.
Hyperthermia has been used in oncology for
more than 35 years, in addition to
radiotherapy, in the management of different
tumors. In 1994, hyperthermia has been
introduced in several countries of the
European Union as a modality for use in

75
 Chapter 7 Mechanical Forces

Chapter No. 7 Diagrammatically representation:

MECHANICAL FORCES Force is represented by an ARROW. in

Mechanics:
"A branch of applied mathematics treating of
motion and the tendencies of motion"
which head of arrow shows the direction
of force; tail shows the point where it acts
and length shows the magnitude of force.

Thus mechanics is concerned with the study of

the movements.

Inertia:
"Tendency of an object to continue its present
state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line"

If an object is in rest; inertia opposes anything

that would make it to move or if an object is
moving; inertia opposes that would make it Fig. 7.1: Diagrammat ical Representation of force
stop.
Definitions
Force:
Mass:
"A factor which tends to alter the state of rest
or of uniform motion in a straight line of body The amount of a matter contained by a body is
(Newton’s 1st law of motion)" known as mass.

Example: It is measured in Kg.

If a car is stop force is applied to move it. Greater the mass greater the force required;
e.g. quadriceps and gastrocnemius required
Types of Force: greater force to move.

 Active force. Velocity:

 Passive force.
Distance travelled in unit time in a given time
Active force: is known as velocity.

It is measured in meter seconds.

The force arising within the body is known as
active force; e.g. the quadriceps pulling the Acceleration:
tibial tuberosity though patella, extend the
tibia on femur at knee joint. Change in velocity is known as acceleration.

Passive force: It is measured in cm/s2 ms-2

Force applied though any external source is The greater the force the greater the
known as passive force; e.g gravity, physical acceleration will produce.
therapist's hand.

76

Unit of force:
It is defined as Newton.
"Force which when acting on a mass of one
kilogram produces an acceleration of 1m/s2"
Weight:
The weight of a body is a force exerted on a
body by the pull of gravity and is proportional
to its mass.
It is 9.8mg for all.
Momentum:
The quantity of motion which that objects may
be said to posses is termed its momentum.
Calculated as;
Momentum = mass x velocity
Newton's second law states that the rate of
change of momentum of a body is proportional
to the applied force and takes place in the
direction in which the force acts.
Action and Reaction:
Newton's 3rd law states that every action there
is an equal and opposite reaction.
E.g. when a limb is supported in slings or on
any supporting surface the up thrust of the
sling or surface opposes the downward pull of
gravity.
Friction:
Friction is a force which, when two surfaces
are in contact with each other, tends to prevent
them from sliding over each other.
It may be static (between two stationary
bodies) or dynamic (between two dynamic
bodies).
Depends upon:
 Composition of surface
Chapter 7 Mechanical Forces
 Nature of surface
In human body bone surfaces at joints are
covered with smooth hyaline cartilage for
lubrication and prevent friction.
Composition and Resolution of
Forces:
Composition of forces:
Frequently a body is acted upon by two or
more forces at the same time.
Two Forces acting in the same direction
causes the summation of the forces and
increase the effects of their.
Two unequal Forces acting in the opposite
direction oppose each other and their resultant
is in the direction of greater and equal in
magnitude to the difference between two.
Two equal Forces acting in the opposite
direction no movement occurs. Forces will
nullify each other’s effects.
The resultant of resultant of the two forces can
be determined by completing the
parallelogram of which they form two sides:
the diagonal of this parallelogram gives the
direction and magnitude of the resultant.
The theorem of the parallelogram of forces
state that if two forces acting on a point are
represented in magnitude and direction by the
two sides of parallelogram drawn from this
point, their resultant is shown in magnitude
and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram that passes through this point.
Examples in human body:
Depression of the scapula is produced by the
lower fibers of trapezius pulling down and
backward and the lower fibers of serratus
anterior pulling down and forward. The
scapula moves down.
Flexor digitorum longus passes round the
medial side of the ankle and obliquely across
77

the sole of the foot. Flexor digitorum
accessorius serves to correct the obliquity of
its pull on the toes.
One method of exerting longitudinal traction
on the femur is to place a sling under the knee,
which exerts an upward force, and to apply
longitudinal traction to the lower leg, the knee
being slightly flexed.
Angle of pull of muscle:
The angle which the muscle forms with the
bone at this varies as the bone moves, which
changes the effects of the force applied. The
angle is termed as the angle of the pull of
muscle.
Example:
Brachialis pulls on the ulna at the coronoid
process to flex the elbow and the angle of the
pull is the angle between the muscle tendon
and the upper end of the ulna.
When elbow is straight angle of pull is very
small and large amount of force is need to pull
the ulna against the humerus. But when the
elbow is flexed to 90 degree a small need to
pull ulna against humerus.
Gravity:
"The force which tends to attract all matter
towards the centre of earth is known as
gravity."
The force exerted by gravity on an object is
the weight of the object, and depends on the
quantity of matter that is contains, i.e. its mass.
If the mass of an object is one gram, gravity
exerts a force of one gram weight upon it.
Line of gravity:
"The line along which the force of gravity acts
on an object is termed the line of gravity."
Chapter 7 Mechanical Forces
Centre of gravity:
The line of gravity varies with different
positions of an object but there is one point
through which the line of gravity always
passes. This is center of gravity.
Line and centre of gravity of the human
body:
These vary in different positions as
movements. In anatomical position the centre
of gravity is in front of the body of the second
SACRAL VERTEBRA.
In this position the line of gravity runs from
the vertex, through the plane of the external
ear and the mid cervical vertebrae, in front of
the thorax vertebrae, through the mid lumber
and is front of the second sacral vertebra and
through the plane of the hip joints, the pelvis
being balanced on the femoral heads.
It passes in front of the axes of the knee joints,
which are held in extension by the force of
gravity, in front of the ankle joints and through
the summit of the arches of the feet, so that
these fulfill their function of giving resilience
to the body.
Equilibrium: ( balance )
"A body is in state of equilibrium when the
forces acting upon it counteract each other and
it remains at rest"
Supporting base:
Part of the surface on which the object rests
and is balanced properly. E.g. if a book is
placed on table the area it covers is the
supporting base.
Types of equilibrium:
 Stable equilibrium.
 Unstable equilibrium.
 Neutral equilibrium.
78

Factors on which equilibrium depends
are;
 Size of supporting base
 Height of the centre of gravity.
 Position of the line of gravity.
Size of supporting base:
If base size is large, displacement is more
difficult and the equilibrium more stable.
Height of the centre of gravity:
If the centre of gravity is height, the line is
easily displaced from the base and equilibrium
is unstable.
Position of the line of gravity:
The position of the line of gravity within the
base. The supporting base may be large and
yet the equilibrium will be unstable if the line
of gravity falls near the edge of the base.
Equilibrium of the human body:
In standing position base is small and the
centre of gravity is fairly high so the body is
unstable. But it can be reduces by decreasing
the height of the centre of gravity and widen
the base of support.
Moment of force:
When a force is applied to an object on a
pivot, the only movement that can be produced
is rotation. The turning power of the force is
termed the moment of force.
It depends on the magnitude or distance of the
force.
The greater the distance of the point of the
application of force from the pivot, the greater
is the moment of the force.
Calculated by the product of the force and
distance.
Chapter 7 Mechanical Forces
Practical application:
A muscle which is inserted at some distance
from the joint is more effective in moving a
bone than one inserted close to the joint.
Example:
The hip adductors, the insertion of which
extend to the region of the knee joint, have a
greater turning power on the femur than have
gluteus medius and minimus with their
insertion on greater trochanter of the femur.
ENERGY:
Energy is the capacity for doing work. You
must have energy to accomplish work - it is
like the "currency" for performing work. To do
100 joules of work, you must expend 100
joules of energy.
WORK:
Refers to an activity involving a force and
movement in the directon of the force. A force
of 20 Newton’s pushing an object 5 meters in
the direction of the force does 100 joules of
work.
POWER:
Is the rate of doing work or the rate of using
energy, which are numerically the same. If you
do 100 joules of work in one second (using
100 joules of energy), the power is 100 watts.
PULLEYS:
A pulley is a wheel on an axle that is designed
to support movement of a cable or belt along
its circumference. Pulleys are used in a variety
of ways to lift loads, apply forces, and to
transmit power.
Types of pulleys:
Function of a Pulley:
A pulley consists of a wheel with a groove in
its outer edge (for the rope) and an axle. With
79

the assistance of ropes, chains or cords, a
pulley makes moving objects upward easier.
The direction of the force needed to lift an
object is changed from pushing up to pulling
down when you use a pulley system. Pulleys
are designed to make your work load more
manageable and are classified as movable,
fixed or combined.
A Movable Pulley:
As the name implies, this pulley moves with
the object you are lifting. The dynamics of this
type of pulley mean it requires less effort to
lift a load than the weight of the load itself.
For example, if you have a 20-lb. pound object
you need to raise, it would only require 10 lbs.
of effort to lift it with a pulley. The
disadvantage of a movable pulley is that the
pulley itself has to be pushed up or down.
A Fixed Pulley:
When a pulley is attached or fixed in place to
an immovable spot, such as a wall or ceiling, it
is known as a fixed pulley. Because of the
positioning, a fixed pulley acts more like a
lever and does not decrease the effort needed
to lift the object. Its main advantage is you
will not have to move the pulley up or down
for it to function.
A Combined Pulley:
A combined pulley is a combination of a fixed
and a movable pulley. This arrangement of
pulleys reduces the effort needed to lift an
object by less than half its weight. The
disadvantage is that you will need more space
(or distance) for it to operate, because the rope
or chain is longer. You may have heard
combined pulleys referred to by their other
common name: block and tackle.
Functions:
It gives a mechanical advantage but speed
disadvantages. Such a pulley system is used
for raising a patient's trunk in sling
suspensions, when the reduction of the effort
Chapter 7 Mechanical Forces
required is an advantage but the small range
and slow speed of movement do not matter.
LEVERS:
"A machine is a device by which a force
applied at one point is use to overcome
another force acting some other point."
Parts:
Lever is consists of a rigid bar pivoted at one
point, the fulcrum. The load is placed at one
point on the bar, and that part of the bar
between the load and the fulcrum is termed the
load arm. The force, or effort that is to lift the
load is applied at another point and that part of
the bar between this point and the fulcrum is
termed as the effort arm.
Action of the lever:
The action of gravity on the load tends to
cause rotation of the bar about the fulcrum in
one direction (anti clock wise) the moment of
force being equal to L x La.
In order to raise the load the effort must rotate
the bar in opposite direction. The moment of
the force of the effort is equal to E x Ea. If this
is equal to the moment of the force exerted by
the load, the lever balances.
For the effort to raise the load the product of
the effort and the effort arm must be greater
than that of the load and the load arm that is:
E x Ea > L x La
Types of lever:
There are three different kinds of levers.
Examples in daily life:
A first-class lever is a bar where the fulcrum
is between the weight and the energy moving
the weight (your hands, for example). Some
common first-class levers are see-saws,
crowbars, pliers, scissors (which use two first-
class levers together), and a hammer pulling a
80

nail.
Fig. 7.2: First Order Lever
A second-class lever is a bar where the
fulcrum is at one end of the stick, you push on
the other end, and the weight is in the middle
of the stick. Some common second-class
levers are doors, staplers, wheelbarrows, and
can openers.
Fig. 7.3: Second Order Lever
A third-class lever is a bar where the fulcrum
is at one end of the stick, you push on the
middle, and the weight is at the other end of
the stick. With a third-class lever, you have to
put in more energy than you would just lifting
the weight, but you get the weight to move a
longer distance in return. Some common
examples are a broom, a hoe, a fishing rod, a
baseball bat, and our own human arms
Fig. 7.4: Th ird Order Lever
Chapter 7 Mechanical Forces
Examples in human body:
Muscles, Bones, and Joints Working as
Levers. You may not think of your limbs as
being machines, but they are. The action of a
muscle pulling on a bone often works like a
type of simple machine called a lever. A lever
is a rigid rod able to rotate about a fixed point
known as a fulcrum, formed by the joint. Any
force applied to the lever is called the effort. A
force that resists the motion of the lever, such
as the downward force exerted by a weight on
the bar, is called the load or the resistance. The
contraction of the muscles is the effort and the
part of the body concerned is known as the
resistance or load. Bones of the body act as
levers (a mechanical device) which create a
mechanical advantage of strength or speed.
Types of Levers in the Body:
Levers are classified according to the positions
of the fulcrum, effort and load or resistance.
There are three classes of levers, identified as
first, second, and third class levers. We can tell
the classes of levers apart by:
1. The force you apply (or the effort you
make).
2. An opposing force such as a weight, which
is usually called the load.
3. The pivot point, or fulcrum of the action.
Each of the three types of levers can be found
in the human body. In each type of lever,
notice where the fulcrum is located compared
to the effort and the load. In your body, the
effort is the force that your muscles apply to
the lever. The load is the weight that resists the
pull of your muscles.
First Class Lever:
In a first class lever, the weight and force are
on opposite sides of the fulcrum:
A small force can be used to advantage over a
heavy weight if a long force arm or lever arm
can be used.
Examples of this lever include scissors,
crowbars, and teeter-totters.
An example of a first-class lever is the joint
81

between the skull and the atlas (Vertebrae of
the spine) the spine is the fulcrum across
which muscles lift the head.
Fig. 7.5: First Class Lever is the joint between skull
and atlas (1st Cervical Vertebrae)
Second Class Lever:
In the second class lever, the load is between
the fulcrum and the force:
A smaller effort can be used to advantage over
a larger weight. An example of this lever is a
wheelbarrow.
An example in the human body of a second-
class lever is the Achilles tendon, pushing or
pulling across the heel of the foot.
Fig. 7.6: Second Class Lever is Achilles Tendon
Third Class Lever:
In the third class lever, the force is between
the fulcrum and the load:
In this case, there is no force advantage – force
Chapter 7 Mechanical Forces
is NOT increased. In fact, a larger force is
actually needed to move a smaller weight, so
there is a force disadvantage. The use of this
lever is in the gain in speed of movement of
the weight.
Examples of this lever class include: The
inside door handle of a car, the coiled spring
pulling on a screen door, a pair of finger-nail
clippers, and tweezers.
An example of a third-class lever in the human
body is the elbow joint: when lifting a book,
the elbow joint is the fulcrum across which the
biceps muscle performs the work.
Fig. 7.7: Th ird Class Lever is elbow joint
ELASTICITY:
"The tendency to regain original form and
volume after deformation is known as the
elasticity"
The deformation may b stretching,
compression or may be change in shape.
The force producing the deformation is
termed the stress; the deformation that it
produces is known as strain.
Hooke's law:
Small deformations, most elastic materials
such as springs exhibit linear elasticity. A
linear relationship commonly referred to as
82
 Chapter 7 Mechanical Forces

Hooke's law. This law can be stated as a

relationship between force F and
displacement x, where k is a constant
known as the rate or spring constant. It can
also be stated as a relationship between
stress σ and strain e:

F = -kx

where E Is known as the elastic modulus

or Young's modulus.

σ = Ee

Although the general proportionality

constant between stress and strain in three
dimensions is a 4th order tensor, systems
that exhibit symmetry, such as a one-
dimensional rod, can often be reduced to
applications of Hooke's law.

So, spring stretches until its tension exerts

a force equal and opposite to the whether
the springs are connected to series or
parallel.

Springs are connected in series are joined

and less amount of force is required to
produce a certain degree of elongation and
strength is effectively decreased while
parallel need large amount of force is
required for a certain elongation. Thus the
strength of the spring is effectively
increased.

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 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

Chapter No. 8
ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION

Electromagnetic Spectrum:
The wave lengths of electromagnetic waves
vary considerably, and waves of different
wavelengths have somewhat different
properties, an analysis of the rays is termed a
spectrum

Electromagnetic spectrum is an analysis of the

electromagnetic waves and arrangement of
them according to their wavelengths and
properties. The wavelength of rays of
electromagnetic spectrum is:

1. Wireless wave: Fig. 8.1: Electro megnetic spectrum.

Kilometers to 1,000,000 Angstrom
2. Infrared rays: The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the
4,000.000 to 7,700 Angstrom range of all types of EM radiation. Radiation is
3. Visible rays: energy that travels and spreads out as it goes –
7,700 to 3,900 Angstrom the visible light that comes from a lamp in
4. Ultra-violet ray: your house and the radio waves that come
3,900 to 136 Angstrom from a radio station are two types of
5. X-rays: electromagnetic radiation. The other types of
1,019 to 0.06 Angstrom EM radiation that make up the electromagnetic
6. Gamma rays: spectrum are
up to 1.4 Angstrom
a. microwaves
Production and properties of b. Infrared light.
electromagnetic waves: c. Ultraviolet light.
d. X-rays
All electromagnetic waves are produced by e. Gamma-rays.
movement of electrons, but different electron f. Wireless or hertzian waves:
movements produce rays to different
wavelengths. The rays travel through the ether Visible:
until they encounter a medium which absorbs
them, and they are absorbed the radiant energy They are light rays; pass only through
is converted into some other form of energy materials which are transparent. When visible
and certain effects are produced. rays are absorbed by the retina of eye they
give rise to the sensation of sight, the colour of
“The law of Grotthus states that rays must light depending on the wavelength of the rays.
be absorbed to produced their effects”. The red rays have the greatest wavelength,
then orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
The effects are produced at the point at which
violet, which have the shortest wavelength.
the rays are absorbed.

84

The rays at the red end of the spectrum
produce heat when they are absorbed and
those at the violet end produce chemical
reactions, such as the effects on photographic
films. Our eyes detect visible light. Fireflies,
light bulbs, and tars all emit visible light.
Radio:
Radio captures radio waves emitted by radio
stations, bringing your favorite tunes. Radio
waves are also emitted by stars and gases in
space.
a. Microwave:
Microwave radiation will cook your popcorn
in just a few minutes, but is also used
by astronomers to learn about the structure of
nearby galaxies.
b. Infrared:
Infra red produce heat when they are
produced. Night vision goggles pick up the
infrared light emitted by our skin and objects
with heat. In space, infrared light helps us map
the dust between stars.
c. Ultraviolet:
U.V rays are absorbed to some extent by
atmosphere, also by any impurities which it
may contain. Most types of glass absorb many
of the U.V rays but quartz transmits a greater
proportion of them. When U.V rays are
absorbed they produce chemical reactions,
such as the fading of certain dyes, effects on
photographic films, and, in the skin, the
conversion of 7-dehydrocholestrol into
vitamin-D. Ultraviolet radiation is emitted by
the Sun and is the reason skin tans and burns.
"Hot" objects in space emit UV radiation as
well.
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
d. X-rays:
X-rays are produced by passing a high voltage
current through a vacuum tube, the rays being
setup by the sudden stopping of the electrons
at the anode. A dentist uses X-rays to image
your teeth, and airport security uses them to
see through your bag. Hot gases in the
Universe also emit X-rays.
e. Gamma rays:
Gamma rays are emitted as changes take place
in the structure of atoms of radio-active
materials. Doctors use gamma-ray imaging to
see inside your body. The biggest gamma-ray
generator of all is the Universe.
All these types of rays are very penetrating
and when they are absorbed they produce
chemical reactions. These reactions may
destroy cells in the body and they produce
effects on photographic films.
f. Wireless and Hertzian waves:
They are produced by high frequency
oscillating currents and have the same
frequency as the current which produced them.
When the waves are absorbed by a second
circuit which is in tune with the one from
which they were produced, similar oscillating
currents are setup. Wireless waves are
absorbed by metal, hence the metal screen
which may be used to prevent there emission
from high frequency apparatus. Radio waves
and micro waves are types of wireless waves.
Relationship between frequency
and wavelength:
Frequency:
Number of cycles which occurs in unit time is
called frequency. Frequencies are measured in
hertz (hz), which means cycles or wave crests
per second. You can write the frequency with
85
 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

the symbol versions, as a large number or as Frequency and wavelength are inversely
an exponent. proportional to each other. The relationship
between frequency and wavelength is that for
Symbol Number Exponent a given speed, as the frequency increases, the
1 Hz (hertz) 1 Hz 1 Hz wavelength decreases. At extremely high
frequencies, you can have very long
1 kHz wavelengths and vice versa. As the wave
1000 Hz 1*103 Hz
(kilohertz) length is the distance travelled by a wave in
1 MHz the course of one cycle. The product of
1,000,000 Hz 1*106 Hz wavelength and frequency gives the distance
(megahertz)
travelled by the wave in unit time, i.e. the
1 GHz 1,000,000,000
1*109 Hz velocity. Thus:
(gigahertz) Hz
Velocity= frequency x wavelength
Wavelengths:

The wavelength of a ray is the horizontal

distance from a point on one wave to the same
point on the next wave. Wavelength is
commonly designated by the Greek
letter lambda (λ). Wavelengths are usually
expressed in the metric or SI system, since
having multiples of 10 are more convenient.
Wavelengths can range from many kilometers
long to extremely short lengths or fractions of
a meter.

Name Meters Exponent

Fig. 8.2: Relationship between wavelength and
1 km 1000 m
1*103 m frequency
(kilometer) (meters)
1m 1m 1m
1 cm
0.01 m 1*10 −2 m
(centimeter)
1 mm
0.001 m 1*10 −3 m
(millimeter)
1 μm
(micrometer or 0.000001 m 1*10 −6 m
micron)
1 nm 0.000000001
1*10 −9 m
(nanometer) m
1Å Fig. 8.3: Graphical representation of frequency and
0.1 nm 1*10 −10 m
(Angstrom) wave length.

As frequency numbers get very large, they are

designated by phrases such as "mega" and

86
 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

"giga" or by powers of 10. A very short Reflection with gently curved spherical
wavelength is designated as a negative reflector:
exponential.
If the reflector is gently cured section of
Law of reflection, refraction and sphere the reflected rays all pass through a
absorption: focal point in front of reflector, and if a point
source of rays is placed at the focal point the
Reflection: rays which strike the reflector merge parallel
to each other.
When a ray strikes a medium, it may be
reflected, or turned back, from the surface.
When this occurs the angle of the incidence
ray to normal is equal to the angle of the
reflected ray to normal. When a group of rays
strikes a surface the proportion that are
reflected depends on the angle at which the
rays strike the surface, on the nature of surface
and on the wavelength of the rays. More rays
are reflected from mirrors and bright polished
surfaces than from dull or dark surfaces, and a
material of a particular colour reflects only the
Fig. 8.5: Reflection with gently curved spherical
rays of colour. The effect of the angle at which reflector:
the rays strikes the surface is considered under
the heading of absorption. Reflection with deeply concave spherical
reflector:

If, however, a beam of parallel rays strikes a

deeply concave spherical reflector only those
rays which strike the reflector near its centre
are reflected through the focal point the rays
which strike the reflector merge parallel to
each other. If, however, a beam of parallel rays
strikes a deeply concave spherical reflector
only those rays which strikes the reflector near
its centre are reflected through the focal point.
Fig. 8.4: Reflection

Shapes of reflectors:

Reflectors may be of various shapes, and the

shape of the reflector determines the behavior
of the group of rays which strikes it.

When a beam of parallel rays strikes a concave

reflector, the reflected rays converge. Fig. 8.5: Reflection with deeply concave spherical
reflector:

87

Thus, if a point source of rays is placed at
focal point of such a reflector, the reflected
rays are not all parallel to each other. The
irregular arrangement of the reflected rays
may lead to undue concentration of rays at the
some points, and renders the reflector
unsatisfactory for treatment purposes.
Reflection with Parabolic reflector:
The reflectors used for infra-red and ultra-
violet lamps are frequently parabolic in shape,
a parabola being the shape of the section
obtained on cutting through a cone parallel to
its surface. If parallel rays strike the reflector
each ray is reflected twice, all the rays pass
through the focal point, and the rays finally
leaving the reflector are parallel to each other.
If a point source of rays is placed at a focal
point, the reflected rays are parallel. These
reflected rays, however, form only a small
proportion of the total emitted from the
generator, the majority coming directly from
the source and diverging from each other.
Thus radiations from a lamp with a parabolic
reflector usually obey the law of inverse
squares, the purpose of the parabolic reflector
being to avoid the uneven distribution of rays
that is liable to occur with a spherical reflector.
Fig. 8.6: Reflection with Parabolic reflector:
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
Application of Parabolic Reflectors:
The most common modern applications of the
parabolic reflector are in :
 Satellite dishes
 Reflecting telescopes
 Radio telescopes parabolic microphones
 Solar cookers
 Many lighting devices such
as spotlights, car headlights, PAR
lamps and LED housings
The Olympic Flame is traditionally lit at
Olympic Games using a parabolic reflector
concentrating sunlight.
Refraction:
When a beam of light passes from one
medium to another medium the rays are bent,
or refracted, unless they strike new surface at a
right angle, in which case they continue to
travel inn same straight line. They bend
towards the normal when passing from a less
dense to a dense medium, as from air to glass,
and away from normal when passing from the
dense to less dense medium, as from glass to
air. The normal is a line drawn perpendicular
to the surface at the point where the ray strikes
the new medium. The rays bend to a different
extent according to their wavelength and the
relative densities of the media, the greater is
the
refraction.
Fig. 8.7: showing the process of refraction
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 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

Refraction through a piece of glass: primary colors - red, orange, yellow, green,
blue, indigo and violet.
If a ray is passed through a thick piece of glass
with parallel surfaces, it bends in one direction
on entering the glass, and back an equal
amount on leaving the emergent ray is
therefore parallel to the incident ray but not in
the same straight line.

Fig. 8.10: Refraction of white light through prism

Application of refraction:

This principle is applied in the spectroscope,

which is an apparatus for analyzing rays. A
beam of light is passed through a prism where
it is broken up into its component parts, and
finally is directed on the screen.

A spectroscope for a ultra-violet rays has a

Fig. 8.8: Refraction through a piece of glass
quartz prism, and the screen beyond the violet
Refraction through a prism: end of visible spectrum is painted with some
substance such as fluorescein, which converts
When a ray is passed through the prism, which invisible ultra violet rays into visible rays so
is triangular in section, so that its sides are not that their position can be seen.
parallel, the ray leaving the glass travels in the
different direction from the one entering it.

Fig. 8.9: Refraction through a prism:

Refraction of white light through pris m: Fig. 8.11: Showing spectroscope.

If a beam of white light is passed through a Law of absorption:

prism the rays are separated, since the rays of
different wave lengths bend to a different When rays strike the surface of a new medium
extent. If these rays fall on screen, it seen that some may be absorbed by the new medium,
the white light has been split up into the seven and the proportion of rays absorbed depends

89
 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

upon the nature of the medium, the

wavelength of the rays and the angle at which
they strike the surface. Different materials
absorb different groups of rays, allowing
others to pass through.

Inte rnal reflection:

If a ray strikes the surface of new medium,

which it would normally penetrate, obliquely,
the angle of reflection may be such that the ray
is turned back into the original medium. The
ray then obeys the law of reflection and Fig. 8.13: Total Internal Reflection
phenomenon is known as internal reflection.
Cosine law and inverse square
law:
Cosine law:

The effect of angle at which the rays strike the

surface is stated into the Cosine law. This
states that the proportion of the rays absorbed
varies with the cosine of the angle between the
incident ray and normal.

The cosine of angle is determined by

Fig. 8.12: Internal reflection
completing a right angle triangle, of which the
angle in question forms one angle, and taking
Total internal reflection:
the ratio of the side adjacent to the angle to the
Total internal reflection is a phenomenon that hypotenuse.
happens when a propagating wave strikes a
medium boundary at an angle larger than a
particular critical angle with respect to
the normal to the surface. If the refractive
Therefore is greater than
index is lower on the other side of the
.
boundary and the incident angle is greater than
the critical angle, the wave cannot pass Thus the larger the angle, the smaller is its
through and is entirely reflected. The critical cosine, and if the group of rays travelling
angle is the angle of incidence above which alonge the line AB strike the surface, a greater
the total internal reflectance occurs. This is proportion are absorbed than would be the
particularly common as an optical case if they were travelling along the line
phenomenon, where light waves are involved, A1B. Rays travelling along the line CB strike
but it occurs with many types of waves, such the surface at an angle of 90 degree.
as electromagnetic waves in general or sound
waves

90

Fig. 8.14: the cosine of angle of incidence
The angle of incidence is zero and its cosine is
i.e. this is the largest possible value for the
cosine of an angle, and maximum absorption
takes place when the rays strike the surface at
right angle.
The cosine decreases as angle decreases, but
not in direct in proportion to the size of the
angle.
The number of rays that are reflected varies
inversly with the number which are absorbed,
so minimum reflection occurs when rays strike
an object at a right angle. The greater the angle
between the incident ray and normal,the
greater the amount of rays which are reflected,
and the smaller the amount absorbed. This law
is of great importance in the application of
infrared and ultaviolet rays. The lamp and
patient should be arranged so that the rays
strike the skin at a right angle, thus giving
maximum absorption.
In accordance with the law of grotthus, rays
must be absorbed in order to produce an effect.
When a ray is absorbed, it disappears, but
produces its chharacteristic effects at the the
point where it absorbed. Sometimes the
absorption of ray is followed by the emmision
of rays of alonger wave length.
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
Law of the inverse squares:
The intensity of the rays from a point source
varies inversely with the square of the distance
from the source. Rays travelling away from a
point source diverge, and at two meters from
the source any to rays will be twice as for a
part as they were at one meter from the source.
Fig. 8.15: The law of inverse sequre
If a certain group of rays cover a square with
sides 1cm in length at one meter from source,
at two meters the same group of rays cover a
square each side of which is 2cm in length.
This as four times the area of the square which
they covered at 1meter, and so the intensity of
the rays at 2meters from the sources a quarter
of that at 1meter. Similarly the intensity at
3meters is one-ninth of the intensity at one
meter.
Application of the law of inve rse
squares:
This law applied to infra red, visible and
ultravoilet rays, so when a lamp obeys the law
of inverse squares, four minutes at 2meters
and nine minutes at 3meters whould be
required to produce the same effect as one
minute at 1meter. Whether a lamp obeys the
law of inverse squares or not depends on the
size of the souce of rays, as the law is true
only the rays from a point source. If a reflector
is used, the divergens of the rays is reduced,
but the law forms a satisfactory basis for the
calculation of doses at different distances from
the majority of the lamps used in
physiotherapy department.
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 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

Convex Mirrors:
A convex mirror, fish eye mirror or diverging
mirror is a curved mirror in which the
reflective surface bulges toward the light
source. Convex mirrors reflect light outwards;
therefore they are not used to focus light. Such
mirrors always form a virtual image, since the
focus (F) and the center of curvature (2F) are
both imaginary points "inside" the mirror, Fig. 8.17: Convex mirror
which cannot be reached. Therefore images
formed by these mirrors cannot be taken on Concave mirrors:
screen (As they are inside the mirror).
A concave mirror, or converging mirror, has a
reflecting surface that bulges inward (away
from the incident light). Concave mirrors
reflect light inward to one focal point;
therefore they are used to focus light. Unlike
convex mirrors, concave mirrors show
different image types depending on the
distance between the object and the mirror.
These mirrors are called "converging" because
they tend to collect light that falls on them,
refocusing parallel incoming rays toward a
focus. This is because the light is reflected at
Fig. 8.16: Convex Mirror different angles, since the normal to the
surface differs with each spot on the mirror.
Uses:

 The passenger-side mirror on a car is

 Typically a convex mirror. Convex
mirrors are preferred in vehicles because
they give an upright, though diminished,
image. Also they provide a wider field of
view as they are curved outwards.
 Some camera phones use convex
 Mirrors to allow the user to correctly aim
the camera while taking a self-portrait.
 Convex mirrors are used as a simple
 Security feature, allowing the users to see
what is happening behind them.
 Convex mirrors are used on roads to
Fig. 8.18: Concave mirror
 Prevent from accidents.

92

Uses:
As reflectors in the head lights of cars, search
lights etc. to obtain parallel beam of light for
this purpose the source of light is placed at the
focal point.
 By dentist to focus light on the tooth to be
examined.
 As shaving and make-up mirrors to get an
enlarged image of face.
Fig. 8.19: Use of concave mirror for teeth
examination.
Lenses:
Lens is a piece of curved and polished glass or
other transparent material that forms an image
by refracting and focusing light passing
through it. A simple lens consists of a single
optical element. A compound lens is an array
of simple lenses (elements) with a common
axis; the use of multiple elements allows more
optical aberrations to be corrected than is
possible with a single element. Lenses are
typically made of glass or transparent plastic.
Elements which refract electromagnetic
radiation outside the visual spectrum are also
called lenses: for instance, a microwave lens
can be made from paraffin wax.
Construction of simple lenses:
Most lenses are Spherical lenses: their two
surfaces are parts of the surfaces of spheres,
with the lens axis ideally perpendicular to both
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
surfaces. Each surface can be convex (bulging
outwards from the lens), concave (depressed
into the lens), or planar (flat). The line joining
the centers of the spheres making up the lens
surfaces is called the axis of the lens.
Typically the lens axis passes through the
physical center of the lens, because of the way
they are manufactured. Lenses may be cut or
ground after manufacturing to give them a
different shape or size. The lens axis may then
not pass through the physical center of the
lens.
More complex are asphe ric lenses:
These are lenses where one or both surfaces
have a shape that is neither spherical nor
cylindrical. Such lenses can produce images
with much less aberration than standard simple
lenses.
Types of simple lenses :
Lenses are classified by the curvature of the
two optical surfaces.
1. A lens is biconvex (or double convex, or
just convex) if both surfaces are convex.
2. A lens with two concave surfaces is
biconcave (or just concave).
3. If one of the surfaces is flat, the lens is
Plano-convex or P lano-concave depending
on the curvature of the other surface.
4. A lens with one convex and one concave
side is convex-concave or meniscus. It is
this type of lens that is most commonly
used in corrective lenses.
Fig. 8.20: Showing Different Types Of Lenses
If the lens is biconvex or Plano-convex, a
collimated or parallel beam of light travelling
parallel to the lens axis and passing through
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 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

the lens will be converged (or focused) to a

spot on the axis, at a certain distance behind
the lens (known as the focal length). In this
case, the lens is called a positive or converging
lens.

If the lens is biconcave or Plano-concave, a

collimated beam of light passing through the
lens is diverged (spread); the lens is thus
called a negative or diverging lens. The beam Fig. 8.21: Eye Lenses
after passing through the lens appears to be
emanating from a particular point on the axis
Prisms:
in front of the lens; the distance from this point
to the lens is also known as the focal length,
Prism is a transparent polygonal solid object
although it is negative with respect to the focal
with flat faces and a usually triangular cross
length of a converging lens.
section, used for separating white light into a
spectrum of colors. Prisms are typically made
Uses: out of glass, but can be made from any
material that is transparent to the wavelengths
A single convex lens mounted in a frame with
for which they are designed. It works on the
a handle or stand is a magnifying glass.
principle of refraction.

Lenses are used as prosthetics for the

correction of visual impairments such
as myopia, hyperopia, presbyopia, and
astigmatism. (Corrective lens, contact lens,
eye glasses). Most lenses used for other
purposes have strict axial symmetry; eyeglass
lenses are only approximately symmetric.
They are usually shaped to fit in a roughly
oval, not circular, frame; the optical centers
are placed over the eyeballs; their curvature
Fig. 8.22: Different types of prisms.
may not be axially symmetric to correct.

Other uses are in imaging systems such Reflector:

as monoculars, binoculars, telescopes, microsc
opes, cameras and projectors. Some of these
instruments produce a virtual image when
applied to the human eye; others produce
a real image which can be captured
on photographic film or an optical sensor, or
can be viewed on a screen.
Reflector is an object that reflects light usually
glass, plastic, or metal.
Types:
Lamp reflectors:
These reflectors are fixed to an artificial light
source (for example, a filament bulb or flash
tube) to direct and shape the otherwise
scattered light, reflecting it off their concave
inner surfaces and directing it to anything

94

(patient). Although there are a large number of
variants, the most common types are:
1. Spherical: short-sided, giving a relatively
broad spread of light.
2. Parabolic: providing a tighter, parallel beam
of light.
Fig. 8.23: Types of Reflectors.
Radio Waves:
Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic
radiation with wavelengths in the
electromagnetic spectrum longer than infrared
light. Like all other electromagnetic waves,
they travel at the speed of light.
Fig. 8.24: showing wireless tower with rad io
waves
Naturally-occurring radio waves are made by
lightning, or by astronomical objects.
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
Artificially-generated radio waves are used for
fixed and mobile radio communication,
broadcasting, radar and other navigation
systems, satellite communication, computer
networks and innumerable other applications.
Radio waves have the longest wavelengths in
the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves
can be longer than a football field or as short
as a football. Radio waves do more than just
bring music to your radio. They also carry
signals for your television and cellular phones.
Radio waves are the lowest frequencies in the
electromagnetic spectrum, and are used mainly
for communications.
Radio waves are divided into:
Long Wave :
Around 1~2 km in wavelength. The radio
station "Atlantic 252" broadcasts here.
Medium Wave:
Around 100m in wavelength, used by BBC
Radio 5 and other "AM" stations.
VHF (short wave):
This stands for “Very High Frequency” and
has wavelengths of around 2m. This is where
you find stereo "FM" radio stations, such as
BBC Radio 1and Further up the VHF band are
civilian aircraft and taxis.
UHF (microwave):
Stands for "Ultra High Frequency", and has
wavelengths of less than a meter. It's used for
Police radio communications, television
transmissions and military aircraft radios -
although military communications are now
mostly digital and encrypted.
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 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

Infrared radiation can be detected by special

cameras. A thermogram shows how objects
with different temperatures emit different
amounts of infrared radiation.

Here, the white areas are warmest

and the blue areas are coldest.

Fig. 8.25: M icrowaves

Dangers:

Large doses of radio waves are believed to

cause cancer, leukemia and other disorders.
Some people claim that the very low
frequency field from overhead power cables
near their homes has affected their health.
Fig. 8.27: Effects of infrared

Infrared Rays: Infrared waves have various uses. How many

can you spot?
Infrared radiation is emitted by all objects but
is not visible to humans.

The hotter an object is, the more infrared

radiation it emits.

The hotter an object is, the more infrared

radiation it emits.

As an object gets hotter, visible light is also

emitted. This is what can be seen when an
object glows ‘red hot’.
Fig. 8.28: showing uses of infrared

Uses of infrared rays:

Fig. 8.26: Infrared

96

Uses of infrared for heating and
cooking:
The infrared radiation emitted by the Sun,
radiators, solid fuel fires and electric fires is
used for heating. The heating effect of infrared
radiation is detected by temperature sensitive
nerve-endings in skin.
Fig. 8.29: Heat ing effect of infrared
Grills, cookers, toasters, campfires and
barbecues use infrared radiation to cook food.
Infrared waves are emitted by the heating
element or lit fuel and absorbed by the surface
of the food. Heat is transferred through the
food by conduction.
Fig.8.30: cooking effect of infrared
Fig. 8.31: showing grill uses infrared rad iations.
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
Infrared used in re mote control:
Not all infrared radiation is thermal. Infrared
radiations with short wavelengths are not hot
and cannot be detected by skin.
This type of infrared radiation is used by
remote controls to send information through
the air over short distances.
The pulses of infrared radiation from the
remote control can only travel in a straight line
to the device being controlled.
Infrared waves can also be used to transmit
information through optical fibres. In this way,
infrared radiation can send
data over long distances and around corners.
Fig. 8..32: infrared remote control
Infrared thermometer:
An infrared thermometer enables the remote
sensing of temperature. It does this by
detecting the infrared radiation emitted by an
object and converting it into a temperature.
The eardrum is an accurate point for
measuring the body’s temperature, because it
is deep within the head.
A digital ear thermometer can do this
without touching the eardrum, which is very
fragile.
A probe is inserted into ear canal
97

and then measures the infrared radiation
emitted from the eardrum and surrounding
tissues.
Fig. 8.33: Dig ital ear thermo meter.
Infrared waves using for security
purpose:
Devices containing infrared detectors are used
for various security purposes.
Sensors in security lights and burglar alarms
can detect the infrared radiation given off by
an approaching body.
Thermal imaging equipment, as used by the
military and police, detects infrared radiation
and converts it into an image.
Fig. 8..34: Security alarm
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
Objects such as people and cars that are hotter
than the background can be easily tracked
even at night.
Fig. 8.35: showing tracking system by infrared.
The emergency services use thermal imaging
cameras to help locate people in situations
where visibility is low.
Infra red rays used for therapeutic
purposes:
Infrared radiation can be used as a deliberate
heating source. It used to treat the chronic
health problems, such as high blood pressure,
congestive heart failure and rheumatoid
arthritis, and found some evidence of benefit."
For example it is used in infrared saunas to
heat the occupants, and also to remove ice
from the wings of aircraft (de-icing). Far
infrared is also gaining popularity as a safe
heat therapy method of natural health care and
physiotherapy.
Fig. 8.36: Infrared therapy
98
 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

Dangers of the Infrared:

While there are few dangers of the infrared or

of any sauna for that matter it’s important to
know what they are!

We can tell you one thing straight off, though.

any dangers of the infrared sauna are not
related to the IR rays themselves. Far infrared
rays do not carry the dangers that we associate
with ultraviolet rays or x-rays.
Fig. 8.37: Visib le Rays
• A quick overview of fir sauna dangers
• Overheating effects Every time someone opens their eyes, they are
• Dehydration and inadequate fluid making use of ‘visible’ light.
replacement
Light is the only type of electromagnetic
• Medical conditions and the sauna
radiation that is visible to eye. It lies between
Sauna and the heart
infrared and ultraviolet radiation on the
• Medications
electromagnetic spectrum.
• Effects of past use of psychedelic and
other mind-altering drugs Light waves have wavelengths between 390
• Longer term dangers and 780 nm. The different wavelengths of
• Release of drugs and chemicals stored in light are seen as the different
your fat colours of the spectrum.
• Risks for chemically sensitive people
 Human sight
Visible rays: Human eyes are sensitive to visible light. The
different wavelengths of light are detected as
They are light rays; pass only through different colours.
materials which are transparent. When visible
rays are absorbed by the retina of eye they  Imaging
give rise to the sensation of sight, the colour of
Photography uses light-sensitive chemicals to
light depending on the wavelength of the rays.
produce images. Digital cameras contain
The red rays have the greatest wavelength,
sensors that detect light and use this to
then orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and
produce electrical signals.
violet, which have the shortest wavelength.
The rays at the red end of the spectrum
produce heat when they are absorbed and
those at the violet end produce chemical
reactions, such as the effects on photographic
films. Our eyes detect visible light. Fireflies,
light bulbs, and tars all emit visible light.

Fig. 8.38: Digital camera

99

 Navigation
Navigation lights are used at sea to mark
hazards and safe areas. Lights are also
displayed by boats and aircraft, at night, to
show their position and direction of travel.
Production of light:
Visible light is emitted by very hot objects.
The filament of this light bulb reaches a
temperature of 2500°C and glows ‘white hot’,
making it a source of light.
The Sun, our nearest star, is a natural source of
light. This light is part of the energy produced
by the nuclear fusion reactions that take place
in the Sun.
Fig. 8.39: Electrical bulb
Neon lights contain gases that emit visible
light when an electrical current is passed
through them. These emit light of certain
wavelengths that is seen as different colours.
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
Fig. 8.40: Neon light:
Therapeutic Uses:
Light therapy is a common treatment for a
variety of conditions, from auto-immune
disorders including psoriasis and eczema, to
wound healing, to depression and seasonal
affective disorder, to circadian rhythm sleep
disorders.
Fig. 8.41: Light therapy
Dangers of visible rays:
Light therapy is generally safe. If side effects
occur, they're usually mild and short lasting.
They may include:
 Eye strain
 Headache
 Nausea
 Irritability or agitation
 Mania, euphoria, hyperactivity or agitation
associated with bipolar disorder.
When side effects do occur, they may go away
on their own within a few days of starting light
100

therapy. You also may be able to manage side
effects by reducing treatment time, moving
farther from your light box, taking breaks
during long sessions or changing the time of
day you use light therapy. Talk to your doctor
for additional advice, or if side effects don't go
away or get worse.
Ultraviolet rays (UVR):
Shorter wavelength and higher frequency than
visible light, Carry more energy than visible
light. Electromagnetic spectrum (2000 to 4000
Å) UVR cover a small part if electromagnetic
spectrum lying between visible light and X-ray
region. Sunlight is the main source of ultra
violet rays.
Types:
The most common form of UV radiation is
sunlight, which produces three main types of
UV rays:
UV-A: Wavelength between 400 nm and 315
nm Near UV rays
Effects: Erythema without pigmentation Little
or no physiologic effect
UV-B: Wavelength between 315 nm and 280
nm
Middle UV rays
Effects: Erythema without pigmentation,
formation of vitamin D, skin tanning
(blister/burn) Sunburn and age-related skin
changes
UV-C: Wavelength between 280 nm and 100
nm Far UV rays
Effects: Kills bacteria, formation of vitamin
D, skin tanning, Bactericidal
Ultraviolet Radiation:
 Most likely to be used UV-B or UV-C
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
 UVR depth of penetration is 1 to 2 mm
 Physiologic effects are superficial
 Used to treat various skin disorders
Production of rays:
 Therapeutic UV usually produced by the
passage of current through an ionized
vapor-often mercury vapor.
 At low pressure or high temperatures.
Devices commonly used are either:
 Air cooled(using air circulation with fan)
or
 Water cooled (using water jacket
surrounding the burner with continually
circulating water).
Ultraviolet lamps:
1. Mercury vapor lamps
2. Fluorescent ultraviolet lamps.
Mercury vapor lamp:
 Consist of a quartz burner tube containing
traces of argon gas and mercury under
reduced pressure.
 An electrode is inserted at each end of
burner tube.
 The current is applied to the electrodes,
causes the free mercury ions and electrons.
Mercury contained in a quartz
envelope(Heavy metal in a liquid state)
 At 8000°C, mercury atoms vaporize and
become incandescent
 Emit ultraviolet, infrared, and visible light
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 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

Florescent lamps:

 These are low pressure mercury discharge

tubes with a phosphor coating inside.
 The particular wavelengths and the
amount of each emitted will depend on the
composition of phosphor used. (mixture of
phosphates, borates, and silicates).
 This gives a considerable UVA and UVB
output but not UVC.

Fig. 8.42: Structure of mercury vapor

lamp.

 When free electrons are being accelerated

in tube, many collisions with neutral
mercury vapor atoms will occur:

a) By elastic collisions not affected the atom.

b) By knocking an electron off the atom-
ionization.
c) By moving an electron to high energy
level- excitation. Fig. 8.44: Fluorescent lamp

Techniques of Application:

 Minimal Erythemal Dose (MED)

 Exposure time needed to produce a faint
erythema of the skin 24 hours after
exposure.

Minimal Erythemal Dose: (MED)

 Patient draped only exposing test site

 Height of lamp adjusted to same level as
Treatment.
 Paper with five cutouts (1” square) 1”
apart placed over test site
 Shutters are opened and cutouts exposed at
Fig. 8.43: Mercury lamps. 15-sec intervals
 Visual inspection after 24 hours to
determine MED
No erythema = suberythemal dose
 Erythema still present at 48 hours

102

1st degree erythemal dose (2.5 times
MED)
 Erythema persists from 48-72 hours
2nd degree erythemal dose
(5 times MED)
 Erythema lasting past 72 hours
3rd degree erythemal dose
 Skin adapts to UVR exposure, therefore,
MED will gradually increase with
repeated treatments
 Must gradually increase exposure time to
achieve the same reaction
(Increased by 5 seconds per treatment)
 Height of lamp remains constant
Effect on Cells:
 UVR causes chemical excitation of cells
 Results in alteration of cell biochemistry
and cellular metabolism
 Affects synthesis of DNA and RNA
 Protein and enzyme production is altered,
which may result in cell death
Effects on Skin:
Epidermis
 Keratinocytes, which provide fibrous
protective protein of skin
Dermis
 Papillary layer - rich blood supply
 Reticular layer - heavy connective tissue
containing fibroblasts, histocytes, and
mast cells
Fig. 8.45: Layers of skin
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
Effects on Skin: Erythema
 Generalized response to UVR exposure
 Reddening of skin
 Acute inflammatory reaction
 End results:
 Erythema - sunburn
 Pigmentation - tanning
 Increased epidermal thickness
 Effects on Skin: Photosensitization
 Process in which a person becomes overly
sensitive to UVR
 Acute effects of UVR exposure may be
exacerbated if certain chemicals or
medications are present on skin (or in
body)
Effects on Skin: Tanning:
 Increase of pigmentation
 Protective mechanism activated by UVR
exposure
 Increase of melanin
 Pigment responsible for darkening skin
 Melanin functions as a biologic filter of
UVR
 By scattering radiation
 By absorbing UVR
 By dissipating absorbed energy as heat
 Artificial Tanning - manufacturers claim
tanning beds produce only UV-A
 Production of UV-A is largely unregulated
 Effects of long-term exposure to UV-A are
unknown
Effects on eyes:
 UVR exposure causes acute inflammation
called photokeratitis
 Delayed reaction, occurs within 6 - 24
hours
Signs/Symptoms:
 Conjunctivitis accompanied by erythema
of adjacent facial skin
 Sensation of a foreign body on eye
 Photophobia
103

 Increased tear production
 Spasm of the ocular muscles
Systemic Effects:
 Photosynthesis of vitamin D
 Following exposure to UVR in UV-B
range
 May be used to treat Ca ++ and phosphorus
disorders
 Rickets and tetany
 Treatment of choice; however, is dietary
supplementation
Dangers of U.V Rays:
Both UVA and UVB rays can cause damage to
your skin. Sunburn is a sign of short-term
overexposure, while premature aging and skin
cancer are side effects of prolonged UV
exposure.
Certain oral and topical medicines, such as
antibiotics, birth control pills, and benzyl
peroxide products, as well as some cosmetics,
may increase skin and eye sensitivity to UV in
all skin types. Check the label and ask your
doctor for more information.
Other sources of U.V rays:
Sunlight is not the only source of UV radiation
you may encounter. Other sources include:
 Tanning booths
 Mercury vapor lighting (often found in
stadiums and school gyms)
 Some halogen, fluorescent, and
incandescent lights
 Some types of lasers
X-RAYS:
X-rays are produced by passing a high voltage
current through a vacuum tube, the rays being
setup by the sudden stopping of the electrons
at the anode. A dentist uses X-rays to image
your teeth, and airport security uses them to
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
see through your bag. Hot gases in the
Universe also emit X-rays.
X-ray tests:
A simple X-ray image can be extremely
informative. For example it can show whether
or not a bone is broken or whether or not there
is a shadow on the lung.
Special X-ray techniques can also be used to
investigate other problems with the soft tissues
of the body. By injecting special dye into
arteries and/or veins the blood vessels can be
made visible. By swallowing special dye the
gullet and stomach can be examined. Similar
dye can be introduced via an enema to
examine the back passage and the rest of the
large bowel.
CT scanning is a further development of the
use of X-rays. By using a sophisticated
scanner connected to a computer, it is possible
to construct a series of pictures that look at the
living body in cross-section.
What happens during an X-ray test?
The X-rays are produced by an electrical
machine and the patient stands between the
machine and a special screen used for
obtaining the image. Patients are asked to
remove any metal objects, such as watches and
jewelry that might appear on the picture and
cause confusion.
The patient is asked to keep as still as possible
for the few seconds it takes for each image to
be obtained. The procedure is entirely painless
and there are no side effects. The pictures are
checked for technical quality by the
radiographer and then sent off to the
radiologist for reporting.
For more complex examinations this process
may take a few hours so the official result of
the test is not usually available immediately.
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 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

Particles and waves: X-ray tube:

Refection, scattering, refraction, direction

photons with energy E = hf ,

Fig. 8.49: X-RA Y TUBE

Digital Sensors:

 Computed radiography (CR)

 Phosphor-based storage plate
Fig. 8.46: Chest X-rays radio graph mach ine  Chemical storage.
 Laser scanning, light erasure Digital
Sensor

Digital radiography (DR):

 Flat-panel detectors (FPD

 Thin-film transistor (TFT) array
 Laser scanner

Charge coupled device (CCD).:

Fig. 8.47: X-ray scanner
 Phosphor screen,
 Fiber-optic cables,
 CCD sensor
 Good sensitivity, low noise

Fig. 8.48: Scheme of X-ray source.

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 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

X-ray contrast agents:  Excellent resolution

 Digital subtraction angiography
 Registration needed X-ray angiography
 Digital subtraction angiography
 Registration needed

Fluoroscopy / Intra-operative imaging:

Now a day’s FPD/CCD are used instead of the

fluorescent screen.

Fig. 8.50: Contrast X-ray of bariu m sulfate, Fig. 8.52: Fluoroscopy

gastrointestinal tract
Dual-Energy Imaging:
X-ray angiography:  Two exposures
 Two detectors
 Stenosis
 Beam hardening
 Clotting of arteries
 Iodine-based contrast agent
 Time series (video)

Fig. 8.53: Dual energy x-ray

Mammography:

 Filter high-energy rays

 Digital mammography,
Fig. 8.51: X-ray angiography
 CCD sensor (1024 _ 1024 pixels)

 Iodine-based contrast agent

106

Fig. 8.54: Mammography
Advantages:
 Widely used and available
 Experts available
 High-spatial resolution
 Excellent imaging of hard tissues (bones)
Disadvantages:
 Radiation exposure
 Difficulty in imaging soft-tissues
 2D projection, hidden parts
Nuclear Radiations (ionizing
radiations):
Radiation is energy in the process of being
transmitted, which may take such forms as
light or tiny particles much too small to see.
Visible light, the ultra-violet light we receive
from the sun and from sun-beds, and
transmission signals for TV and radio
communications are all forms of radiation that
are common in our daily lives. These are all
referred to as 'non-ionizing' radiation.
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
Radiation occurs when unstable nuclei of
atoms decay and release particles. There are
many different types of radiation. When these
particles touch various organic materials such
as tissue, damage may, and probably will, be
done. Radiation can cause burns, cancers, and
death.
Radiation particularly associated with nuclear
medicine and the use of nuclear energy, along
with X-rays, is 'ionizing' radiation, which
means that the radiation has sufficient energy
to interact with matter, especially the human
body, and produce ions, i.e. it can eject an
electron from an atom.
Types of radiations:
Nuclear radiation arises from hundreds of
different kinds of unstable atoms. While many
exist in nature, the majority are created in
nuclear reactions. Ionizing radiation which can
damage living tissue is emitted as the unstable
atoms (radionuclides) change ('decay')
spontaneously to become different kinds of
atoms.
The principal kinds of ionizing radiation are:
Alpha particles:
These are helium nuclei consisting of two
protons and two neutrons and are emitted from
naturally-occurring heavy elements such as
uranium and radium, as well as from some
man-made transuranic elements. They are
intensely ionizing but cannot penetrate the
skin, so are dangerous only if emitted inside
the body.
Beta particles:
These are fast-moving electrons emitted by
many radioactive elements. They are more
penetrating than alpha particles, but easily
shielded – they can be stopped by a few
millimeters of wood or aluminum. They can
penetrate a little way into human flesh but are
107

generally less dangerous to people than
gamma radiation. Exposure produces an effect
like sunburn, but which is slower to heal.
Beta-radioactive substances are also safe if
kept in appropriate sealed containers.
Gamma rays:
These are high-energy beams much the same
as X-rays. They are emitted in many
radioactive decays and are very penetrating, so
require more substantial shielding. Gamma
rays are the main hazard to people dealing
with sealed radioactive materials used, for
example, in industrial gauges and radiotherapy
machines. Radiation dose badges are worn by
workers in exposed situations to detect them
and hence monitor exposure. All of us receive
about 0.5-1 mSv per year of gamma radiation
from cosmic rays and from rocks, and in some
places, much more. Gamma activity in a
substance (e.g. rock) can be measured with a
scintillometer or Geiger counter.
X-rays: are also ionizing radiations, virtually
identical to gamma rays, but not nuclear in
origin.
Cosmic radiations: consists of very energetic
particles, mostly protons, which bombard the
Earth from outer space.
Neutrons: are mostly released by nuclear
fission (the splitting of atoms in a nuclear
reactor), and hence are seldom encountered
outside the core of a nuclear reactor. Thus they
are not normally a problem outside nuclear
plants. Fast neutrons can be very destructive to
human tissue.
Sources of radiation:
Radiation can arise from human activities or
from natural sources. Most radiation exposure
is from natural sources. These include:
radioactivity in rocks and soil of the Earth's
crust; radon, a radioactive gas given out by
many volcanic rocks and uranium ore; and
cosmic radiation. The human environment has
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
always been radioactive and accounts for up to
85% of the annual human radiation dose.
Radiation arising from human activities
typically accounts for up to 15% of the
public's exposure every year. This radiation is
no different from natural radiation except that
it can be controlled.
Effects of radiation exposure on Human
health:
Although a dose of just 25 rems causes some
detectable changes in blood, doses to near 100
rems usually have no immediate harmful
effects. Doses above 100 rems cause the first
signs of radiation sickness including:
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Headache
 Some loss of white blood cells
Fig. 8.55: Nuclear wave penetration
Heat:
The movement if thermal energy from a
substance at a higher temperature to another at
a lower temperature. It is thermal energy
moving from a warmer object to a cooler
object
Definitions:
Conduction:
The transfer of heat between particles within a
substance,
108
 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

Convection: Freezing point:

The movement that transfers heat within the The temperature at which a substance changes
water. from a liquid to a solid.

Convection curre nts: Vaporization:

Currents caused by the rising of heated fluid The process by which matter changes from the
and sinking of cooled fluid. liquid to the gas state.

Radiation: Evaporation:

The transfer of energy by electromagnetic Vaporization that occurs at the surface of a

waves. liquid.

Conductor: Boiling:

A material that conducts heat well. Vaporization that occurs on and below the
surface of a liquid.
Insulator:
Boiling point:
A material that doesn't conduct heat well.
The temperature at which a liquid boils.
Specific heat:
Condensation:
The amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one kilogram of a substance by A change from the gas state to a liquid state.
one kelvin.
Thermal expansion:
States:
The expanding of matter when it is heated.
The three forms (solid, liquid, and gas) in
which matter exists. Thermostats:

Change of state: A device that regulates heat. A heat-regulating

device. Thermal expansion are used in
The physical change from one state of matter thermostats.
to another.
Bimetallic strips:
Melting:
A strip made two different metals that expand
The change of state from a solid to a liquid. at different rates.

Melting point: Specific Heat:

The temperature at which a solid changes to a
liquid.
Freezing:
The change of state from a liquid to a solid.
Freezing occurs when a substance looses
thermal energy.
The specific heat is the amount of heat per unit
mass required to raise the temperature by one
degree Celsius. The relationship between heat
and temperature change is usually expressed in
the form shown below where “c” is the
specific heat. The relationship does not apply
if a phase change is encouraged, because the

109
 Chapter 8 Electromagnetism

heat added or removed during a phase change
does not change the temperature.
The specific heat of water is 1 calorie/gram
o
C= 4.186 joule/gram o C which is higher than
any other common substance. As a result,
water plays a very important role in
temperature regulation.
What are the three types of heat transfer?
Fahrenheit temperature scale is a scale
based on 32 for the freezing point of water and
212 for the boiling point of water, the interval
between the two being divided into 180 parts.
The 18th-century German physicist Daniel
Gabriel Fahrenheit originally took as the zero
of his scale the temperature of an equal ice-salt
mixture and selected the values of 30 and 90
for the freezing point of water and normal
body temperature, respectively; these later
were revised to 32 and 96, but the final scale
required an adjustment to 98.6 for the latter
value.

Conduction- the transfer of heat from matter
to matter
Convection- the transfer of heat from matter
to air
Radiation- the transfer of heat from one point
to another, such as boiling water.
Effects of impurities and pressure
on melting point of water
Melting point decreases with pressure and
increases with impurities (like saw dust).
boiling point increases with impurities and
also increases with pressure.
Until the 1970s the Fahrenheit temperature
scale was in general common use in English-
speaking countries; the Celsius, or centigrade,
scale was employed in most other countries
and for scientific purposes worldwide. Since
that time, however, most English-speaking
countries have officially adopted the Celsius
scale. The conversion formula for a
temperature that is expressed on the Celsius
(C) scale to its Fahrenheit (F) representation
is: F = 9/5C + 32.

The effect of impurity on a

freezing point of substance
In polar substances, such as water, ionic impurit ies
usually decrease the freezing point, requiring a
lower temperature since bonds between molecules
(intermo lecular bonding) are disrupted more and
more at higher salt concentrations. Organic
substances also experience a decreased melt ing
point when impure, due to one substance dissolving
the other and vice versa. In general, freezing points
are decreased by impurit ies if the impurities are
miscible in the substance.

Scales of Temperature:
There are three temperature scales in use Fig. 8.56
today, Fahrenheit, Celsius and Kelvin.

110

Celsius temperature scale also called
centigrade temperature scale, is the scale based
on 0 for the freezing point of water and 100
for the boiling point of water. Invented in 1742
by the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius , it
is sometimes called the centigrade scale
because of the 100-degree interval between the
defined points. The following formula can be
used to convert a temperature from its
representation on the Fahrenheit ( F) scale to
the Celsius (C) value: C = 5/9(F - 32). The
Celsius scale is in general use wherever metric
units have become accepted, and it is used in
scientific work everywhere.
Fig. 8.57
Kelvin temperature scale is the base unit of
thermodynamic temperature measurement in
the International System (SI) of measurement.
It is defined as 1/ 273.16 of the triple point
(equilibrium among the solid, liquid, and
gaseous phases) of pure water. The kelvin
(symbol K without the degree sign []) is also
the fundamental unit of the Kelvin scale, an
absolute temperature scale named for the
British physicist William Thomson, Baron
Kelvin. Such a scale has as its zero point
absolute zero, the theoretical temperature at
which the molecules of a substance have the
lowest energy. Many physical laws and
formulas can be expressed more simply when
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
an absolute temperature scale is used;
accordingly, the Kelvin scale has been adopted
as the international standard for scientific
temperature measurement. The Kelvin scale is
related to the Celsius scale. The difference
between the freezing and boiling points of
water is 100 degrees in each, so that the kelvin
has the same magnitude as the degree Celsius.
Latent Heat:
Another change that can occur when heat
energy is added to matter is a change in state.
The change from solid ice to liquid water
when heating occurs at 00 C is well known and
this change occurs without any increase in
temperature. Similarly, water at 1000 C can be
converted to steam (a gas) at the same
temperature by further considerable heating.
The same conversion occurs in other
substances but involving different quantities of
energy. The reverse also occurs, so that
condensation of steam to water gives out heat
energy at 1000 C, as does the formation of ice
from water. The discovery that ice melted due
to heating, without raising its temperature, was
made by the Scottish chemist, Joseph Black
(1728-1799). He called the heat that
apparently disappeared into the material latent
heat.
Specific Specific
latent latent heat
heat of of
fusion vaporization
(KJ kg-1 ) (KJ kg-1 )
Carbon dioxide 189 932
Mercury 11 296
Tungsten 192 4350
Copper 205 4790
Water 333 2260
Table 8.1: Specific latent heat of fusion and
vaporization fo r some substances
111

As described, the difference between a solid
and a liquid depends on the way the molecules
are held together- very firmly in the case of a
solid, less firmly in the case of a liquid. In
order to change a solid to a liquid, i.e. to melt
it, it is necessary to break or release the forces
holding the molecules together and this takes
energy. Of course, there are no mechanical
links between the molecules; it is the electrical
interatomic forces that are counteracted by the
added energy. In crystalline solids the
molecules or atoms are arranged in regular
arrays. But when some of the bonding forces
are reduced by heating, groups of molecules
are able to move more freely, tumbling
higgledy-piggledy over and around one
another. Some molecules are able to leave one
group for another. This is a liquid. Further
heating, once melting has occurred, leads to a
temperature rise but no further change in the
average number of intermolecular bonds. At
the vaporization temperature, boiling point, all
the remaining bonds are broken to allow wide
separation of molecules, forming a gas. Again
the heat energy is used in counteracting the
intermolecular or interatomic forces so that
there is no rise in temperature while it occurs.
To give a simple analogy of what occurs when
energy is added and induces a change of state;
consider a large glass jar of coffee beans. At
rest, the beans occupy the bottom third of the
jar and have some regularity in that the
rounded, thicker parts of the beans tend to fit
into the spaces where the ends of three or four
beans touch in the layer below. Thus the beans
are, to some degree, in a regular array like a
crystalline solid. If the jar is tipped through a
few degrees very slowly the beans stay in
position and no movement occurs. If, however,
the jar is vibrated or gently tapped, the beans
slide over one another and if the jar is tilted at
an angle the surface of the moving beans
becomes horizontal just like a fluid level. With
the added energy of vibration the beans are
now behaving like a liquid. If the jar is now
shaken very vigorously (with the lid on tight)
beans fly about randomly occupying the whole
Chapter 8 Electromagnetism
volume of the jar. This is like a gas with
widely separated, rapidly moving molecules
driven by the additional energy. Notice that it
is both the kinetic and potential energies of the
molecules that make internal energy. The
kinetic energy is measured by temperature but
it is the potential energy which is altered in
melting and freezing or in boiling and
condensing so that there is no temperature
change. The word latent in its sense of
remaining hidden but still present is almost
synonymous with potential and is thus highly
appropriate - well chosen by Joseph Black.
Since melting involves only some of the
bonding being disrupted and vaporization
involves the loss of all bonding i might be
expected that more energy would be needed
for the latter process. This is always the case
and is shown in table. The energy needed to
effect these changes in some substances, in
kilojoules per kilogram, shown in the table and
called the specific latent heat of fusion
(melting) or vaporization. The specific latent
heats of fusion and vaporization ae often given
in calories per gram, being respectively,
approximately 79 and 539 cals g-1 for water.
The large amount of energy stored as
vaporization can be seen from the table and
explains why so much power can be derived
from steam turbines.
There is another interesting and far reaching
characteristic of water. Liquids have rather
more space between molecules than solids but
much less than in gases. Almost all liquid
states are therefore less dense than the solid
states. However, water is exceptional in that
the molecules are more closely packed
together at around 40 C than when the
crystalline solid, ice, is formed. Thus ice will
float on water.
112
 Chapter 8 Electromagnetic Radiation

Conve rsion of the scales from one another:

Kelvin

from Kelvin to Kelvin

Celsius [°C] = [K] − 273.15 [K] = [°C] + 273.15

Fahrenheit [°F] = [K] × 9 ⁄5 − 459.67 [K] = ([°F] + 459.67) × 5 ⁄ 9

Rankine [°R] = [K] × 9⁄ 5 [K] = [°R] × 5⁄ 9

Delisle [°De] = (373.15 − [K]) × 3⁄ 2 [K] = 373.15 − [°De] × 2⁄ 3

Newton [°N] = ([K] − 273.15) × 33⁄ 100 [K] = [°N] × 100⁄ 33 + 273.15

Réaumur [°Ré] = ([K] − 273.15) × 4 ⁄ 5 [K] = [°Ré] × 5 ⁄4 + 273.15

Rømer [°Rø] = ([K] − 273.15) × 21 ⁄ 40 + 7.5 [K] = ([°Rø] − 7.5) × 40 ⁄ 21 + 273.15

Celsius (centigrade)

from Celsius to Celsius

Fahrenheit [°F] = [°C] × 9 ⁄5 + 32 [°C] = ([°F] − 32) × 5 ⁄9

Kelvin [K] = [°C] + 273.15 [°C] = [K] − 273.15

Rankine [°R] = ([°C] + 273.15) × 9 ⁄ 5 [°C] = ([°R] − 491.67) × 5 ⁄ 9

Delisle [°De] = (100 − [°C]) × 3 ⁄ 2 [°C] = 100 − [°De] × 2⁄ 3

Newton [°N] = [°C] × 33 ⁄100 [°C] = [°N] × 100⁄ 33

Réaumur [°Ré] = [°C] × 4 ⁄5 [°C] = [°Ré] × 5 ⁄4

Rømer [°Rø] = [°C] × 21⁄ 40 + 7.5 [°C] = ([°Rø] − 7.5) × 40 ⁄ 21

113
 Chapter 8 Electromagnetic Radiation

Fahrenheit

from Fahrenheit to Fahrenheit

Celsius [°C] = ([°F] − 32) × 5 ⁄9 [°F] = [°C] × 9 ⁄5 + 32

Kelvin [K] = ([°F] + 459.67) × 5 ⁄ 9 [°F] = [K] × 9 ⁄5 − 459.67

Rankine [°R] = [°F] + 459.67 [°F] = [°R] − 459.67

Delisle [°De] = (212 − [°F]) × 5⁄ 6 [°F] = 212 − [°De] × 6 ⁄5

Newton [°N] = ([°F] − 32) × 11⁄ 60 [°F] = [°N] × 60⁄ 11 + 32

Réaumur [°Ré] = ([°F] − 32) × 4⁄ 9 [°F] = [°Ré] × 9⁄ 4 + 32

Rømer [°Rø] = ([°F] − 32) × 7⁄ 24 + 7.5 [°F] = ([°Rø] − 7.5) × 24⁄ 7 + 32

114

Chapter No. 9
WAVES
Many kinds of wave motion are found in
nature in this chapter we examine only two-
sound waves and electromagnetic waves. The
two are very different in character but share a
number of common properties and it is these
common properties which we first consider.
Different kind of waves:
Any kind of wave motion, be it the ripples on
a pond, sound or light has four characteristics
which are fundamentally associated with the
wave. These are: the wavelength, frequency,
velocity of propagation and amplitude (or
size). Figure 9.1 shows one kind of wave
motion; a sinusoidal oscillation travelling in a
finely coiled spring.
Figure 9.1 Transverse oscillations in a spring.
As the spring is shaken up and down,
transverse oscillations are produced which
travel along the spring at a characteristic
velocity, v, determined by the physical
properties of the spring. The wavelength, λ, is
the distance between peaks of the waves that is
the distance over which the wave repeats
itself.
The (peak) amplitude is the maximum
displacement of the spring from the mean
position. Sometimes the peak-to-peak
amplitude (which is double the peak
amplitude) is specified.
In order to sustain the oscillations, one end of
the spring must be moved up and down with
an appropriate frequency, the velocity,
wavelength and frequency are related by the
wave equation:
Chapter 9 Waves
The wave shown in figure 9.1 is a transverse
sine wave - so called because the displacement
of the spring is perpendicular or transverse to
the direction of propagation. When the
oscillations are along the direction of
propagation the wave is called longitudinal.
Figure 9.2 shows a longitudinal wave
generated in a spring. For a longitudinal wave,
the wavelength and velocity are easy to
determine. The wavelength is the distance
between two regions of compression. The
velocity is determined by measuring how far a
region of compression moves along the spring
(∆x) in a known time interval (∆t). One region
of compression, moving to the right, is colored
in figure 9.2. The velocity is calculated using
the formula v = ∆x/∆t. The amplitude is less
apparent but, in the case of a spring, it can be
determined by attaching a marker to a point on
the spring and measuring how far the marker
oscillates back and forth from its mean
position.
Sound waves are longitudinal compressional
waves. By their very nature they require a
material medium for their existence as they are
displacements of the material medium - solid,
liquid or gas - about some mean position.
The human ear can detect only a restricted
range of sound frequencies, from the lowest
tones of an organ, around 16 Hz, up to some
12 to 20 kHz. The upper frequency limit of
audibility diminishes with age. Frequencies
greater than 20 kHz are termed ultrasonic,
although some animals can hear frequencies
up to 100 kHz.
Figure 9.2 Longitudinal waves in a spring.
Figure 9.3 is a pictorial representation of a
sound wave. Lines drawn close together
115

represent regions of high pressure. Widely
spaced lines represent regions of low pressure
(rarefaction).These regions move through any
particular medium at a fixed velocity. For
example, all sound waves travel at 340 m.s-1
in air, regardless of the sound frequency. In
water, the velocity of sound waves is close to
1100 m.s-1.
Figure 9.3 Diagrammat ic representation of a sound
wave.
Electromagnetic waves are a very special kind
of transverse wave. They consist of a
transverse sinusoidal electric field together
with a transverse magnetic field. Light, radio
waves, microwaves and X-rays are all
electromagnetic waves with different
frequencies, but the same velocity. The
frequency and wavelength can vary but, in a
particular medium, the velocity is constant.
The speed of propagation of electromagnetic
waves in empty space is a universal constant
on which much of the structure of modern
physics is based.
A convenient representation of an
electromagnetic wave is shown in figure 9.4.
The sinusoidal electric field E, is transverse to
the direction of propagation (arrow labeled v)
and also perpendicular to the magnetic field,
B.
Figure 9.4 Diagrammat ic representation of an
electro magnetic wave.
Chapter 9 Waves
The existence of electromagnetic waves was
not suspected until 1864 when the Scottish
scientist, James Clerk Maxwell published a
theoretical paper in which their existence was
predicted. The velocity predicted for these
waves turned out to be extremely close to that
measured experimentally for light, which led
Maxwell to conclude that light itself was an
electromagnetic wave. Prior to this scientist
since Newton's day had puzzled over the
nature of light: whether it was corpuscular or a
wave motion, and if a wave, a wave in what?
In many ways Maxwell's work formed the
keystone of 19th century physics.
Maxwell had set himself the task of
generalizing all of the accumulated knowledge
of electrostatics, electric current, magnetism
and electromagnetism: to write a few simple
laws from which everything else could be
derived. He summarized his findings in a set
of four equations which expressed the
relationship between electric and magnetic
fields. In writing the equations he noticed they
had a certain symmetry about them, but that
the symmetry could only be made complete by
assuming the existence of a hitherto
unobserved experimental result: that a
changing electric field gives rise to a changing
magnetic field. This assumption, together with
other known facts of electricity and magnetism
gave rise to the four equations which bear
Maxwell's name.
Not only did Maxwell's equations account for
all that was known of electricity and
magnetism, they also made one startling
prediction: whenever charges are accelerated,
an electromagnetic wave is produced. It was
previously known that a moving charge
produces a magnetic field which disappears
when the charge stop moving. The equations
predict that in addition an electromagnetic
wave is produced if the charge accelerates and
once the wave is produced its continued
existence and propagation is independent of
what subsequently happens to the charge.
116

Figure 9.5 the electro magnetic spectrum.
It is not a great step from this to the conclusion
that all electromagnetic waves have their
origin in the accelerated motion of charges.
Since Maxwell's time electromagnetic waves
with frequencies ranging from 5 Hz to 1024
Hz have been produced and used. Although
they are produced and detected by seemingly
different means and given different names,
they all have essentially the same nature. A
range of frequencies of electromagnetic waves
is referred-to as an electromagnetic spectrum.
Figure 9.5 shows such a spectrum and its most
familiar regions. Electromagnetic waves with
frequencies up to 1012 Hz can be generated
electrically. For example the normal AM or
FM waves received by a radio are produced by
generating an oscillating electrical current in
the transmitting aerial. Electrons are
accelerated back and forth along the wire and
the result is that electromagnetic waves are
produced, radiating from the wire.
Production of current by electronic circuitry
becomes increasingly difficult at higher
frequencies and above 1012 Hz it is necessary
to use alternative methods for accelerating
charges and producing the waves.
Infrared radiation, sometimes referred-to as
'radiant heat' is emitted by all matter. This is
because the atoms and molecules are
continually moving. In a solid, for example,
the atoms are constrained but are able to
vibrate about their mean position. It is this
movement energy which we call the heat
energy of an object. The atomic jiggling
means that charges (negative electrons and
positive nuclei) are continually accelerating,
so they radiate electromagnetic waves. At
normal temperatures, most of the
Chapter 9 Waves
electromagnetic radiation has frequencies in
the infrared portion of the spectrum.
When something is heated, the molecules
within it are given more energy and they move
or jiggle more vigorously. A consequence is
that the electromagnetic radiation produced
has a higher average frequency. For example,
if a piece of metal is heated from room
temperature it first emits only infrared
radiation, but as the temperature is increased,
the metal becomes red-hot, then white, then
blue hot. This is because the average
frequency of the emitted radiation increases.
Infrared, visible and ultraviolet light can be
produced by heating of materials and
temperature elevation is the major factor in
determining the frequency distribution of the
waves.
Higher frequency (visible light) radiation can
also be produced by movement the outer-shell
electrons of an atom - hence the different
colors produced when, for example, different
chemicals are introduced into a Bunsen flame.
If atoms are bombarded with high energy
electrons, inner shell electrons can be knocked
from their orbital, producing electromagnetic
waves in the ultraviolet and X- ray parts of the
spectrum. Higher frequency gamma and hard-
X radiation cannot be produced by knocking
electrons from their orbitals, but are produced
when atomic nuclei are split, as in a nuclear
reactor or nuclear explosion. The spontaneous
decay of naturally occurring radioisotopes also
results in production of gamma and hard-X
radiation, due to the massive acceleration of
the fragments when the nucleus is split.
117

Electromagnetic Waves and Safety:
Any form of electromagnetic radiation can
pose a biological hazard but higher
frequencies are more dangerous. A distinction
is made between ionizing and non- ionizing
radiation. Electromagnetic waves with
frequencies somewhat higher than those of
visible light constitute ionizing radiation.
When these higher frequency waves are
absorbed by matter, electrons are knocked
from their orbitals producing ions. If the
displaced electrons are involved in bonding
atoms together in a molecule, the bond will be
broken and the molecule will be damaged,
sometimes split. Thus higher frequency
electromagnetic waves can cause molecular
disruption.
Mutation may result either in cell death, cells
with suboptimal function or daughter cells
which are cancerous (replicate uncontrollably).
In most instances, molecular disruption will
not harm cells or tissues as the damaged
molecules can be removed and replaced. But
if the disrupted molecule is DNA, a mutation
can result. This is why exposure to ionizing
radiation is associated with cell mutation and
tissue tumors (cancer).
The medical use of ionizing radiation involves
a risk/benefit analysis. X-radiation is very
useful for diagnostic imaging but there is no
'safe' level of exposure - rather the risk is
proportional to the dose. Ultraviolet radiation
is useful for treating certain conditions, but
again there is no 'safe' level of exposure. In
assessing what is an acceptable level of
exposure or dosage, normal environmental
exposure is a consideration. If the treatment
does not add appreciably to the natural burden
then it may well be considered acceptable.
The question is, what is an 'appreciable'
increase and how does this weigh against the
benefits of treatment?
In contrast to ionizing radiation, non-ionizing
radiation does have safe levels of exposure.
At frequencies less than those of visible light,
Chapter 9 Waves
the principal effect of wave absorption is
heating, so the risks are simply those
associated with temperature elevation. Thus
provided the temperature increase is within the
physiological range, no harm will normally
occur. In this sense, exposure to non-ionizing
radiation is no more harmful than any other
form of heating.
A potential hazard with exposure to non-
ionizing radiation is that it could stimulate cell
proliferation in malignant tissue, simply as a
result of heating. It is for this reason that any
form of therapeutic heating is contraindicated
when tissue malignancy is known or
suspected. A second potential hazard is
focusing of a beam of electromagnetic waves,
which will result in concentration of the wave
energy in a particular region, producing a local
'hot-spot'.
A general conclusion is that, provided the
temperature increase in any region is below a
physiologically harmful level and the tissue is
non-malignant, treatment with non-ionizing
radiation is quite safe.
Waves Trans mission and Absorption:
Having talked a little about sound and
electromagnetic waves and considered some
(but by no means all) hazards, we now address
some fundamental questions about how these
waves propagate and how they interact with
and are absorbed by matter. Here the emphasis
is on wave transmission and absorption.
Hazards associated with particular frequencies
of sound and electromagnetic waves are
considered in more detail in later chapters.
One striking difference between sound and
electromagnetic waves is that a sound wave,
being a periodic vibration of atoms or
molecules, relies on a material medium for its
existence and propagation. Electromagnetic
waves on the other hand, require no material
medium for their transmission. Thus we can
see our sun, the stars and distant galaxies but
cannot (even in principle) hear them! In
applications to therapy this difference need not
118

concern us. We examine what happens to both
kinds of wave in a material medium.
From everyday experience we know that
sound and light are absorbed as they pass
through materials. Ordinary window glass
absorbs very little visible light - though it
certainly absorbs some - but absorbs
ultraviolet and infrared radiation quite
strongly. Sound is absorbed by brick walls. In
this case we find that low frequency sound is
not absorbed as readily as higher frequencies.
Absorption is related to the amount of
absorbing material so it must be related to the
density of the absorber. But it is also related to
some other property of the material - otherwise
why does glass transmit light while cardboard
or paper does not?
Molecular Motion in Matter:
To gain some insight into the absorption
process we consider the motion of molecules
making up a material. At any temperature
above absolute zero the molecules will be in a
state of agitation - oscillating back and forth
and rotating. In addition, for molecules of
more than one atom, vibrations of atoms
relative to each other is possible. Figure 9.6
illustrates some of these modes of movement.
Each of these three kinds of motion has a
certain average frequency associated with it.
For example if we consider a rotating
molecule in a liquid, then as a result of its
motion and the motion of other molecules it
will suffer frequent collisions. In many
instances the collisions will result in a change
in the frequency of rotation of the molecule.
Thus when we specify an average frequency of
rotation we know that at any one instant some
of the molecules will be rotating with
frequencies much higher than the average, and
some with frequencies much lower. A
molecule may have a high frequency of
rotation at one instant, suffer a collision and
lose some rotational energy to the other
molecule, thus changing to a lower rotation
frequency.
Chapter 9 Waves
The same is true for vibration of the molecules
- there is continual transfer of the vibrational
energy back and forth between molecules.
The motion of molecules within a material is,
of course, what we measure as the heat energy
of an object. As we heat up a material the
energy we put in results in greater agitation
and thus greater kinetic energy of the
molecules. The extent to which energy is
shared between the different modes of
movement will depend on whether the
material is a solid, liquid or gas and how many
atoms make up molecule. For example in the
case of a large protein molecule with many
atom and many bonds, a significant proportion
of the heat energy will appear as internal
vibrations of the molecule.
Figure 9.6 (a) translational oscillat ion (b) rotation
and (c) Internal vibration of a diato mic mo lecule.
Sound Waves in Matter
What happens then to a sound (or ultrasound)
wave as it travels through a medium? In
generating a sound wave we are producing
mechanical vibrations, an oscillating
displacement of the molecules, with a specific
frequency. Consider what happens when the
sound frequency is the same as that of some of
the molecules. The sound wave is oscillating
the molecules in a particular direction in the
medium (the direction of propagation) while
the molecules are naturally oscillating in all
directions and these directions are continually
and randomly changing as a result of
collisions. The tendency is for the collisions
to randomize the direction of sound vibrations
and so convert sound energy into heat energy.
If any natural oscillation of the molecule
119
 Chapter 9 Waves

corresponds in frequency to the sound wave travelled a distance x through the medium.
then the sound will be rapidly absorbed in the The quantity δ is called the penetration depth
medium. of the waves in the medium. It depends on the
frequency of the wave and the properties of
Even if the sound frequency differs somewhat
the medium through which the wave travels.
from any average frequency of molecular
The quantity e is a constant which crops-up in
movement the natural spread of oscillation
any mathematical description of exponential
frequency of the molecules will enable some
increases or decreases, in the same way that π
energy to be absorbed. In addition if the
crops-up when we are dealing with circular
difference in frequency of two natural modes
geometry.
of molecular oscillation is equal to the sound
frequency, energy can be absorbed in Figure 9.7 shows a graph of E against x for an
converting one frequency of oscillation to the exponential decrease.
other.
To see what is meant by equation 9.2 and the
Electromagnetic Waves in Matter term 'penetration depth', try substituting
different values for x into equation 9.2.
What happens as an electromagnetic wave
travels through a medium? Non-polar  When the distance x is zero, e -x/δ is eo = 1
molecules will polarize in alternate directions since any number raised to the power zero
in the alternating field, polar molecules will is one. Thus E is equal to Eo the original
rotate back and forth and ions will try to move energy, as we might expect.
in the field direction. The energy losses in  When x = δ, e -x/δ is e-1 = 1/e = 1/2.718 =
these processes will result in electromagnetic 0.37. Equation 9.2 then becomes E = Eo x
energy being converted into heat energy. 0.37. In other words the wave energy is
reduced to 37% of the incident energy at a
The absorption of electromagnetic energy as a
distance x equal to δ, the penetration
wave travels through a medium will thus
depth.
depend on the frequency of the wave and the
 When x = 2δ, e -x/δ is e-2 = 1/ (2.718)2 =
electric and magnetic properties of the
(0.37)2. Equation 9.2 then becomes E = Eo
material - the dielectric constant, conductivity
x (0.37)2. In other words the wave energy
and permeability. Using this (somewhat
is reduced to 14% (37% of 37%) of the
simplified) model we predict that biological
incident energy.
tissues with low dielectric constant and
conductivity, such as fatty tissue will absorb
electromagnetic energy to a lesser extent than
substances such as muscle and other tissues
with a high dielectric constant and
conductivity.

Penetration Depth:
In general, for any kind of wave of a certain
frequency, we find that the wave energy
decreases exponentially with distance.
Mathematically this is written: Figure 9.7 Graph showing an exponential drop in
energy, E, with distance, x.

The calculations show that as the wave travels

Where Eo is the original energy and E is the through a material the energy is progressively
energy remaining after the waves have absorbed. At a distance δ (the 'penetration

120

depth') the wave energy is decreased to 37% of
the original energy. At a distance 2δ the wave
energy is reduced to 37% of 37% of the
incident energy and so on. In other words the
wave energy is reduced by 63% every time the
wave travels a distance δ in the medium. The
wave energy is never completely absorbed but
is reduced by a certain fraction with every
centimeter it travels through the material.
Clearly we cannot specify 'depth for complete
absorption' of the wave energy as this will
never occur. Instead we specify the penetration
depth as the depth required to absorb 63% of
the incident wave energy.
An example. The penetration depth, δ, of
2000 MHz microwaves in fatty tissue is 5.3
cm. Use equation 9.2 to calculate the energy
remaining after travelling a distance of (a) 2
cm and (b) 10 cm through fatty tissue.
(a) For a distance x of 2 cm the wave energy,
E, is given by equation 9.2 as
E = Eo e-2/5.3 = Eoe-0.38 = 0.69Eo so E/Eo =
0.69
The energy remaining after travelling a
distance of 2 cm in fatty tissue is 69% of
the incident energy.
(b) For a distance x of 10 cm the wave energy
E is given by
E = Eo e-10/5.3 = Eo e-1.9 = 0.15Eo so E/Eo =
0.15
The energy remaining after travelling a
distance of 10 cm in fatty tissue is 15% of
the incident energy.
The half-value depth, d1/2 , is the thickness of
material required to absorb 50% of the
incident wave energy.
Some authors prefer to specify a 'half-value
depth' rather than a penetration depth to
describe the rate of absorption of wave energy.
The relationship between half-value depth and
penetration depth can be calculated from
equation 9.2 as follows.
Chapter 9 Waves
The half-value depth, the thickness required to
reduce the wave energy by 50%, is d1/2 where
-d1/2/δ
Eo /2 = Eo e
In other words we have substituted E = Eo /2
(50% of Eo ) when x = d1/2 into equation 9.2.
Cancelling the Eo on each side gives
-d1/2/δ
1/2 = e
That is, the penetration depth is obtained from
the half-value depth simply by multiplying by
1.44.
Ultrasound and Microwaves
In the frequency range of therapeutic interest,
microwave and ultrasound radiation share two
common features:
 Their penetration depths in fatty tissue are
much higher than in muscle (or other
tissues with high water and ion content).
 As the frequency increases the penetration
depth decreases. In other words as the
wavelength decreases so does the
penetration depth.
Table 9.1 shows values of the penetration
depth, δ, for different frequencies of
ultrasound and microwave radiation in
different body tissues.
Table 9.1 Penetration depth, δ, for micro waves and
ultrasound in body tissues.
It is clear from the table that microwaves and
ultrasound are true diathermic modalities; that
is, the waves are able to penetrate deeply into
121

tissue. A significant proportion of the wave
energy will be available for heating of muscle
and other tissues lying beneath the
subcutaneous fat.
In considering which frequencies are most
useful for diathermy we would choose a
frequency which gives adequate penetration of
the waves. We would not, however, aim for a
maximum penetration depth since if δ is too
large the waves will penetrate right through
the tissue with little absorption and thus little
heating. The choice of 1 MHz for therapeutic
application of ultrasound is a good
compromise between adequate penetrations
and adequate heating of underlying tissue.
The pattern of heating does not, however,
depend solely on penetration depth - reflection
of the waves plays an important role. We will
discuss reflection shortly.
Infrared and Highe r Frequency
Radiation
At higher frequencies than microwaves we
have infrared, visible and ultraviolet radiation
(see figure 9.5). As we go to these 'optical'
frequencies the penetration depth becomes
dependent on frequency in a complicated way;
there is no longer a smooth increase or
decrease in δ with frequency.
Let us consider, first, infrared radiation. The
infrared region of the spectrum extends from
about 3 x 1011 Hz up to 4 x 1014 Hz.
Traditionally we refer to the wavelength of
these radiations rather than the frequency and
the unit in popular usage is the nanometer
which is abbreviated nm. One nanometer is
10-9 meter. We can convert from frequency in
Hz to wavelength in nanometers by using
equation 9.1. Since the speed of
electromagnetic waves is close to 3 x 108
meters per second in most materials the
wavelength, λ, in nanometers is related to the
frequency, f, by
Chapter 9 Waves
The infrared region of the spectrum extends
from 700 nm wavelength up to about 400 000
nm. For therapeutic application, sources of
infrared radiation are used which put out most
of their radiation at the end of the spectrum
close to visible light: from about 700 nm to
about 15 000 nm. This includes both the so
called 'near' infrared region, from about 700
nm to 4000 nm and part of the 'far' infrared
region. The far infrared region extends from
4000 nm to about 400 000 nm.
The penetration depth of near infrared
radiation is very small. A maximum
penetration depth of a few mm is obtained at
about 1200 nm wavelength, and this decreases
to a fraction of a millimeter at longer
wavelengths. Wavelengths longer than 3000
nm are absorbed by the moisture on the
surface of the skin. You may have noticed that
the red end of the visible spectrum can be
transmitted through the full thickness of your
hand: this property does not extend to the
infrared region of the spectrum.
Visible and ultraviolet radiation have
frequencies corresponding to natural
frequencies associated with electrons in the
outer shells of atoms. Since these electrons are
the ones involved in bonding between atoms it
is possible for light and ultraviolet radiation to
cause breaking of chemical bonds.
We may summarize the absorption
mechanisms for infrared, visible and
ultraviolet radiations as follows:
 Infrared radiation has frequencies
corresponding to molecular and atomic
motion and to differences in vibration
frequency between two modes of motion.
It can thus produce heating directly (hence
the term 'radiant heat') but has a very small
depth of penetration.
 Visible and near ultraviolet radiation have
frequencies corresponding to the
difference in natural frequency between
two energy states of bonding electrons in
atoms. Such radiation can initiate chemical
122

reactions and is only indirectly associated
with the production of heat.
There is no sharp dividing line, but the
boundary between ionizing and non- ionizing
radiation is between the near and far
ultraviolet regions of the electro- magnetic
spectrum.
 Far ultraviolet radiation, at higher
frequencies than visible and near
ultraviolet light, can separate electrons
completely from an atom thus producing
an ion. For this reason there is some risk
of causing irreversible damage to
biological molecules.
The absorption mechanism for ultraviolet and
visible light means that absorption and hence
penetration depth, depends critically on
frequency. Certain frequencies will be rapidly
absorbed and have small penetration depths
while others will not be absorbed so readily
and hence have large penetration depths.
Clearly ultraviolet therapy is of more value in
initiating chemical change than in heating as
such. Infrared radiation would be indicated
when heating of superficial tissue is required.
Waves at Boundaries:
So far we have discussed the absorption of a
wave as it is transmitted through a medium. A
knowledge of the rate of absorption of a wave
in different tissues is not, however, sufficient
to predict the amount of heating in a given
tissue layer. Not all of the radiation striking a
tissue interface will be transmitted, some will
be reflected. In this section we consider the
factors determining the relative proportions of
reflection and transmission which occur in
tissues.
Energy and Impedance:
The energy E of a wave is proportional to the
square of the wave amplitude, a. This is
written:
Chapter 9 Waves
It is also proportional to the square of the wave
frequency, f, so we can also write:
First let us ask what determines the energy
carried by a wave. The example of a transverse
wave produced in a spring (figure 9.1) is a
useful one. If the human oscillator in this
figure were to shake the spring at a higher
frequency this would result in more work
being done and thus a greater energy in the
wave. If the spring is displaced over a larger
distance, resulting in greater amplitude more
energy is also produced in the wave motion.
Wave energy depends on both the amplitude
and frequency of the oscillations.
The energy also depends on the properties of
the spring itself. A very heavy spring will
require more energy to move it: thus the
energy depends on the mass of the spring, or
for waves generally on the inertia of the
medium. In the case of solids and liquids
carrying sound waves the property which
specifies the inertia of the medium is the
density.
Another property which determines the energy
needed to produce oscillations in the spring is
the elasticity. If waves are produced in a
spring the energy needed will depend on its
'stretchiness' or elasticity. If the spring has
high elastic compliance it will stretch easily
and the restoring force which returns the
spring to its original length is small.
The two factors of elasticity and inertia
together specify the impedance, Z, of a
medium. In the case of sound waves in a solid
or liquid the impedance is determined by the
density and elasticity of the medium.
In the case of electromagnetic waves the
properties determining the impedance are the
dielectric constant and conductivity. Consider,
for example, an ideal dielectric. The molecules
will polarize in the electric field. The electron
cloud will alternate about the atomic nucleus
and be drawn back to the normal position by
123

the electrostatic attraction of negative
electrons for the positive nucleus. The
polarizing of the atom is analogous to
stretching of a spring, and the polarizability
(elasticity) is determined by the dielectric
constant.
For any kind of wave, the relationship between
wave energy and the three quantities
amplitude (a), frequency (f) and impedance
(Z) is
Impedance and Reflection:
We now consider what happens when a wave
strikes a boundary between two media. The
example of two different springs connected
together is a useful one. If the first spring is
made to oscillate with a certain frequency then
if any energy is transferred to the second
spring, the frequency of the waves in each
spring must be identical. This must be so since
the springs are fastened together so that the
oscillations in the joined ends of each spring
are the same.
How would we arrange things so as to transfer
all of the wave energy from one medium to
another? For maximum energy transfer the
wave amplitude must be a maximum in spring
2. It cannot be larger than in spring 1 as the
springs are joined. So for maximum energy
transfer the wave amplitudes must be equal.
The frequency is always the same in each
medium, so for maximum energy transfer we
require both equal amplitudes and frequencies.
The wave energy, however, depends not only
on frequency and amplitude but also on the
impedance of the medium (equation 9.4). It
follows that complete energy transfer can only
occur when the impedances of each medium
are the same.
If a wave arrives at a boundary between two
media of different impedance only part of the
wave energy can be transmitted: the rest must
be reflected.
Chapter 9 Waves
Figure 9.8 shows two springs of different
impedance connected together. Spring 2 is of
lower impedance (more elastically compliant
and/or lighter) than spring 1.
A pulse travels along spring 1 until meeting
the low impedance boundary. When the pulse
hits the low impedance boundary the end of
spring 2 is lifted to the same height as the
incoming pulse. The energy transferred to
spring 2 is given by equation 9.4 as E α a2 f2 Z
so if the impedance, Z of spring 2 is lower
than spring 1 but a and f are the same, a 2 f2 Z is
less so the transmitted energy is lower than the
incident energy.
The energy that is not transmitted is reflected,
producing the reflected pulse in figure 9.8.
Part of the original pulse is reflected and part
continues in the original direction. Note that
the displacement of the reflected pulse is in the
same direction as the original.
Figure 9.9 shows the opposite scenario,
reflection at a high impedance boundary. In
this case spring 2 is heavier and less compliant
(has a higher impedance) than spring 1.
In this case the stiffness of spring 2 prevents
the spring junction from moving as high as the
crest of the incoming wave. The effect is that a
net downward force is exerted on spring 1
when the pulse reaches the junction. A
reflected pulse is generated with the
displacement downward rather than upward as
in figure 9.8.
Figure 9.8 Reflection fro m a lo w impedance
boundary.
124
 Chapter 9 Waves

The relationship between the mismatch in

impedance and the amplitude of the reflected
pulse (or wave) is given by equation 9.5.

The reflection coefficient, ρ, is defined as the

ratio of the reflected wave amplitude (a r) to the
incident wave amplitude (a i ) and this depends
on the difference in impedance of the two
media. Only when the impedances are equal
(Z1 = Z2 ) will the reflection coefficient be zero
and the amplitude of the reflected wave be
zero. If there is a mismatch in impedance some
wave energy will be reflected.
An example. Suppose that two springs are
connected together as in figure 9.8 and the
impedance of spring 1 is three times the
impedance of spring 2. Calculate the
proportion of energy reflected at the junction.
Substituting Z1 = 3Z2 into equation 9.5 the
reflection coefficient is
This means that the reflected wave has an
amplitude one half of the incident wave. Wave
energy is proportional to the square of the
amplitude, thus the fraction of energy reflected
is one quarter.
Although we have talked in terms of pulses or
waves in a spring to illustrate the application
of equation 9.5, the equation holds true for any
kind of wave motion including sound and
electromagnetic waves. In the case of sound
waves, Z refers to the acoustic impedance of
the medium. In the case of electromagnetic
waves, Z is the electrical impedance.
Figure 9.9 Reflection fro m a high impedance
boundary.
Standing Waves:
Consider what happens if a transverse wave
rather than a pulse strikes the boundary
between two media. Unless the impedances of
both media are identical a reflected wave will
be produced travelling in the opposite
direction. The two waves will add together,
sometimes reinforcing, sometimes cancelling
and the result is a standing wave pattern.
Figure 9.10 shows the resultant waveform (in
red) when two waves of equal amplitude and
frequency are travelling in opposite directions
The incident wave (blue) travels to the right
and strikes a boundary (not shown). The wave
is fully reflected, generating a wave (green)
travelling in the opposite direction. The waves
add together, so that what is actually observed
is no longer two separate waves travelling in
opposite directions but a single resultant. The
resultant is a stationary wave pattern (hence
the term 'standing wave').The wave amplitude
varies from instant to instant, changing from
zero to maximum and back again, but the
wave crests do not change position. At certain
points (called nodes) the wave amplitude is
always zero while at other points (the
antinodes) the wave amplitude alternates
rapidly between extreme values.

125

Figure 9.10 a standing wave produced by
interference of t wo equal size waves travelling in
opposite directions.
In figure 9.10(a) the incident and reflected
waves are out of phase by one half of a
wavelength. In this case the two waves exactly
cancel and the resultant has zero amplitude.
An instant later (figure 9.10(b)) the incident
wave has moved 1/8th wavelength to the right
and the reflected wave 1/8th wavelength to the
left. Now the waves are only 1/4 of a
wavelength out of phase and the resultant is
non-zero. In figure 9.10(c) the waves have
moved further: now they are in phase and the
resultant has a maximum amplitude. See if you
can construct the resultant waveform at two
later times when the incident and reflected
waves have progressed a further 1/8th
wavelength then 1/4 wavelength.
For waves travelling at high velocity, the
variation from (a) to (d) in figure 9.10 would
occur in a tiny fraction of a second and the
resulting variation in amplitude would be as
fast as to be seen as a blur. This is illustrated
in figure 9.11. Notice that in figure 9.11 the
nodes and antinodes are readily discerned.
The nodes are one half of a wavelength apart
(as are the antinodes). One wavelength is one
sine wave cycle, which is two of the 'beats' in
figure 9.11. So half a wavelength is the
distance between two antinodes or two nodes.
Chapter 9 Waves
An everyday example of standing wave
production is seen with stretched wires or
strings (for example guitar strings) which,
when plucked, resonate and produce standing
waves at any frequency for which the string
length is a multiple of half a wavelength. The
mismatch in impedance at each end of the
string results in almost complete reflection and
superposition of the waves results in a
standing wave.
Figure 9.11 the (blurred) standing wave pattern
which would be seen when the incident and
reflected waves travel at high velocity
If a wave is not fully reflected at a boundary (ρ
< 1 in equation 9.5) the incident and reflected
waves have different amplitudes and the
resultant will be a combination of a standing
wave and a travelling wave. This is the more
usual case with reflection.
It is a useful exercise to draw two waves as in
figure 9.10 but with unequal amplitude and see
what effect this has on the resultant. What is
produced is an amplitude modulated
oscillation with maxima and minima but no
true nodes (figure 9.12).
Figure 9.12 Effect on the standing wave pattern of
unequal size incident and reflected waves.
Reflection and Refraction:
We have seen that a mismatch in impedance
results in reflection of waves at a boundary. A
difference in impedance also results in the
phenomenon of refraction.
126

When a beam of waves is incident on a
boundary at a certain angle (i in figure 9.13)
the reflected wave will leave the boundary at
the same angle. i' in figure 9.13 is the same
size as i. The transmitted wave will be
refracted: that is, its direction of propagation
will change. The angle of refraction, r, will not
be equal to the angle of incidence, i.
Figure 9.13 Reflected and refracted waves at a
boundary.
The laws of reflection and refraction arise in
most discussions of how light behaves, but
these laws are not restricted to optics: they
apply equally to any kind of wave motion. All
that is required for refraction to occur is that
the wave have a different velocity in the two
media. The wave velocity is in turn
determined by the impedance of the medium.
Thus refraction of light occurs when a beam
passes from air to glass because of the
different velocity of light (and, more
fundamentally, electrical impedance) of the
two media.
Figure 9.14 Reflection of a beam.
To see how the laws arise, consider a beam
incident on a boundary as shown in figure
Chapter 9 Waves
9.14. First we look at the reflected wave. For
simplicity, we consider a beam of width AB
chosen so that AC is exactly one wavelength
and we assume that the wave- crests are
synchronized (the results are perfectly general,
but the maths is more complicated when the
waves are not synchronized and the distances
do not match).
Figure 9.15 Refraction of a beam.
Waves will be reflected at B while those at A
on the same wavefront still have to travel a
distance AC before being reflected. This will
take a time t where
During this time waves reflected at B will
have travelled a distance BD where
And the new wavefront is DC. Clearly
distance AC is equal to distance BD: this is
because the velocities of the incident and
reflected waves are equal.
If the angle of incidence is i then angle ACB is
(90-i) - from simple geometric considerations -
thus angle ABC is i and
In triangle DBC angle DBC is (90-i') and
angle DCB is thus i' and i' is given by
Since we know that AC and BD are equal,
equations 9.6 and 9.7 together give sin i = sin
127

i' thus i = i' and we have the 'Law of
Reflection':
Angle of incidence = Angle of reflection
Now consider figure 9.15 where the refracted
beam is shown.
Waves entering medium 2 at B will travel a
distance BD where
In the same time it takes for waves at A to
travel the distance AC where
In this case v1 is not necessarily equal to v2 so
distance BD is not equal to distance AC.
Angle ABC is equal to i (as in the previous
example with reflected waves). Hence
Similarly, angle BCD is equal to r and
Dividing equation 9.10 by equation 9.11 gives:
And substituting equations 9.8 and 9.9 this
becomes
Which is the 'Law of Refraction' for waves at a
boundary.
Since v1 is not necessarily equal to v2 , sin i is
not equal to sin r and so the angle of incidence
is not equal to the angle of refraction. The
angles of incidence and refraction depend on
the relative velocity of the waves in each
medium.
Equation 9.12 is a less familiar form of the law
of refraction. It is more common in the case of
light to define an 'index of refraction'. This is
Chapter 9 Waves
simply the ratio of the velocity of light in a
vacuum to its velocity in the medium.
Equation 9.12 then has v1 and v2 replaced by
n1 and n2, the refractive indices of each
medium. The refractive index is dictated by
the wave velocity in the medium.
For light waves in air their velocity, v1, is
always greater than the velocity, v2, in a
denser medium (glass or whatever).
Consequently the angle of incidence is always
greater than the angle of refraction.
When sound waves enter a denser medium,
they travel faster. Electromagnetic waves are
slowed in a denser medium.
Critical Angle:
From the previous discussion it is apparent
that waves are refracted at a boundary when
the wave velocity is different in each medium.
The relationship between incident and
refracted angle is given by equation 9.12.
Consider again the example of sound waves in
air incident upon a boundary with water.
Equation 9.13 relates the incident and
refracted angle in this case. If this equation is
used to calculate r for different values of i, a
table similar to table 9.2 is produced. The
results show a smooth increase in r as i
increase in the range 0° to 13°. The value i =
13° is called the critical angle for the air/water
system. At this angle of incidence the angle of
refraction, r, is 90°. In other words the
refracted wave travels along the air/water
boundary. For angles of incidence greater
than 13° there is no real solution to equation
9.13. Experimentally what we observe is that
total reflection occurs; that is, no refracted
wave is produced. The critical angle is the
largest incident angle for which a refracted
wave exists.
Although we have used the air/water system as
an example, the general conclusions apply to
any pair of materials where the wave velocity
128

in medium 2 is greater than in medium 1. In
this circumstance, the angle of refraction is
greater than the angle of incidence and at a
critical angle of incidence the refracted angle
will be 90o. For angles of incidence greater
than the critical angle, total reflection occurs.
The actual value of the critical angle for a
given pair of materials is calculated using
equation 9.12.
Table 9.2 Angle of incidence and refract ion for
sound waves at an air-water interface.
SOUND WAVES:
Sound is a series of longitudinal or
compression waves that move through air or
other materials. Sound does not travel in a
vacuum.
Because sound is the vibration of matter, it
does not travel through a vacuum or in outer
space.
Light and radio waves are electromagnetic
waves. They are completely different than
sound, which is vibration of matter.
Electromagnetic waves are related to electrical
and magnetic fields and readily travel through
space. They are transverse waves. The rapid
back-and-forth vibration of an object creates
the longitudinal or compression waves of
sound. Longitudinal waves are waves that
oscillate in the same path that the sound wave
is moving. This is different than the up and
down or transverse motion of a water wave.
Chapter 9 Waves
Characteristics of sound waves:
A sound wave has the same characteristics as
any other type of waveform. It has
wavelength, frequency, velocity and
amplitude.
Wavelength:
Wavelength is the distance from one point in a
wave to the same point on the second wave.
Since sound is a compression wave, the
wavelength is the distance between maximum
compressions.
Speed or velocity:
The sound waveform moves at approximately
344 meters/second, 1130 feet/sec. or 770 miles
per hour at room temperature of 20o C (70o F).
Frequency (pitch):
The frequency of sound is the rate at which the
waves pass a given point. It is also the rate at
which a guitar string or a loudspeaker vibrates.
The relationship between velocity, wavelength
and frequency is:
Velocity = wavelength x frequency
Amplitude:
Since sound is a compression wave, its
amplitude corresponds to how much the wave
is compressed, as compared to areas of little
compression. Thus, it is sometimes called
pressure amplitude.
Fig. 8.1: Transverse wave (water wave)
129
 Chapter 9 Waves

Fig. 8.2: Longitudinal or compression wave (sound)

Infrasonic:
Fig. 8.3: Constructive interference
Infrasonic are the sound waves, having a
frequency below those of sound waves that
can be detected by the human ear—i.e., below
20 hertz.

Infrasonic, covering sounds beneath 20 Hz

down to 0.001 Hz. This frequency range is
utilized for monitoring earthquakes, charting
rock and petroleum formations below the Fig. 8.4: Destructive interference
earth, and also in ballistocardiography and
seismocardiography to study the mechanics of
the heart.

Interference of sound waves:

When two or more sound waves from different
sources are present at the same time, they
interact with each other to produce a new
wave. The new wave is the sum of all the
different waves. Wave interaction is called
interference. If the compressions and the
rarefactions of the two waves line up, they
strengthen each other and create a wave with a
higher intensity. This type of interference is
known as constructive.
When the compressions and rarefactions are
out of phase, their interaction creates a wave
with a dampened or lower intensity. This is
destructive interference. When waves are
interfering with each other destructively, the
sound is louder in some places and softer in
others. As a result, we hear pulses or beats in
the sound.
Fig. 8.5: Dead Spot
Components of sound:
As you know, there are many different sounds.
Fire alarms are loud, whispers are soft,
sopranos sing high, tubas play low, and every
one of your friends has a different voice. The
differences between sounds are caused by
intensity, pitch, and tone.
Intensity:
Sound is a wave and waves have amplitude, or
height. Amplitude is a measure of energy. The
more energy a wave has, the higher its
amplitude. As amplitude increases, intensity
also increases. Intensity is the amount of
energy a sound has over an area. The same
sound is more intense if you hear it in a
smaller area. In general, we call sounds with a
higher intensity louder.

We are used to measuring the sounds we hear

in loudness. The sound of your friend yelling

130

is loud, while the sound of your own breathing
is very soft. Loudness cannot be assigned a
specific number, but intensity can. Intensity is
measured in decibels.
The human ear is more sensitive to high
sounds, so they may seem louder than a low
noise of the same intensity. Decibels and
intensity, however, do not depend on the ear.
They can be measured with instruments. A
whisper is about 10 decibels while thunder is
100 decibels. Listening to loud sounds, sounds
with intensities above 85 decibels, may
damage your ears. If a noise is loud enough,
over 120 decibels, it can be painful to listen to.
One hundred and twenty decibels is the
threshold of pain.
Pitch:
Pitch helps us distinguish between low and
high sounds. Imagine that a singer sings the
same note twice, one an octave above the
other. You can hear a difference between these
two sounds. That is because their pitch is
different.
Pitch depends on the frequency of a sound
wave. Frequency is the number of
wavelengths that fit into one unit of time.
Remember that a wavelength is equal to one
compression and one rarefaction. Even though
the singer sang the same note, because the
sounds had different frequencies, we heard
them as different. Frequencies are measured in
hertz. One hertz is equal to one cycle of
compression and rarefaction per second. High
sounds have high frequencies and low sounds
have low frequencies. Thunder has a
frequency of only 50 hertz, while a whistle can
have a frequency of 1,000 hertz.
The human ear is able to hear frequencies of
20 to 20,000 hertz. Some animals can hear
sounds at even higher frequencies. The reason
we cannot hear dog whistles, while they can, is
because the frequency of the whistle is too
high be processed by our ears. Sounds that are
too high for us to hear are called ultrasonic.
Chapter 9 Waves
Ultrasonic waves have many uses. In nature,
bats emit ultrasonic waves and listen to the
echoes to help them know where walls are or
to find prey. Captains of submarines and other
boats use special machines that send out and
receive ultrasonic waves. These waves help
them guide their boats through the water and
warn them when another boat is near.
Tone & Harmonics:
Another difference you may have noticed
between sounds is that some sounds are
pleasant while others are unpleasant. A
beginning violin player sounds very different
than a violin player in a symphony, even if
they are playing the same note. A violin also
sounds different than a flute playing the same
pitch. This is because they have a different
tone, or sound quality. When a source vibrates,
it actually vibrates with many frequencies at
the same time. Each of those frequencies
produces a wave. Sound quality depends on
the combination of different frequencies of
sound waves.
Imagine a guitar string tightly stretched. If we
strum it, the energy from our finger is
transferred to the string, causing it to vibrate.
When the whole string vibrates, we hear the
lowest pitch. This pitch is called the
fundamental. Remember, the fundamental is
really only one of many pitches that the string
is producing. Parts of the string vibrating at
frequencies higher than the fundamental are
called overtones, while those vibrating in
whole number multiples of the fundamental
are called harmonics. A frequency of two
times the fundamental will sound one octave
higher and is called the second harmonic. A
frequency four times the fundamental will
sound two octaves higher and is called the
fourth harmonic. Because the fundamental is
one times itself, it is also called the first
harmonic.
Normal Hearing Band:
Hearing range usually describes the range
of frequencies that can be heard by humans or
131
 Chapter 9 Waves

other animals, though it can also refer to the

range of levels. In humans the audible range of
frequencies is usually 20 to 20,000 Hz,
although there is considerable variation
between individuals, especially at high
frequencies, where a gradual decline with age
is considered normal. Sensitivity also varies
with frequency, as shown by equal-loudness
contours. Routine investigation for hearing
loss usually involves an audiogram which
shows threshold levels relative to a
standardized norm.

132
SECTION II

APPLIED
MEDICAL
PHYSICS

Chapter No. 10
THERAPEUTIC ULTRASOUND
Of the diathermic modalities commonly used
in therapy, ultrasound is the most popular.
This is not because ultrasound is necessarily
the most depth-effective. While ultrasound is a
deep-heating modality and more depth-
efficient than superficial modalities such as
hot packs, infrared lamps or lasers, the depth
effectiveness is strictly limited.
The ultrasound frequencies most commonly
used are 1 MHz and 3 MHz. The reasons for
these being popular operating frequencies will
become apparent in later sections of this
chapter. In water and tissues of high water
content the velocity of sound is close to 1500
m.s-1 thus the wavelength of 1 MHz
ultrasound is (from equation 10.1) about 1.5
mm and that of 3 MHz ultrasound is about 0.5
mm.
Production of the waves:
The apparatus used to generate ultrasound
waves consists of a high frequency oscillator,
a power amplifier and a piezo-electric crystal
which is mounted in a hand-held probe. A
gating circuit is usually interposed between the
oscillator and the power amplifier to provide
pulsing of the ultrasound output. Figure 10.1
illustrates the arrangement.
Figure 10.1 An ultrasound machine (schemat ic).
Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound
A power supply is needed to convert mains
supplied 50 Hz AC into DC to power the
subsections shown.
The heart of the circuit is the oscillator which
produces high frequency sinusoidal. This
current is amplified and applied to a piezo-
electric crystal, causing it to vibrate (change in
thickness) at the same frequency. The piezo-
electric effect was discovered in 1880 by the
brothers Pierre and Paul-Jaques Curie. They
found that certain crystals display the
remarkable property of producing a small
potential difference between their faces when
subjected to mechanical pressure. The reverse
of this effect, namely that when a voltage is
applied to a piezo-electric crystal it changes in
thickness, was discovered a short time
afterwards.
All piezo-electric crystals are found to exhibit
a resonance effect - that is, they vibrate most
efficiently at a certain (resonant) frequency.
This natural frequency depends on the
dimensions, most importantly on the thickness,
of the crystal. The resonant frequency of the
oscillator is normally adjusted during
manufacture to correspond to the crystal's
resonant frequency.
In continuous mode the gating circuit is not
used and the piezo-electric crystal is supplied
with high frequency AC continuously. In
pulsed mode the AC is applied to the crystal in
bursts. The burst frequency is normally 100
Hz; thus the time from the start of one burst to
the start of the next is one-hundredth of a
second or 10 milliseconds. The duty cycle is
the ratio of 'on' time to total time ('on' plus
'off') for the output. In other words the duty
cycle is the fraction of time for which
ultrasound is being produced. Typical values
of duty cycle for apparatus used in therapy are
in the range 1:2 to 1:10.
An alternative to specifying the duty cycle of
pulsed ultrasound is to specify the mark- space
ratio. The mark-space ratio is the ratio of 'on'
time to 'off' time for the output.
133

The rationale for the use of pulsed ultrasound
will be discussed in a later section of this
chapter.
Patte rn of Ultrasound field:
The ultrasound generator produces a beam of
ultrasonic waves by vibration of the metal end
plate of the treatment head (the transducer)
shown in figure 10.1. The plate is typically a
few centimeters in diameter - perhaps twenty
or thirty wavelengths.
When the diameter of the transducer is many
multiples of the wavelength, the sound beam is
cylindrical in shape and the beam divergence
is low. At a frequency of 1 MHz, an
ultrasound beam in water, produced by a
typical size transducer (2.8 cm diameter) has a
divergence of about 4°. This figure increases
to about 40° at a frequency of 100 kHz and
90° at 65 kHz. Thus at frequencies of 65 kHz
or less, there is no beam: sound waves radiate
in all directions. At MHz frequencies, the
sound beam is pencil- shaped and almost the
same diameter as the transducer.
Although the beam has a relatively uniform,
cylindrical shape, the relatively small size of
the treatment head of typical ultrasound
machines results in a marked variation in
ultrasound intensity across the width of the
beam. To see how this occurs, consider a
particular point in front of the transducer such
as point A in figure 10.2.
Every point on the transducer surface will act
as a source of sound waves. The total wave
amplitude, and hence total wave energy, at
point A will depend on the contribution from
all points on the transducer surface. Waves
from some points will arrive in phase and
reinforce each other; others will arrive out of
phase and cancel. Figure 10.3 shows waves
originating at only two points on the
transducer surface: in this case the waves are
out-of-phase and cancel.
By adding (vectorially) the waves originating
from all points on the transducer surface we
Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound
can calculate the resulting intensity at any
particular point. The calculations are made
complex by the fact that the surface of the
transducer does not remain planar, but flexes
and undulates as it oscillates.
Figure 10.2 Interference of sound waves from a
radiating source.
The net result is that the ultrasound field is not
uniform. Near the transducer a distinctive
pattern of maxima and minima of intensity are
produced. Beyond this region (called the near
or interference field) the distant field is more
homogenous and decreases smoothly in
intensity with distance from the transducer.
The effect is illustrated in figure 10.3 where
the undulations of the transducer surface have
been ignored for simplicity.
The pattern of intensity was calculated for a
frequency of 1 MHz and a transducer of
diameter 2.8 cm (area 6.2 cm2): with larger
diameters the pattern is qualitatively similar
with the interference effects extending to
greater distances.
At an ultrasound frequency of 3 MHz the
pattern would again be qualitatively similar
but with the interference effects extending
over approximately three times the distance
shown in figure 10.3.
Figure 10.3 Intensity along the axis of a sound
beam for a t ransducer of diameter 2.8 cm, operated
at 1 MHz frequency in water.
134

Figure 10.3 shows the variation in intensity of
an ultrasound beam at points along the central
axis. In the near field, local 'hot-spots’ or
regions of maximum intensity are separated by
'cold-spots' or regions of minimum intensity.
Off-axis, patterns of hot-spots and cold-spots
are also observed. The location of their
maxima and minima are, however, different.
Averaged across the beam, the intensity is
relatively constant, only decreasing slowly
with distance. So at any particular distance,
hot-spots and cold spots are produced in
different locations across the beam, while the
average energy is constant.
Figure 10.4 shows another view of the energy
distribution in an ultrasound beam. This time a
two-dimensional view showing the high
intensity regions off the central axis. The
shaded areas indicate regions of high local
ultrasound intensity. Note that regions of low
intensity on the central axis have, alongside,
regions of high intensity and vice-versa.
Most of the ultrasound energy is confined
within the area defined by the brown lines.
There is a slight convergence of the beam in
the near (interference) field and a small
divergence in the far field.
Figure 10.4 Variation in intensity within the
ultrasound beam described in figure 10.3.
The complex interference pattern makes it
essential that in therapeutic application of
ultrasound the transducer be moved around
over the area to be treated. If the sound-head
(ultrasound transducer) were kept stationary,
localized 'hot spots' would be produced in
tissue which could result in excessive local
heating. By moving the sound-head in circular
paths, production of local areas of high
temperature rise is avoided.
Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound
If the sound-head is moved in a circular path
so as to produce a treated area of at least twice
the diameter of the head, hot-spot production
will be avoided.
Beam Non-uniformity Ratio (BNR):
A quantity of interest is the beam non-
uniformity ratio or BNR. This is the ratio of
the peak intensity to average intensity of the
beam. Because there are always local regions
of high intensity, the BNR is always greater
than 1.
In figure 10.4, the intensity pattern is that
which would be produced by a piezo-electric
crystal which was about the same size as the
ultrasound treatment head. If the crystal were
appreciably smaller than the metal end-plate of
the ultrasound treatment head, the metal end-
plate would vibrate differently and the pattern
shown in figure 10.4 would be different. The
high-intensity regions would be in different
positions and, more importantly, the peaks
would be higher. So the BNR would be
higher.
A low BNR is clearly an advantage but
movement of the treatment head is of much
more crucial importance in clinical practice.
In the following sections we ignore beam non-
uniformity and assume that the treatment head
is moved to produce the effect of a uniform
ultrasound beam. For a more accurate analysis
we would have to consider the exact shape of
the beam and its movement and also include
the effect of tissue inhomogeneity in the
calculations (for example the effect of blood
vessels in fatty tissues). Much useful insight
can, however, be gained with the simplifying
assumptions used.
Transfer of energy to tissue: coupling
Before examining the effect of ultrasound on
tissue we must first consider the transfer of
energy from the transducer to tissue.
Previously we saw that reflection of waves at
an interface depends on the difference in
impedance of the two media.
135

Table 10.1 (following) lists the acoustic
impedances of air, water, steel and body
tissues. Notice that the impedance of air and
metal differ significantly from the rest with air
showing by far the largest deviation.
Table 10.1 Acoustic properties of materials.
The acoustic impedance of air is only a tiny
fraction of the impedance of body tissues. For
this reason the ultrasound transducer must be
in intimate contact with the skin for
appreciable transfer of energy to the tissues. If
the transducer is separated from the skin by
even a tiny air gap most of the ultrasonic
energy will be reflected back into the
transducer from the air/tissue boundary. It is a
useful exercise to calculate the amount of
energy transmitted at an air/tissue interface.
Using the values in table 10.1 and equation
10.2
We predict that the amplitude of the reflected
wave will be 0.9997 times the amplitude of the
incident wave for an air/tissue interface.
Hence (0.9997)2 x 100 = 99.94 per cent of the
incident energy is reflected! Clearly the
amount of energy transmitted (0.06%) is
negligible. Almost all of the wave energy is
reflected back into the air.
Only by having a coupling medium between
the transducer and tissue can efficient transfer
of energy be ensured. The coupling medium is
spread on the surface of the skin so that the
ultrasound transducer contacts the skin via the
coupling medium. No air/tissue boundary is
present.
Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound
Many different coupling media can be used.
The desirable characteristics of the coupling
medium are:
 It should be fluid, so as to completely fill
the gap between skin and treatment head
and exclude air bubbles.
 It should be viscous so that it stays on the
skin rather than rapidly flowing and
spreading.
 It should not inhibit heat loss from the skin
otherwise high temperatures may be
produced in skin and subcutaneous tissue.
 It should have an impedance similar to
that of steel and tissue, so as to minimize
reflection.
 It should absorb a negligible amount of the
ultrasound energy: in other words, should
have a high penetration depth.
In practice the first two criteria listed above
are the most important. The principal function
of a coupling medium is to eliminate air gaps
and provide contact between treatment head
and tissue. Criterion three is also very
important and water or water based gels are
best in this regard. Criterion four is important
but most liquids have similar values of
acoustic impedance.
Water meets all the above criteria with the
exception of the second (viscosity). For this
reason water is most often used either in a
coupling cushion (a polythene or rubber bag
filled with water) or in a bath - when the part
to be treated can be immersed.
Oils and liquid medicinal paraffin have
appropriate viscosities and so can be used as
couplants, however they inhibit heat loss from
the skin and produce greater superficial
heating than water, and water based gels or
glycerol.
Glycerol is viscous and has similar acoustic
properties to water. It makes a very good
coupling medium.
Thixotropic couplants are solids at room
temperature which liquefy when ultrasound is
136

applied. They are ideally suited to treatment
of a vertical surface as they will not run down
the skin. A number of thixotropic couplants
are available.
Thermal Effects of Ultrasound:
In this section we ignore the effects of
different coupling media and focus attention
on what happens to the ultrasound energy
which is transmitted into tissue.
At the intensity levels used for therapy the
major effect of ultrasound waves on tissue is,
as with all diathermic modalities, the
production of heat. The amount of heat
generated in a particular tissue depends on two
factors:
 The rate at which energy is absorbed by
the tissue - which is determined by the
penetration depth, δ.
 The extent to which the waves are
reflected back into the tissue on striking a
tissue interface: determined by the
difference in impedance between the two
media.
The amount of reflection at a tissue interface is
determined by the difference in impedance of
the two materials. The acoustic impedance (Z)
depends on the elasticity and density of a
medium according to equation 10.3:
Where ρ is the density and Y the modulus of
elasticity (stiffness) of the medium. The
velocity of sound in the medium, v, also
depends on elasticity and density according to
equation 10.4:
Combining these two equations we obtain a
simple expression for the impedance in terms
of velocity and density:
Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound
Table 10.1 lists the acoustic properties of air,
water, various tissues and steel. As noted
previously the acoustic impedance of air
differs considerably from the remaining
materials.
The table also shows that there is little
difference in the acoustic impedance of
muscle, fatty tissue and water. For this reason
we expect little reflection at a fat/muscle
interface. The reflection coefficient calculated
using equation 10.2 is 0.10, thus the amount of
energy reflected is 0.1 squared or 1%.
The impedance of bone is higher than that of
muscle hence we expect significant reflection
at a muscle/bone interface. The reflection
coefficient is 0.50 so we expect about 25% of
the energy to be reflected.
Heating Rate of Boneless Tissue:
Consider first an ultrasound beam travelling
through fatty tissue and muscle with no bone
present. Equation 10.2 tells us that reflection
at the fat/muscle interface is negligible and
equation 10.6 indicates that refraction is
minimal for incident angles up to about 50°.
Thus we can consider the waves to be
travelling in one direction in a straight line
through the tissue.
The wave intensity at a point is the energy per
unit area per unit time; the area being taken
perpendicular to the wave direction. Since
energy varies with distance according to
equation 10.7, the wave intensity I (in watts
per square meter) is given by equation 10.8:
Where x is the distance in the tissue and δ is
the penetration depth. The rate of heating is
equal to the rate of decrease of intensity with
distance it depends on two factors, the wave
intensity at a particular point and the rate of
137
 Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound

absorption of energy (specified, indirectly, by This validates ultrasound as being classified as

the penetration depth). The rate of decrease of a diathermic modality. A greater rate of
intensity with distance is obtained by heating is produced at depth.
differentiating equation 10.8 to give:
[The depth efficiency of MHz frequency
ultrasound is not, however, as great as implied
by figure 10.9. Depth efficiency is best
assessed by the rate of temperature increase,
Where P v is the heat developed per unit
which is not the same as the rate of heating. A
volume per second. We can use equations 10.8
graph of temperature increase resulting from
and 10.9 together with values for δ (from table
this heating pattern does not show as great a
9.1) to calculate the wave intensity and heat
development in different parts of a fatty difference between fatty tissue and muscle.
This is because temperature elevation in tissue
tissue/muscle combination once we know the
depends on a number of factors other than rate
thickness of the fat and muscle layers.
of energy input. Temperature elevation will be
For example, suppose that we have a fat layer considered later in this chapter].
of uniform thickness (1 cm) on top of a thick
muscle layer and that ultrasound of frequency
1 MHz is incident upon this tissue
combination. The penetration depth in fatty
tissue at this frequency is 7.2 cm thus the wave
intensity (equation 10.8) will be reduced by a
factor of e-1/7.2 or 0.87 on traversing the fatty
tissue - a decrease of only 13%. After
travelling a distance of one centimeter in the
muscle the intensity would be reduced by a
factor of e-1/1.7 or 0.56 so the intensity would
be 56% of 87% or 49% of the original energy.

Figure 10.9 shows the overall reduction in

wave intensity with distance in the tissue and
also the relative rate of heating of the tissue
(equation 10.9). Calculated heating rates are
scaled to a value of 100% at the muscle
surface (because this is where maximum
heating occurs).
Even though we have made a number of
simplifying assumptions (to be discussed
shortly) the general implications of figure 10.9
are valid. It is clear that only modest heating
is produced in the fatty tissue. Greatest
heating is produced in the few centimeters of
muscle tissue adjacent to the fat/muscle
interface. Using our simplified model, even
after penetrating 2 cm of muscle tissue the
ultrasound is predicted to produce a higher rate
of heating than at any point in the fatty tissue.
Figure 10.5 Wave intensity and relative rate of
heating in fat and muscle tissue with ultrasound of
frequency 1 MHz.
Heating Rate of Tissues with Bone:
The same kind of calculation as made above
can be performed for the more complex tissue
combination of fat/muscle/bone. In this case
we cannot ignore reflection. Equation 10.2
indicates that close to 25% of the wave energy
incident upon the muscle/bone interface is
reflected.
Figure 10.6 shows the relative rate of heating
which is predicted for a combination of 1 cm
fatty tissue and 1 cm muscle overlying bone.
The reflection has two effects:

138

 A greater proportion of the total wave
energy is absorbed in the fat and muscle
tissue.
 The reflected and incident waves will
interfere and produce a standing wave
pattern.
Figure 10.6 Wave intensity and relative rate of
heating in fat, muscle and bone with ult rasound of
frequency 1 MHz.
The first of these effects is quite significant.
Energy will be absorbed both as the wave
travels through fat and muscle to the boundary
with bone and as the reflected wave travels
back through muscle then fatty tissue. Hence
the total rate of heating of fat and muscle
tissue at any depth is greater than without the
bone (compare figures 10.6 and 10.5). The
effect on fatty tissue is small. As might be
expected, in muscle the effect is larger because
the reflected wave, and thus the reflected wave
energy, is larger.
The second effect is of less practical
importance. Certainly an interference pattern
will be produced but consider the distance
between nodes and antinodes. The wavelength
of the standing wave pattern is the same as that
of the incident and reflected waves with nodes
and also antinodes separated by one half of a
wavelength. For ultrasound of frequency 1
MHz the wavelength is 1.5 mm so the
antinodes will be separated by 0.75 mm. The
antinodes represent points of maximum wave
energy and hence maximum heat production.
We have, then, that points of maximum heat
Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound
production are only 0.75 mm apart. This is too
close to be of practical significance,
particularly if the treatment head is kept
moving. We have already seen why the
treatment head cannot be kept stationary:
movement is necessary to smooth out the
effects of variations in ultrasound intensity
with depth shown in figure 10.4. This same
movement will produce variations in tissue
thickness well in excess of 0.75 mm. The net
result will be an averaging of any standing
wave pattern as the treatment head is moved:
so much so that no evidence for standing
waves would be detected. In addition factors
such as the pulsatile nature of blood flow
through tissue and muscle contraction will
result in variations in the thickness of tissue
layers: the standing wave pattern will hence
shift back and forth, further smoothing the
pattern of heat production.
The most significant feature of figure 10.6 is
the high rate of heating of the bone surface.
Most of the wave energy transmitted into the
bone is absorbed in the first few millimeters.
This is predicted from the value of penetration
depth. The result is substantial heating. As
can be seen, the heating rate is predicted to be
about three times greater at the bone surface
than anywhere in the muscle tissue. Heat
development is confined to the first few
millimeters of bone but is quite substantial. In
practice, heat production at the bone surface is
often the factor which limits the intensity
which can be used in therapeutic application of
1 MHz ultrasound. Too great an intensity or
too prolonged a treatment can result in
periosteal pain and significant tissue damage
(a periosteal burn).
The risk of periosteal burns is reduced by
movement of the ultrasound transducer
(treatment head). Movement distributes the
ultrasound energy over a larger area of the
bone surface, thus reducing the average energy
in a specific location.
The pattern of heat production shown in
figures 10.5 and 10.6 indicate the value of 1
139

MHz ultrasound for heating of deeply located
tissue. Figure 10.6 also highlights the risk
when the soft tissue layers are thin and
underlying bone is exposed to the ultrasound
beam.
If a frequency of 3 MHz is used rather than 1
MHz, values of penetration depth are smaller.
The ultrasound intensity decreases more
rapidly so heat production is greater in the
superficial tissues. A less pronounced 'deep
heating' effect results but there is less energy
remaining at depth to heat underlying bone.
Figure 10.7 shows the wave intensity and
relative rate of heating calculated for
ultrasound of frequency 3 MHz in a tissue
combination with the same dimensions as
assumed in figure 10.6. Note that with the
assumptions made, the peak heating rate at the
bone surface does not exceed that at the
muscle surface.
Comparison of figures 10.6 and 10.7 bears out
the qualitative observation made earlier: if a
maximum depth efficiency of heating is
required then 1 MHz ultrasound is the
modality of choice. For less deeply located
structures, 3 MHz ultrasound may be preferred
to avoid excessive heating of the bone.
Figures 10.6 and 10.7 indicate the great
usefulness of ultrasound for heating of joints,
particularly those located under thick tissue
layers. Heat developed at the bone surface
will be transferred to heat the adjoining tissue.
Experimental work in which the temperature
elevation of the hip joint was measured
directly confirms that ultrasonic therapy is
very useful in this regard.
Let us now briefly summarize the
approximations made in calculating the results
shown in figures 10.6 and 10.7:
 We have assumed that the ultrasound
beam is uniform: that is, we have
neglected the original beam shape. This is
a reasonable approximation to make if the
treatment head is moving and the transfer
Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound
of heat between and within tissues is taken
into account.
Figure 10.7 Wave intensity and relative rate of
heating in fat, muscle and bone with ult rasound of
frequency 3 MHz.
 We have neglected reflection and
refraction at the fat/muscle interface. A
reasonable approximation as only about
1% of the energy is reflected and the
refraction effect is very small (equation
10.6 and table 10.1). Reflection at the
bone surface was taken into account
refraction in bone is unimportant as the
penetration depth is so small.
 We have assumed the tissue layers to be
homogeneous. A valid assumption when
we are considering heating of the tissue as
a whole. We return to this point shortly in
considering the mechanical effects of
ultrasound.
 We have neglected heat losses to the
bloodstream and heat transfer to adjacent
tissues. These effects are considered next.
Temperature Distribution in Tissue:
The results shown in Figures 10.5 to 10.7
correctly describe the rate of heating due to the
absorption of wave energy. They do not,
however, describe the resulting rate of
temperature increase. The rate of temperature
increase depends on the heat capacity of the
tissue. The heat capacity is measured by how
much heat must be provided to increase the
temperature by one degree. A tissue with a
140

high heat capacity will require more heat to
increase the temperature by 1o than a tissue
with a low heat capacity. Muscle tissue
(principally because of its high water content)
has a higher heat capacity than fatty tissue or
bone. Consequently, for the same amount of
heat energy, the temperature increase in
muscle will be less than that of fatty tissue or
bone. At the commencement of treatment, the
relative rate of heating will be more or less as
indicated in the figures. Graphs of rate of
temperature increase would, however, show an
overall lesser rate of temperature increase in
muscle than fat or bone, because of the heat
capacity effect. A second factor affecting the
rate of temperature increase in tissue is heat
loss to the surrounding tissue and, more
importantly, the blood vessels. Muscle has a
much higher vascularity and therefore volume
rate of blood flow, than fatty tissue or bone.
We would thus expect convective cooling of
muscle (i.e. heat carried away by the
bloodstream) to reduce the rate of temperature
increase still further. A third factor is that any
temperature increase in muscle would also be
expected to trigger reflex dilation, whereby
arterioles dilate to increase the blood flow in
response to an increase in temperature. This
would further decrease the rate of temperature
increase.
The main points relating temperature increase
to heating rate are as follows:
 The low specific heat capacity of fatty
tissue and poor thermal conductivity will
result in a greater temperature rise than
indicated by the graphs. In addition the
thermal conductivity of fatty tissue is low
and its vascularity is not as good as
muscle; consequently heat cannot be
removed as rapidly. This adds to the
temperature elevation of fatty tissue as
compared to muscle.
 Efficient heat transfer through muscle
tissue and to blood vessels will result in
more uniform heating of muscle and less
temperature rise than might otherwise be
Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound
expected. At the same time heat transfer
to the adjacent fatty tissue will reduce the
temperature elevation of muscle near the
fat/muscle interface.
 Bone is a relatively good conductor of
heat. The heat will be rapidly distributed
in the bone and also transferred to the
periosteum. The higher thermal
conductivity partially compensates for the
rapid absorption of energy near the bone
surface and reduces the selective heating.
It is still possible, however, to produce a
maximum temperature elevation in the
periosteum when the intervening tissue
layers are not very thick. This gives rise
to the periosteal pain mentioned
previously.
Despite these limitations, some of which also
apply to other diathermic modalities,
ultrasound is an effective deep-heating
modality. The principal factor limiting the
temperature elevation which can be produced
at depth is heating of the periosteum.
Mechanical Effects:
The predominant physiological effects of
ultrasound therapy are due to a rise in
temperature of the treated tissues. Certain
effects are, however, produced which are a
direct result of the mechanical vibration of
tissue. As an ultrasound wave propagates the
particles in the medium experience rapidly
alternating compressions and rarefactions. The
pressure varies with distance as shown in
figure 10.8. Regions of high pressure (dark
shading) are separated by one wavelength
about 1.5 mm for 1 MHz ultrasound.
Figure 10.8 Pressure variation in an ultrasound
wave.
141

For a wave intensity of 2 to 4 watts per square
centimeter (near the upper limit for therapeutic
application) the pressure amplitude of the
waves is about 2 to 4 atmospheres (20 to 40
newtons per square centimeter). This means
that the pressure extremes a difference of 4 to
8 atmospheres are separated in tissue by only
one half of a wavelength (0.75 mm). Any
tissue component or substructure with
dimensions of about one wavelength will be
subject to substantial mechanical stresses,
alternating at a frequency of 1 MHz. Smaller
structures such as tissue cells will experience
lesser, though still substantial stresses and will
be vibrated back and forth by the pressure
changes.
Therapeutic ultrasound produces large stresses
in biological tissues, acting over distances of a
fraction of a millimeter. The stresses are
greatest in the regions shown in figure 10.4.
Figures 10.4 and 10.8 are two important views
of the ultrasound intensity variation in a beam.
Figure 10.4 is at a gross, large-scale level and
shows the variation in intensity within a beam.
Regions of high intensity (shown by the
deepest blue coloration) are separated by
distances measured in centimeters and the
positions are stationary in the beam. Viewed
on a smaller scale, figure 10.8 shows a sound
wave within the beam. At any point within the
beam shown in figure 10.4, the pressure varies
from maximum to minimum over a distance of
half of one wavelength and regions of high
pressure move through the medium (tissue, air
or water) at a high velocity. The sound
velocity, v, is about 1500 m.s-2 in water and
soft tissue.
Listed below are some examples of the effects
of ultrasound where mechanical stresses are
thought to play a significant role. It should be
emphasized that in all instances heating
contributes to the observed results: in most
cases it is difficult to ascertain the relative
contribution of thermal and mechanical
effects.
Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound
 Experiments have shown that the
extensibility of connective tissue can be
increased by exposure to ultrasound.
Since connective tissue fibers are key
constituents of tendons, scar tissue, joint
capsules and muscle the results are of
major significance for therapy. Part of the
effect is attributed to the increase in
temperature on exposure to ultrasound: the
separation of fibers and loosening of the
structure as a result of the mechanical
stresses would also be expected to
contribute.
 The rate of diffusion of ions across cell
membranes is found to increase on
exposure to ultrasound. An effect is
observed over and above that due to
heating alone. A possible explanation is
that a stirring effect is produced which
increases the concentration gradient of
ions and other materials. In any diffusion
process there will be a narrow region on
either side of the membrane where the ion
concentrations are not the same as in the
bulk of the fluid. Another possible
contributing factor involves the fluidity of
the cell membrane. If we picture the cell
membrane as a thixotropic barrier we
predict that the fluidity, and hence the
permeability, of the cell membrane will
increase in response to the mechanical
agitation of the ultrasound waves.
 Ultrasound is useful in relieving pain and
muscle spasm. While any form of heating
is useful in this regard, it appears that
ultrasound can have an effect other than
via direct heating. The mechanism of this
action has not been conclusively
established but it is interesting to note that
an optimum effect appears to be produced
using pulsed ultrasound beams. The pulse
frequency normally available is 100 Hz
the same frequency used to produce
analgesia by electrical stimulation.
142

Pulsed Ultrasound:
Most ultrasound apparatus makes provision for
either pulsed or continuous output. In pulsed
mode the ultrasound is produced in bursts,
normally with a frequency of 50 or 100 Hz. If
the duty cycle ('on' time to 'on + off' time) is
1:5 then the apparatus is 'on' for only one fifth
of the time: consequently the rate of transfer of
energy is one fifth of that obtained using the
continuous mode at the same intensity. If the
dose required (continuous mode) necessitates
treatment for 20 minutes then to obtain a
similar thermal effect using pulsed ultrasound
we would have to extend the treatment time or
increase the intensity to compensate. An
increase in the treatment time alone will not
compensate adequately. Suppose the duty
cycle is 1:5 then a 20 minute (continuous)
treatment could be increased to 100 minutes
(pulsed). Although the total energy (the dose)
supplied to the tissue is the same in both cases,
spreading the treatment over 100 minutes will
considerably reduce the temperature elevation
produced.
Increasing the intensity by a factor of five will
result in the same rate of energy transfer to
tissue (dose rate) but the much higher peak
intensities could result in tissue damage
through gaseous cavitation the rapid formation
and collapse of tiny gas bubbles in the tissue
fluid. The cavitation effect will be described
more fully in chapter 12 along with other
potentially harmful effects.
Proponents of the use of pulsed ultrasound
argue that heat production is rarely the sole
objective of therapy and that in some
applications it may even be undesirable. By
use of pulsed ultrasound, at low to moderate
intensities, mechanical effects are produced
while heat production is kept to a minimum.
Of course the same (low) rate of heat
production could be achieved using the
continuous mode at one fifth of the peak
intensity. We would, however, expect some
differences in the mechanical effects
produced: continuous mild mechanical
Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound
agitation does not necessarily produce the
same effect as brief vigorous mechanical
agitation. The idea is that mechanical effects
do not depend linearly on intensity: that there
is a threshold intensity level below which the
mechanical effects are negligible. Pulsed
ultrasound would ensure that intensities above
threshold are achieved while keeping heat
production to a minimum.
One study which indicates the possibility of
therapeutically significant mechanical effects
was carried out by Dyson et al. (1968). these
authors examined the rate of tissue repair
using continuous output treatment compared
with pulsed mode treatment using different
duty cycles. The frequency used was 3 MHz
and the output in pulsed mode was adjusted to
keep the average power the same in each
experiment. Tissue growth rate was increased
using a duty cycle of 1:5 but retarded when a
duty cycle of 1:80 was used. It seems that
modest duty cycles may promote repair
activity but that (for the same average power)
too small a duty cycle involves peak power
levels which are damaging to tissue. The
results of this and other relevant studies are
summarized by Dyson and Suckling (1978).
There is no clinical evidence that pulsed has
greater therapeutic benefit than continuous
ultrasound. Biophysical evidence shows that
there are different effects, but whether this
translates into clinical practice is unknown at
present.
To date, insufficient research has been done to
quantitatively determine the relative
contributions of heating and mechanical
effects in different therapeutic applications of
ultrasound. When such information is
available the therapist will be in a better
position to select between pulsed and
continuous mode and, when pulsed mode is
indicated, to choose the appropriate duty
cycle.
At this stage it is possible, at least, to say that
if ultrasound is chosen (rather than another
143
 Chapter 10 Therapeutic Ultrasound

diathermic modality) on the basis of the

predicted pattern of heat production, then a
continuous output is indicated. Where
mechanical effects are a desirable part of the
therapy, continuous or pulsed mode might be
selected.

144

Chapter No. 11
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
FOR THERAPY
We saw, in chapter 8, that Maxwell's equations
predict that whenever charges are accelerated
electromagnetic waves are produced. In this
chapter we consider the electromagnetic waves
used in therapy: how they are produced and
why they are useful to physiotherapists.
Three main kinds of electromagnetic wave are
used in therapy: microwaves, infrared and
ultraviolet radiation. Of these, only
microwaves are able to penetrate tissue
significantly and so be classed as diathermic.
The different therapeutic applications of these
radiations arise from their differing effect on
tissue. These effects, in turn, are determined
by the wavelength (or frequency) of the
waves. Before considering the effect on tissue
we examine the way in which each kind of
electromagnetic wave is produced: this gives a
first insight into their physical and
physiological effects.
[Ultraviolet and infrared radiation have low
penetration depth but are useful for therapy in
applications other than diathermy.]
Production of waves around optical
frequency:
In what follows we consider the way in which
infrared and ultraviolet radiation are produced
for therapy. Both kinds of radiation are
normally produced by similar apparatus: more
fundamental are the similarities in the
molecular processes involved.
Production of Ultraviolet Radiation:
When discussing ultraviolet radiation it is a
common convention to talk in terms of
wavelength rather than frequency.
Electromagnetic waves with frequencies from
0.75 x 1015 Hz to 3.00 x 1015 Hz are classified
as ultraviolet radiation. Their frequencies are
above those of visible light and below those of
X-rays. Ultraviolet radiation has wavelengths
between 400 nm and 100 nm. The
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
wavelengths used in therapy are restricted to
the high end of this range: 190 nm to 400 nm,
as wavelengths less than 190 nm are strongly
absorbed in air.
By international convention the ultraviolet
spectrum is divided into three regions.
These are:
 UV-A: wavelengths between 400 nm and
315 nm
 UV-B: wavelengths between 315 nm and
280 nm
 UV-C: wavelengths between 280 nm and
100 nm.
UV-C radiation is used to sterilize things when
you don't want to boil them. This is because
UV-C, at sufficiently high intensities, destroys
bacteria. It does this by damaging the
bacterial DNA. UV-C exposure will also
damage human cells in the same way and can
produce malignancies (cancer). UV-C and, in
fact, UV-B and -A have an extremely low
penetration depth, so most of the absorption of
UV is by the skin. The low penetration depth
of UV is the reason that UV exposure (in
particular, exposure to UV-C) is associated
with skin cancer.
The usual means of producing ultraviolet light
is by the passage of an electric current through
an ionized gas or vapor. Gases at normal
temperature and pressure are very poor
conductors. They can, however, be made to
conduct at high temperature or low pressure in
the presence of a sufficiently strong electric
field.
Ultraviolet radiation for therapeutic
application is usually produced by current
flow through mercury vapor. Mercury under
reduced pressure is contained in a sealed
envelope of quartz or special glass with an
electrode inserted in each end. The device is
similar to the strip-lights (fluorescent lights)
commonly found in the kitchen at home and
the office or tutorial room. The difference is
that UV lights operate at lower pressures than
household or business lights. This means that
more energy is required to initiate conduction
and charges are accelerated over greater
145

distances so that when they collide, the energy
release is larger and, as a result of the higher
energies, UV rather than visible light is
produced. The arrangement used with a
mercury vapor lamp is shown in figure 11.1.
Figure 11.1 Schematic diagram of a mercury vapor
lamp.
The reduced pressure in the lamp ensures that
mercury vapor is present, but in order for
current to flow the vapor must be ionized. This
means that electrons must be separated from
the parent atoms. Cosmic rays and gamma-
rays are high frequency and high energy and
can 'kick' electrons from their orbitals, so
producing positive ions and free electrons.
Under normal circumstances the electron
returns to its parent atom, because of the
attraction between positive and negative
charges. However, in a sufficiently strong
electric field (as in the lamp) the excited
electron can accelerate and collide with other
atoms. If the electric field is strong enough,
the electron can gain enough energy to cause
further ionization and produce an 'avalanche'
effect: one electron is accelerated and collides,
producing more metal ions and free electrons
which in turn accelerate, collide and cause
further ionization.
The glow of a mercury-vapor lamp is a
consequence of the avalanche of ionization.
After participating briefly in the avalanche,
electrons reattach to ions, dropping into a
particular orbital and releasing energy in the
form of electromagnetic waves.
In the discharge process ions are being
continually formed and are continually
recombining with electrons. As ions and
electrons recombine energy is released in the
form of electromagnetic radiation which has
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
frequencies characteristic of the parent atom.
The range of frequencies put out by the lamp
is modified by the pressure within the lamp
and further modified in passing through the
glass envelope which contains the vapor.
Figure 11.2 compares the range of
wavelengths over which various lamps put out
appreciable energy. The spectral range for an
ordinary incandescent (tungsten filament)
lamp, a fluorescent tube (strip-light) and for
sunlight is also included for comparison.
Also indicated in the figure are approximate
proportions of ultraviolet, visible and infrared
radiation expressed as a percentage of the total
energy output. The proportions vary with the
pressure of mercury vapor in the lamp or tube
and with the thickness and composition of the
lamp envelope. Percentages are not shown for
fluorescent tubes ('strip lights') or incandescent
lamps (normal globes) as the proportions vary
depending on the construction of the device,
the power rating and whether filters are used
to block-out certain wavelengths.
Mercury vapor lamps operating at lower
pressure put out more radiation in the high
frequency region of the spectrum (towards the
far ultraviolet region). Even so, all ultraviolet
lamps produce a considerable amount of
energy in the infrared and visible region. Both
the visible and far ultraviolet radiation can be
removed by the use of filters. If water cooling
of the lamp is used - as with the Kromayer
lamp - the water serves the dual role of
keeping the lamp cool and absorbing the
infrared radiation.
Within the ultraviolet region of the spectrum
there are significant differences in the output
of mercury vapor lamps and tubes:
 Low pressure mercury vapor lamps,
otherwise known as cold quartz lamps
when the envelope material is quartz, emit
most of their ultraviolet radiation in the
UV-C region, at a wavelength of 253.7
nm. The operating temperature of the
lamp envelope rarely exceeds about 60oC.
146
 Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves

Figure 11.2 Spectral ranges of various lamps and sunlight

 High pressure mercury vapor lamps, C radiation is emitted from any of these
known as hot quartz lamps when the light sources.
envelope material is quartz, put out a
In the past carbon arcs were used extensively
proportion of their ultraviolet energy at a
for the production of ultraviolet radiation. Two
wavelength of 366.0 nm (in the UV-A
carbon rods are brought into contact with each
region). There is also significant output at
other and a current is passed through them.
specific wavelengths in the UV-B and
With a small point of contact the high current
UV-C regions. The amount of energy in
density heats and vaporizes the carbon. The
each region depends on the construction of
rods are then separated and the presence of
the lamp. The normal operating
carbon vapor enables a current to flow in the
temperature of these lamps is several
form of an arc discharge between the ends of
hundred degrees Celsius: if they are to be
the rod. The spectrum produced by carbon arcs
used close to, or in contact with the patient
has a range close to that of sunlight (figure
they must be cooled by a water jacket
11.2): the proportions of ultraviolet, visible
(Kromayer lamps) or an air blower.
and infrared radiation are also similar. Carbon
 Fluorescent ultraviolet tubes are usually
arcs are rarely used today in physiotherapy
low pressure mercury lamps in the form of
departments: they have been largely
a long tube. The tube is coated on the
superseded by mercury vapor lamps which are
inside with fluorescent substances
cleaner and easier to operate.
(phosphors). The purpose of the phosphor
Is to absorb the original ultraviolet Production of Infrare d Radiation:
radiation and re-emit it at longer
wavelengths. Different phosphors have Infrared radiation - sometimes referred to as
different wavelengths for re-emission of radiant heat - is produced (and absorbed) by
radiation. The commonly used ultraviolet all materials at temperatures above absolute
tubes put out most of their energy in the zero.
UV-A region. Special tubes are available
Absorption of infrared radiation results in
which produce a maximum output in the
changes in molecular and atomic motion of a
UV-B region. A negligible amount of UV-
material; the continuous agitation and changes
in the motion of molecules, and within

147

molecules also results in the emission of
infrared radiation. For example, chemical
bonds in molecules can absorb energy and
'stretch', changing the bond length and thus the
energy of the bonding electrons. When the
bond reverts to its original size, infrared
radiation is produced at a frequency
characteristic of the bond.
[Any object will be emitting and absorbing
infrared radiation on an ongoing basis.
Whether emission outweighs absorption
depends on the temperature of the object
relative to its surroundings.]
Any molecule may, as a result of absorption of
radiation or collision, change its state of
rotation or vibration, or both simultaneously.
On changing to a rotation or vibration state of
lower energy, infrared radiation is produced. A
particular kind of molecule has very many
possible states of rotation and vibration and
therefore many options for going from one
state to some other.
At a given temperature a body will emit a
continuous spectrum of radiation – the
maximum intensity occurring at a particular
frequency but with significant intensities
extending over a wide range of frequencies.
The frequency of maximum production of
radiation is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the source. Since
wavelength and frequency are inversely
related (by equation 9.1, v = f.λ), it follows
that the wavelength of maximum production
of radiation is inversely proportional to the
absolute temperature of the source. (This is
called Wien's Law).
As the source of radiation becomes
progressively warmer, the wavelength of
maximum emission becomes progressively
shorter: thus an iron bar turns from black to
'red-hot' to 'white hot' to 'blue hot' as its
temperature increases. In the black to red-hot
temperature range both near infrared (770 to
about 4000 nm) and far infrared (4000 to
15000 nm) radiation is produced in
appreciable amounts.
A suitable device for producing such radiation
consists of a coil of wire through which a
current is passed. If the coil is wound on an
insulator such as a ceramic rod, both the wire
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
and the ceramic will emit radiation. The
ceramic, being at a lower temperature will
produce more far infrared radiation. The
common household electric heater is usually
of this kind. A way of producing most
radiation in the far infrared region of the
spectrum is to encase the heating element
inside a ceramic rod or mount it behind a plate
so that the major source of radiation is the rod
or plate. If a reflector is used, the reflector will
absorb some radiation and re-emit it at higher
wavelengths thus adding to the far infrared
component. These devices are often used for
therapy. Use is also made of incandescent
infrared lamps which produce a significantly
greater proportion of near infrared radiation.
Incandescent infrared lamps (similar to
household lamps - consisting of a tungsten
filament mounted in a glass envelope) have
maximum emission at a wavelength around
1000 nm: some visible and ultraviolet light is
produced but the ultraviolet is absorbed by the
glass envelope and not transmitted. Use may
be made of specially shaped lamps with
internal reflectors. The reflectors may be
shaped to give a floodlight beam - suitable for
treating large areas - or a spotlight beam for
treatment of localized areas. Some lamps have
a clear glass lens while others have a red lens:
there is little difference in the therapeutic
effects of each.
[For an ordinary household light bulb the
tungsten filament is at about 3000 K and the
wavelength of maximum emission is about 960
nm - that is, in the near infrared. For skin at
about 300 K it would be 9600 nm, in the far
infrared.]
EFFECTS OF ULTRAVIOLET AND
INFRARED RADIATION ON TISSUE:
Infrared and ultraviolet radiation shares the
common feature that their effects are produced
in the surface layers of the skin. Figure 11.3
summarizes the penetrating properties of these
radiations. The penetration depth of waves of
these frequencies clearly distinguishes them
from waves used for diathermy. Considering
first the infrared radiation (wavelengths of 770
nm and above) the figure indicates that shorter
infrared waves (770 to 1200 nm) penetrate to
the deeper parts of the dermis while the longer
wavelengths are absorbed in the superficial
epidermis.
148

From a penetration depth of a few millimeters
at 1200 nm there is a decrease to about 0.1 mm
at 3000 nm. Wavelengths above 3000 nm are
absorbed by moisture on the surface of the
skin. The trend does not continue indefinitely
and we find that in the far infrared region from
10000 to 40000 nm, the penetration depth
increases to several centimeters. In effect, the
tissues become much more transparent.
Figure 11.3: Penetration of radiation into skin in
the infrared to ultrav iolet reg ion of the
electro magnetic spectrum
Over the whole of the near infrared spectrum
and up to about 20 000 nm in the far infrared,
reflection is minimal. Close to 95 per cent of
energy incident perpendicular to the skin is
absorbed - only about 5 per cent is reflected.
To a reasonable approximation then, we can
consider infrared radiation to be wholly
absorbed by tissue.
The region of the ultraviolet spectrum of
interest in therapy extends from about 180 nm
to 390 nm. From figure 11.3 we can see that
most of this radiation is absorbed in the
epidermis. In the region from 220 nm to 300
nm about 5 to 8 percent of incident radiation is
reflected. The reflectance increases to about 20
per cent at 390 nm. Within the range there are
regions of very low reflectance corresponding
to specific absorption by particular molecules
in the skin - for example, nucleic acids absorb
strongly at frequencies between 250 and 260
nm and at 280 nm.
Heating by Infrared Radiation:
[The physiological effects of infrared radiation
differ from those of other forms of heating
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
(e.g. shortwave diathermy) only in the location
of heat production.]
From the foregoing discussion it is clear that
the major effect of infrared radiation is
thermal: to increase the temperature of
cutaneous tissue. The penetration depth is very
small but some heat will be transferred to the
subcutaneous tissues via the capillaries.
The main effects of treatment are:
 An increase in metabolic rate in the
superficial tissues. This is the direct effect
of temperature on the rate of chemical
reactions generally. As a result there will
be an increased demand for oxygen and an
increased output of waste products.
 Dilatation of capillaries and arterioles due
directly to the heating and also as a reflex
reaction to the presence of increased
concentrations of metabolites. The flow of
blood to the superficial tissues is thus
increased producing a reddening of the
skin (erythema) and an increased supply of
oxygen and nutrients. The erythema
produced by infrared therapy, unlike that
resulting from ultraviolet treatment,
appears quite rapidly and begins to fade
soon after treatment ceases.
 Sensory sedation. Mild heating has a
'sedatory' effect on sensory nerves and is
thus useful for the relief of pain.
 Muscle spasm relief. This results from
both the effect of heat on nerve fibers and
the direct effect of heat which is
transferred to muscle from the superficial
tissues.
Effects of Ultraviolet Radiation:
The effects of ultraviolet radiation are mainly
non-thermal and due to cellular damage and
protective responses. While damage might
seem an undesirable consequence, there are
therapeutic benefits of treatment. Five
principal effects of therapeutic significance are
found to result from treatment with ultraviolet
radiation:
 An increased blood supply to the skin
results from dilation of the capillaries and
arterioles. Dilation does not result from
heating of the tissue but as a reflex
response to destruction of cells. Cells are
149

destroyed as a result of chemical changes
caused by the absorption of radiation, and
reddening of the skin (erythema) results.
The effects are similar to the changes
observed in inflammation. Two groups of
waves produce this reaction, one with
wavelengths in the UV-C region around
250 nm and one with wavelength close to
300 nm (UV-B).
[Nowadays, vitamin tablets provide a means of
achieving results more quickly and
economically when treating vitamin D
deficiency.]
 Production of vitamin D. Ultraviolet
radiation in the range 250 to 300 nm
initiates a sequence of chemical reactions
by which vitamins of the D group are
synthesized. The effect has been used in
the past for the treatment of rickets and
tetany, but is not used any longer.
 Pigmentation. The amino-acid tyrosine is
converted, via a sequence of reactions, to
the pigment melanin. The accumulation of
melanin in the epidermis is triggered by
the same wavelengths of ultraviolet
radiation responsible for erythema
production - in addition UV-A
wavelengths around 340 nm in low doses
can produce tanning without erythema.
[In laboratories and pharmaceutical
preparation areas, contamination by bacteria
must be avoided, so lamps producing UV-C
are used to irradiate the areas.]
 Sterilization. Shorter wavelength
ultraviolet radiation (UV-C, around 250
nm) is effective in destroying bacteria. In
therapy this effect finds application in the
treatment of indolent ulcers: ultraviolet
treatment is found to promote and
accelerate the healing process. It is not
clear to what extent the sterilization
contributes as compared to erythema
production. The increased blood supply
evidenced by erythema will increase the
number of white blood cells and
antibodies in the area, hence reinforcing
the body's defense mechanism.
 Desquamation occurs some time after
exposure to ultraviolet rays - it is a
casting-off of dead cells from the surface
of the body. The amount of peeling varies
with the strength of the dose: it ranges
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
from virtually imperceptible through
powdery peeling to free peeling of
epidermal layers. This can be of value in
the treatment of skin diseases such as acne
and psoriasis.
The degree of erythema production is used to
characterize the dose in ultra-violet therapy
using UV-B fluorescent tubes or mercury
vapour lamps. The reaction is graded into four
levels:
 A first-degree erythema is a slight
reddening of the skin which takes from six
to eight hours to develop. The erythema
has faded in about twenty four hours
leaving the skin apparently unchanged. A
minimum erythema dose (MED) is also a
slight reddening which takes from six to
eight hours to develop but in this case the
erythema is still just visible at twenty four
hours.
 A second-degree erythema is a more
marked reddening of the skin (resembling
mild sunburn). There is a slight soreness.
The reaction fades in about two days and
is followed by pigmentation. After one or
two weeks desquamation (peeling, usually
powdery) occurs.
 A third-degree erythema resembles
severe sunburn. The skin may begin to
show the effects as soon as two hours after
treatment. The reaction is severe and the
skin becomes hot, sore and oedematous.
Effects subside gradually over several
days and the skin often peels off in sheets
or flakes.
 A fourth-degree erythema is similar to a
third-degree reaction but exudation and
oedema are so marked that blisters form.
Production of a third or fourth degree
erythema in a small localized area results
in a counter-irritation effect.
[The counter-irritation effect of a fourth
degree erythema has been used in the past as a
quick and effective method of relieving pain
from joints and other deep structures in
degenerative arthritis and rheumatic
conditions.]
Dose characterization in this way is
appropriate for sources which produce an
appreciable proportion of UV-B radiation.
When using UV-A fluorescent tubes, dosage
150

cannot be assessed in this way as erythema
production is minimal except at extremely
high dose levels. In practice this is not a
problem as the principal use of UV-A is in
conjunction with a photosensitizing drug, 8-
methoxy-psoralen, for the treatment of
psoriasis. For psoralen - UV-A, therapy a
special procedure is used for dose
characterization.
[Electromagnetic waves travel more slowly in
biological tissues than air. The higher the
dielectric constant and conductivity, the lower
the wave velocity. As we will see, a frequency
of 2450 MHz is not the best choice for
therapeutic applications and for some years
the use of lower frequencies has been
advocated.]
PRODUCTION OF MICROWAVES:
Having considered the low penetration
electromagnetic waves - infrared, visible and
ultraviolet - we now turn to lower frequency
waves used in therapy; microwaves.
Microwaves occupy the region of the
electromagnetic spectrum between radio
waves and infrared radiation: their
wavelengths are in the range from about a
centimeter to a meter - corresponding to
frequencies in the range 300 MHz to 30000
MHz. Three main frequencies are used for
physiotherapy, 2450 MHz (wavelength 12
cm), 915 MHz (wavelength 33 cm) and 433.9
MHz (wavelength 69 cm). Note that the
wavelengths quoted are in air. In biological
tissues the wavelength is significantly lower
because the wave velocity is lower.
Radio waves can be produced by first
generating a very high frequency AC signal in
an ordinary electronic circuit and then
applying this signal to a suitable antenna. The
high frequency alternating current in the
antenna results in radio frequency waves being
produced and radiated. The limit to the
frequencies that can be produced by standard
electronic circuits is determined by the time it
takes for an electron to travel through a
transistor. If the transit-time, the time taken,
becomes comparable to the time of oscillation
or period of the wave we wish to produce, then
the transistor can no longer function at this
frequency. Microwave frequencies are
extremely high, by electronic standards, and
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
are at the limit of those which can be produced
by transistors.
Although vacuum tubes (valves) are an older
design and are generally more inefficient than
transistors, two vacuum tube devices which
can operate at microwave frequencies were
developed many years ago: these are the
magnetron and the klystron. The magnetron
valve, first described by Hull in 1921, was
developed for radar use during the Second
World War. It is more useful for high power
applications than the klystron. After the war,
apparatus operating at a frequency of 2450
MHz (the standard radar frequency) was made
available to physiotherapists.
Microwave apparatus (figure 11.4) consists of
a device (a magnetron or klystron), powered
by an electronic circuit. The high frequency
alternating current which is produced is fed to
an antenna. The current flowing in the antenna
results in the production of electromagnetic
waves which are beamed by the reflector.
Figure 11.4: Schematic diagram: microwave apparatus
The frequency of the microwaves is equal to
the frequency of the AC produced by the
magnetron. This is determined by the physical
construction of the magnetron and is fixed
during manufacture.
A number of differently shaped antennas and
reflectors may be used for directing the beam.
Each gives a different beam shape though
none gives a perfectly uniform beam. To
obtain a collimated uniform beam (like a
searchlight) would require a parabolic reflector
with a point source of radiation as shown in
figure 11.5(a). If a point source of radiation is
placed at the focus of the parabola the beam
emerges with a uniform cylindrical shape as
shown.
151

In the case of microwaves used by
physiotherapists, the most common frequency
is 2450 MHz and the wavelength in air is 12
cm. The source of radiation is normally a half-
wave antenna; a rod shaped conductor about 6
cm long. Placed in a small parabolic reflector
the antenna would produce a highly non-
uniform beam (figure 11.5b). To produce a
reasonably uniform beam the antenna would
need to be placed in a reflector very much
larger than its 6 cm length. A reflector with a
focal length of a meter or more and a diameter
of several meters would be needed - producing
a beam which is meters in diameter.
Figure 11.5: (a) a uniform beam from a parabolic
reflector and point source, (b) a non-uniform beam from
a parabolic reflector and extended source
For therapeutic application, a microwave beam
only 10 to 20 cm in diameter is desirable, in
order to localize the microwave energy.
Reflectors 10 or 20 cm in diameter with
antennas about 6 cm in length cannot produce
a uniform beam but can be designed to
produce a diverging beam. The beams
obtained from reflectors presently used in
therapy diverge considerably - the wave
intensity decreasing rapidly with distance from
the reflector. The reflectors must be designed
this way: if a less divergent beam is produced
part of the beam will be divergent, part will be
parallel and part focused at some point in front
of the reflector as in figure 11.5(b). This has
the obvious risk of producing a local hot-spot
in the patient's tissue and causing tissue
damage.
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
Microwave applicators are available to
produce a number of beam patterns. The
pattern is not obvious from inspection of the
shape of the reflector but the manufacturers do
supply this information.
EFFECT OF MICROWAVES ON
TISSUE:
The penetration depth of microwaves (table
11.1) indicates that the waves are useful for
diathermy.
The three factors determining the depth
efficiency of waves generally are the
penetration depth (δ) of the waves in a
particular tissue and the extent of reflection
and refraction at tissue interfaces.
Considering first penetration depth, we make
the observation that tissues with high values of
dielectric constant (ε) and conductivity (σ)
absorb electromagnetic radiation more rapidly
than tissues with low values of ε and σ. Values
of ε and σ are significantly different at
microwave frequencies to those appropriate to
shortwave diathermy at 27 MHz .Table 11.1
lists the values applicable at microwave
frequencies.
Notice that fatty tissue and bone marrow have
quite similar values of ε and σ - this explains
why the penetration depth of microwaves
(table 11.1) is almost the same in both tissues.
The relatively high values of ε and σ for
muscle result in a greater rate of microwave
absorption and hence a lower value for the
penetration depth in this tissue.
The extent of reflection is determined by the
mismatch in impedance of the tissues. Since
we are talking about electromagnetic waves
the impedance of interest is the electrical
impedance - determined by the dielectric
constant (ε) and conductivity (σ) of the tissue.
Reflection of microwaves at the fat/muscle
and muscle/bone interfaces will be pronounced
due to the difference in electrical properties
(changed by a factor of 10) on either side of
the boundary concerned.
The amount of refraction at an interface is
determined by the mismatch in wave velocity
of the tissues. The wave velocity in turn is
152

determined by the dielectric constant and
conductivity of the tissue.
Because of the large difference in the electrical
properties (ε and σ) of air, fatty tissue, muscle
and bone, refraction effects will be significant
unless the microwave beam strikes each
boundary at a right angle (zero angle of
incidence).
Table 11.1: Dielectric constant and conductivity of tissue
at microwave frequencies.
The Fraction of Total Energy
Absorbed:
Knowledge of the dielectric constant and
conductivity of each tissue enables us to
calculate the relative rate of heating of each
tissue. This information alone does not allow
us to predict the actual amount of heat
produced since much of the microwave energy
is reflected at the air/skin interface.
The significant difference in the electrical
properties of air (for which ε ≈ 1 and σ ≈ 0)
and soft tissue will result in a considerable
amount of the energy incident upon the skin
being reflected. The total percentage of
microwave energy absorbed deeper in the
body tissues and hence converted into heat
also depends on the thickness of the skin/fatty
tissue layer. This is because a proportion of the
wave energy reflected from the fat/muscle
interface will penetrate the skin and be re-
radiated into the air.
Some decades ago, H. P. Schwan (see Licht
(1968)) calculated the percentage of total
energy reflected at different frequencies and
various thicknesses of skin and fat. His results
show that:
 At frequencies less than 1000 MHz, 60 to
70% of the energy is reflected this almost
independently of skin and fat thickness.
 Between 1000 and 3000 MHz reflection
depends critically and in a complex way
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
on tissue thickness. Between 0 and 80% of
the energy is reflected.
 Above 3000 MHz around 60% of the
energy is reflected - again almost
independently of tissue thickness.
[Another practical implication of the large amount of
reflection is the need to avoid unintentional exposure of
body parts (including those of the therapist).
One major implication of the above results is
that at a frequency of 2450 MHz the effective
dosage is virtually impossible to determine in
a clinical situation, due to the practical
difficulty in establishing skin and fat thickness
which may vary considerably in the treated
area. Clearly a frequency above or below the
range 1000 to 3000 MHz is to be preferred on
these grounds. As we will see in what follows,
a lower frequency is preferable.
The Distribution of Absorbed Energy:
We examine now the absorption of the
proportion of microwave energy which is not
reflected by the skin or re-radiated. Consider a
2 cm fatty tissue layer adjoining muscle tissue.
For simplicity we begin by making two
assumptions:
 That no bone is present. We will take bone
into account in subsequent examples.
 That refraction can be ignored. In other
words the angle of incidence is assumed to
be zero. Refraction effects will be
described separately.
The relative rate of heating can be calculated
from the dielectric constant and conductivity
of each tissue: the two factors which determine
the amount of reflection and the penetration
depth. The method of calculation is described
by Schwan (see Licht (1968)).
Figure 11.6 shows the pattern of heat
production for microwaves at the relatively
high frequency of 8500 MHz (wavelength 3.5
cm in air). A standing-wave pattern is
produced in the fatty tissue: this is because of
reflection at the fat/muscle interface.
153

Figure 11.6: Heating pattern predicted for microwaves of
frequency 8500 MHz in a specimen of 2 cm fatty tissue
over muscle.
[When unequal size waves interfere, the
standing-wave effect produces peaks and
troughs in the heating-rate pattern, but there
are no true nodes (points where the intensity is
zero).]
The standing-wave pattern in the fatty tissue is
not ideal since reflection is not 100% and the
wave is progressively absorbed in its travel.
The actual pattern is a combination of an
exponential decrease (determined by the
penetration depth, δ) and interference of
unequal size waves.
At this frequency, most heat is produced in the
fatty tissue close to the skin and in the
superficial region of the muscle. A reasonable
heating rate is obtained at the muscle surface
but the effect extends to only a fraction of a
centimeter into the muscle tissue.
The total amount of heat produced in each
tissue is indicated by the area under the curves
in figure 11.6. It is evident that there is greater
overall heat production in the fatty tissue. This
problem is typical of higher microwave
frequencies.
The peaks in the heating pattern in the fatty
tissue are separated by one half of a
wavelength so the wavelength of the
microwaves in fatty tissue is about 2 cm.
At a frequency of 2450 MHz, the frequency
most commonly used in therapy, the relative
rate of heating is as shown in figure 11.7.
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
Figure 11.7: Heating pattern predicted for microwaves of
frequency 2450 MHz in a specimen of 2 cm fatty tissue
over muscle.
Again a standing wave pattern is found in the
fatty tissue where most heat is produced. At
this lower frequency, the wavelength is greater
so only a single peak is seen in the heating
pattern in fatty tissue. Heat production in the
muscle tissue is improved over the 8500 MHz
results but is still limited to the first centimeter
or so.
Evidently the lower frequency is preferable
from a 'deep heating' point of view - but we
saw earlier that frequencies in the range 1000-
3000 MHz result in uncertain dosage.
What of frequencies below 2450 MHz? Figure
11.8 shows the relative rate of heating
predicted for a microwave frequency of 915
MHz in a tissue specimen w ith the same
dimensions as used previously.
[The wavelength in fatty tissue at 915 Mhz is
about 18 cm so a peak and a trough would be
separated by 4.5 cm (one quarter of a
wavelength).]
[A standing wave pattern is still produced in
the fatty tissue but the wavelength is so large
that no peaks are evident. Figure 11.9 shows
the relative rate of heating predicted for a
microwave frequency of 434 MHz in the same
tissue specimen.]
154

Figure 11.8: Heating pattern predicted for microwaves of
frequency 915 MHz in a specimen of 2 cm fatty tissue
over muscle.
Figure 11.9: Heating pattern predicted for microwaves of
frequency 434 MHz in a specimen consisting of 2 cm
fatty tissue over muscle.
The depth efficiency of lower frequency
microwaves is apparent from figures 11.8 and
11.9. Both frequencies give maximum heating
in the muscle with much the same decrease in
heating rate with distance into the tissue. The
lowest frequency (434 MHz) produces least
heating of fatty tissue; the difference being
most noticeable nears the tissue surface.
Both frequencies give a heating pattern which
is suitable for diathermy and dosage is
reasonably predictable.
The heating of the fatty tissue surface with 915
MHz microwaves can be compensated for by
using a contact applicator with surface
cooling. The microwave director (applicator)
is designed to be used in direct contact with
the patient. Cooling air is blown through the
applicator and on to the patients' skin during
treatment in order to minimize the temperature
elevation of superficial tissues.
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
Figure 11.10: Heating pattern predicted for a microwave
frequency of 2450 M Hz in a tissue combination of 2 cm
fat, 2 cm muscle and 2 cm bone.
Figure 11.11: Heating pattern predicted for a microwave
frequency of 915 M Hz in a tissue combination of 2 cm
fat, 2 cm muscle and 2 cm bone.
When we consider the three-layer system of
fat/muscle/bone we predict reflection at both
the fat/muscle interface and at the muscle/bone
interface. In consequence a complex heating
pattern is produced in both the fat and muscle
tissue. Figures 11.10, 11.11 and 11.12 show
the patterns predicted for frequencies of 2450
MHz, 915 MHz and 434 MHz respectively.
Tissue dimensions are the same as those
chosen to illustrate the heating pattern for
ultrasound.
Figure 11.12: Heating pattern predicted for a microwave
frequency of 434 M Hz in a tissue combination of 2 cm
fat, 2 cm muscle and 2 cm bone.
For each frequency, heat production in bone is
minimal. Both 915 and 434 MHz microwaves
produce maximum heating in the muscle layer:
the lower frequency having greater depth
efficiency. Not too much significance can be
attributed to the actual positions of maxima
and minima of heat production as these vary
with the tissue dimensions and electrical
155

properties assumed. The general implications
of the figures are, however, clear: frequencies
below 1000 MHz are needed if tissues located
beneath a few centimeters of fat are to be
effectively heated. For treating structures
located closer to the skin surface - for example
a knee or elbow joint which is not covered by
a thick layer of fat - a frequency of 2450 MHz
is adequate, though the dose will be somewhat
unpredictable. More deeply located structures
- for example, the hip joint - are not heated
appreciably at this frequency.
TISSUE GEOMETRY AND
REFRACTION EFFECTS:
The heating patterns shown in figures 11.6 to
11.12 were calculated ignoring refraction
effects. This is appropriate for a uniform
microwave beam incident upon a plane surface
with tissues of constant thickness beneath.
When microwaves are incident upon a curved
surface then, even if the beam is uniform,
refraction will occur. This is illustrated in
figure 11.13, where reflected waves are
omitted for clarity.
The amount of refraction depends on the
curvature of the tissue surfaces and the
electrical characteristics of the tissues. When
the curvature of the tissues is pronounced, as
for example with an arm or leg, the amount of
refraction is considerable. The smaller is the
radius of the limb, the greater is the refraction
effect.
Tissues of high dielectric constant and
conductivity have low electrical impedance
and consequently a low wave velocity. Thus
the velocity decreases as the wave progresses
from air to fatty tissue and then to muscle.
This means that waves will be refracted to
produce convergence of the beam. A focusing
effect is produced in the tissues.
What effect will the beam convergence have
on the heating pattern? As the beam travels
through fatty tissue and muscle it is
progressively absorbed. The wave energy is
converted into heat energy and the wave
intensity (energy per unit area) decreases.
Convergence of the beam will result in the
energy remaining any particular depth being
concentrated in a smaller area. This tends to
increase the beam intensity. Thus with curved
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
tissue surfaces the beam intensity does not
diminish as rapidly as would occur with plane
surface. Consequently the depth efficiency for
heat production is greater.
Figure 11.13: Refraction of a microwave beam at tissue
interfaces.
H. S. Ho (1976) has calculated the relative rate
of heating for cylindrical models with
dimensions approximating to adult human
arms and legs. His results are qualitatively
similar to those shown in figures 11.10 to
11.12 but the relative rate of heating of muscle
is significantly higher. Nonetheless the
conclusions to be drawn from Ho's work are
those described earlier. For patient treatment,
better heating patterns are produced with
frequencies lower than the 2450 MHz
currently used. Ho's results indicate an
optimum frequency of around 750 MHz for
efficient and relatively uniform heating of
muscle tissue.
In summary we may conclude that 2450 MHz
microwaves have low depth efficiency. This
frequency is best suited to heat production in
fatty tissue and the superficial region of
muscle. 915 MHz and 434 MHz microwaves
produce greater depth heating of muscle and
less heating of fatty tissue. The optimum
frequency for selective and uniform heating of
muscle tissue being around 750 MHz.
Microwaves are intrinsically unsuited to
heating of bone (see figures 11.10 to 11.12)
because of its electrical characteristics: for this
reason joints can only be heated when the
overlying tissue layers are very thin. For
heating of deeply located joints, ultrasound or
shortwave diathermy would be more effective.
As a final point it should be stressed that the
graphs shown in figures 11.6 to 11.12 show
where heat is produced but not the temperature
increase in each tissue. The temperature
156

increase depends on such factors as the
specific heat capacity of the tissue and heat
transfer within and between tissues and to the
bloodstream.
LASERS:
The acronym 'laser' stands for 'light
amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation'. Lasers are electromagnetic wave
amplifiers which can produce beams of
electromagnetic waves with two special
properties:
 The beam has very little divergence. It has
a pencil-like shape.
 The beam is coherent. That is, all the
waves in the beam are of exactly the same
frequency and wavelength and are
synchronized with each other.
[The divergence of a laser beam is so small
that a beam pointed at the moon could
illuminate a target less than a meter across.]
The pencil-like beam of the laser means that
the wave energy is always concentrated on the
same area: the intensity (which is the energy
per unit area) does not decreased appreciably
with distance due to beam-spreading.
Production of a laser beam:
Visible light can be produced by excitation of
atoms. For example if crystals of a copper salt,
such as copper sulphate, are heated in a flame,
the flame turns blue.
When strontium salts are heated, the flame
turns violet. Sodium salts produce a yellow
coloration. This is because electrons in the
copper, strontium or sodium atoms are kicked
from their 'ground state' orbitals by the heat
energy of the flame and when they fall back
into their original orbitals, the energy released
is radiated as light of a particular frequency.
Because electrons may be kicked out of, and
fall back to, different orbitals, the light emitted
is a mixture of several specific frequencies. By
contrast, laser radiation has but a single
frequency.
[The light emitted by a burning salt is usually
at a mixture of waves of different frequency.
The different frequencies correspond to
electrons returning to different 'ground state'
orbitals. The term 'monochromatic' literally
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
means 'one color'. In most contexts this means
that each wave has the same frequency.]
The light emitted by burning salts is also
incoherent, meaning that electrons drop back
into their ground-state orbitals randomly so
there is no synchronization of the radiated
electromagnetic waves. By contrast, lasers are
devices which force electrons to drop back
into one particular orbital in an avalanche
effect, i.e. almost simultaneously. The result is
that the emitted waves are all synchronized
(coherent) and have the same frequency.
The avalanche effect and resulting coherence
of a laser beam is achieved by bouncing waves
back and forth between two reflectors. For
example, a helium-neon laser consists of a
cylindrical tube containing helium and neon
gas. Each end of the tube has a reflector, one is
fully reflecting and the other is partially
reflecting so as to allow some light (the laser
beam) to escape. The back-and-forth reflection
triggers a resonance effect where electrons to
drop back into a specific ground-state orbital
synchronously and a coherent, monochromatic
beam of waves is produced. Each wave having
the same frequency. To keep the laser
operating it is necessary to bump electrons out
of their ground-state orbitals and into a higher-
energy orbital, ready to drop. For this reason a
power supply (a source of energy) is required.
Sometimes the energy is provided by an
electric current, sometimes by a by a burst of
light energy. In the case of a helium neon
laser, a power supply is used to energies a
flashlight (rather like a camera flash) which
provides rapid-fire bursts of light energy to
push electrons into an excited state. In the case
of diode lasers, current flow through the diode
provides the necessary energy.
We can summarize the differences between
laser light and light from a common,
incandescent light bulb as follows. Light from
a normal incandescent source has a spectrum
of frequencies and the waves are incoherent.
Lasers are beams of coherent waves of
identical frequency. There is some clinical
evidence that laser beams can be
therapeutically beneficial. What has not been
established is whether laser beams have any
advantage over simpler (and cheaper) torch
beams. No comparisons have yet been
reported.
157

[High power lasers are used to cut steel sheets
several centimeters thick. Much lower powers
are used in microsurgery, where focused
beams are used to cut tiny regions of tissue.
Lasers are often applied with only a thin film
of plastic separating the laser from the skin
surface, so beam divergence is not important.]
Beam Intensity:
The output of a laser can vary from tens of
milliwatts to tens of kilowatts, depending on
the type and the physical construction. Lasers
used therapeutically have power levels
between these two extremes. They are
typically of relatively low power and intensity.
Intensities are normally in the range 1
mW.cm-2 to 50 mW.cm-2.
The beam diameter of the low power lasers
used clinically is about 3 mm (an area of about
7 mm2). Thus if the output intensity is, for
example, 20 mW.cm-2 and the area is 7 mm2 =
0.07 cm2, the power of the beam is 20/0.07
mW ≈ 300 mW or 0.3 W.
By way of comparison, a torch might have a
beam 8 cm in diameter (an area about 50 cm2)
and use a 12 W light bulb. As far as visible
light output is concerned, the bulb is about
25% efficient (75% of the energy is emitted at
infrared frequencies). Hence the power of the
visible light-beam is approximately 3 W. The
visible-light beam intensity is 3/50 = 0.06
W.cm-2 or 60 mW.cm-2. The intensity of the
infrared component is approximately 180
mW.cm-2.
A torch beam thus has a similar and, if
anything, a higher power and intensity than a
clinical laser but is polychromatic. The wave
energy is spread over a range of frequencies.
Any clinical significance of the
polychromatic/monochromatic difference has
yet to be established.
Beam Divergence:
Light from a light bulb can be formed into a
pencil-like beam (as in a searchlight) by using
a parabolic reflector but the beam divergence
is larger than that of a laser because of the
practical difficulty of producing a perfectly
Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves
shaped reflector. This difference would be of
no clinical significance for beams between a
light source and the patient, a distance of only
a few centimeters or tens of centimeters.
Beam Diameter:
The beam diameter of the low power lasers
used clinically (commonly referred-to as 'low
level lasers') is about 3 mm (an area of about 7
mm2 = 0.07 cm2). A consequence is that if the
area of the skin surface which is to be treated
is several cm2, the beam must be scanned over
the area. This means that both the average
intensity and the energy delivered per unit area
are reduced. For example, if the area to be
treated is 5 cm x 5 cm (25 cm2), the reduction
in average intensity and energy delivered per
unit area is 25/0.07 = 3500 times. By contrast,
a torch beam would illuminate the same area
with no reduction in intensity or energy
delivered.
Cohe rence:
[Coherence is only possible if waves have
identical frequencies. If the frequencies (and
thus, the wavelengths) are different, they
cannot stay in-phase.]
The light from a light-globe is incoherent. The
radiated waves have different frequencies (a
spread of frequencies about some mean) and
the waves are not 'in synch' with each other.
Synchronization is impossible because the
wavelengths are different. The coherence of a
laser beam is not likely to be of practical
significance as biological tissues are quite
inhomogeneous at a microscopic level. This
means that waves will be scattered and slowed
to varying extents so coherence will be lost. A
coherent beam striking the skin surface will be
incoherent after traversing a distance through
tissue of only a few cell diameters. Although
coherence is rapidly lost in biological tissue,
the beam remains monochromatic i.e. the
waves still have identical frequencies.
[Since coherence is lost when lasers are
beamed through tissue, whether the light
source is a laser or super luminous diode
appears irrelevant.]
Producing a coherent beam using diode lasers
is technically difficult. Super luminous diodes
158
 Chapter 11 Electromagnetic Waves

are easier to manufacture. These are devices

which produce monochromatic, laser-like
beams which are non-coherent. It should be
noted that some diode 'lasers' used in
physiotherapy produce relatively incoherent
beams and should more correctly be described
as 'super luminous diodes'. The lack of
coherence in the beam of radiation produced
would appear to be of no clinical significance.
Laser Light Wavelengths:
The particular wavelength of radiation emitted
by a laser is determined by the physical
design; in particular its chemical composition.
Thus helium-neon lasers emit red light with a
wavelength of 632.8 nm. Ruby lasers, which
consist of a cylindrical rod of synthetic ruby (a
gemstone made of aluminum oxide) emit red
light with a wavelength of 694.3 nm.
[Consideration of beam area and average
intensity indicates that torch-beam therapy
might be a cheaper and more effective
treatment than laser therapy.]
This perhaps explains why laser irradiation has
been shown to be of value for treating ulcers
and other skin conditions. What has not been
shown, and is not likely to be shown, is that
laser treatment is any better than shining a
torch beam on the area.
Similar considerations indicate that laser
irradiation is not likely to be of value for
treating deeper tissue injuries.
The therapeutic benefit and relative cost
effectiveness of laser therapy must thus be
questioned.

[The range of wavelengths which can be

produced by laser action is quite large from
the microwave region of the spectrum to the X-
ray region.]

Gallium aluminum arsenide (GaAlAs) diodes

emit radiation at a frequency determined by
the ratio of gallium to aluminum. The
particular wavelength can be between 650 nm
(in the visible, red part of the spectrum) and
1300 nm (in the near infrared).

Two types of lasers are commonly used in

physiotherapy: helium-neon lasers, which, as
noted above, produce red light of wavelength
632.8 nm and gallium aluminum arsenide
diode lasers, operating at near-infrared
wavelengths (normally between 810 and 850
nm).

Penetration Depth:
The penetration depth of laser radiation is the
same as ordinary electromagnetic radiation of
the same frequency. The wave coherence and
the monochromatic nature of the laser beam
make no difference. Thus the penetration
depth of visible light from a helium-neon laser
is a mm or so and most of the wave energy is
absorbed in the epidermis (figure 11.3). The
infrared radiation produced by commercial
GaAlAs diodes has greater penetration depth
but most of the wave energy is absorbed in the
epidermis and dermis.

159

Chapter No. 12
SHORTWAVE DIATHERMY
'Shortwave diathermy' refers to heating of
deeply located tissue using electric or
magnetic fields which alternate at high
frequency. The term 'shortwave diathermy', is
something of a misnomer as the contribution
of waves, as such, to the treatment is
negligible. The physiological effects are a
result of electric and magnetic fields generated
by the shortwave diathermy apparatus.
Shortwave radiation plays little or no role in
the therapy.
The apparatus used by physiotherapists
generates alternating electric and magnetic
fields with a frequency of 27.12 MHz. Since
radio waves with frequencies in the range 10
MHz to 100 MHz are termed short waves the
term has been, rather inappropriately, applied
to this therapeutic modality.
Production of the field:
Shortwave diathermy apparatus consists of a
sine-wave generator circuit which produces
alternating current with a frequency of 27.12
MHz and a resonant circuit which can be
tuned to exactly the same frequency. The
sinewave generator supplies energy to the
resonant circuit by transformer action. Figure
12.1 illustrates the arrangement.
Figure 12.1 Shortwave d iathermy apparatus
(schematic).
[While shortwave diathermy units do radiate
waves with a frequency of 27.12 MHz, this is a
side-effect. The physiological effects are due
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
to the powerful electric or magnetic fields
generated by the apparatus.]
The sine wave generator consists of a power
supply, an oscillator with good frequency
stability and a power amplifier. The power
supply converts AC from the mains (of
frequency 50 Hz) to DC which is needed to
power the equipment. It consists of a
transformer (to convert the 240 V AC from the
mains to the voltage needed by the rest of the
circuitry), and a rectifier to convert the AC to
DC. The DC is used to power a sine-wave
generator; a resonant circuit which oscillates at
27.12 MHz and an amplifier, which boosts the
current produced by the resonant circuit to
higher levels, as needed for patient treatment.
[Any mains-frequency AC produced by the
apparatus is also not conducted appreciably to
the patient circuit as the resonant frequency
(27.12 MHz) is vastly different to the mains
frequency (50 Hz).]
Electrical energy produced by the sine-wave
generator is coupled to the patient tuning
circuit by transformer action (figure 12.1).
Two inductors are placed close together so that
energy produced by the power amplifier is
transferred to the patient circuit. This method
of coupling ensures that DC in the apparatus is
unable to reach the patient and the risk of
electric shock is minimized.
A variable capacitor, C, is included in the
patient circuit so that the resonant frequency of
the patient circuit can be made equal to the
frequency of the oscillator. This ensures
maximum efficiency of energy transfer and
reliable operation of the apparatus. A power
meter or indicator lamp shows when resonance
is achieved and maximum power is
transferred. In older machines, the variable
capacitor, C, was manually adjusted with the
operator adjusting a knob while observing the
power meter and adjusting for maximum
power. Modern machines use electronic
control of the variable capacitor and are
described as 'auto-tuning'. The principal
160

advantage of automatic tuning is that if the
patient should move during treatment the
machine will adjust to keep the patient circuit
in resonance. With manual tuning machines,
movement of the patient or electrodes can
result in de-tuning and a drop in output of the
machine.
The output of the apparatus is coupled to the
patient via electrodes (in the capacitor field
technique represented in figure 12.1) or via an
induction coil. The coil or electrodes are
connected directly to the output of the machine
and the part of the patient to be treated is
positioned in the electric or magnetic field. In
figure 12.1, the area highlighted in yellow is
circuitry inside the machine.
[When an induction coil is used, the presence
of biological tissue in the field is irrelevant but
the tissue volume to be treated will influence
the number of turns of the coil and their
radius.]
The part of the patient to be treated would be
positioned between the external capacitor
plates shown in figure 12.1. The plates are
normally in the form of two metal disks, each
inside a clear plastic container or envelope.
The electrical characteristics of the patient's
tissue affects the capacitance of the patient
circuit, as does the electrode size and spacing.
For this reason it is necessary that the
apparatus be tuned (by adjusting C in figure
12.1) with the patient positioned in the field.
Similarly, if an induction coil is used rather
than capacitor plates, tuning will be necessary.
This is because when the coil is wrapped
around the part of the patient to be treated, the
inductance of the coil will depend on the
number of turns of the coil and their radius.
Molecules in an electric field:
In shortwave diathermy treatment a high
frequency AC electrical signal is produced and
applied to the patient via an induction coil or
electrodes. The high frequency signal will
produce a corresponding high frequency
alternating electric or magnetic field in the
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
patient's tissue. We now consider what effect
this has on the tissue. Since an alternating
magnetic field gives rise to an induced
alternating electrical field we first examine the
effects of an alternating electric field on the
different molecules found in human tissue.
Charged Molecules:
The conductivity of tissue is determined by the
number of free ions in the tissue fluid. In the
presence of an electric field these ions will
migrate along field lines and so constitute an
electric current. The process is not unlike
electrical conduction in metals. Metallic
conduction results from the movement of free
electrons. In electrolytes the charge carriers
are not electrons but ions; these are tens of
thousands of times more massive than
electrons.
Under the influence of the electric field ions
will be accelerated along field lines - but they
will not travel far before colliding with other
molecules and losing their acquired kinetic
energy. The repeated sequence of
accelerations and collisions is the way in
which electrical energy is converted to heat
energy, which is the random-motion energy of
the molecules. At the frequencies associated
with shortwave diathermy the field
alternations are so rapid that the ions oscillate
about a mean position rather than undergoing
any large scale movement, but the alternations
are not so rapid that movement is prevented
and heat generation is not impaired.
Figure 12.2 Response of mo lecules to a high
frequency alternating electric field.
161

Dipolar Molecules:
Dipolar molecules such as water will orient
themselves in an electrical field and if the field
is alternating this will result in backwards and
forwards rotation of the dipoles. In a liquid
the molecules are continually in motion (due
to their thermal energy) and are loosely
associated with each other (coupled); thus
some of the rotational energy of the molecules
will be converted to heat energy by what can
be thought of as a frictional drag between
adjacent molecules.
Non Polar Molecules:
Though not normally polar these molecules
will undergo a distortion of their electron
'clouds'; that is, they will polarize in an electric
field. In an alternating field the electron
clouds will oscillate back and forth to each end
of the molecule. Since this kind of motion
does not involve transport or rotation of the
molecule as a whole it can only be coupled
indirectly with the gross molecular movement
associated with heat energy.
Figure 12.2 summarizes, by illustration, the
response of ions, polar molecules and non-
polar molecules to a high frequency
alternating electric field. In each case there is
a net back and forth movement of charge: in
other words, an alternating flow of current.
Real and Displacement Current:
From the previous discussion it is apparent
that the different kinds of molecule in a
material will each respond differently to an
applied electric field. The back and forth
movement of ions and the consequent
collisions will result in a very efficient
conversion of electrical energy into heat
energy. The rotational movement of polar
molecules provides a less efficient mechanism
of energy conversion. The electron cloud
distortion of non-polar molecules represents
the least efficient means of heat production.
Nonetheless each kind of molecule responds to
an alternating electric field in a way which
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
results in movement of charges and hence an
alternating current. The difference is in the
proportion of electrical energy converted to
heat energy when the alternating current is
produced. With this in mind we distinguish
real and displacement current.
 Real current is that associated with heat
production. When real current flows
through a material the rate at which
electrical energy is converted to heat
energy is given by Joule's law:
Where V is the potential difference and I
is the real current flowing through the
material. P is the power dissipated (in
watts), in other words the amount of
electrical energy dissipated per second (1
watt (W) = 1 joule per second (J.s-1)).
 Displacement current is current flow
which does not produce any heating. In
this case the power dissipated, and hence
the heat generated, is zero.
An example which serves to illustrate the
distinction between real and displacement
current is given in figure 12.3. Here we have a
resistor and a capacitor connected in series to a
source of alternating current. In this case we
suppose that the capacitor is ideal - it
comprises two metal plates separated by a
perfect insulator which can polarize and
depolarize with no loss of electrical energy to
heat energy.
The magnitude of the current flowing in this
circuit will depend on the voltage of the AC
source and the total impedance of the
resistor/capacitor combination. The real
current (Ir) flowing through the resistor will
result in power dissipation according to
equation 12.1 and hence heat production in the
resistor. The displacement current (Id) flowing
through the capacitor (assumed ideal) gives no
power dissipation and hence no heat
production as the material between the plates
162

is able to polarize and depolarize with no
energy loss.
In this case, then, the current flowing from the
AC source appears as real current in the
resistor R and displacement current in the
(ideal) capacitor C. Charges move and heat is
produced in the resistor while the charge
movement (displacement current) in the
capacitor produces no heating. The two
currents, which are different forms of the same
thing, are necessarily the same size.
Figure 7.3 Real and displacement current in an A C
circuit.
For a capacitor to be ideal the material
between the plates must be an ideal dielectric -
a substance capable of polarizing in an electric
field and depolarizing on its removal without
any dielectric absorption. In other words, with
no conversion of electrical energy to heat
energy.
Biological materials, particularly those with
high water and ion content are far from being
ideal dielectrics. When placed in an electric
field the induced current will be a combination
of real and displacement current. The
proportions of each kind of current will
depend on the proportions of ionic, polar and
Figure 7.4 Electric field lines in a model for an arm or leg (a) longitudinal cross section (b)
transverse cross section.
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
non-polar molecules.
We now consider biological tissue exposed to
an electric or magnetic field which alternates
at a frequency of 27.12 MHz, the frequency
licensed for use in shortwave diathermy. As
we have seen, shortwave diathermy may be
applied using capacitor plates (which produce
an electric field) or an inductive coil (which
generates a magnetic field).
[Most gases come close to being ideal
dielectrics, as do some oils. Water being a
highly polar molecule, falls short of this ideal
and dielectric absorption results in significant
heating at any frequency below about 1010
Hz.]
Capacitor Field Treatment:
Consider first the situation depicted in figure
7.4(a), where an arm or leg is positioned
between two capacitor plates. Figure 7.4(a)
shows the electric field pattern, which is
affected by refraction and termination of field
lines. The total current flowing through the
tissue will be determined by the total
impedance of the tissue plus the air space
between tissue and capacitor plates. Current
will flow in the direction of the field lines and
the proportions of real and displacement
current will depend on the electrical properties
of the particular tissue.
The amount of heating in any tissue layer will
be determined by two factors: the field
intensity within the layer and the amount of
real, rather than displacement, current.
Calculation of the proportions of real and
163

displacement current in a particular tissue is
not difficult. Measured values of dielectric
constant and conductivity are all that are
needed. Calculation of the field pattern is
much more difficult and has only been done
using simplified models: even simpler than the
somewhat idealized geometries shown in
figure 7.4.
Useful qualitative pictures are nonetheless
obtained by combining diagrams such as those
shown in figure 7.4, with calculated values of
real and displacement current in each tissue
layer.
At a frequency of 27.12 MHz the current flow
in fatty tissue and bone is approximately 50%
displacement. In muscle and tissues of high
water content the proportions are
approximately 80% real current to 20%
displacement current.
Figure 7.5 shows a revised view of figure
7.4(a) which takes into account the two kinds
of current flow which occur. In the air spaces
the current flow is entirely displacement
current. In fatty tissue and bone the current is
assumed to be one half real current and one
half displacement current. For simplicity,
muscle is shown as having entirely real
current.
Figure 7.5 Current type and directions in a model
for an arm or leg.
When viewing diagrams such as these, bear in
mind the simplifications made. The pictures
can be misleading if interpreted too literally.
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
You should also bear in mind that even a
single tissue layer may be inhomogeneous at
both the microscopic and macroscopic level.
An example of the complications introduced
by tissue inhomogeneity is seen with fatty
tissue in the shortwave field.
Fatty Tissue:
A practical limitation on the amount of heat
which can be produced in deeply located tissue
is the heat production in fatty tissue. When
using capacitor plates the rate of heating of
fatty tissue is always greater than that of the
underlying muscle tissue . Part of the reason is
that fatty tissue is inhomogeneous. The tissue
is not a uniform distribution of cells but a
complex structure incorporating regions of
high conductivity and dielectric constant: the
lymphatic and blood vessels.
The high conductivity and dielectric constant
of the vessels will result in field lines being
focused or channeled into them with a
resulting high local field intensity and
corresponding high rate of heating in and near
the vessels. The phenomenon is illustrated in
figure 7.6.
The localized high heat production will result
in greater temperature elevation of the vessels
than the fatty tissue as a whole and a greater
sensation of heat than would be expected if the
tissue layer was homogenous.
164

Figure 7.7 Current flo w induced in a limb by inductive coil t reatment.
Figure 7.6 Focusing of electric field lines in blood
and lymphatic vessels in fatty tissue.
Inductive Coil Treatment:
We now consider application of the shortwave
field with an induction coil. The objective is to
induce an electric field and hence a flow of
current as a result of the alternating magnetic
field produced by the coil. In the example
illustrated in figure 7.8 a cable carrying the
shortwave frequency current is wrapped
around a patient's lower limb. Figure 7.7(a)
shows the inductive coil wound as a solenoid
around the patient's lower limb and figure
7.7(b) shows the current pathways in the
different tissues.
The current pathways shown are predicted
assuming that the alternating magnetic field
gives rise to an induced EMF in the patient's
tissue. In this case the current will follow
circular paths parallel to the turns of the coil in
figure 7.7(a). Note that in figure 7.7(b) the
current through the fatty tissue is shown as
half displacement current and half real current
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
while muscle is assumed to have real current
only. As indicated previously, this is only an
approximation: while the proportion of real
current in fatty tissue is about 50%. In muscle
it is about 80%.
If the coil in figure 7.7 had a large number of
closely spaced turns and the coil diameter was
small compared to its length, then the
magnetic field inside the coil would be
uniform and the induced EMF would be the
same throughout the tissue volume. Were this
the case, the relative amounts of current flow
in each tissue would simply depend on the
tissue impedance (which is determined by the
dielectric constant and conductivity).
A complication is that with more widely
spaced turns and a relatively large diameter,
the magnetic field inside the induction coil
will be non-uniform. In an arrangement like
that shown in figure 7.7(a), the magnetic field
would be strongest close to the coil and
decreasing in intensity towards the center. The
highest field intensity is thus in the superficial
tissues of the limb.
Another Kind of Coil:
Most manufacturers of shortwave diathermy
apparatus offer accessories which include a
compact coil mounted in a plastic housing.
This device is called a monode. The monode is
pointed at the part of the patient to be treated
so that the coil is in a plane parallel to the skin
surface. With this arrangement (figure 7.8),
currents are induced which flow in circular
paths parallel to the skin surface.
165

The cable supplied with the shortwave
machine can, of course, also be wound into a
spiral and positioned to produce a similar
distribution of induced current.
The spiral coil placed parallel to the skin
produces more superficial heating than the
solenoid coil (figure 7.7). This is because the
magnetic field intensity decreases rapidly with
distance from the coil, as the field lines
diverge, spreading apart and looping round to
the opposite side of the coil. The field
spreading is similar to that which occurs at the
ends of the coils in figures 7.7. Magnetic field
lines become more separated, indicating a
weaker magnetic field further from the coil
and consequently less induced EMF and less
induced current. Hence although the current
induced in muscle is mostly real current, the
amount of current at depth is much less than
with a solenoid. (Figure 7.7).
Figure 7.8 Induced currents with a spiral coil
mounted parallel to the skin surface.
Capacitative Effects:
A practical complication which occurs with
inductive coil treatment, whether with a
solenoid or a spiral coil (monode), is that in
addition to the currents induced by the
magnetic field there is also a pronounced
electrostatic effect.
There is a certain capacitance between the
loops of the coil. In fact whenever a cable or
wire is folded back on itself or coiled we have
produced a situation where there are two
conductors separated by a space; thus we have
produced a capacitor. Although in the case of a
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
cable wound as a coil the capacitance is very
small, the effect is quite significant at MHz
frequencies. The inductive coil behaves as an
inductor in parallel with a capacitor.
At the high frequencies used for shortwave
diathermy the inductance of the coil results in
a high impedance to current flow in the cable.
The capacitance associated with the coil
presents a lower impedance pathway for
current to take. In consequence the induced
current patterns are not as simple as those
shown in figure 7.7(b). The electric field
between adjacent turns (Figure 7.9(a)) results
in current flow along the field lines shown in
blue. Because the electric field is stronger
closer to the coils, greater current flows and
this adds to the current induced by the
magnetic field. The consequence is greater
current flow in, and greater heating of,
superficial tissue (figure 7.9(b)).
The electric field between adjacent loops is
similar to that between two small electrodes.
The field is most intense close to the cable. A
consequence is that there is a risk of burning
the superficial tissues with the electric field of
the coil rather than heating deeper tissue with
current induced by the alternating magnetic
field.
A similar argument applies for a spiral coil.
An electric field is produced between adjacent
turns within the loop. Close to the coil, the
electric field is intense and greater current
flows. This adds to the current induced by the
magnetic field so there is greater current flow
in, and greater heating of, superficial tissue.
Superficial heating due to the electric field can
be minimized in three ways: (a) by winding
the turns of the coil close together, (b) by
keeping the cable away from the patient's skin
using toweling and/or rubber spacer designed
for this purpose and (c) by using an
electrostatic shield.
166

Figure 7.9 Electric field pattern (blue lines )
between adjacent turns of an inductive coil.
Electric field heating effects can also be
minimized, in the case of a solenoid, by
positioning an earthed metal cylinder between
the coil and the patient's limb. If a monode is
used, a flat metal plate between the monode
and the patient's tissue would be needed. The
plate will screen-out the electric field while
having little effect on the magnetic field of the
coil. The electric field inside the metal
cylinder or behind the metal plate would be
almost nil because the metal is a good
conductor and field lines will terminate on its
surface. Most metals are, however, transparent
as far as magnetic fields are concerned so the
magnetic field is virtually unchanged. Some,
but not all, inductive coil applicators are
supplied with an inbuilt electric field screen.
Screening is an important feature when depth
efficient heating is required.
In summary, the options with inductive coil
treatment are a coil wound around the part of
the patient to be treated or a flat coil (monode)
positioned over the body part. The difference
is the depth efficiency of treatment. A solenoid
coil (figure 7.7) has greater depth efficiency as
far as tissue within the coil s concerned. A flat
spiral coil (figure 7.8) has greater effect on
superficial tissues.
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
With either method of application, there is the
risk of excessive superficial heating due to the
electric field between adjacent turns of the coil
or spiral. The risk is minimized by spacing the
coil or spiral away from the patient's
superficial tissues.
Electrode Place ment-Capacitor Field:
With capacitor field treatment, the therapist
has more control over the field intensity in
different areas than with inductive coil
treatment. We have discussed previously how
the combination of tissue layers in the part of
the patient being treated alters the shape of the
electric field. The other factors influencing
the field pattern involve the placement of the
electrodes. Each factor listed below must be
taken into account in the practical application
of shortwave diathermy using capacitor field
treatment.
 The shape of the part of patient in the
field. In addition, if the electrodes are
placed over any prominence an
undesirable concentration of the field can
result.
 The arrangement of tissues layers in the
treated structure. As discussed previously,
this factor plays a significant role in
determining the final shape of the field.
 The size, spacing and orientation of the
electrodes. We consider below the effect
when the patient is in the field.
Electrode Size:
In general, it is preferable to use electrodes
which are somewhat larger than the structure
to be treated. This results in the central, more
uniform, part of the field. The dielectric
constant and conductivity of tissue are much
higher than those of air. Thus, with large
electrodes, the field lines are bent towards the
limb and spreading of the field is minimized.
The effect is illustrated in figure 7.10 where
the effect of the different tissue layers is
ignored for simplicity.
167
 Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy

The use of small electrodes results in an
undesirably high field intensity in the
superficial tissues.
Unequal size electrodes (can be used to
selectively heat tissue located closer to one
surface of a limb. Large differences in
electrode size, however, can sometimes lead to
difficulty in tuning or instability in machine
operation.
Figure 7.11 illustrates the effect of electrode
spacing. In 7.11(a) the electrode to surface
distance varies considerably resulting in a
local high field intensity in the limb. In 7.11(b)
the electrode to surface distance does not vary
greatly and the field within the limb is more
uniform. Clearly, if a relatively uniform field
pattern is required the arrangement shown in
7.11(b) is to be preferred. The arrangements
shown in 7.11(c) and 7.12(c) are both suitable
if we wish to selectively heat one surface of a
limb. They would also be suitable for heating a
structure which is located close to one surface
of a limb or trunk - for example, the hip joint.

Figure 7.10 Effect of electrode size: (a) correct

electrode size (b) electrodes too small (c)
arrangement fo r selective heating.

Electrode Spacing:
Figure 7.11 Effect of electrode spacing: (a) narrow
The electrode spacing should normally be as spacing, (b) wide spacing and (c) unequal spacing.
wide as possible. In this way the problems
associated with a non-uniform field pattern are
Electrode Orientation:
minimized. The machine itself, however, sets In the examples considered previously the
the limit on the maximum spacing which can electrodes were placed parallel to each other in
be used. As the electrodes are moved further order to obtain a relatively uniform heating
apart the capacitance of the two plates pattern. However if one part of the surface of a
decreases. In addition the field intensity (and structure is closer to an electrode, the field
consequently the rate of heating) will decrease. lines will be concentrated in that region.
A point will be reached where the machine can
no longer be tuned or insufficient power is
available for adequate heating: this sets the
limit on the separation of the electrodes.

By use of a wide spacing the electrical

properties of the tissue have a smaller effect
on the overall field pattern and the electrical
properties of air play a greater role. Thus the
field pattern is more uniform and less subject
to variation with movement of the patient in
the field.
Figure 7.12 Effect of electrode orientation. (a) and
(c): incorrect orientation (b) correct orientation.

168
 Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy

Figure 7.12 shows electrodes applied to the
shoulder. Electrodes which are parallel to each
other as in figure 7.12(a) do not give a uniform
field because the air spacing varies
considerably. The dielectric constant and
conductivity of each field-line pathway varies
considerably, resulting in variation in the field
intensity. In figure 7.12(b) the distance
between the plates varies but the electrical
characteristics of each pathway are similar:
thus the field is relatively uniform. Clearly the
arrangement shown in figure 7.12(b) is
preferred when uniform heating is the
objective.
This effect can be minimized by using the
cross-fire technique of treatment shown in
figure 7.14.
Half of the treatment is given with electrodes
in one position (figure 7.14(a)). The electrodes
are then moved so that the new electric field is
at right angles to the old one (figure 7.14(b))
and the treatment is continued. In this way
deeply located tissue receives treatment for
twice as long as the skin. The cross-fire
treatment may be used, for example, on the
knee joint or pelvic organs. It is also
particularly useful for treating the walls of
cavities within a structure, for example the
sinuses. Figure 7.15 shows the field pattern
obtained with an object of high dielectric
constant which has an air-filled hollow at its
center.

The field lines are concentrated in the

dielectric resulting in uneven heating of the
walls of the cavity. Cross-fire treatment
ensures that all of the cavity wall area is
treated.
Figure 7.13 a coplanar arrangement of electrodes.

In all of the examples discussed previously the

arrangement of electrodes is contra-planar:
that is, electrodes are placed over opposite
sides of a structure. Such an arrangement is
needed if deeply located tissue is to be heated.

In some circumstances it is preferable to use a

coplanar electrode arrangement. For example Figure 7.14 the cross-fire technique.
superficial structures, such as the spine, which
are too extensive for contra-planar treatment
may be treated in this way. Figure 7.13 shows
a coplanar arrangement of electrodes.

When using a coplanar arrangement it is very

important to ensure that the spacing between
electrodes is greater than double the skin to
electrode distance. This results in the majority Figure 7.15 a hollow d ielectric between capacitor
of field lines passing through tissue rather than plates.
the air space between the electrodes.
Heating of Tissue:
Even when using a contraplanar arrangement
of electrodes considerable heating occurs in Earlier we discussed qualitatively and in
the superficial tissues closest to the electrodes. molecular terms, the heating effect of a high

169

Figure 7.16 Electrode/tissue configurations and their electrical equivalent circu its. (a) Coplanar
arrangement, (b) contra-planar arrangement.

frequency alternating electric field. We now
consider heat production and temperature rise
and take a larger scale view of matter: a view
at the level of tissue rather than molecules.
The power dissipated by a resistor, the rate at
which electrical energy is converted to heat
energy, is given by equation 12.1:
This expression relates the current, I, flowing
through a resistor to the total power, P,
dissipated in the resistor. For resistors the
current, I, is entirely real current and thus
produces heat. When we consider biological
tissues we must distinguish between real
current and displacement current since only
the real current results in heat production. In
additional, we are usually more interested in
the rate of heating at a particular point in the
tissue rather than in the tissue as a whole. In
this case a more useful expression of equation
12.1 is equation 12.2.
Here Pv is the power dissipated per unit
volume of tissue at a particular point. The
units of P v are thus watts per cubic meter. E is
the field strength (in volts per meter) and ir is
the real component of current density (in amps
per square meter) at that point.
The power dissipated, P v is equal to the rate of
heat production. Hence, in order to determine
the rate of heating at a particular point in tissue
we need to know the electric field strength and
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
the real current density. We begin by
considering fields and currents produced using
capacitor field treatment.
Capacitor Field Treatment:
Whether electrodes are positioned in a
coplanar arrangement (figure 7.13) or in a
contra-planar arrangement (figures 7.10 to
7.12) the current flow in muscle will be
determined by the total impedance of the
tissue combination plus the air space between
the tissue and capacitor plates.
Figure 7.16 shows electrical equivalent
circuits for the two electrode/tissue
arrangements. The quantities Za , Z f, and Z m
refer to the electrical impedances of air, fat
and muscle respectively.
In figure 7.16(a) we ignore (displacement)
current flow through the air directly between
the electrodes. We also ignore current flowing
directly through the fatty tissue and bypassing
the muscle. If the electrode spacing is at least
twice the electrode to tissue spacing this will
be a reasonable approximation. The
impedance presented by each alternate
pathway will be sufficiently high to make
these currents negligible.
In figure 7.16(b) we ignore current flow
through the bone, directly around the fatty
tissue or through the air around the tissue.
Again this is because these pathways have
very high impedance compared to the ones
shown.
170

Just as with resistive circuits, when
impedances are connected in series the current
in each impedance is the same. We thus have
the following relationship:
As mentioned earlier, the proportion of real
current in fatty tissue is approximately 50%
while in muscle the proportion is about 80%.
Thus the amount of real current flow in muscle
is 80/50 or about one and one half times
greater than in fatty tissue.
Let us take the simple case where current
spreading is minimal and estimate the relative
rate of heating in fatty tissue and muscle. We
need to know both the real current density and
field strength in each tissue. The field strength
is estimated below.
When resistors are connected in series the
current flow in each is the same but the
voltage across each resistor will, in general, be
different. The largest resistor will have across
it the greatest potential difference. The
equivalent statement for tissues of different
impedance is as follows:
When tissues are arranged in series the field
intensity will be greatest in the tissue with
highest impedance.
Muscle has a higher conductivity and
dielectric constant than fatty tissue. Now a
high conductivity and dielectric constant
means a low impedance. Fatty tissue has an
electrical impedance some ten times larger
than muscle.
The rate of heating of each tissue is given by
equation 12.2:
The real current density in muscle is as we
have seen, about one and a half times greater
than in fatty tissue, however the field intensity
in fatty tissue is approximately ten times
higher. Hence the rate of heating of fatty tissue
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
is predicted to be approximately 10/1.5 times
higher than muscle.
We thus have the general conclusion that if
spreading or converging of the field is minimal
the rate of heat production in fatty tissue will
be about seven times higher than in muscle.
If the electrode/tissue configuration permits
spreading of the field in muscle the current
density will be reduced and the rate of heating
of muscle correspondingly reduced.
Conversely if the geometry produces
convergence of the field lines in muscle the
current density will be increased and the
relative rate of heating will be increased
accordingly.
Inductive Coil Treatment:
With capacitor field treatment tissues are
effectively in a series electrical arrangement.
The current flow in muscle is thus limited by
the impedance of the fatty tissue layers. When
inductive coil treatment is used such is not the
case.
Consider the coil and tissue arrangement
shown in figure 7.8. Currents are induced in
the plane of the fatty tissue and in the plane of
the muscle. The current loops are complete
electrical pathways in the one tissue. For this
reason the current flow in muscle is not
limited by the fatty tissue but depends only on
the strength of the induced electric field and
the electrical characteristics of the muscle
tissue. In other words the induced currents
flowing in each tissue layer are independent of
each other.
The real component of the current density, the
current density which determines heat
production, is given by equation 12.3, which
can be written:
Substituting this formula into equation 12.2 we
obtain an alternate expression for the power
dissipated per unit volume:
171

The conductivity, σ, of muscle is some sixteen
times greater than that of fatty tissue. Hence,
for the same induced electric field strength,
both the real current density and the power
dissipated in muscle will be sixteen times
greater than in fatty tissue.
[The intensity of the induced electric field is
determined by the rate of change of the
magnetic field and the permeability, µ, of the
material. It does not depend on the electrical
properties, σ and ε, of the tissue.]
How large is the magnetically induced electric
field? The intensity of the induced field is
determined by the rate of change of the
magnetic field and the permeability, µ, of the
material. The permeability is close to one for
biological materials so fatty tissue and muscle
are alike in this regard.
For the same strength of alternating magnetic
field then, both fatty tissue and muscle will
have the same strength of induced electric
field. Thus the rate of heating of muscle in
this situation will be about sixteen times
greater than that of fatty tissue.
In practice such a degree of selective heating
is difficult to achieve. This is for two reasons:
 Muscle is located beneath fatty tissue and
so is further from the induction coil. Thus
the magnetic field is weaker in muscle and
the strength of the induced electric field is
correspondingly smaller.
 Fatty tissue, being closer to the induction
coil may also experience an appreciable
electric field due to the capacitance
between adjacent turns of the coil. This
effect was described earlier (see figure
7.8).
These two factors combine to increase the
heating of fatty tissue relative to muscle so
that a sixteen to one advantage is rarely
obtained. Nonetheless efficient selective
heating is achieved with close spacing of the
turns of the coil and a sufficiently large coil to
patient distance. One would also expect good
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
discrimination with applicators which
incorporate an electric field screen in front of
the inductive coil.
Heat and Te mperature Rise:
Having described the factors determining the
rate of heating of tissue we now consider the
relationship between rate of heating and rate of
increase of temperature.
The rate of heating per unit volume is given in
terms of electric field intensity and real current
density by equation 12.2. Hence the amount
of heat produced per unit volume, ∆Q v , in a
time interval ∆t is given by equation 12.5.
∆Qv has units of joules per cubic meter (J.m-
3).
In considering the therapeutic effects of
diathermy it is not the heat produced, as such,
which determines the physiological response
but the resulting temperature rise. Temperature
is a key factor in determining the rates of
chemical reactions and hence physiological
processes.
The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin
(symbol K). It is related to the perhaps more
familiar degree Celsius (°C) by the expression
[To convert from degrees Celsius to Kelvin's,
simply add 273.15 to the Celsius temperature.]
Notice that from this definition the size of the
degree Celsius is the same as the kelvin. In
other words a change in temperature of five
degrees Celsius is precisely the same as a
change of five Kelvin's. When we are talking
about increases in temperature brought about
by diathermy treatment the terms kelvin and
degrees Celsius can be used interchangeably to
describe the increase.
When a fixed amount of heat is supplied to
different substances the increase in
temperature of each will, in general, be quite
172

different. The factor which determines the
resulting temperature increase is the specific
heat capacity of the substance.
The specific heat capacity is defined as the
amount of heat required to raise 1 kg of a
substance through one kelvin. The units of
specific heat capacity are thus joules per
kilogram per kelvin. This can be measured
experimentally by supplying a certain amount
of heat (∆Q) to a known mass (m) of the
substance and measuring the resulting
temperature increase (∆T). The experiment
must be arranged so that all of the heat
supplied is used to increase the temperature of
the substance. If the loss of heat is negligible
then the specific heat capacity (c) can be
calculated using equation 12.6:
[Alternatively, when the specific heat capacity
of a substance is known, equation 12.6 can be
used to calculate the temperature increase
resulting from the heat supplied.]
When we consider the heating of tissues by
diathermy, heat transfer between tissues and to
the bloodstream will have a large effect on the
temperature distribution during treatment.
Prior to the start of treatment the body tissues
are in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Cellular
activity, metabolism and muscle contraction
result in the steady production of heat and the
circulation of blood and tissue fluids provide
an efficient means of heat transfer. The net
production of heat is balanced by net transfer
of heat from the tissue and a stable
temperature is maintained.
Once treatment is started heat is produced in
the tissue according to equation 12.5 and the
temperature starts to increase. An expression
for the initial rate of increase in temperature is
obtained below.
Rearranging 12.6 we have ∆Q=m.c.∆T
Dividing this expression by volume we obtain:
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
Where ρ is the mass per unit volume or density
of the tissue.
Dividing 12.7 by ∆t gives:
Where ∆Qv/∆t is the volume rate of heating
(in Joules per cubic meter per second) and
∆T/∆t is the rate of increase in temperature (in
Kelvin's per second).
Note that this conclusion is a general one. It
applies not just to shortwave diathermy but to
any diathermic modality.
This equation can be used to compare the
initial rate of temperature increase in fatty
tissue with that of muscle. The densities of the
two tissues are similar but the heat capacity of
muscle is some 50% greater than that of fatty
tissue. Thus if the rate of heating of each tissue
is the same, the initial rate of temperature
increase in muscle will be only two thirds of
that of fatty tissue. To produce the same initial
rate of increase in temperature in each tissue
the rate at which heat energy is produced in
muscle must be 50% greater.
An equation specifically applicable to
shortwave diathermy is obtained by solving
equations 12.7 and 12.5. We then have:
ρ.c.∆T = E.ir.∆t, which on rearranging gives:
Equation 12.9 shows that the initial rate of
increase in temperature (∆T/∆t) in shortwave
diathermy depends on four factors:
 E, the field intensity at the point.
 ir , the magnitude of the real current density
at the point.
 ρ, the density of the tissue.
 c, the specific heat capacity of the tissue.
Once the temperature of any tissue has
increased appreciably two things happen:
173

 The body's temperature regulation
mechanism responds. Blood vessels
dilate, circulation is increased and more
heat is transferred from the tissue.
 Heat is transferred by the blood and tissue
fluids to adjacent cooler tissues.
Both of these effects lower the rate of increase
in temperature. Eventually, the stage is
reached where the temperature ceases to
increase. A new dynamic equilibrium is
achieved where the net production of heat is
once again balanced by the net transfer from
the tissue.
Figure 7.17 illustrates the temperature
variation during treatment. There is a transient
period during which the tissue temperature
increases, followed by a steady state where a
constant (elevated) temperature is produced.
The transient period for tissue volumes of
interest in physiotherapy is typically of the
order of twenty to thirty minutes. Thus for
treatment times of up to several minutes,
equation 12.9 gives a reasonable
approximation to the real physical situation.
Application of equations 12.2 and 12.9 to
quantitative prediction of the rate of heating
and rate of temperature increase in different
parts of tissue is difficult. The difficulty arises
in the calculation of the field intensity in a
particular area.
In patient treatment, shortwave diathermy
remains something of an art as well as a
science. The physiotherapist must use a
knowledge of anatomy together with
knowledge of the electrical properties of
tissues to determine the optimum placement of
electrodes or coil to give the required field
pattern. Once the field pattern is selected, the
physiotherapist uses a knowledge of the
relative heating of the tissues and the patient's
report of a sensation of warmth to adjust the
intensity of the applied field to an appropriate
level. With this procedure it is not possible to
accurately monitor dose or dose rate for the
individual tissues.
Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy
Figure 7.17 a simple model for tissue temperature
variation during treat ment.
Physiological Effects:
The therapeutic value of shortwave diathermy
arises from the physiological response of
tissues to an increase in temperature. A
number of physiological responses are found:
 At the cellular level an increase in
temperature increases the rate of
biochemical reactions. Thus cellular
metabolism is increased - there is an
increased demand for oxygen and
nutrients and the output of waste products
is increased.
 Blood supply is increased. A number of
factors determine this response. The
increased output of cellular waste products
triggers dilation of the capillaries and
arterioles. The temperature increase itself
causes some dilation, mainly in the
superficial tissues where heating is
greatest. In addition, stimulation of
sensory nerve endings (again mainly in the
superficial tissues) can cause a reflex
dilation.
 A rise in temperature can induce
relaxation of muscles. If there is abnormal
muscle activity caused by pain, for
example, repeated treatment with
shortwave diathermy can be beneficial.
The treatment helps to interrupt the
vicious circle of pain producing muscle
activity which in turn produces more pain
174
 Chapter 12 Short Wave Diathermy

and so on. A number of factors may

contribute to relaxation: the direct effect of
heat on muscle tissue, the removal of any
accumulated metabolites due to increased
circulation and the sedative effect of heat
on sensory nerves.
 The response of sensory nerves to heat is
useful for the relief of pain generally. Mild
heating appears to inhibit the transmission
of sensory impulses via nerve fibers. In
addition, when pain results from
inflammation of tissue an increase in the
rate of absorption of exudate with increase
in temperature can result in a secondary
pain-relief effect.
 Some claims have been made that
additional non-thermal effects can be
produced under the conditions used for
therapy. As yet there is no clinical
evidence for these claims. Non-thermal
effects seem to have been demonstrated
using pulsed shortwave treatment when
the peak power level is significantly
higher than used for diathermy. The few
published comparative studies indicate
little or no non-thermal effect at the low
continuous power levels of conventional
shortwave field treatment.

175

Chapter No. 13
NERVE AND MUSCLE
STIMULATION
Both low frequency pulsed current and kHz
frequency alternating current are used by the
physiotherapist for the stimulation of nerve
and muscle. Low frequency stimulation using
short duration pulses has most often been used
by physiologists for studying nerve and
muscle. Consequently, the physiological basis
for electrical stimulation with these currents is
reasonably well understood. Less is known of
the effects of kHz frequency alternating
currents, particularly when applied
transcutaneous. The aim of this chapter is to
present some of the important observations
that have been made concerning the response
of nerve and muscle to electrical stimulation
using both kinds of currents.
[The resting membrane potential is also
affected by the movement of other ions,
including sodium ions, but because their
permeability is much lower than that of
potassium, their effect on the resting
membrane potential is less.]
When a nerve fiber is in its resting state there
is a potential difference of some 70 millivolts
between the interior and exterior of the fiber.
This is called the 'resting membrane potential'.
The inside of the fiber is negative with respect
to the outside. The resting membrane potential
originates from the difference in concentration
of different ions inside and outside the cell and
the permeability of the fiber membrane to
particular ions. Potassium ions contribute most
to the resting membrane potential. The
intracellular and extracellular concentrations
of potassium ions differ markedly, with the
result that they diffuse down their
concentration gradient, producing a difference
in electrical potential across the nerve fiber
membrane. The origin of the resting
membrane potential is described in most
physiology text books and so will not be
elaborated here.
If a current of sufficient intensity is passed
through tissue containing a nerve fiber the
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
potential difference set-up across the fiber may
be sufficient to cause depolarization of the
fiber membrane and the nerve is stimulated.
The depolarization of the membrane, once
induced, is transmitted along the length of the
nerve fiber and is indistinguishable from a
normal nerve impulse (sometimes referred to
as an action potential). The important idea is
that the potential difference across the
membrane must be changed by a critical
amount to produce the transient, but large,
membrane depolarization which is known as
an action potential.
STIMULATION OF NERVE FIBRES:
In order to elicit an action potential the
potential difference across a nerve fiber must
be changed to more than some critical value
known as the threshold potential. An electrical
stimulus resulting in less than the threshold
potential across the nerve fiber will not trigger
any response. The process is illustrated in
figure 13.1.
The threshold potential of most excitable
membranes is between 5 and 15 mV more
positive than the resting potential. Thus if the
resting potential is -70 mV the threshold
potential may be -60 mV. To generate a nerve
impulse the potential must be changed by
more than 10 mV in this case.
Once the potential is increased above
threshold the nerve fiber is 'fired'. The
response is 'all or none'. That is, any stimulus
above the threshold value produces the same
size of response. The membrane potential
rapidly changes to around +30 mV then
decreases to the resting value, typically in
about one millisecond.
Refractory Pe riods:
After a nerve has been stimulated there is a
short period of time, typically around 10
milliseconds for sensory and motor neurons,
during which the sensitivity of the nerve to
stimuli is decreased. During this time the
nerve membrane is said to be refractory to a
second stimulus. The threshold potential is
increased above the normal value as shown in
figure 13.2.
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 Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation

Accommodation:
Three characteristics of an electrical impulse
influence its ability to stimulate nerve fibers:

 The size or amplitude of the pulse,

 The width or duration of the pulse, and
 The rate of change (or rise) of the pulse.

The size or amp litude of the pulse is clearly

Figure 13.1: Response of a nerve fiber to stimuli of
increasing intensity .
important in that the larger the pulse, the more
rapidly the nerve fiber will reach threshold. The
width or duration of the pulse is also important in
that the longer the pulse duration, the more t ime is
available for the fiber to reach threshold.

Figure 13.2: Refractory periods for a nerve fiber

For the first millisecond or so after initiation of a

nerve impulse no stimulus, no matter how large,
will produce a second impulse. This is the absolute
refractory period. Th is is fo llo wed by a further
period, the relat ive refractory period, during which
only a larger than normal stimulus will produce a
response. Full recovery is normally co mplete in
about 10 to 15 milliseconds, when the threshold
potential has returned to its original value.

Termination of the action potential involves the

memb rane potential returning to its resting value.
The membrane potential typically decreases
towards resting, overshoots, and returns to baseline
during the relative refractory period. During the
overshoot, the magnitude of the membrane
Figure 13.3: the effect of stimu lus rise-time on
potential is somewhat greater than the normal 70
action potential production. (a) Short stimulus rise-
mV and the membrane is described as being
time, (b) lower rate of rise of the stimu lus and (c)
hyperpolarized. Hyperpolarizat ion and
very low rise time.
refractoriness following an action potential lasts for
10 to 15 milliseconds in large diameter sensory and The rate of change (or rise) of the pulse is
motor neurons. For smaller diameter fibers, the important because, in general, a stimulus pulse
refractory period is longer. This is associated with which rises slowly to its maximum value is
the observation that the firing rates of smaller
less effective than a sudden sharp pulse, other
diameter fibers are typically less than those of
larger d iameter fibers.
things being equal. If a slow rising pulse is
used then the minimum amplitude needed to
elicit an action potential will be greater. This
happens because the nerve fiber is able to

177

accommodate to a slow change in potential.
Indeed, if the pulse rises at a sufficiently low
rate, no nerve impulse will be generated. The
effect of accommodation is illustrated in figure
13.3. In figure 13.3(a) the pulse rise-time is
short and threshold is reached before any
appreciable change in threshold potential
occurs. In 13.3(b) the pulse increases at a
faster rate than the threshold potential so
threshold is reached after several milliseconds.
In 13.3(c) the pulse rises at the same rate as
the threshold potential and so does not 'catch
up' and cannot generate an action potential: the
nerve fiber has 'accommodated' to the rising
stimulus intensity by becoming insensitive to
electrical stimulation.
The refractory period and accommodation
both stem from the same basic molecular
process by which the nerve impulse, once
generated, is terminated and the membrane
potential returns to the resting value. An
explanation involves voltage- sensitive 'gates'
which control opening and closing of
conduction channels in the nerve fiber
membrane.
STIMULATION OF NORMALLY
INNERVATED MUSCLE:
When the nerve supply to a muscle or group is
intact, transcutaneous electrical stimulation
will normally evoke a motor response not by a
direct effect on the muscle fibers, but
indirectly via excitation of the motor nerve
fibers (α-Moto neurons). The reasons for this
are twofold. The first is that many muscle
fibers are deeply located and so less likely to
be stimulated than those closer to the
stimulating electrodes. The second, and
perhaps more important reason, is that the time
constant for depolarization of a muscle fiber is
much greater than that of a nerve fiber. If short
duration pulses are used, muscle fibers do not
have sufficient time to respond. Nerve fibers,
which have a smaller time constant and
depolarize more rapidly, are more likely to
have sufficient time to reach threshold and
fire.
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
Where to Stimulate?
When the aim of transcutaneous stimulation is
to produce a motor response, the electrodes are
normally placed either over the nerve trunk or
directly over the muscle to be stimulated.
Stimulation of the nerve trunk is described as
'indirect' and will evoke a response from all of
the muscles innervated by fibers in the trunk.
Stimulation over the muscle ('direct'
stimulation) will preferentially activate just
that muscle. For example, if the femoral nerve
is stimulated at the level of the groin, the
quadriceps femoris group will be activated.
Alternatively, electrodes may be positioned
over an individual muscle to activate just one
member of the quadriceps group.
The best response from an individual muscle is
obtained if the stimulus is applied at a motor
point. This is often the region of skin which is
over the point where the main nerve enters the
muscle. In the case of deeply placed muscles
the motor point is usually where the muscle
emerges from under cover of the more
superficial ones. Note, however, that motor
point locations are defined as points where a
motor response is most easily produced and
such points are determined experimentally.
Thus a particular motor point may not fit
either of the above descriptions - for example
it may be simply an area where the nerve is
located more superficially.
[Transcutaneous electrical stimulation then,
particularly with short duration pulses
(durations less than the time constant for
muscle fibers), preferentially recruits nerve
fibers.]
[Note that the terms 'direct' and 'indirect'
stimulation refer to proximity to the muscle.
Direct stimulation does not mean that muscle
fibers are stimulated directly but rather that
stimulation is via nerve fibers entering the
muscle.]
Electrode Orientation and Size:
To stimulate nerve, current must flow through
tissue between two electrodes which are
normally positioned so that current flows
parallel to the nerve fibers. If the current flow
178

is at right angles to the fibers, much higher
stimulus intensities are required. The reason is
that in order to produce an action potential,
current must flow in across the fiber
membrane at one Node of Ranvier, along the
fiber and out at an adjacent node. The amount
of current flow depends on the applied
potential difference and the greatest potential
difference will be produced between adjacent
nodes if the current flow direction is parallel to
the nerve fiber.
A related idea is that action potentials will
more readily be generated under the negative
electrode (the cathode) than under the positive
electrode (the anode). The reason for this is as
follows. The nerve fiber membrane, in its
resting state, is polarized. The outside is
positively charged and the inside, negatively
charged. A potential difference of about 70
mV exists across the membrane. If a stimulus
is applied using two electrodes, the resulting
current flow will depolarize the membrane at
one Node of Ranvier while hyperpolarizing
the membrane at its neighbor.
Figure 13.4 illustrates the effect. The resting
membrane is positively charged on the outside
and negatively charged on the inside. The
membrane also acts as a capacitor, which can
store charge. The flow of current between
anode and cathode increases the positive
charge on the membrane closer to the anode,
while reducing the charge on the membrane
closer to the cathode.
The result is that the potential difference
across the membrane near the anode is
increased and the membrane becomes
hyperpolarized. The potential difference across
the membrane near the cathode is decreased
and the membrane becomes less polarized.
When the reduced polarization (i.e.
depolarization) is sufficient, an action
potential is generated.
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
Figure 13.4: Cu rrent flow between anode and
cathode produces depolarization under the cathode
and hyperpolarization under the anode.
To enhance the efficiency of stimulation under
the cathode, a small electrode size can be used.
A larger anode helps to ensure that the current
density beneath the electrode is low while the
smaller cathode concentrates the current flow
and more specifically targets Nodes of Ranvier
closest to this electrode. Under these
conditions, the location of the anode is
relatively unimportant as the cathode acts as
the 'active' electrode. The anode acts as an
'indifferent' or 'dispersive' electrode
('dispersive' referring to spreading of the
current over a larger area). The main criterion
for the location of the anode is that it should
not be located over an electrically sensitive
area such as a motor point or muscle belly.
Sometimes equal size electrodes are used for
transcutaneous electrical stimulation. This is
often the case when electrodes are placed over
a muscle belly. The cathode is positioned
distally and the anode proximally. The reason
for the 'cathode distal' arrangement is that an
action potential generated near the cathode
may not propagate through the region under
the anode. The phenomenon is referred-to as
anodal block. The idea is that if an action
potential is generated at a particular node of
Ranvier, it will normally trigger an action
potential at the nodes immediately adjacent.
This means that when the nerve is stimulated
electrically, action potentials can propagate in
both directions along the fiber from the site of
stimulation. Propagation in the direction
towards the anode, however, will not occur if
the adjacent node is kept hyperpolarized by the
stimulus pulse. If the objective is to elicit a
motor response, a cathode distal arrangement
should be used, so that action potential
propagation towards the muscle fibers is not
blocked. Conversely, if the objective is
179

stimulation of sensory fibers, where the aim is
sensory input to the central nervous system, a
cathode proximal arrangement would be
appropriate.
[Two-way action potential propagation does
not happen physiologically as action
potentials are always initiated either at a
synapse or a nerve ending.]
Recruitment and Summation:
When muscle fibers are stimulated indirectly,
via their nerve supply, the muscle fibers are
activated synchronously because their Motor
neurons are activated simultaneously. Each
stimulus pulse activates a proportion of the
fibers in the nerve trunk and the activated
fibers evoke a twitch response in the muscle
fibers which they innervate.
The number of fibers recruited, and hence the
force of the muscle contraction depends on the
stimulus intensity. At low intensities, only a
small proportion of the fibers are recruited. At
higher intensities, a greater proportion of the
nerve fibers are activated.
Whatever the intensity, the muscle response to
transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation is
critically dependent on the stimulus frequency.
At low frequencies (a few Hz or less), isolated
twitches are produced in response to each
stimulus pulse. There is time for the muscle to
relax before the next contraction. If the
frequency is more than a few Hz, the muscle
fibers ` do not have time to completely relax
between pulses. Each successive contraction
occurs on the tail of the previous one and the
peak force is greater. With a further increase
in the frequency it becomes more difficult to
distinguish the effects of individual stimuli.
The twitch responses fuse and the contraction
becomes stronger still. With most human
muscles, at a stimulus frequency of about 20
Hz, only small ripples are seen in the force
record. This is described as partial tetany.
Between 20 Hz and 50 Hz, the ripples
disappear, the contractile force reaches a
plateau and the contraction is described as
tetanic.
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
[The term 'tetanus' refers to a tetanic muscle
contraction. It is also used to describe a
pathological condition produced by the toxin
of a bacillus which causes tetanic muscle
contraction.]
Figure 13.5 illustrates the effect of a
progressive increase in stimulus frequency on
the evoked muscle response. In this diagram,
the frequency has been ramped from 2 Hz to
50 Hz. Note that at about 20 Hz, the response
is almost tetanic. Above this frequency
complete tetany occurs. Note also that the
tetanic force is about four times greater than
the isolated twitch force.
Figure 13.5: Muscular force produced in response
to short duration rectangular pulsed current with
frequencies in the range 2 Hz to 50 Hz.
In the example considered, the fusion
frequency is about 30 Hz. The fusion
frequency varies between muscles and
depends on the muscle fiber types present. In
terms of twitch times, two groups of fibers are
distinguished: fast- and slow-twitch. The
contraction time, defined as the time from the
start of the contraction to peak force, is about
40 ms for human fast- twitch muscle fibers
and about 120 ms for slow-twitch fibers.
Muscles such as soleus contain mostly (80%)
slow twitch fibers. The twitch contraction time
is long and consequently the fusion frequency
is low. At the opposite extreme, orbicularis
oculi, an eye movement muscle, contains
mostly (85%) fast-twitch fibers and the fusion
frequency is high. Fusion frequencies can thus
vary from less than 20 Hz to close to 80 Hz.
Many human skeletal muscles have roughly
equal proportions of slow and fast-twitch
fibers. For example, biceps and triceps brachii
are comprised of about 60% fast-twitch fibers,
while the figure for quadriceps is close to
50%.
180

Effect of Pulse Duration:
Earlier we saw that the characteristics of an
electrical impulse which determine its
effectiveness in stimulating nerve fibers were
pulse amplitude, duration and rate of rise. We
now examine the first two factors in more
detail.
For the stimulation of normally innervated
muscle it is customary to use rectangular
pulses of short duration. The reasons for this
are as follows:
 The short rise-time of a rectangular pulse
overcomes the problem of accommodation
of the nerve fiber membrane.
 Some sensory nerves will invariably be
stimulated. The sensation associated with
pulses of short duration (less than 1 ms) is
less unpleasant than that associated with a
longer pulse duration (above 1 ms).
 For long pulses, only the early part is
effective in stimulating nerve. If the pulse
duration is a few multiples of the skin RC
time constant, significant subcutaneous
current flow will only occur at the
beginning and end of the pulse.
A graph of stimulus strength needed to
produce a minimal muscle contraction against
pulse duration is shown in figure 13.6. The
method of obtaining these results is as follows.
Pulses of long duration (usually 100 ms) are
applied to a muscle and the stimulus intensity
is increased until a minimal contraction is
obtained. The stimulus intensity (voltage or
current) is then recorded. The pulse duration is
then decreased and the intensity needed for
minimal contraction is again determined. The
process is repeated until enough results are
obtained to give a graph like that shown in
figure 136.
The graph (the strength-duration curve) is
normally plotted using a logarithmic axis for
pulse duration. This magnifies the region of
the curve showing the effect of short pulse
durations and makes interpretation easier.
It is found that pulses of long duration (about
10 ms or more) produce a muscle contraction
with the same voltage for all durations. When
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
the duration is decreased below a certain point
(in this example, a little over 1 ms) the
stimulus intensity needed to produce
contraction is increased.
The increase in intensity with decreasing pulse
duration can be explained in terms of the
electrical properties of the nerve fiber:
specifically the capacitance of the nerve fiber
membrane. To generate an action potential, the
membrane must be depolarized to threshold.
That is, the potential difference across the
membrane, the resting potential, must be
changed by a certain amount by charging the
capacitive membrane. As figure 13.6 shows,
if the pulse duration is long, the capacitor
charges fully. With short duration pulses, the
membrane does not have time to fully charge.
However, if a higher voltage is used, the
overall current flow is higher and the
membrane potential changes more rapidly.
Threshold is approached more rapidly so a
shorter charging period (short duration) is
compensated by a greater charging force
(higher voltage pulse).
Figure 13.6: Change in potential d ifference across
the nerve fiber memb rane.
The plateau above 1 ms in this example relies
on two factors: the membrane capacitance and
the skin capacitance. When the pulse duration
is long, the skin capacitance will fully charge
and the flow of current through the deeper
tissues will decrease to a negligible amount
during the pulse. A long duration pulse also
allows time for the membrane capacitor to
fully charge, and any additional time does not
produce further charging (figure 13.6a). Once
the time has elapsed for both of these
processes to reach a steady state, any further
increase in pulse width has a negligible effect.
181

Figure 13.7: (a) a strength-duration curve for
normally innervated muscle.
Chronaxie and Rheobase:
Two important quantities are obtained from
the strength-duration curve, the chronaxie and
the rheobase:
 The rheobase is the minimum voltage (or
current) which will produce a response if
the stimulus is of infinite duration. In
practice a pulse width of 100 ms duration
is used, quite satisfactorily, to assess this.
 The chronaxie is the minimum duration of
impulse which will produce a response
with a voltage (or current) of double the
rheobase.
In figure 13.7(b) the rheobase is 25 volts so
the chronaxie is the minimum duration
required with a 50 volt stimulus. In this case
the chronaxie is 0.03 ms (see alongside).
Strength-duration curves and their chronaxie
and rheobase values can be used clinically to
assess and monitor muscle which may have
suffered damage to its nerve supply. Strength-
duration graphs for denervated muscle are
quite different to those of normally innervated
muscle, as are the chronaxie and rheobase
values - but more of this later.
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
Figure 13.7: (b) a strength-duration curve for
normally innervated muscle. (Rheobase and
chronaxie shown)
Effect of Pulse Frequency:
We have already described the response of
typical skeletal muscles to nerve impulses of
different frequencies. Single muscle twitches
are produced with low frequency stimuli (less
than about 5 per second) and as the frequency
approaches 20 Hz, the twitches summate to
produce partial tetany (see figure 13.5). At
some frequency above 20 Hz, a tetanic
contraction results. Once a fused, tetanic
contraction is induced, any further increase in
stimulus frequency does not induce any
increase in muscle force. For typical human
muscles (which have mixed fiber types in
roughly equal proportions) the fusion
frequency is around 40 Hz. For muscles with a
high proportion of fast twitch fires, the fusion
frequency is higher. For muscles with a high
proportion of slow twitch fibers, the fusion
frequency is lower.
What of stimulation at frequencies above the
fusion frequency? At frequencies which are
high enough that successive stimuli arrive
within the refractory period, the nerve fiber
response depends on the intensity of the
stimulus. Just at threshold, one stimulus pulse
will produce an action potential, the next will
not, as the nerve fiber will be refractory. Well
above threshold, when fibers are stimulated at
multiples of their threshold intens ities, firing
will occur within the refractory period and the
firing rate will equal the stimulus frequency. It
has been demonstrated experimentally that
nerve fiber firing rates up to the limit
182

determined by the absolute refractory period
can be produced by stimulus intensities of only
a few times threshold. Thus if the absolute
refractory period is 1 ms, the maximum firing
rate would be every millisecond so the
frequency would be 1 kHz. The
experimentally determined maximum firing
rate of α- Motor neurons is 800 Hz, a value in
close agreement with measured absolute
refractory periods.
Nerve fiber firing rates with electrical
stimulation can thus be much higher than those
produced physiologically.
In a sustained, weak voluntary contraction,
firing rates of 8 - 12 Hz are typical. Lower
firing rates are found with repetitive weak
contractions. For a steady, sustained forceful
contraction, an upper limit to the firing rate
seems to be about 30 Hz in human skeletal
muscle. These are firing frequencies which
result in a partially fused contraction.
How, then, are smooth, controlled voluntary
movements possible when low forces are
involved and the firing rates are very low?
Why is it that no twitching or fluttering is seen
when the firing rates are below the fusion
frequency? The answer is that the activity of
different motor units is asynchronous.
Although individual motor units may be firing
at low frequency and producing a fluttering,
partly fused contraction in individual muscle
fibers, there is no synchronization between
different motor units. At the level of the
whole muscle, the total force is the sum of the
contributions of all active motor units so the
ripples in force output from each motor unit
are smoothed i.e. lost in the total. By contrast,
when muscles are activated electrically, all of
the activated fibers are synchronously
activated so smooth contractions are only
possible when the induced firing frequencies
are greater than, or equal to, the fusion
frequency.
The very large range of force output of which
human muscles are capable is only partly due
to variation in nerve firing rates. A second
factor which is at least as important is
recruitment. In a weak contraction only a few
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
motor units may be active. In a stronger
contraction, more motor units are recruited.
The gradation in force which all skeletal
muscles exhibit is achieved by a combination
of increase in firing rate and increase in
number of motor units recruited. Different
skeletal muscles rely to different extents on
these two strategies.
With rapid, forceful contractions, initial nerve
fiber firing rates can be as high as 100 Hz or
so, but this is never sustained. Such rates are
only observed at the start of a contraction and
drop too much lower 'steady' values within a
few seconds. With prolonged effort and
fatigue, the maximum steady firing rate might
typically drop from 30 Hz to about half this
figure. It is interesting to note that as muscle
fibers fatigue, their twitch duration increases
so the associated decrease in firing rate does
not result in a partially fused contraction
becoming unfused. Were this to occur, a very
large drop in force would result (figure 13.5).
Rather the decrease in firing rate seems to be
balanced by the increase in contraction time.
[Larger muscles such as biceps brachii and
deltoid, which contain a large number of
motor units, rely more on recruitment than
smaller muscles, such as adductor pollicis and
the first dorsal interosseous muscle].
Fatigue considerations:
An observation made very early in the history
of electrically induced muscle contraction is
that the rate of fatigue is much greater with
electrically induced contractions than with
voluntary contractions of the same magnitude.
Two factors contribute to the difference: the
firing rates of the motor units and the number
and nature of the motor units which are
recruited.
As discussed previously, in order to produce a
smooth, non-twitching motor response, the
frequency of electrical stimuli must be higher
than the fusion frequency of the excited
muscle fibers. 50 Hz is a 'ball-park' figure for
most skeletal muscles. A voluntary contraction
of the same magnitude would involve lower
firing frequencies and, to compensate, greater
recruitment of motor units. The difference is
183

that physiologically, the load is spread over
more motor units which, individually, do not
have to work as hard. The result is a lower
rate of fatigue.
The second difference involves different
muscle fiber types. Muscle fibers are typed, as
described previously, as fast- or slow-twitch.
They are further categorized according to
fatigue resistance where slow, fast-resistant
and fast-fatigable fibers are distinguished.
Fatigue-resistance depends on cellular
metabolism. Slow fibers have a long twitch-
force duration and are fatigue-resistant. They
rely on aerobic glycolysis for energy
production. Fast-fatigable fibers are designed
to produce very high peak forces for a very
short time (from a fraction of a second to a
few seconds). They rely on anaerobic
metabolism for peak energy production: an
oxygen supply from the bloodstream is not an
immediate concern. Fast-resistant fibers are
relatively fatigue resistant but also have a short
twitch-force duration and moderately high
peak force.
In a steady or repetitive voluntary contraction
it is the slow, highly fatigue-resistant motor
units which are recruited first. For contractile
forces up to about 20% of maximum, slow
motor units dominate. Above this level, the
contribution of fast- resistant units increases.
Fast-fatigable units are the last to be recruited.
[Henemann et al, in 1965, proposed the size
principle of motoneuron recruitment based
upon their own experimental work and that of
others. The principle states that with
increasing contractile force, recruitment
proceeds in an orderly fashion from smallest
to largest motoneuron diameter.]
Slow motor units are the smallest in terms of
the number of fibers innervated by an
individual motoneuron and also in terms of the
motoneuron diameter. Fast-resistant motor
units are larger and the motoneuron diameters
are larger. Fast-fatigable units are the largest
on both counts. Clearly it is optimal to have
small motor units with long twitch times and
low fusion frequencies used for weak
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
contractions. In this way, an unsteady
twitching contraction is avoided.
The order of recruitment described above
applies to steady or repetitive contractions. In
sudden movements, fast-fatigable units are
activated at the beginning of the movement.
These units fire very few action potentials in a
single high-frequency burst. This produces a
high peak force with a rapid initial rate of
increase, such as would be needed to produce
a sudden, brief acceleration of a limb segment.
With electrical stimulation, the pattern of
recruitment is very different to that which
occurs physiologically. Two factors determine
the order of recruitment: proximity to the
stimulating electrode and nerve fiber diameter.
Fibers closer to the stimulating electrode will
experience a higher stimulation intensity than
those further away. This is because current
spreads within the tissue, resulting in a
decrease in intensity. Close to the electrodes,
spreading is minimal and the current density is
highest. With increasing distance, the current
density decreases.
The current density, i, is given by the formula
Where I is the current (in amperes) and A the
area through which the current passes (in
square meters). The units of current density
are thus amperes per square meter (A.m-2).
Close to the electrodes the current density will
be greatest: approximately I/A o , where Ao is
the area of the electrode (figure 13.8). Further
from the electrodes the area A through which
the current passes is larger than A o so the
current density is less.
Fiber diameter is important because the
distance between adjacent nodes of Ranvier is
greater for larger diameter fibers. Histological
measurements show that the distance between
nodes is directly proportional to nerve fiber
diameter. As stated previously, initiation of an
action potential relies on producing a potential
difference between adjacent nodes. The
greater the distance between the nodes, the
184

greater will be the potential difference for a
given stimulus intensity applied to the tissue.
Larger diameter nerve fibers then, are more
easily recruited than those of smaller diameter.
This means that for nerve fibers at a certain
distance from the stimulating electrode, the
order of recruitment will be the reverse of that
which occurs physiologically. The largest
diameter fibers, which innervate fast-fatigable
motor units which have the highest fusion
frequencies, will be recruited first.
The effect of electrode-to-nerve-fiber distance
means that the reverse recruitment order will
not be followed exactly, but fast-fatigable
motor units will contribute disproportionately
to an electrically induced contraction. A
consequence is that a high stimulus frequency
is needed to achieve a smooth, fused response
and this inevitably induces a high rate of
fatigue.
Figure 13.8: the spreading of current within a
volume conductor.
STIMULATION OF DENERVATED
MUSCLE:
Even though a muscle may have lost its motor
nerve supply it is possible to stimulate the
fibers directly. The effect of electrical stimuli
on muscle fiber and on nerve is similar: the
potential difference across the muscle fiber
membrane is reduced and this results in a
wave of excitation which propagates along the
fiber and is transmitted into the interior of the
muscle fiber via the transverse tubule (T-
tubule) system. Depolarization of the T-
tubules triggers the calcium ion release which
results in contraction of the fiber.
There are three main differences between the
response of innervated and denervated muscle
to electrical stimulation. One difference is in
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
the type of contraction produced and the others
are in the effects of pulse shape and duration:
 The contraction and subsequent relaxation
of denervated muscle is more sluggish
than innervated muscle. This is mainly
due to the absence of synchronization in
stimulation of the muscle fibers.
 Denervated muscle shows a much less
marked accommodation effect than nerve.
Thus it is not necessary to use short
duration, rectangular pulses for
stimulation. An impulse which rises
slowly in intensity can depolarize the
muscle fiber membrane. For this reason
impulses having, for example, saw tooth,
trapezoidal or triangular shape and long
duration are effective in stimulating
denervated muscle. Such pulses are termed
selective because it is possible to adjust
the pulse duration and intensity for
adequate stimulation of denervated muscle
with minimal stimulation of nearby intact
nerve fibers.
 Denervated muscle is relatively insensitive
to short duration stimuli. This important
point is discussed next.
Effect of Pulse Duration:
The much smaller accommodation effect with
denervated muscle compared to nerve results
in longer pulses being more effective for
stimulating denervated muscle. However,
short duration pulses are considerably less
effective. These experimental observations are
illustrated in figure 13.9, which shows a
strength-duration curve typical of completely
denervated muscle.
Figure 13.9: a strength-duration curve for
completely denervated muscle.
185

The graph shows that painfully high voltages
must be used to stimulate denervated muscle if
the duration is short. In contrast, if long
duration pulses are used only low voltages are
needed. In this particular example, comparison
with figure 13.7 shows a greater sensitivity for
denervated muscle to pulses of duration above
50 ms. The increased sensitivity to long pulse
duration stimuli is typical of recently
denervated muscle. The lack of neural input
apparently causes an increased sensitivity of
the muscle fiber membrane. The increase may
be the result of normal control mechanisms
whereby the muscle fiber adapts-to or
compensates-for changes in neural activity.
Effect of Pulse Frequency:
We saw previously that for frequencies above
about 100 Hz, the higher the frequency the less
efficient pulses are for direct stimulation of
nerve fibers. Similar behavior is observed
when muscle is stimulated directly, though the
frequencies concerned are different, as is the
explanation of the effect. For stimulus
frequencies above about 10 Hz the sensitivity
of denervated muscle decreases with the effect
becoming quite marked at frequencies above
50 Hz.
A simple explanation for this behavior is
evident from the strength-duration graph of
denervated muscle. From figure 4.8 we see
that for pulse durations below 100 ms the
stimulus intensity needed for contraction
begins to increase. For a pulse duration of 100
ms the pulse frequency cannot exceed 1/ (100
ms) = 1/ (0.1 s) = 10 Hz. This would allow no
'rest' time between stimuli. As the frequency
is increased above 10 Hz the pulse duration
must inevitably decrease if there is to be any
separation between the pulses. One pulse must
finish before the next one is applied.
To charge the muscle fiber membrane enough
to depolarize it, the stimulus intensity needs to
be increased if the pulse duration is decreased.
The membrane capacitor must be charged by a
certain amount to trigger depolarization. This
can be achieved by a long duration pulse of
relatively low intensity or a shorter duration
pulse of higher intensity. Charge movement is
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
the critical factor, as with nerve fibers, but the
time- frames are very different.
[The effect of stimulus frequency then is
somewhat simpler to explain than for nerve
fiber stimulation, where the effects of
accommodation and pulses applied within the
relative refractory period are needed to
account for the observed variation in
sensitivity.]
SENSORY, MOTOR AND PAIN
RESPONSES:
So far the focus has been on the motor
response to electrical stimulation. In reality,
the forcefulness of the motor response will be
limited by pain. Pain can be a direct result of
the muscle contraction or can be due to
stimulation of pain fibers (nociceptive afferent
nerve fibers) by the electrical stimulus.
Clearly, if pain is produced as a result of the
forcefulness of the muscle contraction, more
efficient electrical stimulation will not enhance
the motor response. On the other hand, if
noxious electrical stimulation is the limiting
factor, stimuli which preferentially recruit
motor (A-α) fibers ahead of pain (A-δ and C)
fibers will be more effective. Fortunately, a
degree of selectivity can be achieved by
appropriate choice of pulse duration. The
reason is that α-motoneuron and pain fibers
have a different range of diameters and
different strength-duration behavior. α-
motoneurons have the largest diameters (range
12-20 µm), the largest internodal spacing
(distance between adjacent nodes of Ranvier)
and consequently, the lowest thresholds for
electrical stimulation. The range of diameters
of sensory fibers (A-α afferents, diameters 6-
17 µm) overlaps with that of α-motoneurons,
making it virtually impossible to elicit a motor
response without also electrically activating
sensory fibers. When stimulation is applied
transcutaneously, a sensory response is, more
often than not, elicited before a motor
response. The reason is that although motor
fibers have, on average, larger diameters, they
are located more deeply. Sensory fibers are in
abundance near the skin surface and so will
inevitably be closer to the electrodes. In other
words, the effect of current spreading with
186

depth tips the balance to favor sensory fiber
activation before motoneuron activation in
most individuals.
Pain fibers are also found in abundance near
the skin surface. If this was the whole story
then one would expect a painful sensation
before a motor response. That this seldom
occurs is due to the fact that A-δ and C fibers
are less sensitive to electrical stimulation than
the larger diameter sensory and motor nerve
fibers.
Suppose then that skin surface electrodes are
attached to a subject and stimuli of increasing
intensity are applied. Three distinct responses
may be obtained, each response having a
different threshold for its onset. As the
stimulus intensity is increased the first
response normally noticed is sensory. The
subject perceives the electrical stimulation
before any muscular response is elicited. A
further increase in intensity is needed for the
onset of a motor response. This is followed, at
higher intensities, by the subject reporting a
sensation of pain. The sequence of responses
and their separation in terms of the intensity
required, depend on four factors: the
placement of electrodes, the electrode size, the
stimulus pulse width and the stimulus
frequency.
 Electrode placement is important in that to
obtain a pronounced motor response
without pain the e lectrodes should be over
a motor point or region where the motor
nerve is located superficially. Conversely,
if the aim is to produce sensory fiber
stimulation with no motor response (as
would be appropriate for pain control),
motor points and nerve trunks should be
avoided.
 The electrode size should be as large as
possible to avoid concentrating the current
in a small superficial region. Current
spreads as it enters tissue and the greatest
spreading is produced near the edges of
the electrodes. Near the electrode center
the spreading is less. By using a large
electrode the central part, where current
spreading is least, covers a larger deep
tissue area (see figure 13.10).
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
Figure 13.10: the effect of electrode size on current
density in tissue. (a) Small electrodes, greater
spreading of current, (b) larger electrodes, more
uniform current density.
 The stimulus pulse width should be
sufficiently small. Experimentally it has
been shown that best discrimination
between sensory, motor and pain
responses is achieved using relatively
narrow stimulus pulses. This point is
discussed further below.
 The stimulus frequency would be expected
to influence discrimination because the
nerve fibers associated with sensory,
motor and pain responses have different
refractory periods. To date, no studies of
discrimination as a function of frequency
appear to have been published.
Effect of Pulse Duration:
The differences in electrical characteristics of
nerve fiber types and their different depths of
location in tissue results in separate strength-
duration curves for sensory, motor and pain
responses.
Consider first the effect of fiber type and
consequently fiber diameter. Other things
being equal, the observation is that the
strength-duration curve is shifted to the right
(to longer pulse durations) for smaller
diameter fibers. The smaller the fiber
diameter, the larger is the chronaxie. This is
another way of saying that the smaller the
fiber diameter, the larger is the associated RC
time-constant. Figure 13.11(a) illustrates the
differences in strength-duration curves of
different diameter nerve fibers. The results
apply to nerve which is stimulated directly
using surgical intervention. On this basis we
would predict a recruitment order of motor
then sensory then pain fibers, with the sensory
187

fibers recruited almost as soon as the motor
fibers.
As noted previously, with transcutaneous
stimulation, depth in tissue also affects the
threshold for nerve excitation. This is because
of current spreading and a consequent
reduction in the local stimulus intensity.
Superficially located fibers are therefore
recruited at lower stimulus intensities. Figure
13.11(b) shows measurements obtained with
human subjects and transcutaneous electrical
stimulation.
Note the horizontal axis (time) scale. In this
figure the pulse widths are measured in
microseconds (µs) and not milliseconds as
have been previously used to describe action
Figure 13.11 Strength-duration curves for (a) d ifferent nerve fiber types, with the nerve trunk
exposed and stimulated direct ly and (b) sensory, motor and pain thresholds measured using
transcutaneous stimulation.
potentials and the subsequent refractory
period. Here we are dealing with pulse
widths which are small compared to the
time-course of an action potential.
Two things are apparent from figure 13.11(b).
First, that in reality the order of recruitment is
usually sensory, then motor, then pain at all
pulse durations when current is applied
transcutaneously. Second, that as we go to
shorter pulse durations the separation between
the curves increases.
The results shown in figure 13.11(a) indicate
that, with surgically implanted electrodes, very
good discrimination between nerve fiber types
can be achieved by choice of an optimal pulse
width.
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
The separation due to fiber diameter is most
marked in figure 13.11(a) and indicates that
with direct nerve stimulation, by using
sufficiently short pulse durations (around 500
µs), the small diameter C fibers will not be
stimulated at intensities which very effectively
recruit the larger A-δ, A-β and A-α fibers. A
shorter pulse durations (around 50 µs), neither
C nor A-δ fibers will be stimulated at
intensities which efficiently recruit A-β and A-
α fibers. This indicates that as one goes to
smaller pulse widths, the ease of
discrimination between sensory and motor
responses on the one hand, and pain responses
on the other, is increased.
The extent of discrimination evident with
transcutaneous stimulation is less. As figure
13.11(b) shows, the sensory, motor and pain
threshold graphs are more overlapped and the
variation occurs at smaller pulse widths. This
is because the measured response depends not
just on the fiber type (and the associated
diameter) but also two other factors: the depth
of the fibers within tissue and the electrical
characteristics of the skin and underlying
tissues. The capacitative nature of the stratum
corneum means that longer duration pulses are
not more effective for nerve stimulation
(whatever the fiber type) as the current flow in
tissue beneath the stratum corneum is
transient. (Spikes in the current flow are
produced at the start and end of long duration
pulses and increasing the pulse width does not
188

result in a longer duration flow of current in
tissue. Thus C fibers are not as more readily
recruited at longer pulse durations as would be
expected from figure 13.11(a). Nor are A-δ
fibers, though the effect is less. The result is a
plateau in the transcutaneous sensory, motor δ
and pain threshold graphs at a pulse width
much less than in figure 13.11(a).
The observations regarding the effect of pulse
width have important practical implication for
therapy, and the results shown in figure
13.11(b) are most relevant. If long duration
pulse widths are used then only small changes
in intensity will be needed to change from a
sensory response to a motor or pain response.
By contrast, if short duration pulses are used,
much larger changes in intensity will be
needed to recruit motor and pain fibers. If the
objective is to produce a sensory response with
minimal motor or pain responses then short
duration pulses are preferred (less than 50 µs
from figure 13.11a or perhaps 'the shorter, the
better' from figure 13.11b). Short duration
pulses will also be capable of producing an
effective motor response with minimum pain
sensation. It is for this reason that modern
electronic stimulators produce higher voltage,
shorter duration pulses than their predecessors.
A question arising from the foregoing
discussion is whether very short pulses, around
2 to 10 µs duration, will give better
discrimination with transcutaneous stimulation
than, say, 20 µs pulses. The evidence certainly
indicates that pulses of duration in the range
20 to 50 µs will more effectively discriminate
than pulses with duration greater than 100 µs.
It is not known whether this trend continues to
very short pulse durations. Further research is
needed before any firm conclusions can be
drawn.
Stimulation using sinusoidal AC:
Sinusoidal alternating current has been used
for patient treatment almost since devices for
producing AC were first marketed in the late
1800s. It was soon established that low
frequency AC produced noxious stimulation
while AC in the kHz frequency range could
produce strong muscle contractions without
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
the degree of noxious stimulation associated
with lower frequencies.
The French scientist Arsène d'Arsonval
studied the effect of AC stimulation on nerve
and muscle, both using dissected animals and
by transcutaneous stimulation of human
subjects. He used an alternator, the first device
built for generating AC and the one which is
used in every modern-day motor car. An
alternator works on the principle that if a coil
of wire is made to spin in a stationary
magnetic field, alternating current is produced
in the coil. d'Arsonval reported in 1891 that
with increasing frequency, the neuromuscular
response to sinusoidal AC becomes stronger
up to about 1400 Hz, is constant between 1500
and 2500 Hz and decreases to 5,000 Hz. He
also reported that a current of 1500 Hz is more
painful than 5,000 Hz but much less painful
than currents of 75 and 20 Hz.
d'Arsonval's observations of transcutaneous
stimulation using human subjects and
sinusoidal AC laid the foundations for the use
of kHz frequency AC in clinical practice.
Sinusoidal AC stimulation has figured in
clinical practice since the 1950s when a
German physician, Hans Nemec, began
advocating 'Interferential Currents' as a means
of producing comfortable, pain-free, muscle
contractions and 'promoting tissue healing'.
More recently, the use of interferential
currents for pain control has been advocated.
Interferential currents used clinically are
sinusoidal AC with frequencies around 4 or 5
kHz.
More than two decades after the introduction
of interferential currents, 'Russian currents'
became popular, principally due to the claims
made by a Russian physician, Yakov Kots, in
the late 1970s. Kots claimed that kHz
frequency AC, modulated at 50 Hz with a 1:1
duty cycle, could produce large strength gains
in stimulated muscle. He based his claims on
studies made with young Russian athletes as
subjects: athletes who were hoping to qualify
for the Olympic games. Russia's success in the
Olympics and the intense competitiveness
which existed at the time seems to have given
189

weight to Kots' claims. Kots argued that an
optimal AC frequency for muscle
strengthening, one which produced maximal
force at the pain-tolerance threshold, was 2.5
kHz if the muscle was stimulated directly
(with the active electrode over the muscle) or
1 kHz if the muscle was stimulated indirectly
(with the active electrode over the nerve trunk
supplying the muscle).
Both Russian currents and Interferential
currents continue to be used in clinical
practice. Interferential currents are popular in
England, Europe and Australia. Russian
currents are, somewhat paradoxically in the
light of political relations post world war two,
more popular in the USA.
Stimulation with low frequency AC is seldom
used nowadays. It is particularly painful.
Nonetheless, it did experience some popularity
in Europe in earlier decades. A particular form
of low-frequency AC stimulation, called
'Diadynamic current' was popularized in
Europe. The argument seems to have been
that the discomfort associated with the
stimulation had therapeutic benefits resulting
from a counter- irritant effect.
[On the basis of his work, d'Arsonval
described the electric chair, recently adopted
in New York state for criminal executions, as
'barbarous and unholy' as the voltage chosen
was too low (1500 V) and death is slow.]
[The Nemectrodyne interferential stimulator
was the first on the market and the company
continues to successfully market interferential
units.]
Low Frequency Alte rnating Current:
The term low frequency AC as applied in
therapy relates to frequencies between about 1
Hz and 100 Hz. A sinusoidal current is, in
effect, a continuous train of current pulses. For
example, 50 Hz AC has one complete cycle
every 1/50th of a second or 20 milliseconds.
The 20 ms sinewave has a rounded 10 ms
positive pulse followed by a rounded 10 ms
negative pulse. The stimulus is therefore a
series of 10 ms pulses.
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
As noted previously, a pulse width of 10 ms
results in little discrimination between
sensory, motor and pain thresholds. Smaller
diameter pain fibers are recruited at thresholds
not much above those of the larger sensory
and motor fibers (figure 13.11b).
As the waveform does not have an abrupt rise,
some nerve fiber accommodation will occur
meaning that a greater current intensity will be
needed to produce the same response as a 10
millisecond rectangular pulse. The effect of
accommodation is greater in large diameter
nerve fibers so there is dropout of their
contribution if sinewaves rather than square
waves are used. This means that there will be
less stimulation of
Large (A-α and A-β) fibers with low
frequency AC and, relatively, more
contribution of smaller (A-δ) fibers.
The pulse duration will result in stimulation
which is both superficial and relatively non-
discriminatory between sensory, motor and
pain responses. Thus if the aim of therapy is to
stimulate superficially and to produce, say,
modest muscle contraction together with
stimulation of pain fibers, or simply painful
stimulation, then 50 Hz sinusoidal AC or one
of its variants is a logical choice.
Unsurged 50 Hz AC is sometimes used for a
counter irritant effect. Counter-irritation has
been dismissed as treating a patient with a sore
right thumb by hitting the opposite, left thumb
and producing more pain. Suddenly, the
patient finds the right thumb more
comfortable! The point which is ignored in
this simplistic argument is whether the pain
relief persists, in which case counter-irritation
stimulation is vindicated. Unfortunately, no
properly documented studies seem to have
addressed this question. Low frequency AC
might thus have some potential in clinical
practice. The evidence base has yet to be
established.
Medium Frequency Alternating
Curre nt:
Medium frequency alternating currents are
defined as currents in the frequency range 1
190

kHz to 100 kHz. Above 100 kHz, alternating
current is not able to excite nerve fibers and
the only effect is one of tissue heating.
Currents above 100 kHz are classified as 'high
frequency'.
In clinical practice, currents with frequencies
between 1 kHz and 10 kHz are commonly
used. Frequencies above 10 kHz are not. The
reason is that above 10 kHz or so, the nerve
fiber response diminishes while the power
dissipated in tissue increases. At frequencies
above 10 kHz, nerve sensitivity becomes
lower while the electrical energy dissipated in
tissue, and consequently the heating rate,
increases. 10 kHz to 100 kHz is evidently the
transition zone between direct electrical
stimulation and tissue heating.
As noted previously, nerve-fiber firing rates
are well below 100 Hz during most voluntary
activities, including strenuous exercise and
generally less than a few tens of Hz on a
sustained basis. With electrical stimulation at
higher frequencies and sufficiently high
intensity, firing rates approaching 1 kHz can
be produced. The absolute refractory period
places the limit on the maximum firing rate.
If nerve is stimulated with AC at frequencies
above 1 kHz, action potentials are produced
with every second, third or fourth succeeding
AC pulse. The fiber firing rate will thus be a
sub-multiple of the AC frequency. If, for
example, 4 kHz AC is used, the induced firing
rate might be 100 Hz at intensities just above
threshold. In this case the firing rate is
determined by the relative refractory period.
At higher intensities, higher firing rates are
induced as action potentials are produced
during the relative refractory period. At the
highest intensities the firing rate might
approach 1 kHz i.e. fibers firing immediately
after the absolute refractory period.
With AC stimulus frequencies above 10 kHz
or so, the physiological response of nerve
fibers become less and less while the power
dissipated, and heating rate, become larger and
larger. The decreased nerve fiber response is
because the membrane capacitor has less and
less time to charge during a pulse, so less
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
depolarization is produced. The higher tissue
heating rate is because skin impedance
decreases with increasing frequency so the
current flow is higher for a given stimulus
voltage and the power dissipation is
correspondingly higher.
[Higher frequency AC (above 10 kHz) thus has
less direct effect on the nerve-fiber membrane
and more effect on the sensory receptors
which detect heat.]
INTERFERENTIAL CURRENTS:
Hans Nemec popularized interferential
currents in the 1950s. Although Nemec
published a number of articles describing and
reporting on the effect of interferential
currents, these were in German. Only one
English language article exists. It was
translated from German and published in the
British Journal of Physiotherapy in 1959. In it,
Nemec described interferential currents and
made claims of therapeutic benefits. The
claims, judged in terms of modern criteria,
were inappropriately speculative i.e. were not
adequately documented. They are, however,
intriguing and not without some credence.
Here we focus on the less speculative aspects.
An interferential stimulator has two separate,
electrically isolated circuits for applying
current to the patient. The currents are applied
using two diagonally opposed pairs of
electrodes as shown in figure 13.12. The idea
is that the two currents 'interfere' within the
tissue volume, reinforcing each other and
producing a greater effect at depth than would
be possible using a single circuit. In the
region of intersection (the cross- hatched area
in figure 13.12), the resultant intensity is high
as it is the sum of the contributions of each
current.
Figure 13.12: Application of interferential currents
191

Each circuit (A and B) supplies an AC signal
of constant amplitude to the patient. If current
spreading is not great, as is assumed in figure
13.12, the region of maximum stimulation is
the cross-hatched area (the region of diamond
shapes) in figure 13.12. This contrasts with the
regions of maximum stimulation when only
one circuit is used. In this case maximum
stimulation is produced immediately under the
electrodes. Figure 13.13 illustrates the
difference.
Figure 13.13: Depth efficiency of (a) b ipolar and
(b) quadripolar stimulation.
In practice, current spreading will make the
difference shown in figure 13.13 less marked.
The superimposition of the two currents will,
however, help to counteract the reduction in
stimulus intensity with depth, thus increasing
the depth efficiency of stimulation.
The original interferential machines produced
a sinusoidal waveform with a frequency
around 4 kHz: thus the stimulus pulse width
was 1/8000 sec or 125 µs. Some modern
machines offer a choice of AC frequencies and
use a rectangular pulsed AC waveform, rather
than a sinewave. There is some evidence that
a rectangular pulsed waveform is more
comfortable than its sinusoidal counterpart and
also evidence that optimal comfortable
stimulation is achieved at a frequency of about
9 kHz.
Beat or Modulation Frequencies:
A key feature of interferential currents is that
the two circuits produce current of slightly
different frequency. The difference is normally
between 1 Hz and 150 Hz. When applied to
the patient the two currents interfere and
produce a 'beating' effect in the patient's tissue.
The interference or 'beat frequency' effect is
illustrated in figure 13.14.
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
Figures 13.14(a) and (b) show two sinusoidal
waveforms applied to the patient via
diagonally opposing pairs of electrodes as
shown in figure 13.12. The total current at a
particular point in the patient's tissue is the
sum of the currents from each pair of
electrodes. At points where the two currents
are of equal amplitude the sum of the two
signals will be an AC waveform which is
amplitude modulated as shown in 13.14(c).
The surge or modulation frequency is equal to
the difference in frequency of the two currents.
The frequency, f, of waveform (a) might be
4000 Hz and the frequency (f-δ) of waveform
(b) might be 4000-10 = 3990 Hz. In this case
the value of δ, the modulation frequency is 10
Hz.
To make clear which frequency we are talking
about, the terms 'carrier frequency' and 'beat
frequency' are used. In this example, the
carrier frequency is 3995 Hz and the beat
frequency is 10 Hz.
In figure 13.14, the currents are assumed to be
of equal amplitude. In regions of tissue where
the two currents are not the same size, an
interference effect will still be produced, but
the resulting waveform will not drop to zero
midway between the maxima. Figure 13.15
shows the effect of adding two currents of
slightly different frequency when one current
is twice as big as the other. An interference
effect is still produced but the depth of
modulation of the waveform is less.
Figure 13.15: Interference of t wo sinusoidal
currents of different frequency and different
amp litude.
Depth Efficiency and Localization:
As noted earlier in this chapter, for maximum
stimulation efficiency, current should flow
192

parallel to the nerve fibers when there is a
single current flow through tissue. When there
are two intersecting currents of equal
amplitude, maximum stimulation occurs along
lines midway between the current paths. The
reason is that the net current flow is the vector
sum of the two currents.
Figure 13.16: shows the net current flow in
different directions for the simple configuration in
figure 13.12
Consider first the situation where two current
pathways are at right angles and the currents
are equal. Nerve fibers aligned parallel to one
of the current pathways will experience an
unmodulated AC stimulus as shown in figure
13.14(a) or (b). Fibers aligned along lines
midway between the current paths will
experience a modulated stimulus (figure
13.14(c)) of higher intensity. Those fibers
aligned in other directions will experience a
partially modulated stimulus, similar to figure
13.15, with a depth of modulation which
depends on the fiber orientation.
The length of the black arrows is proportional
to the current intensity. In the horizontal and
vertical directions, the net current is maximum
and the modulation is 100%. In directions at
45o, there is no modulation and the intensity is
some 30% lower.
Figure 13.17: the variation in current intensity and
amount of modulation with direction when using
interferential currents.
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
The pattern of stimulation is clearly more
complex with interferential currents than with
current applied using a single pair of
electrodes. We can, however, draw some
important conclusions:
 Nerve fibers aligned in directions which
bisect the angle between the current
pathways (horizontally and vertically in
figure 13.17) will experience the greatest
stimulation intensity and the stimulus will
be a modulated AC signal.
 Fibers aligned parallel to the direction of
the individual current flows will
experience a lower, but still relatively
high, stimulation intensity. The
stimulating current will not be modulated.
 Nerve fiber firing rates will be much
higher than with stimulation using single
pulses applied at low frequency. Fibers
aligned parallel to the direction of the
individual current flows will fire at a rate
determined by how far above threshold is
the local stimulation intensity.
 Fibers aligned in directions which bisect
the angle between the current pathways
will fire in bursts. The bursts of activity
will be at the beat frequency and the
number of action potentials per burst will
depend on how far above threshold is the
local stimulation intensity.
A widespread misconception is that with
interferential currents, the nerve fiber firing
frequency is equal to the beat frequency. This
would only be the case for fibers stimulated at,
or just above, their threshold. As noted
previously, for stimulation intensities above
threshold, nerve fibers will fire at much higher
rates. When the stimulus intensity is
modulated at low frequency, nerve fibers will
fire in bursts, with each 'beat' of the current
intensity. The beat frequency only determines
the burst frequency of the action potentials.
The number of action potentials per burst
depends on how far the stimulus intensity is
above threshold.
Thus if a beat frequency of 50 Hz is chosen to
produce repetitive, forceful muscle
contractions, the rate of fatigue will be higher
193

than if 50 Hz single-pulses were used as the
average firing rate will be much higher.
Another widespread misconception about
interferential currents is that the pattern of
stimulation is in the shape of a clover-leaf (a
four-leafed clover) rather than the rounded-
diamond shape shown in figures 13.12, 13.13
and 13.17. The misconception seems to have
originated from the idea that nerve fibers are
insensitive to an unmodulated AC stimulus i.e.
that modulation at low ('biological')
frequencies is necessary to produce a
physiological response. Were this true, then
fibers aligned parallel to the current paths
(figure 13.16) would not be excited while
those aligned along lines bisecting the angle
between the current paths would be excited
maximally. The pattern of stimulation would
have four lobes, each lobe pointing to a corner
of the rounded diamond shape.
In fact, the clover-leaf pattern shows the areas
of maximum interference, not maximum
stimulation. The pattern applies to every small
diamond shaped segment in the region of
interference. It indicates the direction in which
the stimulus intensity is greatest. It does not,
in any way, represent the area of maximum
stimulation. Within each diamond-shaped
segment, a clover-leaf pattern can be drawn,
showing the directions of maximum
interference: in other words, the directions in
which nerve fibers must be aligned to
experience maximum stimulation. A
misleading implication of the pattern is that no
stimulation is produced if the nerve fibers are
aligned along either of the current paths.
Pre-modulated Interferential Current:
Most interferential machines make provision
for stimulation using either two pairs or a
single pair of electrodes. Two pairs are needed
for true interferential stimulation. The term
'premodulated interferential current' refers to a
current waveform as shown in figure 13.14(c),
which is produced inside the interferential
machine and applied to the patient using a
single pair of electrodes. 'Premodulated
interferential' is thus something of a misnomer,
as there are no currents interfering in tissue.
Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation
Premodulated current has the advantage that it
is easier to apply, as only two electrodes are
needed. The disadvantage is that there is no
reinforcing at depth so maximum stimulation
is produced immediately beneath the
electrodes (figure 13.13(a)).
RUSSIAN CURRENTS:
Russian currents are a particular form of
electrical stimulation which became popular as
a result of a talk given by Dr Y M Kots of the
Central Institute of Physical Culture, Moscow,
at a conference hosted by Concordia
University, Montreal in 1977. He claimed
strength gains of up to 40% in elite athletes as
a result of this form of electrical stimulation.
The term 'Russian currents' refers to sinusoidal
AC of frequency 2.5 kHz which is burst-
modulated at 50 Hz. The wave- form is shown
in figure 13.17. It consists of 10 ms bursts of
AC separated by 10 ms 'off' periods. The
waveform repeats every 20 ms (1/50th sec) so
the burst or modulation frequency is 50 Hz.
Figure 13.18: Russian currents: 2.5 kHz sinusoidal
AC, burst modulated at 50 Hz i.e. 10 ms 'on' and 10
ms 'off'.
Kots and co-workers measured the maximum
force which could be elicited using AC in the
frequency range 100 Hz to 5 kHz. Current
was applied either using either two equal-sized
electrodes placed over the muscle belly
(referred-to as 'direct' stimulation) or using a
small 'active' electrode over the nerve trunk
supplying the muscle and a larger 'indifferent'
electrode placed elsewhere, so as to avoid
excitable tissue (referred-to as 'indirect'
stimulation). They established that maximal
force at the pain- tolerance threshold was
obtained at 2.5 kHz if the muscle was
stimulated directly or 1 kHz if the muscle was
stimulated indirectly.
194
 Chapter 13 Nerve and Muscle Stimulation

Kots also advocated a '10/50/10' treatment

regime i.e. 10 seconds of stimulation followed
by a 50 second rest period, repeated 10 times.
His argument was that to produce
strengthening, the electrical stimulation should
be non-fatiguing. He reported that with
intense stimulation for periods over 10 sec,
fatigue is evident, whereas no force decline is
seen if the duration is 10 sec or less. To avoid
a force decline from one 10 sec stimulation
period to the next, a rest period of 50 sec is
needed. If this rest period is allowed, no force
decline is seen over the 10 repeats.
The validity of Kots' argument for the
'10/50/10' treatment regime is questionable.
The quoted findings were obtained using low
frequency monophasic pulsed current, not kHz
frequency AC. With AC bursts, the nerve
firing rates would be expected to be higher
and, as a consequence, the rate of fatigue
would be higher. The strength gains reported
by Kots are supportive, but whether the
'10/50/10' treatment regime is optimal with AC
burst stimulation remains open to question.

195

Chapter No. 14
PULSED SHORTWAVE
DIATHERMY
(Non Diathermic Field)
Most shortwave diathermy machines offer the
option of pulsed or continuous output. With
continuous output, tissue heating is maximized
as energy is transferred continually from the
apparatus to the tissue. With pulsed output,
energy is delivered in brief bursts with a long
off-time between the bursts, so the average
energy transferred is low.
Pulsed shortwave is classed as non-diathermic
in that the average power dissipated in the
patient's tissue is too low to produce the
appreciable temperature rises associated with
traditional (continuous) shortwave treatment.
For this reason it is described here rather than
in the previous chapter where the emphasis was
on the use of electric and magnetic fields to
produce deep heating.
Consider an example. If a burst of high
frequency AC with a duration of 1 ms is
generated at a burst frequency of 50 Hz, the
period of each repetition ('on' time + 'off' time)
is 1000/50 = 20 ms so 'on' time is 1 ms and the
'off' time is 19 ms and consequently the average
energy is 1/20th of the peak energy (figure
14.1).
Figure 8.1 (a) continuous and (b) pulsed output from
shortwave machines.
Chapter 14 Pulsed Shortwave Diathermy
It is asserted, though it has not been
demonstrated, that pulsed shortwave is
clinically beneficial because there are
physiological effects of a 'non-thermal' nature
which are produced by the bursts of
electromagnetic energy.
Figure 14.2 shows the essential features of
pulsed shortwave apparatus. It is the similar to
figure 12.1 but with the addition of a gating
circuit to control the output of the 27.12 MHz
sine wave generator. The gating circuit
switches the sinewave generator on and off at
the operator-chosen frequency (50 Hz in the
previous example). It also controls the burst
duration (1 ms in the previous example). Some
machines have a predetermined burst duration,
others allow operator selection.
Figure 14.2 Pu lsed shortwave diathermy apparatus
(schematic).
Components and subsections within the yellow
rectangle in figure 14.2 are inside the
apparatus. The functions of each subsection are
as follows:
 The sine-wave generator produces a
sinusoidal AC signal at the internationally
approved frequency of 27.12 MHz.
 The gating circuit generates rectangular
pulses to control the gain of the sine-wave
generator. The pulse frequency can
normally be adjusted in the range
approximately 1 Hz to 200 Hz.
 A power amplifier in the sinewave
generator circuit amplifies the signal to a
level suitable for driving the patient circuit.
The pulse power is high but the average
power is low.
196

 The resonant circuit (the patient tuning
circuit) couples energy generated by the
apparatus to the patient. Output from the
apparatus is applied to the patient using
electrodes or an induction coil, in the same
way that conventional (continuous- mode)
shortwave diathermy is applied.
 A power supply is needed to convert mains
supplied 50 Hz AC to DC of whatever
voltage is required to power the gating
circuit, sine-wave generator and amplifier.
Pulsed shortwave is described as 'non-
diathermic', meaning that it does not produce
deep heating. The rationale is as follows.
Consider and compare two pulsed shortwave
machines. A difference between them is in the
pulse frequencies which can be selected and the
pulse width. Both have a peak power output of
approximately 1000 watts. Machine 1 has a
pulse width of 65 microseconds and a pulse
frequency selectable between 80 Hz and 600
Hz. Machine 2 has a pulse width of 400
microseconds and a frequency range from 15
Hz to 200 Hz.
Suppose machine 1 was set to a frequency of
80 Hz. The pulse width is fixed, in the
machine, at 65 microseconds so the output is on
for a total of 65 x 80 = 5200 microseconds each
second. When the intensity control is set to
deliver a maximum output of 1000 W pulses
the average power output is only:
This is a tiny fraction, approximately 0.5%, of
the peak power.
At a frequency of 600 Hz the average power at
maximum output rises to:
This is 39/1000 W which is still only 3.9% of
the peak power.
Chapter 14 Pulsed Shortwave Diathermy
[5.2 W is not a high power level. Imagine
shining an ordinary battery-operated torch at
your skin from a short distance. The heat and
light energy produced by the torch has little
impact on your tissues.]
The average power is low and is only a small
fraction, between 0.5% and 4%, of the peak
power per pulse.
Machine 2, with a pulse width of 400
microseconds, has a frequency range of 15 Hz
to 200 Hz and a peak power output of 1000 W.
Calculations similar to the previous examples
show that the maximum average power varies
between 6 watts (at 15 Hz) and 80 watts (at 200
Hz). Again, the average power is low and is
only a small fraction, between 0.6% and 8%, of
the peak power per pulse.
The low power levels of pulsed shortwave
ensure that gross heating effects, due to an
appreciable increase in tissue temperature, do
not occur.
Effects of Pulsed Shortwave Fields:
Pulsed shortwave treatment is advocated as
therapeutically beneficia l due to non- thermal
effects. Unfortunately, the advocates seem, in
the main, to be the manufacturers of the
equipment, rather than independent researchers
who have carried-out proper studies.
The few studies which have been undertaken
include human and laboratory animal
observations at the tissue level. Healing of
experimentally produced skin wounds and
haematomas in laboratory animals has been
shown, in one study, to be promoted by pulsed
shortwave treatment. Another study showed
that human soft tissue injuries responded more
rapidly in comparison to control (untreated)
groups and groups of patients receiving a
similar dose (but not dose rate) of continuous
shortwave treatment. Some promising results
have also been obtained in studies of rate and
extent of nerve regeneration in laboratory
animals. These results are indicative of
197

therapeutic benefit but, due to their small
number, are by no means conclusive.
Proponents of pulsed shortwave have argued
that another diathermic modality, ultrasound,
has been shown to be useful when applied in
pulsed mode for the treatment of a number of
conditions where heating as such is either
contraindicated or of dubious value. The
argument is that if ultrasound can used to
advantage in pulsed mode, where non-thermal
effects are the explanation for any therapeutic
benefits, then pulsed shortwave should also be
beneficial. This arguments is based on two
questionable premises. First that 'non-thermal'
benefits of ultrasound treatment actually exist
and second (perhaps more importantly) that
non-thermal effects will also be produced by
pulsed shortwave treatment.
Biophysical Mechanisms:
Although the evidence base for pulsed
shortwave treatment is small, a biophysical
argument can be made for possible non-thermal
effects of pulsed shortwave.
The response of ions, polar molecules and non-
polar molecules to an applied electric or
magnetic field is well understood and heat
production in the applied field is readily
explained. What is not known is how these
same molecules responding in a biological
environment can produce non-thermal cellular
effects of therapeutic value.
[In the absence of such effects, pulsing the
output so that tissue heating is a minimum
would be of little therapeutic value.]
When electromagnetic energy is applied in
brief bursts, the ions, polar molecules and non-
polar molecules will respond equally briefly,
with vigorous movement during the burst and a
dying-down of activity between bursts. During
the bursts, we would expect considerable
molecular movement which would not increase
the average temperature appreciably but which
Chapter 14 Pulsed Shortwave Diathermy
would markedly increase the instantaneous
temperature.
[With pulsed shortwave, the instantaneous
temperature increase is high but the average
temperature increase is low.]
One could reasonably speculate that the
transient excitation might affect concentration
gradients, movement of molecules across the
cell membrane and changes in membrane
permeability in either or both of excitable cells
and non-excitable cells. There may also be
transient thermal effects on the synaptic
junctions of nerve cells. These ideas remain
speculative in the absence of appropriate
experimental studies.
Optimum Treatment Parameters:
The operating frequency of pulsed shortwave
apparatus is 27.12 MHz. This particular
frequency is used because there is international
agreement that it be allocated for use in
diathermy and it is known to produce heating at
depth. There is no evidence to suggest that
27.12 MHz is the most appropriate frequency
for clinical use. Another frequency might be
optimum in terms of depth efficiency of
heating. As yet, only limited experimental work
has been conducted on the effect of different
frequencies in the high frequency range.
The burst frequency range from 10 Hz to 100
Hz or more may well turn out to be a clinically
useful range as it overlaps the 'biological'
frequency range. That is, the range of
frequencies associated with best response from
excitable cells. Unfortunately, comparative
studies of the effect of different pulse
frequencies (and burst durations) have yet to be
conducted.
The value of pulsed shortwave is thus
questionable. Despite the long history of
commercial availability and use, the question of
therapeutic benefit remains to be answered.
Therapeutic benefits seem possible but have not
been adequately demonstrated.
198

Low Frequency Pulsed Magnetic fields:
During the 1980s, low frequency pulsed
magnetic field (PMF) apparatus gained some
popularity as a therapeutic modality. The
apparatus consists of a signal generating circuit
(a pulse or sine wave generator), an amplifier
circuit, a patient circuit and a power supply
(figure 14.3). Subsections within the apparatus
are shown in the yellow rectangle.
 The signal generator circuit produces either
low frequency sinusoidal AC or DC pulses
of low frequency. The selectable
frequencies are in the 'biological' frequency
range up to about 100 Hz.
 Current from the signal generator circuit is
amplified and delivered to an induction
coil, creating an intense, pulsed magnetic
field.
 A power supply converts mains-frequency
AC to the DC which is needed to power the
signal generator and the amplifier circuit.
The part of the patient to be treated is placed
within the induction coil. Large coils are used
to enclose the trunk for treatment of, for
example, low back pain. Smaller coils are used
to treat smaller regions such as parts of the
limbs as with pulsed shortwave, the advocacy
and the recommendations for treatment seemed
to come from the manufacturers of the
equipment, rather than independent researchers.
An argument has been presented that pulsed
magnetic field (PMF) therapy is of benefit for
the treatment of musculo-skeletal disorders in
general and bone-healing in particular. The
evidence of value for the treatment of musculo-
skeletal disorders is lacking. The evidence for
promotion of bone-healing is more convincing.
Chapter 14 Pulsed Shortwave Diathermy
Figure 14.3 Low-frequency pulsed magnetic field
apparatus (schematic)
Promotion of Bone Healing:
In the mid 1960's it was found that hydrated
living bone is a piezo-electric material: when
stressed the bone becomes charged. The
phenomenon is illustrated in figure 14.4.
When a bending load is applied, one surface of
the bone is subject to a compressive stress (the
top surface in figure 14.4) and the opposite
surface is subject to a stretching or tensile
stress. The bone responds by becoming
negatively charged on the surface under
compression and positively charged on the
surface under tension. This observation
provides the basis for an explanation of the
biological phenomenon of stress remodeling;
the mechanism by which bones or areas of bone
respond to stress by growing in size and load
bearing capability. It was reasoned that tiny
current produced as a result of the
piezoelectrically induced potentials can
stimulate bone growth or resorption.
Subsequent experiments demonstrated that
small (microampere range) currents applied by
implanted electrodes could also promote bone
formation. Direct current promoted bone
formation near the cathode, alternating current
promoted bone formation near both electrodes.
Figure 14.4 the piezoelectric effect in bone.
199
 Chapter 14 Pulsed Shortwave Diathermy

Extensive case studies have established the
effectiveness of pulsed magnetic fields for the
treatment of non-united fractures.
Two problems associated with the use of
implanted electrodes are the risk of infection
and the localization of bone formation in the
vicinity of the electrodes. These problems are
overcome by inducing current flow in tissue
using a pulsed magnetic field. As the magnetic
field increases and decreases, eddy currents are
produced in the tissue.
[Extensive case studies have established the
effectiveness of pulsed magnetic fields for the
treatment of non-united fractures.]
Induced Current in Tissue:
When considering the effects of low frequency
pulsed magnetic fields it is important to make
the distinction between the voltage waveform
produced by the apparatus, the current
waveform in the induction coil and the current
induced in the patient's tissue.
induced in tissue. Figure 14.6 shows the
relationship between induced current and
current in the coil for the two waveforms
shown in figure 14.5.
When the coil current suddenly starts to
increase, the rapid rate of increase (figure
14.6a) results in a high induced current. The
magnetic field around the coil builds-up rapidly
so the induced current is large. The rate of
increase then drops rapidly and the induced
current drops accordingly. A current spike is
induced in tissue. When the coil current
suddenly decreases, a current spike of the
opposite polarity is induced due to the
decreasing magnetic field intensity. The more
rapidly changing coil current in 14.6(a) induces
large current spikes but these are of short
duration as the coil current rapidly reaches a
steady value. The more slowly changing coil
current in 14.6(b) induces current spikes which
are smaller in amplitude but of longer duration.

If a rectangular voltage waveform is applied to

an induction coil the current waveform will not
be perfectly rectangular, but more rounded.
This is because when the voltage suddenly
changes it takes a finite time for the current
through the coil and the magnetic field around Figure 14.5 Vo ltage and current waveforms for (a)
the coil to change correspondingly. The larger small and (b) large value inductances.
is the inductance of the coil, the longer it takes
for the change to be complete. Figure 14.5
shows the relationship between voltage and
current in the coil for different values of
inductance. The larger is the inductance, the
longer it takes for the current to increase to
maximum.

The rate of increase in current intensity in the

coil is important because this determines the
induced current in tissue. Eddy currents are
produced in tissue as a result of a changing Figure 14.6 Current in an induction coil and
magnetic field. When the magnetic field is resulting current induced in tissue for (a) s mall and
constant, no current will be induced. Thus (b) large value inductances.
when the current in the coil is changing, and
only when it is changing, a current will be

200
 Chapter 14 Pulsed Shortwave Diathermy

The size of the induced current depends on the
rate of change of the magnetic field and thus on
the rate of change of current in the coil.
If a sinusoidal current is applied to an induction
coil the induced current will have the same
shape but be shifted in phase. This is because
the rate of change of a sine waveform is
another sine waveform phase- shifted by one
quarter of a wavelength; in other words a
cosine waveform. This is shown in figure
14.7(a).
Figure 14.7(b) shows the rectangular current
waveform induced when triangular waveform
is passed through an induction coil. A
rectangular waveform is induced because the
triangular waveform is alternately increasing at
a constant rate then decreasing at a constant
rate. The induced current is alternately constant
and positive then constant and negative.
pulse frequency of 1 Hz. Optimum treatment
parameters are yet to be established.
Since heating appears to play no role (the
energies involved are too low) one cannot
predict effectiveness on the simple basis of
total energy transfer. Nor can optimum
frequencies be deduced without adequate
knowledge of the cellular mechanisms
involved.
A conclusion is that chronic non-union of
fractured bone can be successfully treated with
low-frequency pulsed magnetic fields but that
its value for the treatment of soft tissue injury
remains open to question.

Figure 14.7 Induced current waveforms for (a)

sinusoidal and (b) triangular currents in an induction
coil.

Treatment Parameters:

No definite statements can yet be made

regarding the most appropriate current
waveform for magnetic field therapy. Even in
the case of bone repair, where the clinical
evidence of effectiveness is substantial, there is
uncertainty as to the best wave shape and
frequency. Excellent results seem to have been
obtained using a burst of high- frequency
pulses (frequency approximately 4 kHz) in 5
millisecond bursts repeated at a frequency of 15
Hz. Similar success has been achieved using
single pulses and more intense fields with a

201

Chapter No. 15
DOSAGE AND SAFETY
Having examined the effects of electric
current, electric fields, ultrasound and
electromagnetic waves on tissue we conclude
by looking at two factors of great importance
in the clinical situation. These are the
assessment of dose and some specific safety
considerations. The two are firmly linked.
Under the heading 'safety considerations' we
include hazards associated with diathermy and
exposure to electromagnetic radiation. Under
the heading 'dosage' we concern ourselves
with how to establish safe but therapeutically
effective dosage both with diathermic
modalities and those which are more
superficial (infrared, ultraviolet and visible
radiation, including laser).
When considering electrical stimulation of
nerve and muscle for therapy a satisfactory
statement of 'dosage' includes specification of
the waveform used, duration of treatment,
position and size of the electrodes used and a
description of the response obtained. Since a
response is produced immediately, the
therapist can adjust the machine controls to
obtain precisely the required effect. In this
way there is the potential for optimum
conditions to be achieved and for the patient to
obtain maximum therapeutic benefit at each
treatment.
[There have been reports of deep tissue injury
requiring surgical intervention following
incorrect application of 1 MHz ultrasound.]
With other forms of treatment, using electric
or magnetic fields, electromagnetic radiation
or ultrasound, the therapist does not have such
reliable feedback. For these modalities there is
too long a delay between the commencement
of treatment and the effects produced. For
example, in the case of diathermy the
subjective response of the patient - a feeling of
warmth - gives only a poor guide to dosage
and effect. With efficient diathermic
modalities it is possible that by the time a
sensation of heat is felt, the deeper tissue
temperatures are high enough to produce
irreversible tissue damage. This is because
temperature receptors are located superficially,
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
where they are needed to detect the kind of
damaging temperature elevations which are
experienced normally. For this reason
particular consideration needs to be given to
the question of dosage as applied to diathermy.
It is convenient to consider dosage in two
parts: the first as applied to infrared, visible
and ultraviolet radiation, the second as applied
to the diathermic modalities.
Before discussing how we might reliably and
reproducibly estimate dosage we need a clear
definition of three important quantities. These
are:
 The dose: in other words the total energy
supplied to the patient – normally
expressed in joules (J).
 The dose rate : the rate at which energy is
supplied. This has units of joules per
second. One joule per second (J.s -1 ) is one
watt (W).
 The irradiance: the dose rate per unit area
of body surface. Normally in units of
joules per square centimeter per second
(J.cm-2 .s-1 ) i.e. watts per square centimeter
(W.cm-2 ). When talking about radiation
(sound or electromagnetic waves) this
quantity is what we call the intensity.
The general requirement in specifying dosage
is that all three of these quantities be stated,
either directly or indirectly. Each gives
important facts about the treatment. For
example, consider the heating effect of
ultrasound. The total amount of heat
developed is determined solely by the dose.
The temperature increase, however, depends
on the dose rate, the time of treatment and the
area treated: that is, on all three factors listed
above. Since it is the temperature rise rather
than heat production as such which determines
the physiological response, knowledge of dose
alone is insufficient.
[A dose of 10 J administered in a second or so
would evoke a marked physiological response.
The same dose applied over a 10 minute
period would have little effect.]
202

Dosage: Infra-red and Ultraviolet
Radiation
When we consider the question of dosage with
infrared or ultraviolet radiation two problems
arise:
 The therapeutic effects depend not just on
the energy output of the lamp but also on
the frequency of the radiation. This is most
noticeable with ultraviolet radiation where
only narrow ranges of frequency produce
the desired reactions.
 A given dosage from the same lamp will
produce a greater response in some
patients than others. Again greater
variation is found with ultraviolet
radiation.
[With infrared exposure, the intensity used is
normally that which produces mild,
comfortable warmth after 5 minutes. If this
does not come about, the lamp-to patient
distance can be adjusted during treatment.]
For infrared treatment, specifying the
particular type of lamp, the reflector used, the
patient-to-lamp distance and the time of
exposure is an adequate statement of dosage.
Dose, dose rate and intensity are thus specified
indirectly. Generally the intensity used is that
which produces mild, comfortable warmth
after 5 minutes. If this does not come about,
the lamp-to-patient distance can be adjusted
during the treatment.
With ultraviolet therapy the maximum effects
are not produced until long after treatment is
complete. For this reason no adjustment of the
dose can be made during treatment. A close
estimate of the dose requirement is needed
beforehand. How can this be achieved? A
measurement of the total power output of the
lamps is insufficient. Even if the output was
measured at different frequencies this would
take no account of variation in sensitivity of
individual patients. A more useful and direct
method is to test lamps in terms of the amount
of radiation needed to produce a specific
biological response in each particular patient.
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
Ultraviolet Therapy and Erythema
Dosage
[As a UV lamp ages the ultraviolet output
diminishes: for this reason the average dose
figure must be predetermined periodically.]
For lamps which produce an appreciable
output of UV-B radiation tests are carried out
to determine the amount of radiation needed to
produce a first degree erythema. This will vary
from patient to patient and even between
different skin areas on a particular patient, but
an average figure for the lamp will provide a
useful starting point in determining the test
dose requirements of an individual. Once
known, the dose requirements of a particular
patient can be specified as multiples of the
first degree erythema dose.
The dose required to produce a first-degree
erythema is determined by exposing small
parts of an area similar to that to be treated
(usually a few square centimeters) for varying
lengths of time. The patient-to-lamp distance
is kept constant. Inspection of the exposed
areas after 24 hours enables the dosage to be
determined.
Table 15.1: Conversion factors for different
degrees of erythema.
Specification of the dosage in this case
requires a statement of the particular lamp
used, the exposure time and the patient-to-
lamp distance.
Once the time and distance required for a
particular lamp are known the dosage needed
to produce any other degree of erythema can
be established from table 15.1.
E1 refers to a first-degree erythema, E2 to one
of second degree and so on. The values quoted
are experimentally determined and represent a
consensus of agreement amongst
physiotherapists. To obtain the exposure time
required for a second, third or fourth degree
erythema the time for first-degree erythema
203

production is multiplied by the appropriate
conversion factor. For example if a first-
degree erythema is produced after 6 seconds
exposure, table 15.1 indicates that 5 x 6 s = 30
s exposure is required to produce a third-
degree erythema.
In table 15.1 the lamp-to-patient distance is
assumed to be the same. For different
distances an inverse-square law is applied (see
below) to correct the conversion factor.
After a first exposure to ultraviolet radiation,
there is thickening of the epidermis.
Consequently an increase in exposure time is
required to produce the same effect on
subsequent occasions. Table 15.2 lists the
increase required. Again the conversion
factors quoted are experimental results, not
theoretical values (which would be extremely
difficult to calculate).
Table 15.2: Conversion factors for repeated
exposure to ultraviolet radiation.
Thus a second exposure to ultraviolet radiation
would require a 50% increase in exposure time
in order to reproduce a second degree
erythema. The figures shown are only
approximate and may need modification in
many cases.
PUVA Therapy and Dosage
As indicated in chapter 11 previously, UV-A
radiation alone does not produce erythema
except at extremely high dosages. The
common use of UV-A, however, is in
combination with a photosensitizing drug, 8-
methoxy-psoralen, for the treatment of
psoriasis.
In psoralen-UVA (PUVA) therapy the drug is
administered two hours before UV-A
exposure. The drug renders the patient UV-A
sensitive and an erythema response is readily
evoked.
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
The dosage required to produce a minimal
erythema 72 hours after exposure is
determined. This is called the minimal
phototoxicity dosage (MPD). It is found by
exposing test areas of the patient's skin to
predetermined dosages of UV-A (for example
0.5, 1, 2, 3 and 4 J.cm-2) and inspecting the
test areas 72 hours later.
[Patients who always burn in the sun are
progressed by 0.5 J.cm-2 . Those who never or
rarely burn are progressed by 1 J.cm-2 .]
Once the MPD has been determined, treatment
can be given with the dosage specified in
J.cm-2 . The present practice is to use the MPD
for the first treatment and to progress the
dosage by 0.5 J.cm-2 or 1 J.cm-2 (depending
on skin type) on each subsequent treatment.
UV-A fluorescent tubes display a significant
drop in output intensity, particularly over the
first 200 hours of use. For this reason it is
essential that the output intensity of the UV-A
source be regularly measured. Special meters,
calibrated in W.cm-2 , are available for this
purpose.
If the output intensity of the source is known
the dosage in J.cm-2 can be calculated using
the relationship:
Dosage (in J.cm-2 ) = Intensity (in W.cm-2 ) x
time (in s)
The Inverse Square Law and Dosage:
Turning now to the more general aspects of
dosage we consider the effect of the distance
from the source of radiation to the patient.
These considerations apply to infrared, visible
and ultraviolet radiation - and also to
microwaves to a more limited extent. Consider
a screen with a small square aperture, behind
which is placed a point-source of radiation.
The arrangement is shown in figure 15.1.
204

Figure 15.1: The law of inverse squares.
Radiation produced by the point source
spreads uniformly in all directions. The
aperture in the screen allows a beam of square
cross-section through.
The distance from source to screen is s and the
sides of the screen aperture have length x. The
beam area at the screen is thus x2 . At a
distance 2s from the source (a further distance
s from the screen) the beam area is (2x) 2 = 4x2 .
At a distance 3s from the source the area is
(3x)2 = 9x2 . In other words, as we progress 1,
2, 3, 4 units of distance from the source the
beam area increases to 1, 4, 9, 16 times the
original area: it increases in proportion to the
square of the distance.
[If the energy of the beam is constant but is
spread over a larger and larger area with
distance from the source then the intensity,
which is the energy per unit area, must
decrease.]
What happens to the wave energy which
passes through the square aperture? For
infrared, ultraviolet and microwave energy
there is very little absorption in air over a
distance of a few meters. In other words their
penetration depths in air are large. This means
that the wave energy in the rectangular beam
in figure 15.1 is virtually constant.
If the beam of radiation has an energy E at the
aperture then the intensity - the energy per unit
area - is E/x2 . At a distance 2s from the source
this energy is spread over an area 4x2 , so the
intensity is E/4x2 or one quarter of its value at
the screen. At a distance 3s the intensity is
one-ninth of the value at the screen.
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
An inevitable conclusion is the law of inverse
squares which states that the intensity of
radiation from a point source varies inversely
with the square of the distance from the
source.
Mathematically this is written:
… (15.1)
where I in the intensity at a distance d from the
source and Io is the intensity at unit distance.
How is the law of inverse squares applied to
dosage? Strictly speaking, the inverse square
law only holds for point sources of radiation.
Sources of infrared and ultraviolet are
extended sources, usually mounted in
reflectors. The effect of the reflector is to
reduce the divergence of the beam, but for the
lamps used in physiotherapy departments the
effect is not too great and the law provides a
rough, rule-of-thumb, but satisfactory basis for
calculations.
An Example:
Consider treatment with a high pressure
mercury vapor lamp. Suppose we know that
the minimal erythema dose with a particular
lamp is 18 seconds at a distance of 1 meter and
we wish to use the lamp at a distance of 1.5
meters. What exposure time is required at this
new distance?
The production of the erythema reaction
depends on the intensity of radiation and the
exposure time. At a distance of 1.5 metres the
intensity is reduced by a factor of (1.5)2 : thus
the exposure time needs to be increased by a
factor of (1.5)2 to produce the same effect. The
new exposure time is then 18 x (1.5)2 = 41
seconds.
This kind of calculation shows how the law of
inverse squares, which nominally relates
intensity to distance is adapted to relate
exposure time to distance.
.... (15.2)
Here to and do refer to the original exposure
time and the original distance respectively. t is
the new exposure time at the new distance d.
205

The Effect of the Angle of Incidence:
What happens if the beam of radiation does
not strike the surface of the patient's skin at
right-angles? This happens in the
circumstances illustrated in figure 15.2. In
each case some or all of the radiation has an
angle of incidence, , which is not zero.
When this happens the amount of reflection is
increased and the beam is spread over a larger
area.
Figure 15.2: (a) effect of beam divergence on
the angle of incidence, (b) effect of both beam
divergence and surface curvature. (Continued
overleaf) (c) Effect of beam divergence and
angulation of the reflector on the angle of
incidence,
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
Reflection is minimal at an angle of incidence
of 0o . As the angle is increased, the amount of
reflection increases. The relationship between
reflectance and angle is a complex one (at the
critical angle, reflection is 100%). In each of
figures (a), (b) and (c), reflection is increased
because the angle of incidence is not always
zero.
The beam (or part of the beam) is spread over
a greater area in figures 15.2 (b) and (c). This
results in a decrease in the intensity of
radiation at the surface.
In figure 15.2(b) the area illuminated by the
beam is larger because the surface is curved.
In figure 15.2(c) the beam is spread over a
wider area because of the angulation of the
reflector.
The effect of angulation is further illustrated in
figure 15.3 where, for simplicity, we consider
a tiny portion of the beam with width x and
square cross-section.
Figure 15.3: The effect of angle of incidence
on intensity.
206

Table 15.3: Relative intensity for different
values of the angle of incidence.
When the beam is incident at right angles the
energy is spread over an area x2 so the
intensity is E/x2 . With the angle of incidence
the area irradiated is x2 /cos intensity
if Ecos x2 : that is, the intensity is reduced
by a factor of cos . For example, for an angle
of incidence of 15o , cos = 0.97 and the
intensity is reduced by 3%. Table 15.3 shows
the relative intensity (as a fraction of the
intensity for = 0) for different values of .
This effect is quite noticeable when using a
torch to see one's way on a dark night.
Pointing the torch downwards gives a circular
beam. Shining the torch ahead gives a larger
area of illumination with an egg shape. Here
the area depends on both the distance (through
the inverse square law) and the angle of
incidence.
In the application of infrared and ultraviolet
radiation, the therapist should be aware of this
effect. It is normal practice to keep the beam
as near to perpendicular to the treated surface
as possible: thus the situation shown in figure
15.2(c) should be avoided.
Even if a perpendicular arrangement is used,
parts of the treated area near the periphery
may receive a lower dosage (figure 15.2 (a and
b)). If necessary the lamp should be moved to
give additional exposure to these areas.
Dosage and Diathermic Modalities:
In the previous chapters we examined the
relative rate of heating of different tissues in
combination. We saw that the resulting
temperature increase depends on a number of
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
factors including the dose rate and time of
exposure. In any treatment there will be
threshold values of dose and dose rate which
cannot be exceeded without risk of harm to the
patient.
There will also be minimum values of useful
dosage. Below this, heat development in the
tissues will be within the range which the
body's temperature regulating mechanism can
cope with and there will be an insignificant
local rise in temperature.
The maximum safe energy dose exceeds the
minimum required to produce an appreciable
effect by less than a factor of ten: thus
knowledge of dosage is of great importance.
In order to specify dose and dose rate we need
to know first the energy produced by the
apparatus and second, the fraction of that
energy which is absorbed by the body.
Unfortunately both of these quantities are not
always known, as we will see.
Shortwave Diathermy:
This is the modality which has been in use for
the greatest length of time. It is also the one
for which the dosage is least predictable.
In the case of the capacitor field technique the
energy produced by the apparatus varies with
the position and size of the electrodes and the
amount and type of tissue in the field. It is
possible to simulate the conditions of therapy
by placing a 'dummy load' between the
electrodes. The load must have the right
electrical properties and be correctly
positioned to simulate the conditions of
therapy. In this way the energy produced can
be measured, though not the energy absorbed
by the patient. Scott (see Licht (1968))
describes how a series of subjects were tested
with apparatus adjusted for a predetermined
rate of energy production. The extreme
variation in the responses obtained indicates
that knowledge of energy production alone is
of little value in establishing dosage.
A further complication is that the field spreads
as it passes through the body. This results in
the area treated being much larger than the
electrodes used, and varying with depth. This
207

makes it impossible to predict accurately the
heat developed in a particular part of the
tissue.
With the inductive coil technique of
application the situation is just as complex -
due to the difficulty in establishing the pattern
of induced electric field intensity with the
geometries used.
For the present, the most reliable estimate of
correct dosage is obtained by adjusting the
intensity until the patient feels mild,
comfortable warmth in the treated area. This is
a relatively safe method of assessing dose as
greatest temperature elevation is produced in
tissues where pain and temperature receptors
are abundant. Since temperature elevation is
less in the more deeply located structures there
is little risk of overheating them without first
producing pain and damage to superficial
tissues. The need to rely on physical
sensations indicates why shortwave diathermy
(or indeed any diathermic modality) is contra-
indicated for areas where sensory impairment
is suspected.
Ultrasound:
In the case of ultrasound therapy, virtually all
the energy produced by the generator is
transferred to the patient, provided that
intimate contact is maintained between the
transducer and body surface. Generator-
produced power can be read directly from the
meter on the front of the apparatus: thus the
dose is obtained simply by multiplying the
power (in watts: 1 W = 1 J.s-1 ) by the
treatment time (seconds). The irradiance or
average intensity (in W.cm-2 ) is not so reliably
known when the usual massage technique of
application is used and the treatment head is
moved in small circles over the area to be
treated. The average intensity is calculated by
dividing the total power by the area treated: it
will only be a reliable figure if the therapist is
able to expose all parts of the treated area for
the same length of time.
Ultrasound ranks highest of the diathermic
modalities in terms of reliability and
reproducibility of dosage. Even so it is
difficult to assess the dosage applied to a
particular structure or tissue layer within the
treated part. This is partly because of the
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
difficulty in estimating the thickness of
different tissue layers and, more significantly,
because the ultrasound beams intensity is
nonuniform.
Microwaves:
The power produced by a microwave source
can be quite accurately measured. It can
usually be read directly from a meter on the
front of the apparatus. Unfortunately, at a
frequency of 2450 MHz, the proportion of
energy actually absorbed depends on a
complex way on the thickness of skin and
subcutaneous fatty tissue.
In view of the practical difficulty in estimating
tissue thickness, microwave therapy at 2450
MHz does not permit accurate dosage
measurement.
As with shortwave diathermy, the dosage, and
consequently the heat development can only
be estimated roughly. The physiotherapist
must be guided by knowledge of the pattern of
heat production, knowledge of 'normal' dose
rates and the subjective reports of the patient.
A more quantitative assessment of dose can, at
least, be made for lower frequency
microwaves, though the proximity of the
patient to the source of radiation (less than one
wavelength in normal applications) makes the
distribution of energy difficult to calculate.
Implants and Cavities:
In this and the following sections we consider
some of the safety aspects of the treatments we
have discussed.
When using any of the diathermic modalities
in the region of a metallic implant, air or fluid-
filled cavity, particular consideration needs to
be given to the likely effects of the cavity or
implant on the pattern of heat production in
nearby tissue. The effects are different for
each modality so we will consider each in turn.
Shortwave Diathermy:
We considered in chapters 6 and 7 the way in
which different tissues (fat, muscle and bone)
modify the field pattern and determine the
magnitude of real and displacement current.
208

This in turn determines the pattern of heat
production in tissue combinations. The two
quantities determining these effects are, as we
saw, the dielectric constant and conductivity of
the tissues.
To determine the effect of a cavity or implant
we need to know its depth, shape and size and,
most importantly, its electrical properties.
 Metals have extremely high conductivities
- several thousand times higher than
muscle.
 Air, for all practical purposes, can be
considered a perfect insulator. The
conductivity can be taken as zero and the
dielectric constant as 1.
 Body Fluids can be considered equivalent
to muscle and other tissues of high water
content. The differences in electrical
properties are negligible as far as
shortwave diathermy is concerned.
Figure 15.4 shows the effect of a cylindrical
object of high dielectric constant or
conductivity on a uniform electric field. This
illustrates the focusing effect on the field lines
of a metallic implant in tissue.
The effect of the orientation of the object on
the field is apparent. A greater focusing effect
is produced when the long axis of the object is
aligned with the field (figure 15.4a). When the
length along the field direction is short, as in
figure 15.4(b) and (c), the field distortion is
less.
[If the metal was a perfect conductor the
resistance would be zero, the field intensity
zero and the heat production zero.]
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
Figure 15.4: A material of high dielectric
constant or conductivity in a uniform electric
field. The effect of different orientations.
The heat production within a metal implant is
very low because the field intensity within the
metal is very low - due to the rapid, free
movement of charge which results in
accumulation of charge on the surface and
termination of field lines.
The field intensity is greatest near the surfaces
of the metal perpendicular to the field lines. It
is here that maximum heat is produced. The
risk, then, is of overheating tissue adjacent to a
metallic implant. For this reason shortwave
diathermy is often contraindicated when a
metallic implant is present. The effect of
metallic implants is discussed more fully by B.
O. Scott in Licht, (1968). Figure 15.4 is also
applicable to fluid-filled cavities in fatty tissue
or bone. This is because the dielectric constant
and conductivity of body fluids are
considerably higher than those of bone or fat.
Field lines will be focused resulting in
maximum heat production near the cavity. The
field intensity within the cavity will be
reduced by charge accumulation at the
interface, but this may not be sufficient to
prevent overheating.
Fluid-filled cavities in muscle or other tissues
of high water content will not affect the
electric field pattern appreciably. The
temperature rise in the cavity will however be
greater than in muscle because heat is not
transferred efficiently to adjacent tissues or the
bloodstream.
The field lines bend around the hollow. This
results in an increased intensity in the tissue
209

adjacent to the sides of the hollow which are
parallel to the field. The effect proves useful
when it is desired to selectively heat the
surfaces of hollows, such as the sinuses.
Ultrasound:
We saw in chapter 9 that reflection of
ultrasound occurs when there is a mismatch of
acoustic impedance between two adjacent
tissue layers. The impedances of muscle and
fatty tissue are similar but that of bone is much
higher. There is thus an appreciable reflection
of ultrasound at the muscle/bone interface.
In order to determine the effects of implants or
cavities we need to know the acoustic
impedances of metals, air and body fluids.
 Metals have acoustic impedance about
thirty times higher than fat or muscle so
there will be significant reflection at a
tissue/metal interface. The reflection
coefficient for a fat/metal or muscle/metal
interface is about 0.94. Thus about (0.94)2
x 100 or 90% of the ultrasound energy will
be reflected.
 Air has acoustic impedance which is only
a tiny fraction of that of tissue so virtually
100% of the energy incident upon a
tissue/air interface will be reflected.
 Body fluids have acoustic impedance
closer to that of water, muscle and fatty
tissue. Fluid-filled cavities will not pose
any problems as regards reflection of the
ultrasound beam.
[A selective build-up of heat could result,
however, if the heat cannot be transferred to
adjacent tissues or the bloodstream.]
Whenever reflection occurs there will be an
increase in the ultrasound intensity adjacent to
the reflecting surface and greater heat
production in this region.
For a metallic implant in tissue, reflection will
be significant and almost all the heat will be
produced between the implant and the tissue
surface. The excess heating of the tissue layer
above the implant may or may not be
advantageous depending on the actual location
of the tissue to be heated. The additional factor
of the effect of shape of the implant on the
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
ultrasound field pattern is discussed by
Lehmann in Licht, (1968).
The presence of an air-filled cavity in tissue
will have a substantial effect on the pattern of
heat production. Almost total reflection will
occur at the interface and almost all of the heat
will be produced in the intervening tissues.
This has particular implications for treatment
of the chest wall or throat.
As we saw, the presence of fluid-filled cavities
has little effect on the pattern of heat
production with ultrasound. The only factors
to be assessed are the likelihood of selective
heating within the cavity due to poor heat
dissipation, and whether this is desirable.
Microwaves:
The reflection of microwaves and the rate of
absorption are determined by the electrical
properties (dielectric constant and
conductivity) of tissues. Since metals have a
much higher conductivity than any biological
tissue, reflection at a tissue/metallic-implant
boundary will be pronounced. The high
conductivity of metals also results in rapid
absorption of microwaves - penetration depths
are extremely small. The result is that
pronounced reflection occurs at a tissue/metal
boundary and the transmitted wave is absorbed
over a very short distance.
[The phenomenon of rapid absorption (and
consequently great heat production) can be
demonstrated quite convincingly by igniting a
piece of steel wool in a microwave oven.]
Microwaves penetrating metallic implants will
be absorbed in a fraction of a millimeter with
significant heat production. However, metals
are good conductors of heat and the energy
will be rapidly conducted throughout the metal
and spread into the adjacent tissues.
Reflection of microwaves at a tissue/metal
interface will result in the production of
standing waves. The energy reflected and the
resulting standing wave pattern will produce a
concentration of energy in the tissues adjacent
to the metal. There is also the risk of focusing
the waves with a curved metal surface which
can result in 'hot spots' being produced in the
patient's tissues. The rather poor penetration
210

depth of 2450 MHz microwaves suggests,
however, that metallic implants located well
below the surface of the body will have little
effect on heat production.
The effect of an air-filled cavity is similar to
that of a metal implant: reflection occurs at the
boundary and a standing wave pattern is
produced. The implications of this were
discussed above.
Fluid-filled cavities within muscle and other
tissues of high water content will not affect the
pattern of heat production, but may undergo a
selective rise in temperature if heat is not
conducted away efficiently.
SOME SPECIFIC HAZARDS
Electromagnetic Waves and Safety:
It is known from various studies that certain
body tissues are more susceptible than others
to damage from electromagnetic waves. The
eyes and reproductive organs are most
frequently mentioned in this regard.
[Sunglasses or goggles made of plastic or
glass and painted with a filter (often colored
blue) can effectively block ultraviolet
transmission.]
The eyes, not having a covering of skin, are
susceptible to damage by ultraviolet radiation.
In ultraviolet therapy the eyes should always
be protected from direct irradiation by use of
glasses which reduce the visible light intensity
and absorb most of the ultraviolet radiation.
Sunglasses perform this role quite adequately.
The only risk is of UV exposure through the
areas not covered by the sunglasses. For this
reason, protective goggles, which cover the
eyes completely, are preferred.
Exposure of the eyes to a sufficiently high
dose of ultraviolet radiation produces
photopthalmia - acute inflammatory reactions
of the superficial parts of the eye. This is
commonly known as snow-blindness (snow
reflects a large part of the UV radiation in
sunlight). It can be produced by sunlight,
electric welding arcs or any other source of
ultraviolet radiation. The reactions cause acute
pain, beginning after a latency period of a few
hours and reaching a maximum in about 48
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
hours. The effects subside over a period of
days. Only very large doses produce
permanent damage.
[As with all forms of therapy the risks
associated with UV exposure must be
calculated and weighed against the
therapeutic benefit in deciding a course of
treatment.]
It should also be borne in mind when
considering prolonged or repeated courses of
treatment with ultraviolet radiation that such
radiation is carcinogenic. Certain forms of
cancer are known to occur more frequently in
people exposed to higher levels of ultraviolet
radiation.
Microwave therapy is contraindicated for
treatment of eye conditions. Generally,
extreme caution should be exercised when
treating nearby structures. The susceptibility
of the eyes to damage by microwave radiation
is due to two factors (a) reflection and
refraction producing 'hot-spots' within the eye
cavities and (b) a relatively poor blood supply
which limits the eye's ability to conduct heat
away.
It has been known for some time that
sufficiently high intensities of microwave
radiation can bring about the formation of
cataracts in the eye. Experimental work using
laboratory animals indicates a threshold
intensity level for cataract formation a little in
excess of 100 mW.cm-2 for prolonged
exposure.
It is common practice to avoid exposing the
reproductive organs to microwave radiation.
The testes are particularly susceptible to stray
radiation in therapy..
All practicing physiotherapists should be
familiar with the relevant safety standards and
their implementation. It should be noted,
however, that the exposure limits stipulated
apply to the general public but not to the
patient receiving treatment, nor the therapist.
For example, the maximum exposure level for
a therapist using 27 MHz shortwave diathermy
apparatus is 1.2mW.cm-2 . For non-
occupationally exposed individuals such as
secretarial staff and members of the general
public the stipulated levels are one fifth of
211

these values. For patient exposure, there is no
prescribed limit.
It is assumed that the therapist has weighed the
therapeutic benefits against the potential
hazards and on this basis has prescribed
treatment.
Ultrasound and Boundary Effects:
A fundamental characteristic which
distinguishes ultrasound from other diathermic
modalities is that the ultrasound wave is a
mechanical disturbance in a material medium.
Particles within the medium oscillate back and
forth, undergoing large changes in velocity
and acceleration. This gives rise to two
phenomena which can result in selective
heating at or near a boundary. The processes
are called velocity gradient heat production
and shear wave production.
We consider first velocity gradient heat
production. Suppose an ultrasound beam is
directed so as to strike a tissue boundary at a
grazing angle. In other words the waves travel
almost parallel to the interface. At this angle of
incidence little or no wave energy will be
transmitted.
There will be a thin layer, just each side of the
boundary where the velocity changes from
maximum to zero. Thus there is a velocity
gradient in this narrow region. If the boundary
region is very narrow a very high velocity
gradient exists and the adjacent region are
subject to greater stresses than those outside.
The higher oscillatory stresses give rise to
greater heat production than occurs in the
medium in which the waves are travelling.
Hence boundary layer heat production can be
significantly greater than heat production due
to normal wave energy absorption in a
medium. The thickness of the boundary layer
determines the velocity gradient and this in
turn depends on the rigidity of each medium.
For tissues of similar stiffness, such as muscle
and fatty tissue the boundary layer is wide, the
velocity gradient is small and boundary layer
heat production is minimal. For tissues of
quite different stiffness, such as muscle and
bone, the velocity gradient is high and the rate
of heat production at the interface is much
higher than in the bulk of the tissues.
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
Shear waves can be produced when an
ultrasound beam strikes a boundary. They are
not produced when the wave strikes the
boundary at a right angle (zero angle of
incidence), nor is production appreciable at
grazing angles. Maximum production occurs
near the middle of the range.
[In practical terms this means that shear wave
production is relatively unimportant at soft
tissue interfaces but is important at the
muscle/bone interface].
While normal sound waves are a longitudinal
wave motion, shear waves are transverse. In
other words the particle displacement is at
right angles to the direction of propagation. A
further point which should be noted is that
shear waves can only exist in solids or very
viscous liquids and they are absorbed more
rapidly than transverse waves.
Shear waves are produced when the wave
velocity is different in two adjacent tissues.
The wave frequencies must be identical so the
difference in wave velocity results in a
different wavelength in each tissue (by
equation 9.1, v = f. ).
This means that regions of compression and
rarefaction are separated by different distances
in the adjoining tissues. So at the boundary, a
region of compression on one side will
periodically be aligned with a region of
rarefaction on the other. The resulting pressure
differential will cause particles near the
boundary to oscillate in a direction transverse
to the direction of the reflected and transmitted
waves. The high stresses produced at the
interface result in greater heating than in the
bulk of each tissue.
When an ultrasound beam in muscle strikes
the muscle/bone interface the amount of
energy taken by the shear wave can be large.
As the rate of absorption of shear wave energy
is much higher than that of longitudinal waves,
heating of the surface region of the bone is
accentuated.
In the fat/muscle/bone system, 1 MHz
ultrasound produces the greatest rate of
heating in the first few mm of bone. The
resulting temperature rise in the periosteum
212

places a limit on the rate at which energy can
be supplied to the patient. This happens when
ultrasound is incident on each tissue boundary
at a right angle and shear wave production and
velocity gradient effects are negligible. For
ultrasound incident upon the bone at other than
a right angle, the heating rate of tissue adjacent
to the bone will be even greater so the rate at
which energy can be supplied to the patient
will be further limited. The implication is that
in therapy, the risk of producing periosteal
pain and tissue damage is enhanced if the
ultrasound beam does not strike the bone
surface at a right angle. The therapist should
position the treatment head as close to parallel
to the surface of the underlying bone as
possible so as to minimize velocity gradient
and shear wave effects.
Ultrasound and Cavitations:
The mechanical stresses produced when an
ultrasound wave travels through tissue. With 1
MHz ultrasound at an intensity of 2 W.cm-2 ,
regions separated by 0.75 mm differ in
pressure by about 20 N.cm-2. The large
pressure gradient can result in gaseous
cavitation: the formation of tiny bubbles from
gas dissolved in the tissue fluid in a region of
rarefaction (low pressure).
[The formation of a gas bubble can cause
damage, tearing apart the tissue. Also, the
bubble may collapse during the subsequent
compression phase, creating a minute but
intense shock wave in the immediate area.]
An upper limit to the therapeutic dose rate of
ultrasound is set by the threshold intensity for
cavitation. Treatment at intensities above this
threshold could only produce the
therapeutically undesirable outcome of
mechanical tissue damage. In practice this
threshold is unlikely to be achieved clinically.
An intensity of 2 W.cm-2 would produce
sufficient heating for temperature elevation to
be the limiting factor.
Treatment of the eyes with ultrasound is
generally avoided because of the risk of
damage in any tissue which has a poor or
restricted blood supply.
Chapter 15 Dosage and Safety
Cardiac Pacemake rs:
Cardiac pacemakers present a special hazard
as far as diathermy is concerned. Two kinds of
pacemaker are used: the fixed rate unit which
provides a constant frequency train of stimuli
to the heart and the more popular
noncompetitive units which provide a stimulus
frequency based on feedback signals from the
heart. Noncompetitive units are more
satisfactory medically as the heart rate is
adjusted by the oxygen demand of the patient.
There are two risks in the application of
diathermy:
 The risk of selective heating of the unit
and tissues in contact with the unit and its
wires. Each diathermic modality presents
this hazard when used close to the unit.
 More importantly, the risk of interfering
with pacemaker action. Microwave and
shortwave diathermy present the greatest
hazard in this regard. The fixed frequency
pacemaker is less susceptible as it does not
require any feedback signal.
Noncompetitive units can change their
frequency or cease to function completely
as a result of currents induced by
microwave radiation or the shortwave
field.
The limited amount of research in this area to
date indicates that shortwave and microwave
radiation is contraindicated when a pacemaker
is present. Some units are found to cease
functioning when brought within a few meters
of microwave apparatus. Ultrasound therapy
seems safer in this regard but extreme care
should be exercised, when using this modality,
to avoid the area containing the pacemaker and
wires.
213
 Chapter 16 Safety in Biomedical Instruments

Chapter No. 16 completes a circuit and current is able to flow

from one terminal through the person and
SAFETY IN BIOMEDICAL ultimately to the opposite terminal of the
INSTRUMENTS battery. In order for a current to flow the
person must simultaneously contact both
Most of the apparatus used in diathermy and terminals of the battery. This is illustrated in
electrotherapy is plugged into the mains figure 16.1.
supply - 240 volts AC with a frequency of 50
Hz. Any apparatus of this kind represents a
potential hazard: the risk of electric shock. In
this chapter we consider how a shock can
occur, its likely effect and methods of shock
protection. It is convenient to distinguish two
kinds of shock mechanism; these are
macroshock and microshock.

Macroshock: The familiar mechanism which

has posed a risk since the advent of
commercially supplied electricity. Here
current flows from the body surface, through
the skin and into the body. In order to produce
harmful effects a relatively large voltage and
current are needed. A high voltage is needed to
produce a sufficiently high current as the skin
offers a high electrical impedance. A high
current is needed as current spreads as it flows
through deeper tissues and it is the current
density (in A.m-2 or mA.cm-2) which
determines the physiological effects.

Microshock: As a result of increasing

sophistication in medical technology the
patient, in a hospital setting, may be connected
to a number of pieces of apparatus some of
which provide a direct electrical pathway to
the heart (for example a myocardial electrode
or a transvenous catheter). A very small
current applied directly to the heart via this In figure 16.1(a) a shock cannot occur, regardless
pathway can be fatal. Only a low voltage is of the size of the battery voltage, as there is no
needed as the subcutaneous tissues have a low continuous pathway for the current to travel. In
electrical impedance and the current is figure 16.1(b) current is able to flow fro m one
localized, resulting in a high current density. terminal of the battery, through the person, to the
opposite terminal: the circu it is co mplete and a
How to get a shock shock can result if the current flow is large enough.

To avoid the risk of electric shock, it is SIZES OF SHOCK CURRENT

necessary to understand how it can occur. In
order to produce an electric shock two
conditions must be satisfied. Firstly the victim
must complete a circuit and secondly the
current levels involved must be high enough to
produce an adverse reaction. Suppose a person
inadvertently contacts one terminal of a
battery. In this situation no shock can occur. A
shock current can only flow when the person
For shock to occur the current flowing through
the person must exceed a certain level.
Currents below about 10 mA (0.01 amps)
when applied to the whole body via the skin
are unlikely to cause an electric shock. This is
because the current is distributed through the
body so that the amount of electrical energy
applied to a particular organ is small.

214

Macroshock only poses a significant risk if the
current level exceeds 10 mA. By the same
token a current in excess of about 100 μA
(0.0001 amps) applied directly to the heart (for
example via a myocardial electrode) may be
fatal. The microshock risk threshold is more
than 100 times lower than that of macroshock.
Table 16.1 shows the effect of macroshock,
i.e. when current passes through the skin and
through the body: that is when the shock is not
given directly to vital organs. The values
quoted refer to mains frequency (50 Hz) AC,
since shock via the mains supply is the
greatest hazard in most situations which the
physiotherapist will encounter.
Table 16.1: Effects of shock current through
body
While any amount of current over 10 mA is
capable of producing painful to severe shock,
currents between 50 and 250 mA are
potentially lethal. At values as low as 20 mA
breathing becomes laboured, finally ceasing
completely even at values below 75 mA: the
victim can suffocate due to uncontrollable
contraction of the muscles of the thorax and
abdomen. If the current exceeds about 50 mA,
ventricular fibrillation of the heart is likely to
occur an uncoordinated twitching of the walls
of the heart's ventricles. Once ventricular
fibrillation is induced the heart will not
spontaneously revert to its normal pattern of
beating. Normal cardiac rhythm can only be
restored by administering a massive current
pulse from a cardiac defibrillator. The
machine, which should only be operated by
qualified personnel, supplies a short (3-4 ms)
current pulse with an instantaneous amplitude
of up to 40 to 80 amperes. Such high currents
forcibly clamp the heart. When the clamping
action ceases the heart is more likely to revert
to its normal pattern of contraction.
Chapter 16 Safety in Biomedical Instruments
For shock currents above about 250 milliamps,
the muscular contractions are so severe that
the heart is forcibly clamped during the shock.
This clamping protects the heart from going
into ventricular fibrillation and the chances of
survival are improved.
From a practical viewpoint, after a person is
knocked out by an electrical shock it is
impossible to tell how much current passed
through the vital organs of his body. Artificial
respiration must be applied immediately if
breathing has stopped: if no pulse is detectable
external cardiac massage should also be
applied. An important question is 'how much
current will flow if a particular voltage is
applied externally i.e. to the skin surface'. This
depends more on the skin impedance than on
the impedance of deeper tissues. The
impedance of deeper tissues depends on their
shape and volume, but does not vary a lot.
Between the ears, for example, the internal
resistance at low frequencies (less the skin
resistance) is 100 ohms, while from hand to
foot it is close to 500 ohms. The skin
impedance varies much more than that of the
underlying tissue. For 50 Hz AC it can be
lower than 1000 ohms for moist skin to higher
than 0.5 mega ohms for dry skin.
The body current flowing when a person
contacts the mains supply (240 volts) is
calculated from Ohm's law to vary between
0.5 mA when the skin is dry and 240 mA
when the skin is moist. If the victim is startled
from an initial mild shock, sweating can result
in a lowering of skin resistance and a rise in
current from sub-lethal to lethal levels in a
short space of time. This is one reason why it
is essential, in an electric shock situation, to
terminate the shock current as quickly as is
safely possible.
HOW SHOCK CAN OCCUR:
MACROSHOCK
To understand the hazards associated with the
use of mains powered apparatus we need a
clear picture of the way in which mains
electricity is supplied. The very high voltage
electricity which is generated at power stations
is distributed by cables to electricity
substations where step-down transformers
reduce the voltage to a lower value. A single,
large step-down transformer may be used to
supply the 240 volts to many buildings in a
215

Fig. 16.2: Main supply to a building
residential neighbourhood. Large buildings in
a city (for example a hospital) may have their
own step-down transformers. Figure 16.2
shows the essential features of the power
supply to a building.
One terminal of the stepped-down supply is
earthed at the electricity substation. This is
called the neutral line. When the substation
serves several buildings the neutral line is
normally also earthed at the fuse box in each
building. 240 volts AC is thus supplied to the
fuse box in a building using two wires, the
active wire and the neutral wire. The neutral
wire is nominally at earth potential (zero volts)
and the active wire is at a high potential. The
active line connects through a power meter to
a switch and fuse or to a circuit breaker. From
the fuse box, power wires run to light switches
and power outlets. Power outlets have three
terminals; an active, a neutral and an earth
terminal. The earth terminal is connected to a
wire which is physically connected to earth at
the building. Figure 16.3 shows the
connections of the active, neutral and earth
wires to a power outlet socket.
Fig. 16.3: Wiring convention for Australian power
outlet
Chapter 16 Safety in Biomedical Instruments
Both the neutral and earth terminals of a
power point are normally at earth or ground
potential. However, it should not be assumed
that the active terminal (on the left in figure
16.3) is the only hazardous one. For example it
is quite possible for the active and neutral
connections to be inadvertently interchanged
when the power point is installed.
Mainspowered equipment will still function
normally when plugged in to the power point:
the fault can only be determined by a specific
test.
Even when the power point is correctly wired
it is possible for the neutral terminal to be
above ground potential. This happens when
appliances which draw a high current are
connected to the same circuit. A high current
flowing in the neutral line will result in a
potential difference between the power point
neutral terminal and the connection to earth at
the fuse box. This is because the resistance of
the neutral cable, while small, is not zero. If
the neutral wire has a resistance R and carries
a current I, the potential difference produced is
given by Ohm's law as V = I.R. In what
follows we assume that the power point is
correctly wired and consider other hazards
associated with the mains supply. In normal
operation, when an appliance is plugged into
the mains outlet, current flows between the
active and neutral terminals. The earth wires
does not normally carry any current. The earth
connection is only provided as a safety
measure.
The advantages of a three-terminal mains
supply can be seen by inspecting figure
216

Fig. 16.4: Earthing of mains powered apparatus
casing
The circuitry within the apparatus (represented
by an equivalent resistance Re in figure 13.4)
is powered from the active and neutral wires.
The earth wire is connected to the casing of
the apparatus to ensure that there is never any
voltage on the casing. The idea is that if the
active wire within the apparatus makes
accidental contact with the casing a very high
current will flow through the earth wire to
ground. The low resistance of the earth wire
ensures that the current flow will be large
enough to blow the fuse, thus cutting off the
active supply. In this way, the casing of the
apparatus can not become 'live' and present an
electric shock hazard to anyone touching it. As
long as the earth wire and connections remain
intact there is no risk of shock from touching
the apparatus. Some apparatus - electric
shavers and hair dryers are examples - is
'double insulated'. The casing is usually made
of a non-conducting plastic and special
precautions are taken to ensure that an electric
shock is virtually impossible. The advantage
here is that no reliance is placed on an earth
wire which could come loose or break. In fact,
no provision at all is made for an earth
connection to the apparatus. The use of the
double insulation principle is restricted to
small and easily insulated apparatus. Any
exposed metal on double insulated apparatus is
not connected to earth but is doubly isolated
from the internal electrical circuitry. All
apparatus which plugs into the mains, then, is
macroshock protected, either by double
insulation or by earthing. Nevertheless hazards
remain in the form of faulty or worn
equipment or careless workmanship.
Figure 16.5 illustrates how an electric shock
can result when apparatus is not earthed –
because the earth wire is damaged or
disconnected. The shock hazard in figure 13.5
arises when the active terminal short-circuits
to the casing of the apparatus. In this case two
Chapter 16 Safety in Biomedical Instruments
faults have occurred - a break in the earth
connection and a short circuit of the active
wire to the casing.
Fig.16.5: A person contacts apparatus which is not
earthed and has active wiring touching the case
Since the neutral line is earthed at the fuse box
and power sub-station, a person standing on
the ground is effectively connected to the
neutral terminal of the mains supply. To
complete the circuit and receive a shock, the
person need only touch the active terminal or
something connected to the active terminal.
Current flows from the active terminal through
the person to ground and hence to the neutral
connection at the fuse box or power
substation.
Two important things should be noted about
the situation illustrated in figure 16.5A shock
has occurred because the earth wire is
damaged. If the earth connection was intact
the fuse in the active line (figure 16.2) would
blow and isolate the apparatus from the mains
supply.
The fuse in the active line will not protect the
person from receiving an electric shock. The
fuses used for normal apparatus have a rating
of several amperes. The person can receive a
lethal shock (see table 13.1) without blowing
the fuse. A question which might occur to you
is 'do both faults shown in figure 13.5 have to
exist in order for a shock to result?' The
answer is no. A shock can result when the
apparatus is not earthed even though there is
no direct physical contact between the active
terminal and the casing. This is because the
active wire and the case must have a small
capacitance associated with them and
insulation will not be perfect. Thus it is
possible for small currents to leak via the
insulation to the casing. With new and well
looked-after apparatus the insulation
impedance will be high and the maximum
217

leakage current will be very small. Bad design
or deteriorating insulation can, however,
increase leakage currents to hazardous levels.
Only by earthing the casing and providing an
extremely low resistance pathway to ground
can the risk of shock be minimized.
MACROSHOCK PROTECTION:
From the previous discussion it should be
apparent that the fuses in the mains supply
serve a protective role only when currents of
several amperes are involved. For this to
happen the active wire must short-circuit to the
earthed casing. How then can we protect
against shock involving much lower currents?
There are two commonly used ways - by using
a core balance relay or a protected earth-free
supply.
Core Balance Relays:
Under normal circumstances the currents
flowing in the active and neutral wires are
equal. When an electric shock occurs the
current in the active wire will be slightly
greater than that in the neutral wire. This is
because some current flows from the active
wire through the victim to ground and through
the ground to the neutral connection at the fuse
box. Core balance relays are used to detect any
imbalance and disconnect the power supply
when the imbalance exceeds a predetermined
value. The arrangement is shown in figure
16.6.
The active and neutral wires both pass through
a magnetic core around which a sensing coil is
wound. The currents in these wires are in
opposite directions and when they are equal no
current is induced in the sensing coil. If the
currents are unequal a current proportional to
the difference in active and neutral current is
induced in the sensing coil. The induced
current is amplified and used to operate a
magnetic relay which disconnects both the
active and neutral supply lines.
Chapter 16 Safety in Biomedical Instruments
Fig16.6: Core balance relay station
Once the core balance relay has been 'tripped',
the supply remains disconnected until the
circuit breaker is manually reset.
The response time of core balance relays is
quite short (less than 100 ms) and typical units
can be adjusted to trigger on an imbalance of
as little as 5 mA. They are available for
permanent installation (usually inside the fuse
box) and are also supplied as portable units
suitable for connecting between power points
and appliances. From the foregoing
description it should be apparent that these
units protect against the 'normal' situation
where a shock current flows through a person's
body to earth.
They will not protect against the more unusual
situation where a person inadvertently contacts
both the active and neutral lines
simultaneously.
Earth Free Supplies:
In the situation shown in figure 16.5 the
person receives an electric shock because his
hand makes contact with the active line and
his feet are in contact with the ground to which
the neutral is connected. A question which
might occur to you is 'would it be safer if the
supply neutral was not earthed?' In this case
the earthed person could not complete a circuit
by touching the active line and so would not
receive a shock. The answer to the question is
a qualified 'yes'. Figure 16.7 shows how the
normal mains supply can be rendered earth
free by using an isolating transformer.
218
 Chapter 16 Safety in Biomedical Instruments

considered adequate for more general use such

as in physiotherapy clinics and the
physiotherapy departments of hospitals.
Whichever method of protection is used it is
important that the system be checked at
regular intervals to ensure that the protection
mechanisms are operating correctly.

Fig.16.7: Isolation with a transformer

If neither side of the transformer secondary is

earthed a person can touch both earth and one
transformer terminal without receiving a
shock. At first glance it would seem that a
person can only receive a shock if both
transformer secondary terminals are contacted Fig.16.8: Isolation with group leakage detection
simultaneously. Unfortunately this is not the
case in practice and the reasons are twofold: If MICROSHOCK
a piece of apparatus plugged into the power
point should develop a short circuit to earth no The use of electronic monitoring and
fuses will blow. The fault can remain measuring devices in the hospital setting has
unnoticed indefinitely. In the meantime the proved of immense value for patient
earth free supply has been converted to an monitoring and assessment. It has, however,
earthed supply and we have no knowledge of also introduced some special risks of which
which side of the transformer has become the modern member of the health care team
'active' and which 'neutral'. If faulty or poorly
must be aware.
designed apparatus is plugged into the power
point the insulation impedance between either Consider the patient in an intensive care unit.
supply terminal and earth can be reduced to
the extent that the supply is effectively In some cases the patient may have apparatus
earthed: again with no knowledge of which connected by a direct electrical pathway to the
terminal is at earth potential. heart. One such situation is illustrated in
figure 13.9. Here a very special hazard exists
The system can be rendered safe by adding an because of the low current needed to cause
earth leakage detector between the mains earth ventricular fibrillation. Even if all the
and the two transformer secondary wires as
equipment is earthed the patient can still be
shown in figure 16.8.
electrocuted unless adequate precautions are
In normal operation a negligible amount of taken.
current flows through the leakage detector. If,
however, apparatus with a short circuit or
defective insulation is plugged into the power
point a current will flow through the detector
and activate the alarm.

Of the two systems the protected earth free

supply is somewhat safer than an earthed
supply fitted with a core balance relay.
Unfortunately the isolation transformers and
leakage detection circuitry needed are both
bulky and expensive. For this reason protected
earth free supplies are only found in areas of
high shock hazard. Core balance relays which Fig .16.9: A microshock hazard situation
are relatively cheap and easy to install are

219

The patient, in this situation, is connected to
two pieces of apparatus: an electrocardiograph
(ECG) machine and a blood pressure monitor.
For simplicity only the earth wires are shown.
The patient is connected to earth by two
pathways: the electrode connected to the right
leg is earthed via the ECG machine and the
fluid filled catheter is connected to a pressure
transducer which is earthed via the blood
pressure monitor.
For example, if the resistance of the earth wire
is 0.1 Ω , and a spike of leakage current of 100
mA flows, a potential difference of 10 mV is
produced. If the resistance of the tissue is 100
Ω , a current of 100 µA will flow.
The risk of shock arises when a potential
difference exists between the earth terminals
on outlets 2 and 3. If a current I flows along
the earth wire connecting the two outlets a
potential difference V will result. V is given
by Ohm's law V = I.R where R is the
resistance of the earth wire between the
outlets. Although R is very small it is not
zero. If I is large enough the potential
difference produced will be sufficient to
electrocute the patient - remember that
currents in excess of 100 microamperes or so
flowing through the patient's heart may be
fatal.
Normally, of course, little or no current flows
in the earth wire - it is only there to carry
leakage current from the apparatus plugged-in.
If, however, an appliance with a high leakage
current, such as a vacuum cleaner, is plugged
into outlet 1 a dangerous situation can result.
Vacuum cleaners are notorious for producing
large leakage currents (particularly at switch-
on) because the motor is continually exposed
to dust and moisture which lower the
insulation impedance. Visualize the situation
where the patient in figure 13.9 is connected as
shown and a cleaner, working his way down
the corridor, plugs a vacuum cleaner into
outlet I (on the corridor outside) and switches
it on. The instantaneous leakage current
Chapter 16 Safety in Biomedical Instruments
flowing in the earth wire could raise the
potential at the earth terminal of outlet 2 to a
sufficiently high value (relative to outlet 3) to
electrocute the patient.
The solution, in this case, is to plug all
apparatus around the patient into a single
power outlet or to interconnect the earth
terminal of each outlet with heavy gauge
copper wire. It is also necessary to ensure that
the wiring for the power outlets in the patient's
room does not connect to the power outlets in
adjacent rooms or corridors.
A further precaution which must be taken is to
ensure that any apparatus which is used in the
patient's room has been tested for earth
leakage and meets the appropriate safety
standards. PATIENT TREATMENT AND
ELECTRICAL SAFETY From the foregoing
considerations of shock and shock protection it
is apparent that there are three levels of risk
associated with patient treatment. The greatest
risk is to patients coupled to apparatus which
may have a direct electrical connection to the
heart. A lower level of risk exists when there
are no invasive electrical connections;
however we should distinguish the patient who
is coupled to electromedical apparatus by
surface electrodes from the patient who is not
electrically connected to any piece of
apparatus. The reason is that if a patient is
connected by electrodes to, say, an
electrocardiograph the potential for a shock to
occur is increased by the deliberate electrical
connection. In addition the skin resistance has
been minimized by cleaning and application of
a conductive electrode gel. In this case the
voltage needed to produce a fatal shock
current is reduced. Protection is afforded at
two levels:
 by using apparatus which meets
appropriate safety standards and
 by appropriate protection built into the
mains supply. We consider each factor in
turn. Protection and the Mains Supply
220

Patient treatment areas in hospitals are
distinguished according to the kind of
procedures or treatment being used and
different safety standards apply to the mains
supply in each case. Three types of treatment
area are distinguished:
 Cardiac protected electrical areas. These
are areas which are suitable for carrying
out procedures which involve direct
electrical connection to the heart. The
safety requirements for both the electrical
supply and apparatus to be used in such
areas are stringent (see SAA Standards AS
3200 and AS 3003). These are described
as 'Type CF' or simply 'cardiac protected'
areas. In Australia and some other
countries, these used to be described as
'Class A' treatment areas.
 Body protected electrical areas. These are
areas which are suitable for carrying out
procedures which do not involve direct
electrical connection to the heart but
which do involve the patient being in
direct electrical contact with
electromedical apparatus. Safety
requirements are more stringent than those
applying to areas where no electrical
connection between patient and apparatus
is necessary. Such areas are described as
'Type BF' or simply 'body protected' areas.
They used to be known as 'class B'
treatment areas.
 Other patient areas. These are areas which
are not specifically suited to 'cardiac type'
or 'body type' procedures. Apparatus
which is not electrically connected to the
patient can be used. Apparatus which is
intended to connect electrically to the
patient can be used in these areas, but only
if the apparatus itself meets stringent
safety requirements (equivalent to those of
a cardiac protected or body protected
treatment area).
When direct electrical connection is made to
the heart, shock currents as low as 100 µA can
be fatal. For this reason cardiac-protected
Chapter 16 Safety in Biomedical Instruments
treatment areas are designed to minimize this
risk. The earth wiring in these areas is
constructed from heavy gauge copper wire so
that even when substantial currents (up to 1
ampere) flow in the earth wire the potential
difference between different earth terminals is
kept below 100 mV. An area which meets this
and other requirements (see SAA Standard
AS3003) is described as an equipotential earth
(EP) area.
In addition to the requirement for equipotential
earth wiring, cardiac protected areas must also
have core-balance relay protection or have a
protected earth free supply.
Body protected areas are those designed to
protect patients who may be connected
directly to electromedical apparatus from
macroshock currents. It is not necessary for
the area to have an equipotential earth system
but the supply must have core-balance relay
protection or a protected earth free supply.
Best protection is afforded by a protected earth
free supply but such installations are
expensive. Core-balance relay protection can
be provided economically and gives an
adequate level of safety. Body protected areas
which have appropriate core-balance
protection will have the mains supply
disconnected within 60 milliseconds of the
active and neutral current imbalance exceeding
10 mA (SAA Standard AS3003).
Class CF (cardiac protected) and BF (body
protected) treatment areas are normally
identified by signs displayed in, or on the
doors of, the area. The signs have an
identifying symbol and the words 'CARDIAC
PROTECTED ELECTRICAL AREA' or
'BODY PROTECTED ELECTRICAL AREA'
printed in white letters on a green background.
The symbols for these areas are shown in
figure 16.10.
221

Fig. 16.10: symbols used to identify different
classes of equipment and treatment area. (a)
class CF (microshock protected) (b) class BF
(body protected)
Patient areas which are not designated class A
or B have no 'special' safety requirements
other than those which apply to commercial,
industrial and domestic supplies (SAA
Standard AS3000). This means that the area
does not provide protection if contact is made
(either directly or indirectly) between the
active supply wire and earth. It is
recommended, though not mandatory, that
such areas be provided with core- balance
relay protection. The recommendation should
be considered seriously since normal
protective devices (fuses or circuit breakers)
can allow currents of up to 150 times the
macroshock hazard level without operating to
cut-off the supply.
Protection and Electromedical Apparatus :
Both kinds of apparatus must meet certain
safety standards specified in terms of the
amount of leakage current which can flow
under different conditions. Apparatus which
has a patient circuit must meet additional
safety standards.
Electromedical apparatus used for patient
treatment falls into one of two categories. In
the first category we have apparatus which
does not have a deliberate and direct contact
with the patient, such as an infrared or
ultraviolet lamp. In the second category we
have apparatus which requires deliberate
electrical connection with the patient; for
example, apparatus for delivering interferential
or conventional TENS currents. In this case
the apparatus has a patient circuit.
Chapter 16 Safety in Biomedical Instruments
Consider first electromedical apparatus which
does not have a patient circuit. In this case the
significant risk to the patient is if the patient
inadvertently contacts the apparatus casing. If
the maximum contact current which can flow
is below a specified value (10 µA through a
1000 ohm load) and the earth leakage current
is less than 100 µA then the apparatus is
designated class CF. This is the safest kind of
electromedical apparatus. Other
electromedical apparatus must have a
maximum casing-contact current below 100
µA: this is considered to offer adequate
protection when the patient has no possibility
of direct electrical connection to the heart.
Class CF equipment can easily be recognized
by the 'heart in the square' symbol (figure
16.10a). This is normally displayed on the
rear panel of the equipment, near where the
power cord enters.
When a piece of electromedical apparatus has
a patient circuit then the patient circuit itself
can be either class CF, BF or B.
 A class CF patient circuit is the most safe.
If the leakage current to the patient circuit
is normally below 10 µA and below 50 µA
even when a fault condition exists (when
the earth lead is broken or the patient
inadvertently contacts the active terminal
of the mains supply) the patient circuit is
designated class CF. A class CF patient
circuit affords microshock protection.
 A class BF patient circuit is macroshock
protected. The normal leakage current is
below 100 µA and the current which can
flow when the earth lead is broken is
below 500 µA. To comply with class BF
specifications the fault current which can
flow from the patient circuit through the
patient to the active terminal of the mains
supply (in the event of the patient
accidentally contacting the mains active
lead, either directly or indirectly) must be
below 5 mA. In other words a class B
patient circuit has adequate isolation from
222

the mains supply to minimize the risk of
macroshock.
 A class B patient circuit affords a
minimum level of macroshock protection.
This kind of patient circuit may have one
terminal earthed. Such a circuit must have
leakage currents below those needed to
represent a macroshock hazard when the
apparatus is operating normally or when
the earth lead is broken. However, no
protection is offered against the situation
where the patient inadvertently contacts
the mains active lead.
Class CF and BF patient circuits are identified
by the symbols shown in figure 16.10. The
appropriate symbol is prominently displayed
immediately adjacent to the patient circuit
output sockets of the machine. If no symbol is
found, the patient circuit should be assumed to
be class B. Protection in Summary
It should be apparent, from the foregoing
description, that electrical safety is only
ensured if:
 the equipment meets appropriate safety
standards for the treatment procedures
involved;
 the electrical supply meets appropriate
safety standards for the treatment
procedures involved.
The strictest safety standards are mandatory
Figure 16.11: shows a flo wchart summarizing the requirements for earthed mains - powered
apparatus and the class of area in wh ich it can be used.
Chapter 16 Safety in Biomedical Instruments
when the patient has apparatus connected
directly to the heart. In this case the mains
supply should be that provided in a Class CF
area and electromedical apparatus with a
patient circuit should not be used unless either
the patient circuit is class CF or there is no
possibility of a direct electrical connection
with the heart. In this way the risk of
microshock is minimized.
When there is no direct electrical connection
to the heart it is sufficient to protect against the
risk of macroshock. This can be achieved
either by using equipment with a class CF or
BF patient circuit or by treating the patient in a
class CF or BF area. If the electrical wiring in
a patient treatment area is class CF or BF then
patients can be safety treated with apparatus
which has a class CF, BF or B patient circuit.
If the electrical wiring in a patient treatment
area is not class CF or BF then the patient
circuit must be class CF or BF. In other words
if the mains supply is of the normal household
variety then electromedical apparatus should
have either a class CF or BF patient circuit.
When there is no patient circuit and no
possibility of intra-cardiac connection,
electromedical equipment may be used on a
normal earthed (but unprotected) mains
supply.
223

Chapter No. 17
IONIZING RADIATION
Nuclear Radiations (ionizing radiations)
Radiation is energy in the process of being
transmitted, which may take such forms as
light, or tiny particles much too small to see.
Visible light, the ultra-violet light we receive
from the sun and from sun-beds, and
transmission signals for TV and radio
communications are all forms of radiation that
are common in our daily lives. These are all
referred to as 'non-ionizing' radiation.
Radiation particularly associated with nuclear
medicine and the use of nuclear energy, along
with X-rays, is 'ionizing' radiation, which
means that the radiation has sufficient energy
to interact with matter, especially the human
body, and produce ions, i.e. it can eject an
electron from an atom.
Types of radiations:
Nuclear radiation arises from hundreds of
different kinds of unstable atoms. While many
exist in nature, the majority are created in
nuclear reactions. Ionizing radiation which can
damage living tissue is emitted as the unstable
atoms (radionuclides) change ('decay')
spontaneously to become different kinds of
atoms.
The principal kinds of ionizing radiation are:
Alpha particles:
These are helium nuclei consisting of two
protons and two neutrons and are emitted from
naturally-occurring heavy elements such as
uranium and radium, as well as from some
man-made transuranic elements. They are
intensely ionizing but cannot penetrate the
skin, so are dangerous only if emitted inside
the body.
Beta particles:
These are fast-moving electrons emitted by
many radioactive elements. They are more
Chapter 17 Ionizing Radiations
penetrating than alpha particles, but easily
shielded – they can be stopped by a few
millimeters of wood or aluminum. They can
penetrate a little way into human flesh but are
generally less dangerous to people than
gamma radiation. Exposure produces an effect
like sunburn, but which is slower to heal.
Beta-radioactive substances are also safe if
kept in appropriate sealed containers.
Gamma rays:
These are high-energy beams much the same
as X-rays. They are emitted in many
radioactive decays and are very penetrating, so
require more substantial shielding. Gamma
rays are the main hazard to people dealing
with sealed radioactive materials used, for
example, in industrial gauges and radiotherapy
machines. Radiation dose badges are worn by
workers in exposed situations to detect them
and hence monitor exposure. All of us receive
about 0.5-1 mSv per year of gamma radiation
from cosmic rays and from rocks, and in some
places, much more. Gamma activity in a
substance (e.g. rock) can be measured with a
scintillometer or Geiger counter.
X-rays: are also ionizing radiations, virtually
identical to gamma rays, but not nuclear in
origin.
Cosmic radiations: consists of very
energetic particles, mostly protons, which
bombard the Earth from outer space.
Neutrons: are mostly released by nuclear
fission (the splitting of atoms in a nuclear
reactor), and hence are seldom encountered
outside the core of a nuclear reactor. Thus they
are not normally a problem outside nuclear
plants. Fast neutrons can be very destructive to
human tissue.
Units of radiation and radioactivity:
In order to quantify how much radiation we
are exposed to in our daily lives and assess
potential health impacts as a result, it is
necessary to establish a unit of measurement.
The basic unit of radiation dose absorbed in
tissue is the gray (Gy), where one gray
224

represents the deposition of one joule of
energy per kilogram of tissue.
However, since neutrons and alpha particles
cause more damage per gray than gamma or
beta radiation, another unit, the Sievert (Sv) is
used in setting radiological protection
standards. This unit of measurement takes into
account biological effects of different types of
radiation. One gray of beta or gamma radiation
has one sievert of biological effect, one gray of
alpha particles has 20 Sv effect and one gray
of neutrons is equivalent to around 10 Sv
(depending on their energy). Since the sievert
is a relatively large value, dose to humans is
normally measured in millisieverts (mSv),
one-thousandth of a sievert.
The Becquerel (Bq) is a unit or measure of
actual radioactivity in material (as distinct
from the radiation it emits, or the human dose
from that), with reference to the number of
nuclear disintegrations per second (1 Bq = 1
disintegration/sec). Quantities of radioactive
material are commonly estimated by
measuring the amount of intrinsic radioactivity
in becquerels – one Bq of radioactive material
is that amount which has an average of one
disintegration per second, i.e. an activity of 1
Bq.
Older units of radiation measurement continue
in use in some literature:
1gray = 100 rads
1 sievert = 100 rem
1 becquerel = 27 picocuries or 2.7 x 10-11
curies
One curie was originally the activity of one
gram of radium-226, and represents 3.7 x 1010
disintegrations per second (Bq).
Chapter 17 Ionizing Radiations
Sources of radiation:
Radiation can arise from human activities or
from natural sources. Most radiation exposure
is from natural sources. These include:
radioactivity in rocks and soil of the Earth's
crust; radon, a radioactive gas given out by
many volcanic rocks and uranium ore; and
cosmic radiation. The human environment has
always been radioactive and accounts for up to
85% of the annual human radiation dose.
Radiation arising from human activities
typically accounts for up to 15% of the
public's exposure every year. This radiation is
no different from natural radiation except that
it can be controlled. X-rays and other medical
procedures account for most exposure from
this quarter. Less than 1% of exposure is due
to the fallout from past testing of nuclear
weapons or the generation of electricity in
nuclear, as well as coal and geothermal, power
plants.
Backscatter X-ray scanners being introduced
for airport security will gives exposure of up
to 5 microsieverts (μSv), compared with 5 μSv
on a short flight and 30 μSv on a long
intercontinental flight across the equator, or
more at higher latitudes – by a factor of 2 or 3.
Aircrew can receive up to about 5 mSv/yr
from their hours in the air, while frequent
flyers can score a similar increment. In the
UK, the National Radiation Protection Board's
1999 survey showed that on average, nuclear
power workers received a lower annual
radiation dose than flight crew, and frequent
flyers in 250 hours would receive 1 mSv.
The maximum annual dose allowed for
radiation workers is 20 mSv/yr, though in
practice, doses are usually kept well below this
level. In comparison, the average dose
received by the public from nuclear power is
0.0002 mSv/yr, which is of the order of 10,000
times smaller than the total yearly dose
received by the public from background
radiation.
225

Fig. 17.1: Sources of Radiation
Natural background radiations:
Naturally occurring background radiation is
the main source of exposure for most people,
and provides some perspective on radiation
exposure from nuclear energy. The average
dose received by all of us from background
radiation is around 2.4 mSv/yr, which can vary
depending on the geology and altitude where
people live – ranging between 1 and 10
mSv/yr, but can be more than 50 mSv/yr. The
highest known level of background radiation
affecting a substantial population is in Kerala
and Madras states in India where some
140,000 people receive doses which average
over 15 millisievert per year from gamma
radiation, in addition to a similar dose from
radon. Comparable levels occur in Brazil and
Sudan, with average exposures up to about 40
mSv/yr to many people.
Several places are known in Iran, India and
Europe where natural background radiation
gives an annual dose of more than 50 mSv and
up to 260 mSv (at Ramsar in Iran). Lifetime
doses from natural radiation range up to
several thousand millisievert. However, there
is no evidence of increased cancers or other
health problems arising from these high
natural levels.
Radon gas has decay products that are alpha
emitters. People everywhere are typically
Chapter 17 Ionizing Radiations
exposed to around 0.2 mSv/yr, and often up to
3 mSv/yr, from inhaled radon without apparent
ill-effect. However, in industrial situations its
control is a high priority.
Limiting exposure:
Public dose limits for exposure from uranium
mining or nuclear plants are usually set at 1
mSv/yr above background.
In most countries the current maximum
permissible dose to radiation workers is 20
mSv per year averaged over five years, with a
maximum of 50 mSv in any one year. This is
over and above background exposure, and
excludes medical exposure. The value
originates from the International Commission
on Radiological Protection (ICRP), and is
coupled with the requirement to keep exposure
as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) –
taking into account social and economic
factors.
Radiation protection at uranium mining
operations and in the rest of the nuclear fuel
cycle is tightly regulated, and levels of
exposure are monitored.
There are four ways in which people are
protected from identified radiation sources:
226

 Limiting time. In occupational situations,
dose is reduced by limiting exposure time.
 Distance. The intensity of radiation
decreases with distance from its source.
 Shielding. Barriers of lead, concrete or
water give good protection from high
levels of penetrating radiation such as
gamma rays. Intensely radioactive
materials are therefore often stored or
handled under water, or by remote control
in rooms constructed of thick concrete or
lined with lead.
 Containment. Highly radioactive
materials are confined and kept out of the
workplace and environment. Nuclear
reactors operate within closed systems
with multiple barriers which keep the
radioactive materials contained.
Nuclear fuel cycle:
The average annual radiation dose to
employees at uranium mines (in addition to
natural background) is around 2 mSv (ranging
up to 10 mSv). Natural background radiation
is about 2 mSv. In most mines, keeping doses
to such low levels is achieved with
straightforward ventilation techniques coupled
with rigorously enforced procedures for
hygiene. In some Canadian mines, with very
high-grade ore, sophisticated means are
employed to limit exposure. Occupational
doses in the US nuclear energy industry –
conversion, enrichment, fuel fabrication and
reactor operation – average less than 3 mSv/yr.
Reprocessing plants in Europe and Russia treat
used fuel to recover useable uranium and
plutonium and separate the highly radioactive
wastes. These facilities employ massive
shielding to screen gamma radiation in
particular. Manual operations are carried by
operators behind lead glass using remote
handling equipment.
In mixed oxide (MOX) fuel fabrication, little
shielding is required, but the whole process is
enclosed with access via glove boxes to
eliminate the possibility of alpha
contamination from the plutonium. Where
people are like ly to be working alongside the
production line, a 25mm layer of Perspex
shields neutron radiation from the Pu-240. (In
Chapter 17 Ionizing Radiations
uranium oxide fuel fabrication, no shielding is
required.)
Interestingly, due to the substantial amounts of
granite in their construction, many public
buildings including Australia's Parliament
House and New York Grand Central Station,
would have some difficulty in getting a license
to operate if they were nuclear power stations.
Effects of radiations:
Our knowledge of radiation effects derives
primarily from groups of people who have
received high doses. The risk associated with
large radiation doses is relatively well
established. However, the risks associated with
doses under about 200 mSv are less obvious
because of the large underlying incidence of
cancer caused by other factors. Radiation
protection standards assume that any dose of
radiation, no matter how small, involves a
possible risk to human health. However,
available scientific evidence does not indicate
any cancer risk or immediate effects at doses
below 100 mSv a year. At low levels of
exposure, the body's natural repair
mechanisms seem to be adequate to repair
radiation damage to cells soon after it occurs.
Epidemiological studies continue on the
survivors of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima
and Nagasaki, involving some 76,000 people
exposed at levels ranging up to more than
5,000 mSv. These have shown that radiation is
the likely cause of several hundred deaths
from cancer, in addition to the normal
incidence found in any population. From this
data the International Commission on
Radiological Protection (ICRP) and others
estimate the fatal cancer risk as 5% per sievert
exposure for a population of all ages – so one
person in 20 exposed to 1,000 mSv could be
expected to develop a fatal cancer some years
later. In Western countries, about a quarter of
people die from cancers, with smoking, dietary
factors, genetic factors and strong sunlight
being among the main causes. Radiation is a
weak carcinogen, but undue exposure can
certainly increase health risks.
In 1990, the US National Cancer Institute
(NCI) found no evidence of any increase in
cancer mortality among people living near to
227
 Chapter 17 Ionizing Radiations

62 major nuclear facilities. The NCI study was
the broadest of its kind ever conducted and
supported similar studies conducted elsewhere
in the USA as well as in Canada and Europe.
In the UK there are significantly elevated
childhood leukaemia levels near Sellafield as
well as elsewhere in the country. The reasons
for these increases, or clusters, are unclear, but
a major study of those near Sellafield has ruled
out any contribution from nuclear sources.
Apart from anything else, the levels of
radiation at these sites are orders of magnitude
too low to account for the excess incidences
reported. However, studies are continuing in
order to provide more conclusive answers.
Low level radiation risk:
A lot of research has been undertaken on the
effects of low-level radiation. Many of the
findings have failed to support the so-called
linear no-threshold hypothesis. This theory
assumes that the demonstrated relationships
between radiation dose and adverse effects at
high levels of exposure also applies to low
levels and provides the (deliberately
conservative) basis of occupational health and
other radiation protection standards.
less than 100 mSv". It quoted the US Nuclear
Regulatory Commission that "since 1983, the
US nuclear industry has monitored more than
100,000 radiation workers each year, and no
workers have been exposed to more than 50
mSv in a year since 1989."
In addition, there is increasing evidence of
beneficial effect from low-level radiation (up
to about 10 mSv/yr). This 'radiation hormesis'
may be due to an adaptive response by the
body's cells, the same as that with other toxins
at low doses. In the case of carcinogens such
as ionizing radiation, the beneficial effect is
seen both in lower incidence of cancer and in
resistance to the effects of higher doses.
However, until possible mechanisms are
confirmed, uncertainty will remain. Further
research is under way and the debate
continues. Meanwhile standards for radiation
exposure continue to be deliberately
conservative.

Some evidence suggests that there may be a

threshold below which no harmful effects of
radiation occur. However, this is not yet
accepted by national or international radiation
protection bodies as sufficiently well-proven
to be taken into official standards.

A November 2009 technical report from the

Electric Power Research Institute in USA Fig. 17.2: The linear Hypothesis
drew upon more than 200 peer-reviewed
publications on effects of low-level radiation
and concluded that the effects of low dose-rate
radiation are different and that "the risks due
to [those effects] may be over-estimated" by
the linear hypothesis. "From an
epidemiological perspective, individual
radiation doses of less than 100 mSv in a
single exposure are too small to allow
detection of any statistically significant excess
cancers in the presence of naturally occurring
cancers. The doses received by nuclear power
plant workers fall into this category because
exposure is accumulated over many years;
with an average annual dose about 100 times

228
SECTION III

PRACTICALS

PRACTICAL NO 1:
Experimental Verification of Ohm's Law:
Introduction:
Ohm's discovery was that the amount of electric
current through a metal conductor in a circuit is
directly proportional to the voltage across it, for
any given temperature. Ohm expressed his
discovery in the form of a simple equation,
describing how voltage, current, and resistance
related to each other:
V = IR
Apparatus:
 E.M.F Source - Battery of 2 X 1.5V Cells
 Battery Holder
 Switch
 Variable Resistor (Rheostat)
 Ammeter (preferably digital)
 Voltmeter (preferably digital)
 Sample of conductor to be tested (Nichrome
wire) - 10cm
 Connecting Wires
 Crocodile Clips
Section III Practical
Procedure:
1. Choose the ranges of the ammeter and the
voltmeter to suit the particular conductor to
be tested. (e.g. 0-2V and 0-1A).
2. Set up the circuit as shown above.
3. Make sure that the voltmeter is connected in
parallel across and the ammeter is connected
in series with the conductor.
4. Ammeters and Voltmeters have terminals
marked + and - which must be connected
correctly to the battery. Only close the
switch when you are sure that you have
wired the circuit properly.
5. Close the switch and smoothly adjust the
rheostat from minimum resistance to
maximum resistance and at regular intervals
note the meter reading and hence obtain a
set of values from the two meters (at least
6).
6. Divide the Voltage by the current.
7. Record the data in the following table, e.g. :
Conclusion:
The value voltage range in a circuit will be
linear with the value of resistor chosen, and
perpendicular with the value of current results.
229

PRACTICAL NO 2:
Resistors in series, and the potential
divider circuit
The two resistors are said to be arranged in
series, because electrons leaving the battery have
to pass through both in turn in order to get back
to the battery (remember that we can assume
that no current flows through a voltmeter). The
total resistance in the circuit is given simply by
(R1 + R2), because the battery has to push
current through both in turn. The diagram shows
three voltmeters connected into the circuit - one
is measuring the voltage V1 across resistor R1,
one is measuring voltage V2 across resistor R2,
and the third is measuring the voltage V3 across
both resistors.
Fig.2
For the same reasons as presented previously,
you should be able to see that the voltage V3
across both resistors must be the same as the
voltage across the battery, the "total voltage" in
the circuit (this is 3V, if we use the same battery
as before). The current, I, has to pass through
both resistors, so I must be the same
everywhere. We can write down three equations
based on Ohm's law:
V1 = I.R1 ---- (1)
V2 = I.R2 ---- (2)
Section III Practical
V3 = I (R1 + R2) ---- (3)
We can use Equations (1) and (3) to eliminate I,
where upon we can see that:
V1/R1 = V3 / (R1 + R2) ---- (4)
Which, when rearranged, gives us:
V1/V3 = R1 / (R1 + R2) ---- (5)
Since (R1 + R2) is the total resistance in the
circuit, and V3 is the "total voltage" produced by
the battery, Equation (5) shows us that the
fraction of the total voltage across a given
resistor in a series circuit is equal to the fraction
of the total resistance which that resistor
represents. The bigger the value of a given
resistor, the bigger the share of the total voltage
across it, i.e. the larger the drop in potential
between one side of the resistor and the other.
The same applies to any number of resistors
arranged in series: the voltage across each one
will be in proportion to its size relative to the
total resistance.
The circuit shown is referred to as a potential
divider: the total voltage (potential) produced
by the battery is divided between each of the
resistors, according to their relative sizes. In our
experimental practical classes, we will use a
potential divider circuit to calculate an unknown
resistance which cannot be measured directly.
Imagine that we wanted to know the resistance
R2. If we knew the overall voltage produced by
the battery, which would be equal to V3, and if
we could measure the voltage V1 across a known
resistance R1, we could rearrange Equation (5)
to work out the value of the unknown resistance
R2. In our practical, we do this in order to work
out the resistance of an artificial membrane, but
the same principle could be applied to work out
the resistance of a real cell membrane.
230
 Section III Practical

PRACTICAL NO 3: Analysis:

Verification of Joule’s Law (Heat Draw a graph of rise in temperature (y-axis)

produced is proportional to current
squared)
When current flows through a heating element
which is immersed in water in a calorimeter the
temperature of the water rises. In this
experiment we investigate how the temperature
of the water and calorimeter change with the
current flowing through the heating element.
Note: in the lab, this is very time consuming
experiment as each different current must be
allowed to flow for at least 5 minutes. In this
simulation 60 seconds is sufficient for each
current.
Procedure:
against current squared to determine the
relationship between them. Start at (0.0).
Precautions:
 Ensure that the current remains constant at
each value. Adjust the variable resistor if
necessary.
 Ensure that the heating coil is completely
covered with water to avoid heat loss as
measured by the thermometer.
 Use a well insulated container.
 Stir before taking temperature readings and
take the highest value observed.

1. Note the starting temperature and current.

2. Press "Add Water". Each time this button is

pressed the same amount of water is added
to the calorimeter.

3. Press "Close Switch". Current begins to

flow in the heating coil and the timer starts.
Note: A very small rise in temperature
occurs when the current is at 1A.

4. After 60s, press "Open Switch". Record the

rise in temperature.

5. Press "Reset" and "Add Water" and drag the

arrow on the variable resistor to a new
position. Note the temperature and current.

6. Repeat steps 3 to 5 until at least six readings

have been taken.

231

PRACTICAL NO 4:
The Evaluation of Calibration of
Thermocouple:
I. Introduction
One of the most frequently used temperature
transducers is the thermocouple.
A thermocouple consists of two wires of two
different materials that are joined at each end,
a voltmeter is introduced into the circuit so that
way can be measured thermoelectric voltage.
This thermoelectric voltage depends on the
temperatures of measured junction and reference
junction (See Fig.1). Our task will be find out
relation between thermoelectric voltage and
temperature, also we do calibration.
II. Calibration of thermocouple
Calibration is a set of operations that establish,
under specified conditions, the relationship
between values of quantities indicated by a
measuring instrument (in our case the
thermocouple) and the corresponding values
realized by standards (defined fixed points or
interpolation instruments).
The thermocouple can be calibrated by more
methods, depending on the type of
thermocouple, the temperature range, and the
accuracy required. These methods provide
traceability to the International Temperature
Scale of 1990 (ITS-90). In the first method,
thermocouples are calibrated in defined fixed
Section III Practical
point. These points are defined by ITS-90. In
this case the thermocouple is calibrated in
freezing point materials of Zn,Al,Ag,Au. This
points joined thermoelectric voltage to
temperature scale ITS-90. After that the
thermocouple is used as a primary standard. In
the second case, calibration can happen by
comparison methods. Comparison method
means, that we compare calibrated thermocouple
with the reference thermometer, than the
thermocouple is used as a second standard.
III. The Evaluation of calibration of
Thermocouple
This contribution describes procedure of the
evaluation of thermocouple calibration. The
evaluation in defined fixed point is not difficult,
because we have equal number of calibration
points and unknown parameters. We can solve it
for example by applying some elimination
methods. More interesting for us is the
evaluation of calibration by comparison method.
Here we have more calibration points than
unknown parameters. For this reason has to be
used statistical evaluation method. The
Evaluation of calibration is done by the method
of least square, usually when covariance matrix
is known. However this work suggests solutions
to fill up the covariance matrix under certain
condition. Calibration is used not only for
evaluating unknown parameters, but for
determining their uncertainties, too. The main
purpose of the work is giving directions for
these. The covariance matrix contains besides
known values of the squares of uncertainties
and covariances of Type B also uncertainties
characterizing variances and covariances of the
measurement (Type A uncertainties).
IV. Calibration model
Unfortunately thermocouples has nonlinear
output response, accordingly we must consider a
polynomial function (Eq. 1). This equation
presents transformation function.
E = a0 + a1t + a2t2 + . . . + apt p --- (1)
232
 Section III Practical

E μ thermoelectric voltage (° V)
t- temperature (ČC)
a0, a1, a2,....ap μ unknown parameters

Whereas equation is nonlinear than has to be

linearized by Taylor series. After that can be
applied least square method.

V. Conclusion

Nowadays in metrological laboratories are made

evaluation calibration experiments by least
squares and covariances matrix is not considered
or they consider it, but only then, when the
covariances matrix is known. In this contribution
are presented cases when we determine
covariances matrix on special conditions. This
represented demanding work.

233

PRACTICAL NO 5
Using a Simple Pendulum to Measure the
Acceleration due to Gravity
Theory suggests that the time period of a
simple pendulum can be calculated using the
following equation
where, is the length of the pendulum and
g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Assuming that this equation is correct, use a
simple pendulum to find the acceleration
due to gravity.
Your will probably measure the time periods
corresponding to various lengths but be sure
to have one result for a pendulum of length
0.3m.
Fig. 5
Section III Practical
Data Analysis:
1. Use your results to find a value for g.
2. The accepted value for g (in Paris) is
9.81Nkg-1. Calculate the percentage
difference between your final figure for g
and the accepted value.
3. Calculate a value for g using the result
corresponding to a pendulum of length
0.3m. Assuming that your reaction time
is 0·15s, find the uncertainty in this
result. State the figure in the usual way
(g = x ± x Nkg-1). Comment on the
level of precision of this result compared
with your final result.
234
 Section III Practical

PRACTICAL NO 6

To verify the law of reflection of light Results:

The Law of Reflection: The law of reflection states that when a ray of
light reflects off a surface, the angle of incidence
Light is known to behave in a very predictable is equal to the angle of reflection.
manner. If a ray of light could be observed
approaching and reflecting off of a flat mirror,
then the behavior of the light as it reflects would
follow a predictable law known as the law of
reflection. The diagram below illustrates the law
of reflection.

Fig. 6

In the diagram, the ray of light approaching the

mirror is known as the incident ray (labeled I in
the diagram). The ray of light that leaves the
mirror is known as the reflected
ray (labeled R in the diagram). At the point of
incidence where the ray strikes the mirror, a line
can be drawn perpendicular to the surface of the
mirror. This line is known as anormal
line (labeled N in the diagram). The normal line
divides the angle between the incident ray and
the reflected ray into two equal angles. The
angle between the incident ray and the normal is
known as the angle of incidence. The angle
between the reflected ray and the normal is
known as the angle of reflection. (These two
angles are labeled with the Greek letter "theta"
accompanied by a subscript; read as "theta-i" for
angle of incidence and "theta-r" for angle of
reflection.) The law of reflection states that
when a ray of light reflects off a surface, the
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of
reflection.

235
 Section III Practical

PRACTICAL NO 7 Refraction:

To verify the law of refraction of light When we talk about the speed of light, we're
usually talking about the speed of light in
The Law of Refraction: a vacuum, which are 3.00 x 108 m/s. When light
travels through something else, such as glass,
When light travels from one medium to another, diamond, or plastic, it travels at a different
it generally bends, or refracts. The law speed. The speed of light in a given material is
of refraction gives us a way of predicting the related to a quantity called the index of
amount of bend. This law is more complicated refraction, n, which is defined as the ratio of the
than that for reflection, but an understanding of speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in
refraction will be necessary for our future the medium:
discussion of lenses and their applications. The
law of refraction is also known as Snell's law, Index of refraction:
named for Willobrord Snell, who discovered the
law in 1621. n = c / v , where v is the speed of light in a
medium and c is the speed of light in vacuum.
Snell's law gives the relationship between angles
of incidence and refraction for a wave impinging
on an interface between two media with
different index of refraction. The law follows
from the boundary condition that a wave be
continuous across a boundary, which requires
that the phase of the wave be constant on any
given plane, resulting in

Rules of Refraction:

Rule-1: When a light ray travels from a rarer

medium to a denser medium, the light ray bends
towards the normal.

Rule-2: When a light ray travels from a denser

medium to a rarer medium, the light ray bends
away from the normal.

Fig. 7.1

236

Fig. 7.2: Light ray traveling from air into water
Fig. 7.3: Light ray travelling from water into air and
it bends on other way
Some examples of refraction around us:
1) If you place a pencil in a glass of water, you
will see that the pencil appears to be bent. Now,
you know for a fact that the pencil is not bent at
all, it just appears to be so. This is the effect of
light. Light is actually a form of energy called
electromagnetic radiation. There is a wide
spectrum of radiation with X-rays, ultraviolet
rays, infrared rays etc. and most of them are
present in the atmosphere with their own definite
wavelengths and properties, but the only
wavelengths that we are able to see is that of
Visible Light.
Fig. 7.4
Section III Practical
Since light is in the form of electromagnetic
waves, it has many characteristic properties
like reflection (this helps us to see objects,
because only when light reflects off an object,
we can see it), travels at different speeds in
different objects and most importantly,
undergoes refraction.
2) The term refraction is defined as the bending
of light as it passes from one type of material
into another. Because light travels at different
speeds in the two materials, it changes its speed
at the boundary of the two materials. If a beam
of light hits this boundary at an angle, then light
hitting the side first will be forced to slow down
or speed up before light on the other side hits the
new material. This causes the beam to bend, or
refract, at the boundary. Suppose we were to
place a coin in a glass of water. The light
bouncing off the coin underwater, for instance,
would have to first travel through the water and
then the air to reach an observer's eye. At the
boundary, it gets refracted and reaches the
observer's eye, thus appearing to be slightly
raised.
Fig. 7.5
Theory:
Aim: To trace the path of a ray of light passing
through a rectangular glass slab for different
angles of incidence and to measure the angle of
incidence, angle of refraction and angle of
emergence and interpret the result.
237
 Section III Practical

Apparatus: A drawing board, rectangular glass

slab, office pins, sheet of white paper, a
protractor and sharply pointed pencil.

Fig. 7.6

Conclusions:

1. The path of the incident ray, the

refracted ray and the emergent ray when
light passes through a rectangular glass
slab is shown above.
2. Within the experimental error, ∠i = ∠e,
this implies that the incident ray and the
emergent ray are parallel to each other.

238
 Section III Practical

PRACTICAL NO 8:  Draw a straight line IO inclined at an angle

say 30o with the normal. IO is the incident
To verify the refraction index of glass ray.
using rectangular slab
 Fix two pins P and Q on the incident ray IO.
The Law of Refraction:  Place the glass slab within its boundary
ABCD.
When light travels from one medium to another,
it generally bends, or refracts. The law  Looking from the other side of the glass slab
of refraction gives us a way of predicting the fix two other pins R and S such that P, Q, R
amount of bend. The law of refraction is also and S appear to lie on the same straight line.
known as Snell's law, named for Willobrord
Snell, who discovered the law in 1621. Snell's
law gives the relationship between angles of
incidence and refraction for a wave impinging
on an interface between two media with
different index of refraction.

Derivation of Refraction Law

The incident ray, the refracted ray and the

normal to the surface at the point of incidence all
lie in one plane.

 For any two given pair of media, the ratio of Fig. 8

the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine
of the angle of refraction is a constant.
The second law is called Snell's law after the
scientist Willebrord Snellius who first
formulated it
 Remove the glass slab and the pins. Mark
the pin points P, Q, R and S.
 Join the pins R and S and produce the line
on both sides. The ray O1E is the emergent
ray.

 Join OO1. It is the refracted ray.

 The incident ray, the refracted ray and the

Where µ is the refractive index of the second
normal are all lying in the same plane.
medium with respect to the first medium.
 This proves the first law of refraction.
 Place a rectangular glass slab on the white
sheet of paper fixed on a drawing board.  Let us now prove the second law of
refraction
 Trace the boundary ABCD of the glass slab.
 With O as centre, draw a circle of a
 Remove the glass slab and draw a normal convenient radius 'R' in such a way that it
N1N2 at O.

239
 Section III Practical

cuts the incident and the refracted rays at F

and G respectively.

 From F and G draw perpendiculars to the

normal N1N2.

 D FHO and D GKO are right-angled

triangles.

But OG = OF =R

 Measure the length of FH and GK and

record them in the observation table.

 Repeat the experiment for different values of

angle of incidence.

 Find the value of for different values of

i.

 In each case it is found that the ratio is

the same, that is, the ratio of is a
constant.

 This verifies the second law of refraction or

Snell's law.

240
 Bibliography

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Anon., n.d. Hyper Physics. [Online]

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[Accessed 2013].

Dr. E., Bellis Clayton, 1974. Static Electricity. In: P. M. Scott, ed. Electrotherapy and Actinotherapy.
London:

John, L. & Ann, R., 1997. In: Physical Principal Explained.

Stor, W., 1999. Electronic Tutorial. [Online]

Available at: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/capacitor/cap_1.html
[Accessed June 2013].